CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Literature review is an essential part of any research, as it provides an overview of the existing

research and scholarship on the topic under study. This chapter reviews literature on Ifeanyi

Menkiti’s concept of the individual in African ontology. It examines the philosophical and

cultural context in which Menkiti’s ideas were developed and articulated. This includes a brief

history of African philosophy, the impact of colonialism on African thought, and the role of

philosophy in understanding cultural identity. This will help to situate Menkiti’s work within the

broader philosophical and historical context of Africa, and provide a better understanding of the

issues addressed in his writings. The literature review also examines Menkiti’s background and

contribution to African philosophy. This will help to establish his credentials as a philosopher

and thinker, and provide insight into his philosophy of the individual in African ontology.

In addition, the major themes of Menkiti’s concept of the individual in African ontology are

reviewed in this chapter, with a particular focus on the communal and relational aspects of

identity. This involves analyzing the representation of the individual within the context of

African communal life, as well as the philosophical implications of Menkiti’s ideas on

personhood. This analysis will help to identify the key issues addressed in Menkiti’s work and

provide a foundation for further research into the relationship between individuality and

community in African thought.

2.2 Historical and Philosophical Context of African Ontology

The historical and philosophical context of African ontology is embedded in the continent’s rich

cultures, languages, and traditions. African philosophy, as a formal discipline, began to take
shape in the early 20th century. Though its origins are much older, embedded in the oral

traditions and wisdom of the continent’s diverse peoples. The systematic study of African

philosophy emerged as a response to colonialism and the condemnation of African intellectual

traditions by Western scholars. African thinkers like J.B. Danquah, Leopold Senghor, and

Kwame Nkrumah sought to reclaim their cultural heritage and articulate a philosophy that

reflected African values and experiences1.

Colonialism had a profound impact on African thought. It disrupted traditional societies and

imposed new political and economic systems. The colonial encounter was not just a physical

occupation but also an intellectual one, where European ideologies and worldviews were

imposed, often at the expense of indigenous knowledge systems. This led to a form of

intellectual resistance, where African philosophers began to critically engage with and challenge

the colonial narrative, asserting the value and validity of African ways of knowing2.

Philosophy plays a crucial role in understanding cultural identity, serving as a tool for self-

reflection and self-definition. In the African context, philosophy helps to articulate the essence of

what it means to be African, exploring themes of community, morality, and the relationship

between the individual and society. It provides a framework for examining the impact of

historical events on collective identity and for navigating the complexities of modernity and

tradition3.

1
Chimakonam, J.O. (2022). History of African Philosophy. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved from https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/
2
Frankema, E. (2015). How Africa’s colonial history affects its development.
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/07/how-africas-colonial-history-affects-its-development/
3
Lin, C. (2019). Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A., Brandli, L.,
Özuyar, P., Wall, T. (eds) Quality Education. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer,
Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69902-8_37-1.
Nigeria as a significant country in Africa has a rich literary tradition that dates back to pre-

colonial times. According to Akin Odebunmi (2018), the oral tradition was the dominant form of

literary expression before the arrival of Europeans in Nigeria 4. This tradition included various

forms of storytelling, poetry, and music, which were used to transmit cultural values, history, and

knowledge from one generation to the next.

With the arrival of Europeans in the late 19th century, a new form of literature emerged in

Nigeria, known as written literature. The first Nigerian writer to gain international recognition

was Amos Tutuola, whose novel The Palm-Wine Drinkard was published in 1952. Other notable

writers of this period include Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, and Cyprian Ekwensi5.

These writers played a significant role in shaping Nigerian literature and attracting global

attention to the country's literary scene. Chinua Achebe, often regarded as the father of modern

African literature, gained international acclaim with his groundbreaking novel “Things Fall

Apart” published in 1958. Achebe's work explored the complexities of Nigerian society, delving

into themes of colonialism, cultural clash, and the effects of European influence on traditional

African communities.

Wole Soyinka, another influential Nigerian writer, became the first African Nobel Laureate in

Literature in 1986. His plays, essays, and poetry not only addressed social and political issues but

also exhibited a deep understanding of Nigerian culture and history. Soyinka's works, such as “A

Dance of the Forests” and “Death and the King's Horseman,” showcased his mastery of

theatrical techniques and his ability to fuse traditional Yoruba elements with contemporary

themes. Also, Cyprian Ekwensi, known for his captivating storytelling, was a prolific writer who

4
Odebunmi, A. (2018). Chapter One Language, Context and Society: A Theoretical Anchorage.
https://www.academia.edu/34125696/Chapter_One_Language_Context_and_Society_A_Theoretical_Anchorage
5
Odebunmi, A. (2018).
produced numerous novels, short stories, and children's books. His works, including “Jagua

Nana” and “Burning Grass,” depicted various aspects of Nigerian life, portraying the struggles

and aspirations of ordinary people in a rapidly changing society.

Beyond these renowned authors, Africa boasts a diverse range of contemporary writers who

continue to enrich the country's literary landscape. Writers such as Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie,

Helon Habila, Ben Okri and Ifeanyi Menkiti have gained international recognition for their

thought-provoking novels, which tackle issues such as gender, identity, politics, and social

justice.

Moreover, Afruica's literary tradition extends beyond the realm of written literature. Performance

poetry, popularly known as “spoken word,” has gained significant popularity among African

youth and has become a powerful medium for expressing social commentary, activism, and

personal experiences. Spoken word artists like Bassey Ikpi, Efe Paul Azino, and Titilope Sonuga

have captivated audiences with their poignant and evocative performances. In recent years,

African literature has also embraced the digital age, with an increasing number of writers

exploring online platforms and self-publishing. This trend has allowed for greater accessibility

and democratization of literary expression, providing opportunities for emerging voices to be

heard and shared.

2.2.1 The Impact of Colonialism on African Literature

The impact of colonialism on African literature was significant, as it created a tension between

the traditional African cultural values and the values imposed by the colonizers. With the arrival

of the British, English became the official language, and many Africans were forced to abandon

their native languages. As a result, African literature began to take on a more Westernized style

and was written in English, rather than in indigenous languages. This shift led to a split in
African literature between those who wrote in English and those who wrote in indigenous

languages. The former were often referred to as “Anglophone” writers, while the latter were

known as “African language” writers.

“Despite this split, African literature continued to flourish. In the early 20th century, a group of

writers known as the “Zaria Rebels” emerged, including Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, and

John Pepper Clark. These writers were critical of the Western influence on African literature and

sought to create a literature that was authentically African. They were part of a larger movement

known as the “Negritude Movement,” which aimed to reclaim African identity and cultural

heritage”6.

According to Adesoji (2012), colonialism introduced Western literary genres such as the novel,

drama, and poetry, which replaced traditional forms of literary expression 7. This resulted in a

conflict between the traditional and the new forms of literature, which is evident in many African

literary works, including Menkiti’s (1984) seminal work Person and Community in African

Traditional Thought. In the postcolonial era, Nigerian literature has continued to grow and

evolve. There have been several notable African writers in recent years, including Chimamanda

Ngozi Adichie, Helon Habila, and Teju Cole. These writers have continued to explore themes

related to African culture, identity, and politics.

The impact of colonialism on African literature extended beyond the language shift and the

division between Anglophone and African language writers. It permeated the themes, styles, and

content of African literary works, leaving a lasting imprint on the development of the country's

literary tradition. Colonialism disrupted the social fabric of African, uprooting traditional norms,

6
Adejunmobi, M. (2004). The Zaria Rebels: Nigerian literature and the Negritude Movement. Trenton, NJ: Africa
World Press.
7
Adesoji, A. (2012). Colonialism and intercommunity relations: The Ifon-Ilobu example. History in Africa, 32, 1-19.
values, and systems. This upheaval created a fertile ground for Nigerian writers to explore the

effects of colonialism on individual and collective identities. Many literary works reflected the

tension between the pre-colonial era and the intrusion of Western ideals, with authors grappling

with questions of cultural authenticity, self-discovery, and the search for a distinct African voice.

The introduction of Western literary genres by the colonizers brought new storytelling techniques

and narrative structures to African literature. Novels, dramas, and poetry became popular forms

of artistic expression, replacing or coexisting with traditional oral forms of communication. This

shift allowed African writers to experiment with different literary devices, styles, and

perspectives, contributing to the diversification and richness of African literature.

Influential figures like Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, and John Pepper Clark, emerged as

prominent voices during the early 20th century. Their works challenged the Western influence on

African literature and played a crucial role in shaping the Negritude Movement. This movement

sought to reclaim African identity and cultural heritage, emphasizing the importance of African

perspectives and experiences in literature. The Zaria Rebels and their contemporaries laid the

foundation for a literary tradition that centered African voices and narratives.

2.3 Menkiti’s Background and Contributions to African Philosophy

Ifeanyi Menkiti’s background and contributions to African philosophy are significant and

multifaceted. Born in Onitsha, Nigeria, Menkiti’s educational journey began in his home country

before he moved to the United States for higher education. He attended Pomona College for his

undergraduate degree, followed by postgraduate studies at Columbia University and New York

University. Menkiti ultimately earned his Ph.D. in philosophy from Harvard University in 1974,

where his dissertation focused on collective responsibility8.

8
Winkler, K. (2020). "Ifeanyi Menkiti". Wellesley Magazine.
Menkiti’s key contributions to African philosophy revolve around his exploration of personhood

and community within African traditional thought. His seminal work, “Person and Community in

African Traditional Thought,” published in 1984, is highly cited and has set the agenda for a

generation of writers on African social and political philosophy. Menkiti’s ideas emphasized the

social nature of personhood, expressed in the notion “I am, because we are,” and argued that

personhood is something that must be attained through morally right action within the

community9.

His influence on contemporary philosophical thought is profound. Menkiti’s work has sparked

debates and discussions among African philosophers and beyond, particularly concerning the

metaphysical understanding of personhood and the communal versus individualistic conception

of human identity10. His ideas have been both celebrated and critiqued, contributing to a richer

and more nuanced understanding of African philosophy.

Menkiti’s philosophical contributions extend to his teaching career at Wellesley College, where

he introduced new courses in African philosophy, medical ethics, philosophy of law, and

philosophy and literature. He enriched the philosophical curriculum and influenced countless

students with his wisdom and insight into African and global philosophical issues11.

Furthermore, Menkiti’s influence is not limited to academic circles; his work has implications for

understanding the role of individuals within society and the ethical considerations that arise from

communal living. His ideas challenge the Western emphasis on individualism and offer an

alternative view that stresses the importance of communal relationships and responsibilities 12.

9
Winkler, K. (2020).
10
Winkler, K. (2020).
11
Winkler, K. (2020).
12
Winkler, K. (2020).
Menkiti’s contributions also include his poetry, where he explored the intersection of community

and personhood. His three collections of poetry reflect his philosophical inquiries and provide a

creative outlet for his exploration of African identity and personhood13.

2.4 Concept of the Individual in African Ontology

The concept of the individual in African communal life is a subject of considerable philosophical

debate, particularly in relation to Ifeanyi Menkiti’s views on personhood within African

ontology. The essence of being a person is not merely an acquired characteristic; it is an innate

aspect of existence. Menkiti posits that while one is born a person, the normative status of

personhood is distinct from mere biological existence 14. This distinction suggests that

individuality and self-expression are inherent to a person, irrespective of community influence,

and these attributes should be acknowledged and respected.

Menkiti acknowledges that an individual exists prior to their integration into a community, yet he

describes such an individual as a ‘mere dangler’—a being awaiting the attainment of

personhood15. Contrary to Menkiti’s view, the argument here is that what Menkiti refers to as a

‘mere dangler’ aligns more closely with the concept of a ‘person’—a being entitled to

fundamental rights by virtue of its ontological status16.

The minimal definition of a person, often associated with Western thought—where attributes like

soul, rationality, or memory confer the status of ‘person’—is argued to be applicable within the

African communitarian context if ‘person’ and ‘personhood’ are recognized as separate entities

13
Winkler, K. (2020).
14
Menkiti, I. A. (1984). Person and Community in African Traditional Thought. African Philosophy: An
Introduction, 171-181.
15
Gyekye, K. (1997). Tradition and Modernity: Philosophical Reflections on the African Experience. Oxford
University Press.
16
Gyekye, K. (1997).
with distinct meanings17. In this framework, a person may lack certain behavioral traits yet retain

their status as a person, complete with the rights inherent to that status.

The existence of persons as individuals does not preclude their participation in the virtues of

relatedness and interdependence that are central to community life 18. Bujo further elaborates on

this by emphasizing that although individuals are embedded within the community, they remain

unique and irreplaceable, with specific roles to fulfill within the communal structure 19.

Menkiti and Gyekye both highlight the prioritization of duties over individual rights in African

societies, suggesting that the communal welfare takes precedence over personal entitlements25.

However, they concede that individuals do possess rights, albeit ones that can be superseded by

communal duties25. This perspective raises concerns about the potential marginalization of

individuals who may not fulfill the expected duties within the community.

The discourse here differentiates between ‘person’ and ‘personhood’, arguing that while

personhood may be a normative status attained within the community, the concept of a ‘person’

is ontologically independent of personhood20. Menkiti himself notes that personhood is

something individuals could fail to achieve, thereby suggesting that personhood is an acquired

status rather than an inherent one21.

The concept of the individual in African ontology, particularly as articulated by Ifeanyi Menkiti,

offers a distinct perspective on personhood and individuality. Menkiti’s views are grounded in

the communal context of African societies, where personhood is not an inherent attribute but
17
Gyekye, K. (1997).
18
Masolo, D. A. (2004). Western and African Communitarianism: A Comparison. In Companion to African
Philosophy (pp. 483-498). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
19
Bujo, B. (1998). The Ethical Dimension of Community: The African Model and the Dialogue Between North and
South. Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa.
20
Gyekye, K. (1997).
21
Gyekye, K. (2013). African Ethics. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 Edition), Edward N.
Zalta (ed.).
rather something that is gradually acquired through participation in communal life 22. This

contrasts with Western notions of individuality, which often prioritize personal autonomy and

rights from birth.

Menkiti emphasizes that in African thought, the community plays a crucial role in shaping an

individual’s identity. Personhood is seen as an achievement, a status conferred upon an

individual by the community as they fulfill certain moral and social obligations 23. This processual

view underscores the importance of communal relationships and interdependence, rather than the

isolated, autonomous self that is central to much of Western philosophy.

The communal and relational aspects of identity in African thought are further highlighted by the

concept of Ubuntu, which suggests that an individual’s existence and well-being are deeply

intertwined with that of others. This philosophy posits that one’s humanity is recognized and

affirmed through interactions with others, reinforcing the idea that personal identity is

fundamentally relational.

Menkiti’s interpretation of personhood also challenges the Western emphasis on individual

rights, suggesting that in African ontology, duties to the community often take precedence 24. This

duty-based ethical framework places the collective good above individual desires, reflecting a

worldview where the self is understood in relation to the larger social fabric.

Moreover, Menkiti’s work has sparked discussions on the balance between individual rights and

communal responsibilities. While he acknowledges the existence of individual rights in African

communitarian thinking, he also argues that these rights are often secondary to the duties one

22
Winkler, K. (2020).
23
Winkler, K. (2020).
24
Winkler, K. (2020).
owes to the community25. This has led to debates on how to reconcile individual freedoms with

communal expectations.

The relational model of identity in African thought also has implications for understanding the

development of moral character. Menkiti posits that moral virtues are cultivated through

communal engagement, suggesting that ethical maturity is achieved in the context of social

relationships26. This stands in contrast to the more individualistic approaches to moral

development found in some Western traditions.

Menkiti’s views have been influential in shaping contemporary philosophical discourse on

African ontology. His ideas have been both critiqued and expanded upon, contributing to a richer

understanding of the complexities of personhood and identity within African philosophical

traditions27.

2.5 Representation of the Individual in African Communal Life

The representation of the individual within the African communal context is a subject that has

been extensively explored in academic discourse. The African communal framework is

characterized by a collective ethos, where the community’s well-being takes precedence over

individual desires. This is not to say that individuality is disregarded; rather, it is defined in

relation to the community. Individuals are valued for their contributions to the communal good,

and their identity is shaped by their roles and relationships within this collective setting 28.

African communalism, while diverse across cultures, generally emphasizes belonging,

interdependence, and collective responsibility. The philosophy of Ubuntu, for instance,

25
Winkler, K. (2020).
26
Winkler, K. (2020).
27
Winkler, K. (2020).
28
Ikuenobe, P. (2020). African Communal Ethics. In The Palgrave Handbook of African Social Ethics (pp. 129–
145). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-36490-8_8
encapsulates this ethos with the maxim ‘I am because we are,’ highlighting the

interconnectedness of individuals within the community. This philosophy suggests that personal

identity is not isolated but is instead a part of a larger communal identity29.

The communal nature of African societies extends to resource sharing, decision-making, and

conflict resolution. The community acts as a support system, offering social security and identity.

While individuals are encouraged to develop their talents, these talents are expected to benefit

the community as a whole. This reflects a balance between individual capabilities and communal

expectations30.

In cultural expressions, such as art and literature, individuals are often depicted within the

context of their community. This collective representation underscores the importance of social

bonds and the belief in a shared destiny. It is through these expressions that the communal values

and the interconnectedness of individual destinies are communicated31.

The tension between individual rights and communal obligations is a topic of ongoing debate.

African communalism provides a framework for individual development, but it also imposes

expectations that may limit personal freedom. The challenge lies in balancing these communal

interests with the individual’s rights to expression and autonomy32.

29
Ochieng’-Odhiambo, F. (2023). African Philosophy of Communalism. In: Imafidon, E., Tshivashe, M., Freter, B.
(eds) Handbook of African Philosophy. Handbooks in Philosophy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
030-77898-9_21-1
30
Ikuenobe, P. (2020). African Communal Ethics. In The Palgrave Handbook of African Social Ethics (pp. 129–
145). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-36490-8_8
31
Ochieng’-Odhiambo, F. (2023). African Philosophy of Communalism. In: Imafidon, E., Tshivashe, M., Freter, B.
(eds) Handbook of African Philosophy. Handbooks in Philosophy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
030-77898-9_21-1

32
Ikuenobe, P. (2020). African Communal Ethics. In The Palgrave Handbook of African Social Ethics (pp. 129–
145). Springer. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-36490-8_8
In governance and social policies, the representation of the individual reflects communal values.

Traditional African governance systems often rely on consensus and collective leadership, which

mirror the communal values of collective well-being and shared responsibility 33.

With the advent of modernity and globalization, African communal values face new challenges.

The introduction of individualistic values and economic pressures necessitates a re-examination

of the individual’s role within the community. This involves reconciling traditional communal

values with contemporary demands for individual rights and personal advancement34.

2.6 Comparative Analysis: Western vs. African Views on Individuality

The comparative analysis between Western and African views on individuality implies the

profound differences that can be found in philosophical, cultural, and social structures. Western

philosophy traditionally emphasizes the individual as an autonomous entity with inherent rights

and freedoms. This perspective is often associated with the Enlightenment and liberal thought,

where the individual is seen as the primary unit of moral and political concern 35. In contrast,

African philosophy tends to view the individual through the lens of the community, emphasizing

the interconnectedness of all members of society and the importance of communal harmony and

responsibilities36.

These differing perspectives have significant implications for cultural and social structures. In

Western societies, the focus on individual rights has led to legal and political systems that

33
Ochieng’-Odhiambo, F. (2023). African Philosophy of Communalism. In: Imafidon, E., Tshivashe, M., Freter, B.
(eds) Handbook of African Philosophy. Handbooks in Philosophy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
030-77898-9_21-1
34
Ikuenobe, P. (2020).
35
Kahaka, M. (2019). Personhood and the Cosmos: Exploring Some Similarities Between Traditional African and
Western Conceptions of Personhood. Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion, 47, 32. 50717-54418-1-PB.pdf
36
Jinadu, A. M. (2014). Rethinking the comparison between African and Western Philosophies. International Journal
of Political Science and Development, 2(8), 180-187. Retrieved from IJPSD
prioritize personal freedoms, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the right to privacy. The

emphasis on individualism is also reflected in economic systems that promote competition and

personal achievement. Conversely, African societies often prioritize the collective good over

individual desires, leading to social structures that emphasize family, community, and the

collective welfare.

The impact of these differences is evident in various aspects of life. For instance, in Western

cultures, the nuclear family is often the central social unit, while in many African cultures,

extended families and clans play a more significant role. This can affect everything from living

arrangements to social obligations and inheritance practices.

In terms of governance, Western individualism has fostered political systems that emphasize

democratic participation and individual rights. In contrast, African political systems may place a

greater emphasis on consensus and community decision-making, reflecting the communal nature

of African ontology. The educational systems also reflect these differences. Western education

often focuses on developing individual critical thinking and personal achievement, while African

education may place more emphasis on communal values, cooperation, and social responsibility.

In the realm of ethics, Western individuality tends to lead to moral frameworks centered on

individual rights and justice, whereas African ethics often focus on duties to the community and

the importance of relationships and harmony. The influence of these philosophical perspectives

extends to the workplace as well. In Western cultures, individual achievement and career

progression are often paramount, while in African cultures, work may be more closely tied to

community benefits and collective progress.37

37
Jinadu, A. M. (2014).
In addition to the above, the comparative analysis of Western and African views on individuality,

particularly through the lens of Ifeanyi Menkiti’s concept of the individual in African ontology,

reveals a distinct contrast in the understanding of personhood. Menkiti’s interpretation of

communitarianism, influenced by the philosophies of Placide Tempels and John Mbiti, places

moral progression at the core of personhood. This progression is not an isolated journey but one

that unfolds within the societal context through the fulfillment of duties and moral obligations 38.

Tempels’ influence is evident in Menkiti’s distinction between individuals of varying societal

roles and moral force. Menkiti’s notion of ‘muntu’ or ‘person’ encompasses the idea of

excellence and maturity, which is achieved through a transformative process involving social and

ritualistic practices39. This transformation is a communal endeavor, where the norms and

expectations of the community guide the individual’s journey to personhood.

Menkiti’s argument extends to the linguistic support for the acquisition of personhood, noting the

use of the term “it” for children in the English language, which shifts to personal pronouns as

one attains moral status. The term ‘individual’ refers to various forms of agency, while

‘individual person’ signifies a transition from basic existence to a state marked by dignity and

moral worth40.

The ontological progression from a biological entity to a person with full moral stature is a

temporal journey, echoing Mbiti’s African concept of time, which emphasizes the importance of

the past and present over the future 41. This progression is not merely additive but transformative,

38
Menkiti, I. A. (1984). Person and Community in African Traditional Thought. African Philosophy: An
Introduction, 171-181.
39
Ikuenobe, P. (2018). An Examination of Menkiti’s Conception of Personhood and Gyekye’s Critique. Method,
Substance, and the Future of African Philosophy, 187-208.
40
Menkiti, I. (2004). On the Normative Conception of a Person. A Companion to African Philosophy, 324-331.
41
Mbiti, J. S. (1969). African Religions and Philosophy. Heinemann. https://1library.net/article/the-african-
conception-of-communitarianism-menkiti-s-perspective.q0pkj7xz
leading to an ontological shift that distinguishes the young from the old based on the

accumulation of moral qualities.

Menkiti’s perspective underscores the communal role in shaping an individual’s moral landscape,

suggesting that personhood is not an inherent attribute but one that is earned through engagement

with the community’s moral framework. The community, therefore, is not just a backdrop but an

active participant in the individual’s development, prescribing norms that facilitate the transition

from a biological being to a person of moral standing42.

In the discourse on personhood within African ontology, Menkiti posits that the transition from a

biological entity to a person of moral stature is not merely a linguistic convention but signifies a

profound ontological transformation. This transformation is marked by the use of the term “it” in

reference to children, which is acceptable due to their undeveloped moral status, a term that is

not applicable to adults who have achieved moral maturity.

Menkiti suggests that the journey to personhood is a cyclical process that begins and ends with

the individual being referred to as “it.” The initial ‘ontological progression’ starts at birth, where

the child is essentially an ‘it’—a being devoid of individuality, personality, and even a name. The

child then undergoes various communal rituals, such as naming ceremonies, initiations into

puberty, marriage, and eventually elderhood, each marking a significant step towards full

personhood within the community.

Contrary to the cessation of personhood with death in some philosophical traditions, Menkiti

argues that in African ontology, ancestors maintain their status as persons, as they do not cease to

42
Matolino, B. (2011). The (Mal) Function of “it” in Menkiti’s Normative Account. African Studies Quarterly, 12(4),
26-27.
exist upon physical death. It is only when one becomes one of the ‘nameless dead’ that the

individual reverts to an ‘it,’ completing the cycle of existence.

Menkiti emphasizes the ontological implications of this depersonalized reference, which applies

to both the very young and the nameless dead, highlighting the natural ease of its use in these

contexts. He asserts that there is no further ontological progression beyond the spiritual realm,

and thus, the nameless dead remain ‘its’ without the possibility of personal designation.

On a final note, the differences between Western and African views on individuality have

implications for the arts and cultural expression. Western art often celebrates individual

expression and innovation, while African art may be more communal, reflecting shared values

and traditions43.

2.8 Summary and Gaps in the Literature

Menkiti’s philosophical stance on personhood has indeed sparked a vibrant debate, particularly

when juxtaposed with the Western notion of individualism. The Western perspective often

prioritizes the autonomy of the individual, sometimes to the extent of minimizing the role of

community. Menkiti’s views, however, offer a counter-narrative that emphasizes the inextricable

link between the individual and the communal context. This perspective is not without its

challenges, especially when considering the practical implications of such a philosophy in a

globalized world where the concept of community is constantly being redefined. The tension

between the collective good and individual rights is a recurring theme in discussions on

governance, social policy, and ethics. Menkiti’s ideas compel us to consider how African

43
Ikuenobe, P. (2018). An Examination of Menkiti’s Conception of Personhood and Gyekye’s Critique. In: Etieyibo,
E. (eds) Method, Substance, and the Future of African Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70226-1_10
communitarian values can be harmonized with the global discourse on human rights and

personal freedoms.

The application of Menkiti’s ideas to contemporary issues extends beyond theoretical debates

and touches on real-world concerns. For instance, the African concept of Ubuntu, which

resonates with Menkiti’s views, has been invoked in various contexts, from conflict resolution to

corporate management. This underscores the potential of African ontology to inform and

transform practices across different sectors. However, the challenge remains in operationalizing

these philosophical concepts in a manner that respects both the communal ethos and the rights of

the individual. The literature suggests that while Menkiti’s framework provides a robust

foundation for understanding personhood within a community, there is a need for more nuanced

approaches that can adapt these principles to the complexities of modern life.

In light of these discussions, future research could delve into the intersection of Menkiti’s

philosophy with other cultural and ethical systems. For example, how might Menkiti’s ideas on

personhood align with or diverge from Indigenous philosophies in other parts of the world?

Exploring such intersections could enrich our understanding of personhood and community,

providing a more comprehensive view that encompasses diverse cultural perspectives. Moreover,

the impact of globalization on African communities presents an opportunity to examine how

traditional values are being upheld or transformed. As societies evolve and new forms of

community emerge, the relevance of Menkiti’s philosophy will continue to be a subject of

significant interest and importance in the ongoing discourse on the nature of personhood and the

role of the individual within the collective.

Ifeanyi Menkiti’s views on personhood within African ontology have been subject to various

critiques. One of the major critiques comes from Kwame Gyekye, who argues that Menkiti’s
conception of personhood as radically communitarian undermines individual rights and

autonomy. Gyekye contends that Menkiti’s view implies that the community is ontologically

constitutive of the person, which could lead to a total dependence on the community and

potentially override individual freedom44.

The relevance and application of Menkiti’s ideas in contemporary society are significant,

especially in discussions about community and individuality. Menkiti’s emphasis on the

communal aspects of personhood challenges the dominant individualistic ethos in many modern

societies. His ideas encourage a reevaluation of the importance of social bonds and collective

responsibilities, which can be particularly relevant in addressing social issues such as alienation

and fragmentation.

In summarizing the key findings from the literature review on African ontology and

individualism, it is clear that African philosophy offers a rich conceptual framework for

understanding personhood and community. The literature reveals a strong emphasis on the

relational nature of identity and the ethical implications of communal living. Menkiti’s work, in

particular, has been instrumental in articulating these concepts and bringing them to the forefront

of philosophical discourse.

However, there are gaps and areas for further research in the study of African ontology and

individualism. One area that requires more exploration is the balance between community

obligations and individual rights. Another gap is the need for empirical studies that investigate

how Menkiti’s theoretical constructs play out in contemporary African societies. Additionally,

comparative studies between African and Western conceptions of personhood could provide

deeper insights into the universality or particularity of these ideas.

44
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
 CHAPTER THREE

APPRAISAL OF IFEANYI MENKITI’S CONCEPT OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN

AFRICAN ONTOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The philosophical discourse on personhood and individuality within African ontology,

particularly as articulated by Ifeanyi Menkiti, offers a profound examination of the self in

relation to the community. This chapter embarks on an appraisal of Menkiti’s concept of the

individual in African ontology, exploring the nuanced interplay between communal values and

individual existence. Through a critical analysis of Menkiti’s work, this chapter will also discuss

the philosophical underpinnings that distinguish African notions of personhood from Western

individualism. It will delve into the implications of Menkiti’s ideas for understanding the role of

the individual within the broader societal fabric, examining the balance between collective

responsibilities and personal rights. Each section will illuminate the depth and breadth of

Menkiti’s philosophy, providing a comprehensive understanding of the individual’s place in

African metaphysical thought and the potential tensions that arise when juxtaposed with Western

cultural paradigms.

3.2 The Communal Context and the Individual

The communal context and the individual’s identity are deeply intertwined in African ontology,

as Ifeanyi Menkiti’s seminal work elucidates. Menkiti (1984) emphasizes that in African

societies, the community’s reality supersedes that of individual life histories, both ontologically

and epistemically. This perspective is founded on the belief that one’s identity as a person is

inextricably linked to one’s rootedness within a community. It is the community that defines a

person, not isolated qualities such as rationality or memory.

Engaging in a discussion on Ifeanyi Menkiti’s views on personhood within the African ontology

gives a beautiful picture of communal interdependence and individual identity. Menkiti’s

assertion that the community is foundational to the formation of individual identity is a profound

statement that resonates deeply within African philosophical thought45.

The community, according to Menkiti, is not merely a backdrop but a vital entity that shapes and

defines the individual. It is within this collective that one learns the values and moral imperatives

that are essential to becoming a person. These values, such as mutual respect and collective

responsibility, are not just societal norms but moral guidelines that define the essence of

personhood46.

Traditions are the conduits through which these values are imparted. Rituals and customary

practices are not only cultural expressions but also the means by which the community molds its

members’ identities. These traditions are dynamic, evolving with the community to ensure that

the concept of personhood remains relevant and adaptive47.

Obligations to the community are seen as the threads that bind the individual to the collective.

Fulfilling these obligations is not just a duty but a path to achieving personhood. The community

confers personhood on those who actively contribute to its welfare, thus supporting Menkiti’s

view that the community is foundational to individual identity 48. However, the relationship
45
Menkiti, I. A. (1984). Person and Community in African Traditional Thought. In Wright, R. A. (Ed.), African
Philosophy: An Introduction (pp. 171-181). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/48564458
46
Gyekye, K. (1992). Person and Community in African Thought. In Kymlicka, W., & Norman, W.
(Eds.), Citizenship in Diverse Societies (pp. 69-82). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifeanyi_Menkiti
47
Menkiti, I. A. (1984). Person and Community in African Traditional Thought. In Wright, R. A. (Ed.), African
Philosophy: An Introduction (pp. 171-181). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/48564458
48
Gyekye, K. (1992). Person and Community in African Thought. In Kymlicka, W., & Norman, W.
(Eds.), Citizenship in Diverse Societies (pp. 69-82). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifeanyi_Menkiti
between the individual and the community is reciprocal. Individuals also shape the community

through their contributions and innovations. This interplay highlights the dynamic nature of

African ontology, where the community and the individual are in constant dialogue49.

Menkiti further argues that full personhood is attained through incorporation into the community,

marking a departure from Western conceptions of personhood that prioritize attributes like the

soul and rationality50. This process of incorporation involves learning and adhering to the social

rules and norms of the community, which in turn transforms an individual from a mere biological

being into a socially recognized person with moral attributes.

According to Menkiti, full personhood is not an innate status but one that is achieved as one

matures within society. The older an individual gets, the more of a person they become,

suggesting that moral maturity and personhood are correlated with biological age 51. The

community plays a crucial role in this transformation, facilitating the individual’s journey

towards full personhood.

Menkiti also addresses the duties owed to persons by the community, which include the rights

ascribed to individuals by virtue of their personhood. He contends that the recognition of these

rights is contingent upon the individual’s capacity for moral sense, which is demonstrated

through the fulfillment of duties of justice within the community. This conception of personhood,

Menkiti argues, precludes the extension of rights to non-human animals, as it is predicated on the

capacity for moral sense and the active participation in communal life 52.

49
Ikuenobe, P. (2018). An Examination of Menkiti’s Conception of Personhood and Gyekye’s Critique. In Method,
Substance, and the Future of African Philosophy (pp. 187-208). Cham: Springer.
https://science.jrank.org/pages/8771/Communitarianism-in-African-Thought-Menkiti-on-Communitarianism.html
50
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
51
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
52
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
The discourse extends to the realm of rights. Menkiti suggests that rights are not inherent but are

granted as one achieves personhood through fulfilling communal obligations. This contrasts with

Western notions of individualism, where rights are often seen as innate and independent of one’s

status within the community53. Menkiti’s ideas have been critiqued for potentially overshadowing

individual rights and autonomy. However, his assertions remain influential in discussions about

personhood and identity in African philosophy54.

3.3 Personhood and Moral Progression

The journey to personhood, according to Menkiti, is a moral odyssey that unfolds within the

communal sphere. It is not a given at birth but something that is gradually attained through active

participation in community life. This process is deeply rooted in the ethical fabric of the

community, where moral values are not just taught but lived and experienced55.

Rites of passage serve as significant milestones in this journey. They are not mere formalities but

transformative experiences that imbue the individual with the community’s moral and ethical

standards. Take, for instance, the initiation ceremonies in various African cultures, which are

designed to transition individuals into new phases of life, equipping them with the wisdom and

responsibilities of their new roles56.

53
Menkiti, I. A. (1984). Person and Community in African Traditional Thought. In Wright, R. A. (Ed.), African
Philosophy: An Introduction (pp. 171-181). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/48564458
54
Masaka, D. (2018). Person, Personhood and Individual Rights in Menkiti’s African Communitarian
Thinking. Theoria, 65(4), 1-14. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-70226-1_10.
55
Menkiti, I. A. (1984). Person and Community in African Traditional Thought. In Wright, R. A. (Ed.), African
Philosophy: An Introduction (pp. 171-181). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
https://www.academia.edu/1167614/The_Mal_Function_of_it_in_Ifeanyi_Menkiti_s_Normative_Account_of_Perso
n
56
Ngugi, F. (2016). Traditions: Africa’s Rites of Passage. Face2Face Africa.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-15561-2_2
The ethical responsibilities that accompany these rites are pivotal. They are the building blocks

of character and are integral to the community’s moral landscape. Through these responsibilities,

individuals learn to align their actions with the values of the community, thus progressing

towards personhood. Consider the example of communal farming practices, where the collective

effort not only yields sustenance but also teaches the values of cooperation, stewardship, and

diligence. Such practices are instrumental in shaping the moral character of individuals, guiding

them towards becoming fully-fledged members of the community.

Menkiti emphasizes that personhood is a communal construct. It is through the acknowledgment

and validation by the community that one’s status as a person is affirmed. This acknowledgment

is contingent upon the individual’s moral maturity and their contributions to the life of the

community57.

Elders play a significant impact in this moral education. They are the bearers of tradition and

wisdom, and through their guidance, they help mold the character of the younger generation. The

wisdom imparted by the elders is a vital component of the moral development of individuals

within the community. In today’s globalized world, where individualism is often emphasized,

Menkiti’s insights offer a refreshing perspective on the value of community and the importance

of moral progression in identity formation. His ideas encourage us to reconsider the significance

of communal values in shaping our identities.

The analysis of Ifeanyi Menkiti’s concept of personhood within African ontology can be further

enriched by considering the nuances of moral status as articulated by various scholars. Toscano’s

conception of moral status as a normative condition determined by society aligns with Menkiti’s

57
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
emphasis on the community’s role in shaping the individual58. This societal prerogative

establishes a framework within which individuals are recognized and treated according to their

attained moral status.

Warren’s perspective on the gradation of moral status complements Menkiti’s view that

personhood is achieved through a process of moral maturation within the community 59. The idea

that moral status comes in degrees resonates with the African ontology where full moral status is

the culmination of one’s moral journey, marked by the community’s acknowledgment of the

individual’s ethical development60.

The argument that only actual entities can possess moral status raises interesting parallels with

Menkiti’s assertion that personhood is not an inherent attribute but one that is cultivated through

communal engagement61. This suggests that entities such as fetuses and embryos, which are not

yet participating members of the community, are not accorded the same moral consideration as

those in actual existence.

Metz’s argument that mentally disabled persons and infants possess a higher moral status than

animals due to their capacity for relationships resonates with the African communal ethos that

values the potential for mutual relationships 62. Metz’s assertion that the capacity for relationships

is an ontological trait inherent to all humans, regardless of mental capacity, suggests that moral

obligations arise from this capacity rather than from the actual practice of relationships 63. This

58
Menkiti, I. A. (1984). Person and Community in African Traditional Thought. In Wright, R. A. (Ed.), African
Philosophy: An Introduction (pp. 171-181). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-70226-1_10
59
Warren, M. A. (2000). Moral Status: Obligations to Persons and Other Living Things. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-15561-2_2
60
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
61
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
62
Metz, T. (2012). The Moral Status of Nature: An African Understanding. In Chemhuru, M. (Ed.), African
Environmental Ethics (pp. 387-397). Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
63
Metz, T. (2012).
perspective challenges Menkiti’s view, which may be interpreted as exclusionary, as it seems to

prioritize the ability to act over the capacity to form relationships64.

The principle of relationality, as discussed by Metz, posits that entities interrelate within their

unique contexts, emphasizing the importance of the capacity for relationships in the conception

of personhood65. This principle underscores the idea that personhood should not be contingent

upon the ability to practice relationships but rather on the mere possession of the capacity for

such relationships66.

Metz’s theory of moral status, which places the capacity for communal relationships at the heart

of moral recognition, offers a novel approach to personhood that is inclusive of mentally disabled

individuals67. This approach diverges from Menkiti’s potential focus on ontological

transformation and moral perfection, advocating instead for a recognition of personhood based

on the capacity to relate and be related to within the community68.

The implication here is profound: not all entities are accorded moral status to the same degree. In

African ontology, this is reflected in the way the community recognizes different stages of

personhood, with each stage carrying specific moral and ethical responsibilities that contribute to

the individual’s progression towards full personhood69.

3.4 Individual Rights vs. Communal Responsibilities

The tension between individual rights and communal responsibilities is a complex and nuanced

issue that has been the subject of philosophical debate for centuries. In African ontology,

64
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
65
Metz, T. (2012). The Moral Status of Nature: An African Understanding. In Chemhuru, M. (Ed.), African
Environmental Ethics (pp. 387-397). Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
66
Metz, T. (2012).
67
Metz, T. (2012).
68
Metz, T. (2012).
69
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
particularly in the works of Ifeanyi Menkiti, this tension is addressed with a unique perspective

that emphasizes the community’s role in shaping the individual70.

Menkiti’s perspective suggests that the community is not just a backdrop for individual action

but a crucible for the formation of identity. He posits that personhood is attained, not given at

birth, and it is through the internalization of communal values that an individual transitions from

being merely a biological entity to a person recognized by society 71. These values, which include

mutual respect, solidarity, and collective responsibility, are not just social norms but moral

imperatives that define the essence of personhood within the community.

The community, according to Menkiti, sets the standards of behavior, and the individual, through

participation and adherence to these standards, progresses morally. This moral progression is

marked by various rites of passage that symbolize the individual’s movement from one stage of

life to another, each with its own set of responsibilities and expectations 72. These rites of passage

are crucial in African societies as they are not only ceremonial markers but also educational and

transformative processes that instill the values and ethics of the community into the individual.

However, the emphasis on communal responsibilities can sometimes overshadow individual

rights. Menkiti acknowledges that there are individual rights in African communitarian thinking,

but he seems to argue that the ascription of rights is extended to entities that possess a ‘capacity

for moral sense’73. This could imply that those who lack this capacity may be excluded from the

kind of entities that could possess rights, leading to potential conflicts between individual

autonomy and communal expectations.

70
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
71
Menkiti, I. A. (1984).
72
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
73
Masaka, D. (2018).
Menkiti’s conception of personhood as a communal construct means that it is through the

acknowledgment and validation by the community that one’s status as a person is affirmed. This

acknowledgment is contingent upon the individual’s demonstration of moral maturity and their

contribution to communal life. While this perspective fosters a strong sense of community and

shared responsibility, it also raises questions about the extent to which the community can and

should influence individual autonomy.

The role of elders in guiding the moral progression of the younger members of the community is

significant in Menkiti’s view. They are the custodians of knowledge and tradition, and through

their teachings, they help shape the character of the youth. The wisdom imparted by the elders is

a vital component of the moral education of the individual within the community74.

In today’s globalized world, where individualism is often emphasized, Menkiti’s insights offer a

refreshing perspective on the value of community and the importance of moral progression in

identity formation. His ideas encourage us to reconsider the significance of communal values in

shaping our identities.

3.5 Menkiti’s Philosophy in the Modern Context

Menkiti’s philosophy emphasizes the community’s role in shaping the individual, suggesting that

personhood is achieved through one’s engagement with communal values and responsibilities. In

the modern context, Menkiti’s ideas present an opportunity to re-evaluate the balance between

individual rights and communal obligations. The contemporary emphasis on individual

autonomy and rights can be seen as potentially at odds with Menkiti’s view that the community

plays a significant role in defining personhood. However, Menkiti’s philosophy does not

74
Ngugi, F. (2016).
necessarily negate individual rights but rather frames them within the context of communal

relationships and responsibilities75.

Reconciling Menkiti’s principles with modern individualism involves understanding that the

community and the individual are not mutually exclusive entities but are interdependent. The

community provides the social framework within which individuals can flourish, and in turn,

individuals contribute to the well-being of the community. This interdependence is crucial for

harmonious living and the collective good76.

Menkiti’s philosophy also offers a critique of the modern focus on rights without corresponding

responsibilities. He suggests that a maximal conception of personhood, identity, rights, and

autonomy is substantive only in relation to a community that promotes solidarity and well-

being77. This perspective can inform contemporary debates on human rights by emphasizing the

importance of duties and communal welfare alongside individual freedoms.

The potential conflicts that arise from Menkiti’s communitarian view in a modern liberal society

stem from differing emphases on the source of moral value. While modern individualism places

the individual at the center, Menkiti’s philosophy places the community at the core. Yet, this does

not imply a denial of individuality but rather a different approach to understanding how

individuality is expressed and recognized78.

Menkiti’s ideas can be applied to contemporary society by advocating for a more community-

oriented approach to social issues. This could involve policies and practices that strengthen

75
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
76
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
77
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
78
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
communal bonds and emphasize collective responsibility for social welfare, education, and

moral development79.

In the realm of human rights, Menkiti’s philosophy can contribute to a more holistic

understanding of rights that includes the well-being of the community. It can challenge the

notion of rights as solely individual entitlements and promote a view of rights that encompasses

the duty to contribute positively to the community80.

The modern application of Menkiti’s principles requires a nuanced approach that recognizes the

value of individual autonomy while also appreciating the role of the community in shaping and

supporting individuals. It calls for a balance between asserting individual rights and fulfilling

communal responsibilities. Menkiti’s philosophy, when considered in the modern context,

provides a counterpoint to the prevailing individualistic ethos. It invites a dialogue on how

communities can be structured to support the development of individuals without compromising

their autonomy and rights81.

3.6 Comparative Perspectives on Personhood

The concept of personhood is a fundamental philosophical question that has been explored

across various cultures and ethical systems. The African and Western views on personhood

present a rich tapestry of similarities and differences that reflect the diverse ways in which

societies understand the nature of being human.

In African philosophy, personhood is often understood through the lens of communalism. The

community plays a significant role in shaping an individual’s identity, with personhood being
79
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
80
Ikuenobe, P. (2018).
81
Molefe, M. (2019). A Conceptual Mapping of Personhood. In An African Philosophy of Personhood, Morality,
and Politics (pp. 17–35). Cham: Springer. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-319-70226-1_10.pdf
something that is achieved rather than an innate attribute. Ifeanyi Menkiti, a prominent African

philosopher, emphasizes that it is through the internalization of communal values and

participation in communal life that an individual becomes a person1. This view aligns with the

broader African ethos that values interdependence and collective well-being over individual

autonomy.

Western perspectives on personhood, on the other hand, tend to emphasize individualism. The

individual is seen as the primary moral and legal unit, with personhood often associated with

certain innate qualities such as rationality, consciousness, and the capacity for moral reasoning.

This view underpins many Western legal and ethical systems, which prioritize individual rights

and freedoms82.

Menkiti’s views on personhood contrast sharply with these Western notions. While Western

thought often centers on the individual as an autonomous entity, Menkiti’s philosophy places the

community at the heart of personal identity. He argues that the individual cannot be understood

apart from their relationships and roles within the community.

Despite these differences, there are areas where African and Western views on personhood may

converge. Both perspectives recognize the importance of certain capacities, such as rationality

and moral sense, in defining personhood. However, while Western thought may consider these

capacities as inherent, African philosophy, as articulated by Menkiti, sees them as developed

through communal living83.

Menkiti’s philosophy also intersects with other cultural and ethical systems that value social

harmony and collective responsibility. For instance, many Asian philosophies emphasize the
82
Shir-Vertesh, D. (2017). Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Personhood and the Life Course.
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0169.xml
83
Shir-Vertesh, D. (2017).
interconnectedness of all things and the importance of fulfilling one’s duties to family and

society. Similarly, indigenous cultures around the world often hold views of personhood that are

relational and tied to one’s place within the community and the natural world.

The application of Menkiti’s principles in the modern context raises questions about how to

balance communal responsibilities with individual rights. In societies that are increasingly

globalized and diverse, finding a way to integrate Menkiti’s communitarian ethos with the

individualistic orientation of Western thought is a challenge. It requires a rethinking of how

rights and responsibilities are defined and distributed within society.

Menkiti’s views also offer a critique of the modern focus on individual achievement and success.

He suggests that true personhood is not about what one accumulates or achieves individually but

about one’s contributions to the well-being of others and the community as a whole.

In the realm of ethics, Menkiti’s philosophy can inform discussions on moral responsibility and

the common good. His emphasis on communal values can serve as a counterpoint to ethical

theories that prioritize individual action and intention, advocating instead for a more collective

approach to ethical decision-making84.

Menkiti’s conception of personhood has implications for political philosophy as well. It

challenges liberal democratic models that prioritize individual choice and freedom, suggesting

that a focus on community and collective decision-making may lead to more equitable and just

outcomes.

3.7 Globalization and African Communitarian Values

84
Shir-Vertesh, D. (2017).
Globalization has significantly impacted African communities, bringing both opportunities and

challenges. The integration of economies, the exchange of technology and information, and the

movement of people have opened avenues for growth and development. However, globalization

has also introduced risks and concerns about the marginalization of countries and cultures85.

African communitarian values, which emphasize the importance of community and collective

well-being, face challenges in a globalized world that often prioritizes individualism and

economic liberalization. The traditional African ethos, which Ifeanyi Menkiti’s philosophy

represents, may seem at odds with the forces of globalization that can disrupt communal bonds

and local practices86.

Menkiti’s philosophy, which places a strong emphasis on the role of the community in shaping

individuals, offers a counter-narrative to the individualistic ethos of globalization. His ideas

suggest that personhood and identity are deeply rooted in communal relationships, a concept that

can be overshadowed by the global emphasis on individual rights and autonomy. The spread of

global cultural norms and values can lead to a dilution of traditional African values. As societies

become more interconnected, there is a risk that unique cultural practices and communal ways of

life may be replaced by a homogenized global culture.

Globalization has facilitated knowledge transfer and technological advancements, enabling

African countries to leapfrog to new technologies and improve living standards. However, this

rapid adoption of technology and global practices can sometimes occur at the expense of

85
Ouattara, A. D. (1997). The Challenges of Globalization for Africa.
https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2015/09/28/04/53/sp052197
86
Wangwe, S. M., & Musonda, F. (1998). The Impact of Globalization on Africa.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-26675-3_7
traditional knowledge systems and values87. The challenge for African communities is to find

ways to integrate the benefits of globalization while preserving their cultural heritage and values.

This requires a delicate balance between openness to the global economy and protection of the

social fabric that defines African societies5.

Menkiti’s philosophy can serve as a guide in navigating the complexities of globalization. By

reaffirming the importance of communal values, African societies can strive to maintain their

cultural identity while engaging with the global community. The relevance of Menkiti’s

philosophy in a globalized world lies in its potential to inform policies and practices that

prioritize community welfare and social cohesion. In a world where economic considerations

often trump social ones, Menkiti’s emphasis on the communal aspects of life offers a different

perspective.

Globalization has also brought about a re-examination of the concept of personhood in African

philosophy. As African societies interact more with the global community, there is a need to

redefine personhood in a way that is both true to African values and responsive to global

dynamics.

The preservation of traditional values in the face of global cultural changes is a significant

challenge. African communities must contend with the influence of foreign media, consumer

culture, and the global marketplace, all of which can erode traditional values and practices 88.

Menkiti’s philosophy highlights the importance of rites of passage and communal rituals in the

development of personhood. In a globalized world, ensuring that these practices remain relevant

87
Akinsola, A.O. (2020). Impacts of Globalization on African Culture: the Nigerian Example. Journal of African
Social Studies (JASS), (1)2. https://jass.org.ng/vol_1_no_2/impacts_of_globalization_on_african_culture.pdf
88
Akinsola, A.O. (2020).
and are adapted to contemporary contexts is crucial for the continuity of African cultural

values689.

3.8 Discussion of Findings

The study’s exploration into Ifeanyi Menkiti’s concept of the individual within African ontology

has yielded a multifaceted understanding of personhood that is deeply entrenched in communal

values. Menkiti’s work provides a profound contrast to Western individualism, advocating for a

view of personhood that is achieved through one’s contributions and roles within the community

rather than being an inherent attribute.

In examining Menkiti’s philosophy, it becomes evident that the community is not merely a

setting for individual development but the very essence of personal identity. This communal-

centric view challenges the Western emphasis on individual rights and autonomy, suggesting that

personal identity is a collective achievement rather than a solitary endeavor.

The findings also reveal that personhood in African ontology is a developmental process, marked

by rites of passage and communal rituals that confer increasing responsibilities and social

integration. This process-oriented view diverges from Western notions that often link personhood

to innate qualities such as rationality and consciousness.

Furthermore, the study highlights the tension between individual rights and communal

responsibilities. Menkiti’s philosophy prompts a reevaluation of this balance, proposing that

while individual rights are significant, they must be contextualized within the framework of

communal duties and obligations.

89
Ibrahim, A.A. (2013). The Impact of Globalization on Africa. International Journal of Humanities and Social
Science. 3 (15). https://ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_15_August_2013/11.pdf
Globalization presents both opportunities and challenges for African communities. The findings

suggest that while globalization can lead to economic and technological advancements, it also

poses risks to cultural integrity and traditional values. Menkiti’s communitarian values offer a

potential pathway for navigating these global changes while preserving cultural heritage.

The ethical implications of Menkiti’s philosophy are profound. The study finds that ethical

behavior is not an individual pursuit but a communal one, where moral actions are guided by

one’s role and responsibilities within the community.

Politically, Menkiti’s philosophy offers an alternative to liberal democratic models that prioritize

individual choice. His communitarian approach emphasizes collective decision-making and the

common good, challenging contemporary political paradigms.

When comparing African and Western perspectives on personhood, the study uncovers both

convergences and divergences. While both value certain capacities like rationality, they differ in

their foundational assumptions about the source of moral value and the role of the individual in

society.

The study acknowledges the difficulties African communities face in maintaining traditional

values amidst global cultural changes. Menkiti’s philosophy serves as a reminder of the

importance of these values and the need for their preservation and adaptation in a rapidly

evolving world.

Menkiti’s principles are found to be highly relevant in contemporary society, offering insights

into the role of the individual in a changing global landscape. His philosophy advocates for a

balance between embracing modernity and preserving communal values.

Lastly, the study notes potential tensions between Menkiti’s philosophy and Western cultural

paradigms. These tensions arise from differing views on individual autonomy and the

community’s role in shaping personal identity.

References

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Frankema, E. (2015). How Africa’s colonial history affects its development.

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/07/how-africas-colonial-history-affects-its-development/

Lin, C. (2019). Understanding Cultural Diversity and Diverse Identities. In: Leal Filho, W.,
Azul, A., Brandli, L., Özuyar, P., Wall, T. (eds) Quality Education. Encyclopedia of the UN
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