ASSESSMENT OF EFFECT OF COAL QUALITY ON

BURNABILITY OF RAW MEAL

The case study of Huaxin Cement Industry

B. Sc. Metallurgy and Mineral Processing Engineering Final Year Project

University of Dodoma

Student Name: SYLIVIA GEOFREY

Registration Number: T/UDOM/2018/06639

Department: DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING

ENGINEERING

Main Supervisor’s Name: PROF JUSTIN NTALIKWA

JULY 2022
ASSESSMENT OF EFFECT OF COAL QUALITY ON BURNABILITY OF
RAW MEAL

The case study of Huaxin Cement Industry

SYLIVIA GEOFREY

A Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Metallurgy and Mineral Processing Engineering of the University of Dodoma

University of Dodoma

JULY 2022
 CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certify that they have read and hereby recommend for an acceptance by the
University of Dodoma a thesis entitled: Assessment of effect of coal quality on burnability of
raw meal at Huaxin Cement Industry, in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Bachelor
of Science in Metallurgy and Mineral Processing Engineering of the University of Dodoma.

Prof. JUSTIN W. NTALIKWA

Signature ……………………. Date …………………

(SUPERVISOR)

i
 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I, Geofrey, Sylivia, declare that this final year project is my own original work and that it has
not been presented to any other University for a similar or any other degree award.

…………………………………………….

Geofrey Sylivia.

……………………………………………

Prof. Justin Ntalikwa.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to devise a way to offer my gratitude to everyone who has contributed in some manner
to the realization of this final year project.

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the almighty God, who, by His
kindness, enabled the fulfillment of this project. Secondly, I express my gratitude to the Huaxin
Cement Industry's administration for enabling me to conduct my final year project there.

Also, I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Justin Ntalikwa for his excellent supervision
from the beginning to the present. During consultations and supervision, he has always paid close
attention.

My gratitude goes to the project coordinators, Mr. Abraham Joseph and Mr. Maduhu, for assigning
me a project supervisor and providing me with all of the required support.

Finally, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my classmates for their moral and material
assistance during our final year project.

iii
 ABSTRACT

The main objective of this project was to assess the effect of coal quality on burnability of raw

meal. Coal provides around 90% of the energy consumed by cement plants around the world,

despite the environmental harm caused by its combustion. Bituminous coals make the best coke

and are in any case the most common, and these are most often used in the cement industry,

although steam coals are occasionally used.

Coal is divided into three categories: low-ash (3–8%), medium-ash (8–15%), and high-ash (> 15%)

on a global scale. The higher the ash content of coal, the longer the char will burn, resulting in a

longer flame. The flame temperature will drop as the value of the fuel falls. The ash content should

be low so as to raise the heating value of coal.

The project was carried out through analysis of the quality of incoming coal and kiln feed, analysis

of the quality of the clinker and recording the clinkerization temperatures. Analysis of the

incoming coal was done so as to determine the content of moisture, volatile matter, ash, fixed

carbon and calorific value in coal. The kiln feed was analyzed in order to determine the percentage

composition of the major oxides, LSF, SM and AM.

The cement clinker was analyzed so as to determine the amount of free lime and strength of the

clinker. Furthermore, the clinkerization temperatures were recorded so as to see if the

recommended temperatures were attained during the clinker formation process.

Generally, from the data collected, it was observed that increased amount of ash and volatile matter

led to decrease and increase in calorific value respectively. Increase in heating value of coal led to

rise in temperature which resulted to decrease in free lime in the cement clinker and hence,

increased clinker strength and vice versa.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION ......................................................................................................................... i

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION .................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. v

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION...................................................................................................... viii

1.0 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ...................................................................................... 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................... 2

1.3 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................... 2

1.3.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE ....................................................................................................... 2

1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES............................................................................................... 2

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................... 3

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 3

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 4

2.1 CEMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS ................................................................................. 4

2.2 CLINKER PRODUCTION. .................................................................................................. 5

2.3 FUELS USED IN CEMENT INDUSTRY. .......................................................................... 7

2.4 CLINKER QUALITY ........................................................................................................... 7

2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL IN CEMENT PRODUCTION. ...................................... 9

3.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 12

3.1 ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF INCOMING COAL AND THE KILN FEED ........ 12

3.1.1 ANALYSIS OF THE KILN FEED .............................................................................. 12

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 3.1.2 ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF INCOMING COAL. ........................................ 12

3.2 ANALYSIS OF THE CLINKER QUALITY ..................................................................... 14

3.3 RECORDING OF CLINKERIZATION TEMPERATURES............................................. 14

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................... 15

4.1 ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF INCOMING COAL AND KILN FEED ................. 15

4.1.1 Quality of Incoming Coal ............................................................................................. 15

4.1.2 Quality of the Kiln Feed ............................................................................................... 19

4.2 ANALYSIS OF THE CLINKER QUALITY ..................................................................... 20

4.3 RECORDING OF THE CLINKERIZATION TEMPERATURES .................................... 23

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................ 25

5.1 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 25

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 26

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................. 28

APPENDIX A: TABLES .......................................................................................................... 28

APPENDIX B: FORMULAS AND CALCULATIONS .......................................................... 32

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Flow sheet for cement production process ...................................................................... 4

Figure 2: Four zones in the rotary kiln for transformation of raw feed to cement clinker product

with their respective temperatures. ................................................................................................. 6

Figure 3: A graph showing the relationship between calorific value and Ash content of coal. ... 16

Figure 4: A graph showing the relationship between Clinker strength and Free Lime ................ 21

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:Quality of Incoming Coal ................................................................................................ 15

Table 2:Quality of the Kiln Feed .................................................................................................. 19

Table 3: Quality of the Clinker ..................................................................................................... 20

Table 4: Clinkerization Temperatures. ......................................................................................... 23

Table 5: Response for calorific value ........................................................................................... 28

Table 6: Fit statistics for calorific value ....................................................................................... 28

Table 7: Coefficients in Terms of Coded Factors ......................................................................... 29

Table 8: Response for strength. .................................................................................................... 29

Table 9: Fit statistics for Strength. ................................................................................................ 30

Table 10: Coefficients in Terms of Coded Factors. ...................................................................... 30

Table 11: Project Plan ................................................................................................................... 31

Table 12: Project Budget .............................................................................................................. 32

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATION
AM……………………………………………………………. Alumina Modulus

DIN ……………………………………………………………... Deutsches Institut für Normung

EN ……………………………………………………………… Europaische Norm

fCaO…………………………………………………………… Free lime

GCV AD……………………………………………………… Gross Calorific Value As Received

GCV……………………………………………………………. Gross Calorific Value

LSF…………………………………………………………… Lime Saturation Factor

SM……………………………………………………………. Silica Modulus

TM ………………………………………………………………. Total Moisture

UHV………………………………………………………… Useful Heat Value

viii
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Clinker is made by pyro-processing raw meal, which means fusing limestone (calcium carbonate)
and clay (alumino-silicate) at high temperatures to generate clinker. Clinker is made by feeding
raw meal into a kiln, which first calcinates calcium carbonate, then burns the calcium oxide along
with silica, alumina, and ferrous oxide at high temperatures to make clinker. The vertical shaft
kiln, in addition to the rotary kiln, is mostly utilized in developing countries. In industrialized
countries, rotary kilns are used to treat ground raw materials (Krishnan, 2014)

In cement industries, clinker production consumes 90% of the total energy consumed. In modern
industries, hot exhaust gases are used for pre-calcination and pre-heating of the raw meal, and they
can also be used for extra energy recovery, lowering energy consumption. Cement manufacture
consumes around 4% of global coal production, or 330 million tons per year (Nuhu, 2020).

The two basic processes in cement manufacturing are the wet and dry processes, which are named
after the ways in which the raw material is transported into the kiln. In the wet method, the mix is
delivered into the kiln as a slurry containing 20-40% moisture. The mixture is fed into the kiln
while dry, in the dry process. Dry process kilns are typically shorter since there is no need to
remove the slurry moisture from the mix. Reduced moisture content improves plant fuel efficiency.
Cement production uses a lot of energy, both in terms of heat (clinker production) and electricity
(generation of cement) (grinding of feed and clinker). The most modern plants in operation today,
which use the dry process and include pre-calcination and pre-heaters, use roughly 80 kwh of
electricity and 600 kcals of heat every kilogram of clinker produced. Up to 1100 kilowatts of power
are used in modern dry process facilities (Gaharwar & Sidhi, 2016).

In the clinker manufacturing process, most cement plants today use coal as the primary fuel. The
typical coal used in the new dry process to make 1 ton of cement clinker weighs between 100 and
130 kg, and fuel costs account for roughly 15% of overall cement production costs. Even though
steam coals are being used in cement industry on occasion, bituminous coals are the most common
(Chatterjee, 2018).

Because many cement plants use bituminous coal as the rotary kiln fuel, the ash concentration,
volatile matter, calorific value, fineness, and moisture of coal fines will affect the clinker

1
calcination process in the kiln. A consistent supply of coal powder is required for calcinating high-
quality cement clinker (Chatterjee, 2018).

The effect of coal quality on raw meal burnability will be assessed for this study. This will entail
determining the moisture content, ash content, volatile matter, sulfur content, fixed carbon, and
calorific value of coal using proximate analysis. This will also involve a temperature analysis of
the kiln feed in relation to the burning zone, as well as a clinker quality analysis.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Huaxin Cement Industry, which previously produced clinker as a final product from a mix of raw
materials such as limestone, red soil, bauxite ore, and iron ore, advanced to the manufacturing of
cement, available in market. Coal is also an important raw material in the making of cement
because it is the primary source of energy in the process.

The industry was encountering problems with utilization of large amounts of coal, that is to say, 1
ton of coal was used to produce 6 tons of cement clinker, which implied that 170 kg of coal
produced 1 ton of clinker. Whereas, the typical coal used in the new dry process to make 1 ton of
cement clinker weighs between 100 and 130 kg, and fuel costs account for roughly 15% of overall
cement production costs (Chatterjee, 2018). This led to formation of coatings in the kiln and
production of low-quality clinker due to not well burning of CaO contained in kiln feed. As a
result, this lowered the targeted level of production from 4000 tons per day to 2900 tons per day
while increasing the incurred costs for production.

1.3 OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE
• To assess the effect of coal quality on burnability of raw meal.
1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
i. To analyze the quality of the incoming coal and kiln feed.
ii. To analyze the quality of the clinker.
iii. To record the clinkerization temperature of the raw meal

2
1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The focus of this project was solely on how coal quality influenced raw meal burnability in the
kiln at various elevated temperatures during the clinkerization process. This included proximate
analysis of coal quality, which entailed determining moisture content, ash content, volatile matter,
sulfur content, fixed carbon, and calorific value of coal. The kiln feed was analysed for the amount
of lime it contained, as well as the clinker quality for the amount of free lime it contained.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

i. Through proximate analysis of the properties of Ruvuma coal and TANCOAL, the study
assisted to determine which type of coal was to be used in clinker burning.
ii. In addition, the project helped to improve clinker quality, increase production, and reduce
fuel consumption costs.
iii. It also assisted in comprehending different methods of treating coal in order to increase its
quality and meet production requirements.

3
 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CEMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS

Mining, crushing, and grinding of raw materials (primarily limestone and clay), blending of raw
meal, calcining the materials in a rotary kiln, cooling the resulting clinker, mixing the clinker with
gypsum, and milling, storing, and bagging the finished cement are all part of the cement
manufacturing process. The raw ingredients required to create cement can be categorized into four
categories: calcareous, siliceous, alumina (argillaceous), and iron (ferriferous). To make one ton
of cement, approximately 1450 kilograms (kg) of dry raw ingredients are required. Carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water vapor account for about 35% of the weight of the raw material (Gaharwar &
Sidhi, 2016).

On the one hand, the basic chemistry of cement manufacturing begins with the decomposition of
clay minerals into SiO2 and Al2O3, and on the other side, the decomposition of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) at around 900 °C to leave calcium oxide (CaO, lime) liberating CO2. Calcination is the
name for the latter process. The clinkering process follows, in which CaO combines with silica,
alumina, and ferrous oxide at high temperatures (usually 1450 °C) to generate calcium silicates,
aluminates, and ferrites. The resulting clinker is then mixed with gypsum and other ingredients to
make cement (Gaharwar & Sidhi, 2016).

Figure 1: Flow sheet for cement production process

4
2.2 CLINKER PRODUCTION.

Clinker production necessitates a significant quantity of heat energy. To make a kilogram of

clinker from normal dry kiln feed materials, around 420kcal of energy is required. However, the
kiln system requires significantly more energy to produce each kilogram of clinker because energy
is wasted in the evaporation of feed moisture, exhaust gases from the kiln and cooler, clinker, and
process dust (Nuhu, 2020).

The temperature of the burning zone is around 1450–1500°C, as measured by a pyrometer or

indirectly by the kiln drive power or NOx level measurement. In addition, the properties of fine-
ground coal as fed to the kiln system play a key influence in coal combustion efficiency
(Chatterjee, 2018).

Portland cements have always been the most widely produced cements. Clinker (also known as
Portland cement clinker) is the major component of these cements and is made up of 40-80 wt%
C3S, 10-50 wt% C2S, 0-15 wt% C3A, and 0-20 wt% C4AF. Clinker is made up of several crystal
phases, the most important of which are alite, belite, aluminate, and ferrite, which are the major
components of cement. Calcium silicate phases include alite and belite. Alite is a tricalcium silicate
phase (Ca3SiO5), while belite is a dicalcium silicate phase (Ca2SiO2) (Ca2SiO4). Pure CaO and
pure Al2O3 form a tricalcium aluminate phase (Ca3Al2O6), while pure CaO, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 form
a tetracalcium aluminoferrite phase (Ca4Al2Fe2O10) (Samira, 2012).

Major reactions in the kiln (Samira, 2012).

2𝐶𝑎𝑂 𝑠 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑎2 𝑆𝑖𝑂4 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶2 𝑆 …………………………………….. (i)

3𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑎3 𝑆𝑖𝑂5 (𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝐶3 𝑆))……………………………………… (ii)

3𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎3 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂6 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶2 𝐴 …………………………………(iii)

4𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 + 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎4 𝐴𝑙2 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂10 (𝑡𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒(𝐶4 𝐴𝐹))……… (iv)

5
Figure 2: Four zones in the rotary kiln for transformation of raw feed to cement clinker product
with their respective temperatures.

Free CaO (uncombined lime) is found in most clinkers in concentrations up to 2% by weight. Its
presence is due to insufficient raw meal preparation (inhomogeneous or too coarse), insufficient
burning (so that it did not interact with other oxides), too slow cooling (allowing partial
decomposition of C3S or C3A), or too high lime content (LSt III>100). In significant quantities
(more than about 2.5 % by weight), free lime can cause expansion phenomena in mortar and
concrete (lime expansion) (Kohlhaas, 1983).

[𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⟶ 𝐶𝑎 𝑂𝐻 2 ]

There are several methods for determining the quality of cement clinker. In most cases, several are
used. The entire composition can be determined by a complete chemical analysis (wet-chemical
analysis or X-ray fluorescence). The lime standard and the moduli (silica modulus, iron modulus)
can be calculated from the data, which together provide more easily digestible information on the
clinker's quality (Kohlhaas, 1983).

6
2.3 FUELS USED IN CEMENT INDUSTRY.

Due to the high temperature needed in the kilns for clinkerization, cement manufacture is an
energy-intensive process. The principal fuels used in cement kilns are fossil fuels such as coal, pet
coke, fuel oil, and gas. These solid, gaseous, and liquid fuels also meet the majority of the world's
energy needs and demands. Some of these fuels, such as coal and natural gas, are used in their
natural state, whilst others, such as petroleum, shale, and bituminous sands, must be processed,
refined, and distillated before being used. Pyro-processing consumes 92.7 % used in cement
manufacture, whereas final grinding consumes 5.4 % and raw grinding consumes 1.9 %. The fuel
source used impacts the amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) released, the quality of the cement
product, and the cost (Oshin & Obisanya, 2021).

2.4 CLINKER QUALITY

The property (such as compressive strength) of the cement made from it is determined by the
quality of the clinker; the basis for this characteristic is said to be the outcome of a well-burned
clinker with consistent chemical composition and free lime. In order to keep clinker quality within
acceptable limits, quality parameters must be measured periodically in the laboratory or utilizing
online hardware sensors based on X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
techniques. Lime Saturation Factor (LSF), Silica Moduli (SM), Alumina Moduli (AM), dicalcium
silicate or belite (C2S), tricalcium silicate or alite (C3S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A), and
tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) concentrations are the clinker quality characteristics (Moses
& Alabi, 2016).
Lime saturation factor (LSF)
The lime saturation factor is a measurement of how much silica, alumina, and iron oxide are
converted into the equivalent lime, and it may be computed using the formula:

To achieve a suitable combination of cement properties and adequate burnability, LSF for Portland
cement clinker is normally between 93 and 97 % (Sanusi & Samaila, 2020).

7
Silica modulus
Silica modulus essentially governs the proportion of silica phases in clinker or is the indicator of
burnability of the feed or clinker and it can be calculated using the formula:

The liquid phase of C2S and C3S contains silica modulus, which aids in the production of alite
(Sanusi & Samaila, 2020).
Alumina modulus
The alumina modulus is also employed in the kiln to determine the burning temperature and flux
characteristic. It's a measurement of the ratio of alumina to iron oxide in a mixture and it can be
calculated using the formula:

At the lowest temperature in the kiln, an alumina modulus of around 1.4 would result in the
formation of liquid phase or flux. Early creation of the liquid phase or flux in the kiln causes alite
formation to begin sooner and last longer, improving belite to alite conversion. However, at lower
temperatures, the amount of liquid phase would decrease, the length of the burning zone coating
would decrease, the flux would become less fluid, slowing alite formation, and thus more fuel
would be required to achieve a given free lime clinker level (Sanusi & Samaila, 2020).

Clinker with an LSF close to or more than 1.0 indicates the existence of free lime, which will result
in significant clinker burn and thus problematic grinding. However, LSF also regulates the
proportion of C3S to C2S in clinker; a high value of LSF prevents free lime (CaO) from combining
with these oxides and remaining as free lime, which has undesirable consequences such as
increased setting time, difficulty grinding clinker, volume expansion, and a reduction in cement
strength. As the LSF rises, so does the amount of free lime, resulting in increased energy demand
for clinker production, poor quality clinker, volume expansion, and low cement strength. As a
result, the chemical composition of cement raw materials and clinker is crucial to the efficiency
and energy consumption of cement plants. Attention must be made to kiln feed and clinker
chemical compositions in order to achieve stable and consistent chemical compositions and quality
of cement clinker with the lowest feasible energy usage (Sanusi & Samaila, 2020).

8
2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL IN CEMENT PRODUCTION.
The effects of some of the characteristics of coal are briefly described below: (Chatterjee, 2018).

Moisture content: The typically crushed coal is pulverized and dried in air swept or E-type mills,
as previously stated. Moisture content should be decreased to the appropriate values for the specific
coal quality during this preparatory phase. When coal is dried to an extremely low moisture content
(less than 1.0 %), it has a potential to spontaneously ignite. A higher moisture level causes the
combustion process to take longer to start and tends to make the flame longer. Furthermore, the
water in the coal increases the amount of waste gas that must be conveyed through the process,
potentially reducing the kiln system's performance.

Volatile matter: As the amount of volatile matter in coal grows, so does its reactivity. Volatile
matter is an indirect measure of how quickly solid carbon reacts to create CO and CO 2 streams.
Because the coal has a higher porosity when it has a higher volatile content, it has a larger surface
area for combustion, requiring a lower ignition temperature. In a rotary kiln, high volatile coal
(more than 30% volatile matter) decomposes quickly and encourages fast combustion, resulting in
a short flame; low volatile coal (less than 20% volatile matter) produces a longer flame. A reactive
coal does not need to be ground as finely as a low volatile coal in practice.

Particle size: Increasing the fineness of coal improves the overall surface area and lowers the
ignition temperature, resulting in a faster rate of burning. As a result, the flame is shorter and has
a greater temperature for finer coal particles. However, if the fineness of high volatile coal is
reduced beyond a certain point, there is a risk of explosion. In general, the percentage residue on
90 microns is kept between 0.5 and 0.7 times the volatile content.

Ash content: Coal is divided into three categories: low-ash (3–8%), medium-ash (8–15%), and
high-ash (> 15%) on a global scale. The high ash level can have two effects on the process. Because
it is an inert substance, the concentration of energy will change with its content, making it difficult
to maintain the ideal constant flow of thermal energy entering the process as ash levels rise. The
second issue is that for every percent increase in ash, the heat value drops by around 130
kilocalories at the same moisture level. The higher the ash content of coal, the longer the char will
burn, resulting in a longer flame. The flame temperature will drop as the value of the fuel falls.

9
Calorific value: Carbon, sulfur, moisture, and ash content all affect the calorific value. Low
calorific coal increases the specific heat demand for clinker burning while lowering the specific
kiln temperature throughout the process.

Sulfur content: Sulfur is found in Portland cement clinker mostly as Na2SO4, K2SO4, CaSO4,
(Kx,Nay)SO4 (aphthitalite), K2SO4CaSO4 (calcium langbeinite), and as substituents in the primary
clinker phases, primarily alite and belite with a small amount in ferrite. The upper allowable limit
of sulfur expressed as SO3 in clinker for most popular Portland cement is 1.6 wt % in order to
ensure good quality. More than half of the sulfur in the clinker comes from raw materials and fuel,
with the rest being lost in flue gas and kiln dust (Mut & Cortada, 2014).

Sulfur concentrations greater than 2.6 wt% SO3 in clinker begin to have a negative impact on
clinker mineral formation by inhibiting alite formation and favoring the stabilization of belite and
free lime, which must be less than 1.5 wt% CaO in clinker. As a mineralizer, calcium fluoride
(CaF2) can be added to raw meal to prevent this effect. As a result of the lower burning temperature,
the creation of alite is increased, and the burnability improves. However, clinker with CaF2
concentrations greater than 0.25 wt.% have detrimental effects on cement qualities such as delayed
setting, reduced early strength, and increased late strength (Mut & Cortada, 2014).

2.6 COAL CLEANING AND DRYING

Pyritic sulfur and ash are removed from coal during cleaning. Coal cleaning (upgrading) makes a
considerable contribution in this area. Cleaning coal improves the heating value and uniformity of
the fuel. As a result, higher thermal efficiency and lower CO2 emissions per unit of energy utilized
result from more efficient and regulated combustion (Kumar, 2018). The following are some of
the additional advantages of coal cleaning (Kumar, 2018):

a) Reduction in the amount of mineral matter present;

b) Reductions in the amounts of trace elements;
c) Increase in moisture content can be reduced by drying and subsequent increase in heating
value;
d) Easier grinding due to reduction of mineral matter and lower energy requirement, and thus
milling of coal to finer sizes for burning out more quickly;

10
 e) Combustion characteristics improve due to use of briquettes and their additives help
capture the sulfur present.

DSM invented the Dense Medium Cyclone in the 1940s, and it has been extremely important for
coal-cleaning applications all around the world since then. Because of its ability to handle more
tonnage and give ease of operation, Dense Medium Cyclones are commonly employed in Indian
washeries. The preferred dense medium is magnetite, which when mixed with water produces a
slurry of adequate density for separating floats (coal) from sinks (ash). Dense Medium cyclones
are similar to hydro-cyclones in terms of geometry. The operation of a Dense Medium Cyclone is
fairly easy, and it has gained popularity over traditional procedures for processing intermediate-
size coal, that is, particles with a size of 0.50–50 mm (Kumar, 2018).

Coal is dried to improve its calorific value and make transportation easier. Moisture reduces coal
friability, making blending operations more difficult to manage, degrades grinding quality (if coal
is ground), and obstructs separation and classification as well as pneumatic conveyance of
pulverized coal. Only after damp coal is dried does it become friable coal appropriate for
combustion in modern steam boilers. Depending on the procedure in which coal is utilized, the
final moisture content need varies. The final moisture percentage necessary for coal combustion
in a pulverized fuel-fired furnace is 12 to 15%. (Jerzy Piko & Mujumdar, 2006).

Rotary dryers are used to dry coal and coal muds in many industrial units. To reduce the risk of
ignition, these dryers usually run in the concurrent mode. Hot air or combustion gases from natural
gas or coal combustion serve as the drying medium (Jerzy Piko & Mujumdar, 2006).

11
 3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF INCOMING COAL AND THE KILN FEED
3.1.1 ANALYSIS OF THE KILN FEED

This entailed determining the quantities of SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3, Lime Saturation Factor (LSF),
Silica Modulus (SM), and Alumina Modulus (AM) in raw meal samples. The amount of weight
lost by raising the temperature of the substance to a predefined threshold is called LOI (Loss on
Ignition) of raw materials. It can be used as an indication to assess and enhance the final product's
quality.

Method: XRF Analysis - Pressed or fused tablet.

Equipment and material used.

Kiln feed samples, weigh balance for measuring samples, pellet die for holding samples, a pressing
machine for making pellets, two Analyzing machines for analysis, Computer for recording data.

Procedures: DIN EN 196-2, 2013.

3.1.2 ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF INCOMING COAL.

Method: Proximate Analysis

One of the reporting methods for coal is proximate analysis, which shows the relative levels of
light compounds (volatile organics) compared to fixed carbon (non-volatile organics). Moisture,
ash content, and volatile matter were all analyzed using this method.

Equipment and materials used

Crucibles for holding the samples, muffle furnace for heating, weigh balance, oven for drying, a
desiccator for cooling, coal samples.

Ash content

Ash is simply the noncombustible inorganic residue which remains after coal is completely burned.

Procedures: DIN EN 15403, 2011.

12
Volatile matter

All coal elements, with the exception of moisture, that are released when heated in the absence of
air are classified as volatile matter. It's a metric for coal's thermal breakdown products.

Procedures: DIN EN 15402, 2011.

Moisture content

Moisture includes both surface moisture and inherent moisture.

Procedures: DIN EN 15414-3, 2011.

Fixed carbon

The carbon content that remains after the volatiles have been evacuated is known as fixed carbon.
Fixed carbon is employed as a measure of the combustible material left after volatiles have been
released, or as an indication of the projected yield of coke upon carbonization.

%FC = 100% - (%M + %VM + % A).

Gross Calorific Value

It is a measurement of a coal's heating ability, and it's used to calculate how much coal is needed
to generate a certain quantity of heat. The quantity of heat or energy freed from the burning of a
fuel when its byproducts are condensed to recover some of the energy produced from the
combustion is known as Gross Calorific Value. Net Calorific Value, on the other hand, is the
amount of energy liberated from the combustion of a fuel when its byproducts are allowed to depart
freely.

NOTE: Because the latent heat was recovered for pre-calcination purposes, the Gross Calorific
Value was chosen in the cement industry for reporting the heating capacity of coal.

Procedures: DIN 51900-2, 2000.

13
3.2 ANALYSIS OF THE CLINKER QUALITY
The principal method of controlling the composition of the raw material, raw feed, clinker, and
ultimately cement is to employ XRF for cement analysis. This method gives quick compositional
data for regulating practically all stages of production, as well as analyzing and quality control of
the finished product. To examine the quality of cement clinker, an XRF analyzer was used to detect
the amounts of free lime(fCaO) and cement clinker strength (C3S).

Method: XRF Analysis - Pressed or fused tablet

Equipment and material used

Clinker samples, wax and Triethanolamine (TEA) for softening the sample, pellet dies, XRF
machine for analyzing the sample and a computer for data recording.

Procedures: DIN EN 196-2, 2013.

3.3 RECORDING OF CLINKERIZATION TEMPERATURES

The clinkerization temperatures were recorded from the temperature profiles during the operation
of the rotary kiln whenever the coal sample was taken for analysis.

14
 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 ANALYSIS OF THE QUALITY OF INCOMING COAL AND KILN FEED

4.1.1 Quality of Incoming Coal

Table 1:Quality of Incoming Coal

Sample %Moisture %Volatile %Ash %Fixed Gross Net Ash Category

Number Matter Carbon Calorific Calorific
Value Value
(kcal/kg) (kcal/kg)
1 2.78 22.59 19.5 55.13 5798.7 5778.9 High ash
2 1.55 24.77 20.78 52.90 5804.0 5784.5 High ash
3. 1.88 20.87 23.25 54.00 5576.7 5557.8 High ash
4 1.68 21.44 22.22 54.66 5708.0 5688.7 High ash
5 2.95 25.95 12.22 58.88 6377.1 6355.6 Medium ash
6 2.97 26.47 11.9 59.32 6402.2 6380.6 Medium ash
7 2.42 25.7 19.61 52.27 5815.7 5795.9 High ash
8 1.77 27.35 11.41 59.47 6537.8 6516 Medium ash
9 2.75 26.14 12.3 58.81 6386.5 6379.3 Medium ash
10 2.61 27.00 12.03 58.36 6418.7 6397.1 Medium ash
11 1.27 21.43 22.57 54.73 5677.4 5658.3 High ash
12 2.49 26.95 12.22 58.34 6412.8 6397.1 Medium ash
13 2.52 25.94 19.18 52.36 5842.8 5822.9 High ash
14 1.30 21.7 21.92 55.08 5731.6 5712.4 High ash
15 1.13 21.8 23.34 53.73 5757.9 5738.6 High ash
16 2.11 26.31 12.73 58.85 6401.1 6379.6 Medium ash
17 1.54 27.14 13.08 58.24 6419.3 6401.6 Medium ash
18 1.06 21.65 22.39 54.90 5712.8 5693.7 High ash
19 2.59 27.3 12.04 58.07 6423.2 6410.4 Medium ash
20 1.04 21.07 23.69 54.20 5608.9 5590.1 High ash

15
 Figure 3: A graph showing the relationship between calorific value and Ash content of coal.

On a global scale, coal is categorized into three categories: low-ash (3–8%), medium-ash (8–15%),
and high-ash (> 15%) (Chatterjee, 2018). According to figure 3, the relationship between the gross
calorific value and the ash content appeared to be inverse. The calorific value of coal tended to
rise whenever the ash content (medium ash) decreased. This is due to the fact that less-ash coal
burns with more energy, increasing its heating efficiency, and vice versa.

Furthermore, the volatile matter content of coal had an impact on the gross calorific value of the
fuel, refer to table 1. A higher volatile matter content resulted in a higher calorific value, whereas
a lower volatile matter content resulted in a lower calorific value of coal. Due to their ease of
ignition, improved flame stability, and enhanced carbon burnout, materials with high volatile

16
matter are advantageous for ignition and combustion. Moreover, it has been found that coal with
increased volatile matter emissions has lower NOx emissions.

NOTE:

Due to the following factors, gross calorific value was used as a function of ash: The process might
well be impacted by the high ash level in two ways. Ash is an inert substance, thus as ash levels
rise, it becomes more challenging to maintain the optimum constant flow of thermal energy
entering the process since the concentration of energy will fluctuate with its content. The second
reason is that at the same moisture level, the heat value decreases by about 130 kilocalories for
every percent increase in ash (Oshin & Obisanya, 2021).

ANOVA for Linear model

Refer to tables 5,6 and 7 in the appendices section

Factor coding was Coded.

Sum of squares was Type III - Partial

The Model F-value of 993.92 implied that the model was significant. There was only a 0.01%
chance that an F-value this large could occur due to noise.

P-values less than 0.0500 indicated that the model terms were significant. In this case B, C were
significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicated the model terms were not significant.
If there were many insignificant model terms (not counting those required to support hierarchy),
model reduction might have improved the model.

The Predicted R² of 0.9900 was in reasonable agreement with the Adjusted R² of 0.9937; i.e. the
difference was less than 0.2.

Adeq Precision measured the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 was desirable. The ratio
of 72.976 indicated an adequate signal. This model could be used to navigate the design space.

17
When all other factors were maintained constant, the coefficient estimate showed the expected
change in response per unit change in factor value. In an orthogonal design, the intercept was the
average response across all runs. Based on the factor parameters, the coefficients were adjustments
made to that average. When the factors wereorthogonal, the VIFs were 1, multi-collinearity was
indicated by a VIF greater than 1, and the higher the VIF, the more severe the correlation of the
factors was. VIFs less than 10 were generally acceptable.

Final Equation in Terms of Coded Factors

Calorific Value = +6035.00 + 37.90A - 532.15B - 90.39C

It is possible to predict the response for specific levels of each factor using the equation expressed
in terms of coded factors. By default, the factors' high levels were coded as +1 and their low levels
as -1. By contrasting the factor coefficients, the coded equation could be used to determine the
relevance of the factors.

Final Equation in Terms of Actual Factors

Calorific Value = +7572.68399 + 18.95108Free Lime - 81.86903Ash - 90.38999Moisture

It is possible to predict the response for specific levels of each factor using the equation expressed
in terms of the actual factors. Here, the levels for each factor had to be stated in their original units.
Because the coefficients were scaled to account for the units of each factor and the intercept was
not at the center of the design space, this equation could not be used to estimate the relative
importance of each factor.

18
4.1.2 Quality of the Kiln Feed

Table 2:Quality of the Kiln Feed

Sample SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO LSF SM AM

Number
1 13.4 3.26 2.09 44.31 103.49 2.51 1.56
2 13.5 3.41 2.19 44.00 101.60 2.41 1.56
3 13.5 3.34 2.15 44.11 102.08 2.46 1.55
4 13.5 3.32 2.03 44.26 102.96 2.52 1.63
5 13.56 3.27 2.05 44.2 102.4 2.55 1.6
6 13.57 3.12 1.99 44.34 103.17 2.66 1.57
7 13.41 3.19 1.97 44.28 103.96 2.61 1.62
8 13.62 3.36 2.18 44.05 101.24 2.46 1.54
9 13.6 3.42 2.12 44.15 101.61 2.45 1.61
10 13.8 3.22 1.98 44.33 101.4 2.66 1.63
11 13.70 3.51 2.23 43.73 99.5 2.39 1.57
12 13.56 3.53 2.20 43.95 100.89 2.37 1.60
13 13.56 3.59 2.23 43.61 99.90 2.33 1.61
14 13.59 3.11 2.27 43.66 101.07 2.53 1.37
15 13.80 3.71 2.23 43.81 98.52 2.32 1.66
16 13.68 3.39 2.23 43.70 99.88 2.43 1.52
17 13.89 3.43 2.24 43.56 98.12 2.45 1.53
18 13.61 3.45 2.08 44.23 101.61 2.46 1.66
19 13.53 3.18 2.14 44.26 102.86 2.54 1.49
20 13.62 3.45 2.16 44.22 101.40 2.43 1.60
Range of 13.5±0.5 3.0±1.5 2.0±1.5 44.0±0.5 100±5 2.5±0.5 1.5±0.5
Control

The core objective of a kiln feed system was to feed the kiln at any desired rate specified by the

operator (from CCR) and to maintain it with a close degree of accuracy (2 %) across the feed rate

range. Because the feed's contents must be maintained and kept within a certain range, as indicated

in table 2, the composition of the kiln feed from the data obtained exhibited little to no change

across different samples. The kiln feed's contents were monitored within the following ranges:

SiO2 at 13.5±0.5, Al2O3 at 3.0±1.5, Fe2O3 at 2.0 ± 1.5, CaO at 44.0±0.5, LSF at 100±5, SM at

2.5±0.5, and AM at 1.5±0.5.

19
4.2 ANALYSIS OF THE CLINKER QUALITY

Table 3: Quality of the Clinker

Sample Number C3 S f-CaO

1 63.46 4.1
2 62.79 4.21
3 60.76 5.1
4 61.63 4.25
5 65.74 3.72
6 68.52 2.68
7 63.27 4.12
8 70.96 2.59
9 65.56 3.81
10 67.32 3.12
11 61.22 4.35
12 65.72 3.8
13 63.51 3.95
14 62.61 4.21
15 59.48 5.56
16 64.62 3.9
17 65.38 3.9
18 61.55 4.3
19 66.22 3.5
20 56.2 5.76

20
 Figure 4: A graph showing the relationship between Clinker strength and Free Lime
According to figure 4, increasing free lime caused the strength of the clinker (C3S) to drop while

decreased free lime improved the clinker's strength. Insufficient burning, or the lack of interaction

with other oxides, and too slow cooling led to the formation of free lime. Increased free lime caused

mainly grinding problems, volume expansion, and longer setting times, which are indications that

the cement clinker's strength is less than it should be.

21
ANOVA for 2F1 Model

Refer to tables 8, 9 and 10 in the appendices section

Factor coding was Coded.

Sum of squares was Type III - Partial

The Model F-value of 95.54 implied that the model was significant. There was only a 0.01%

chance that an F-value this large could occur due to noise.

P-values less than 0.0500 indicated that the model terms were significant. In this case A, B, AB,
AC were significant model terms. Values greater than 0.1000 indicated that the model terms were
not significant. If there were many insignificant model terms (not counting those required to
support hierarchy), model reduction could improve the model.

The Predicted R² of 0.9302 was in reasonable agreement with the Adjusted R² of 0.9676; i.e. the
difference was less than 0.2.

Adeq Precision measured the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater than 4 was desirable. The ratio
of 38.337 indicated an adequate signal. This model could be used to navigate the design space.

When all other factors were maintained constant, the coefficient estimate showed the expected

change in response per unit change in factor value. The average response of all the runs was the

intercept in an orthogonal design. Based on the factor settings, the coefficients modified the

average around it. When the factors were orthogonal, the VIFs were 1. When the factors were

multi-collinear, the VIFs were greater than 1. The higher the VIF, the more severe the correlation

of the factors. VIFs under 10 were generally considered tolerable.

Final Equation in Terms of Coded Factors

Strength = +63.80 - 5.35A - 1.37B + 0.1594C +2.54AB + 2.69AC + 0.1400BC

22
It is possible to predict the response for specific levels of each factor using the equation expressed
in terms of coded factors. By default, the factors' high levels were coded as +1 and their low levels
as -1. By contrasting the factor coefficients, the coded equation could be used to determine the
relative importance of the elements.

Final Equation in Terms of Actual Factors

Strength = +103.05269 - 8.78410Free Lime - 1.03599 Ash -5.58932Moisture + 0.195624Free

Lime * Ash + 1.34294Free Lime * Moisture + 0.021542Ash * Moisture.

It is possible to predict the response for specific levels of each factor using the equation expressed
in terms of the actual factors. Here, the levels for each factor had be stated in their original units.
Because the coefficients were scaled to account for the units of each factor and the intercept was
not at the center of the design space, this equation could not be used to estimate the relative
importance of each factor.

4.3 RECORDING OF THE CLINKERIZATION TEMPERATURES

Table 4: Clinkerization Temperatures.

Sample Number Temperatures (℃)

1 1275
2 1259
3 1109
4 1181
5 1381
6 1499
7 1265
8 1523
9 1307
10 1481
11 1111
12 1313
13 1279
14 1256
15 1093
16 1306
17 1288
18 1145
19 1464
20 1059

23
At a temperature of between 1350°C and 1500°C, raw meal is transformed into the clinker minerals
aluminoferite, aluminite, belite, and alite (clinker formation) (Nuhu, 2020). According to the trend
in Table 4, only few samples (5, 6, 8, 10 and 19) were able to reach the desirable clinkerization
temperature range. This scenario resulted from the coal's higher ash content, which contained non-
combustible elements lowering the heating value of coal and hence decrease in the temperature
needed for clinkerization. On the same vein, the clinker also contained more free lime.

24
 5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSION

The characteristics of coal include calorific value, moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed carbon.

The longer the char burned, the longer the flame, and this was true for coal with a higher ash

content (high ash coal). As the fuel's heating value dropped, so did the flame's temperature. So, to

increase coal's ability to provide heat, the ash content should be low.

Depending on the nature of the raw materials, certain ranges for the kiln feed composition had to

be maintained. This is because the chemical composition of the feed has a significant impact on

fuel consumption, kiln operation, clinker operation, and cement performance.

In order to check clinker quality whether were within acceptable limits two important parameters

were to be measured periodically. These are free lime (fCaO) and measure of clinker strength

(C3S). The strength increased with decreased amounts of free lime in the cement clinker. Cement

clinker with free lime which ranged between 0.5% to 2.0% tended to have greater strength while

free lime above 2.5% led to increased setting time, volume expansion and decreased strength of

the cement.

The flame temperatures increased whenever the heating value of the fuel became high due to

increased amounts of volatiles as well as decreased amounts of ash.

25
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

At Huaxin Cement Industry, high ash coal and medium ash coal were employed, and each of these
coals was fed to the production process at a different time after the other had been used up. It was
advised to blend coals in order to increase combustion efficiency, widen the spectrum of acceptable
coals, and cut fuel costs.

For secondary burning (in the calciner), which requires lower temperatures than the kiln but still
requires energy, it was also advised to incorporate coal with other fuel sources (sawdust, rice
husks, and black carbon). The suggested fuel sources to integrate with coal were limited to
secondary firing due to their low calorific values. The fuel consumption would be improved
significantly.

A high ash coal with an ash content of at least 15% was used in the industry's production process.
In order to reduce pyritic sulfur and ash, coal cleaning was suggested. This would make it easier
to minimize the amount of mineral matter present, lower the amount of required energy for
grinding, reduce the amount of trace elements, reduce moisture content by drying, and raise the
heating value.

26
 REFERENCES

Chatterjee, A. K. (2018). Cement Production Technology: Principles and Practice. Boca Raton:
Taylor and Francis Group.

Gaharwar, A., & Sidhi, J. (2016). A Review Article on Manufacturing Process of Cement,
Environmental Attributes, Topography and Climatological Data Station: IMD, Sidhi M.P.
47-53.

Jerzy Piko & Mujumdar, A. (2006). 43 Drying of Coal. Handbook of Industrial Drying.

Kohlhaas, B. (1983). Cement Engineers' Handbook (4th ed.). Berlin: Bauverlag GmbH.

Krishnan, S. a. (2014). Treatise on Process Metallurgy. Elsevier.

Kumar, D. K. (2018). Sustainable Management of Coal Preparation}. Woodhead Publishing.

Moses, N.-O. E., & Alabi, S. B. (2016). Predictive Model for Cement Clinker Quality
Parameters. Journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering , 84-100.

Mut, & Cortada, M. d. (2014). Sulfur Release during alternative fuels combustion in cement
rotary kilns. Denmark: Technical University of Penmark.

Nuhu, S. (2020). Energy Conservation Measures In Kiln For Clinker Production. International
Journal of Engineering Science Invention (IJESI), 09, 19-23.

Oshin, T. T., & Obisanya, A. A. (2021). Energy and Economic Comparison of Different Fuels in
Cement Production. In C. M. Oluwafemi M. Fadayini, Cement Industry-Optimization,
Characterization and Sustainable Application. IntechOpen.

Samira, T. (2012). Clinker burning kinetics and mechanism. Denmark: Technical University of
Denmark.

Sanusi, N., & Samaila, L. (2020). Effects and Control of Chemical Composition of Clinker for
Cement Production. International Journal of Control Science and Engineering, 10, 16-
21.

27
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: TABLES

Table 5: Response for calorific value

Source Sum of Df Mean F-value p-value

Squares Square
Model 2.430E+06 3 8.101E+05 993.92 < significant
0.0001
A-Free 1474.38 1 1474.38 1.81 0.1974
Lime
B-Ash 9.277E+05 1 9.277E+05 1138.27 <
0.0001
C-Moisture 36943.50 1 36943.50 45.33 <
0.0001
Residual 13040.34 16 815.02
Cor Total 2.443E+06 19

Table 6: Fit statistics for calorific value

Std. Dev. Std. Dev. 28.55

R² 0.9947

Mean Mean 6040.66 Adjusted

0.9937
R²

C.V. % C.V. % 0.4726 Predicted

0.9900
R²

Adeq
72.9758
Precision

28
Table 7: Coefficients in Terms of Coded Factors

Factor Coefficient df Standard 95% CI 95% CI VIF

Estimate Error Low High

Intercept 6035.00 1 6.44 6021.35 6048.65

A-Free 37.90 1 28.18 -21.84 97.64 2.93

Lime

B-Ash -532.15 1 15.77 -565.59 -498.71 3.41

C- -90.39 1 13.43 -118.85 -61.93 1.90

Moisture

Table 8: Response for strength.

Sum of Mean
Source Model Df F-value p-value
Squares Square

205.83 6 34.31 95.54 < 0.0001 Significant

A-Free Lime 24.21 1 24.21 67.42 < 0.0001

B-Ash 5.81 1 5.81 16.19 0.0014

C-Moisture 0.0998 1 0.0998 0.2778 0.6070

AB 3.37 1 3.37 9.39 0.0090

AC 1.77 1 1.77 4.93 0.0448

BC 0.0223 1 0.0223 0.0621 0.8071

Residual 4.67 13 0.3591

Cor Total 210.50 19

29
Table 9: Fit statistics for Strength.

Std. Dev. 0.5992 R² 0.9778

Mean 63.83 Adjusted R² 0.9676

C.V. % 0.9388 Predicted R² 0.9302

Adeq Precision 38.3372

Table 10: Coefficients in Terms of Coded Factors.

Factor Coefficient Estimate Df Standard Error 95% CI Low 95% CI High VIF

Intercept 63.80 1 0.2195 63.32 64.27

A-Free Lime -5.35 1 0.6515 -6.76 -3.94 3.55

B-Ash -1.37 1 0.3399 -2.10 -0.6334 3.59

C-Moisture 0.1594 1 0.3024 -0.4939 0.8127 2.19

AB 2.54 1 0.8297 0.7506 4.34 2.60

AC 2.69 1 1.21 0.0722 5.30 5.31

BC 0.1400 1 0.5620 -1.07 1.35 2.60

30
 Table 11: Project Plan

ACTIVITIES FIRST SEMESTER 2021/22 HOLIDAY SECOND SEMESTER

2021/22
WEEKS 1-3 4-8 9 10-14 15 16-17 1-2 1-8 9- 13- 16-17
12 15
Title development
Consultation
Project proposal
presentation I
Literature review
Project proposal
presentation II
Project Proposal
submission
Data collection
Data Analysis
Project
presentation I
Project
presentation II
Final Year Project
Report Submission

31
Table 12: Project Budget

S/N TASK COST

1. Transport Fee 60,000/=

2. Data Dry Method Analysis 30,000/=

collection
XRF Analysis 50,000/=

3. Communication 30,000/=

4. Stationaries 50,000/=

5. Emergency 200,000/=

TOTAL 420,000/=

APPENDIX B: FORMULAS AND CALCULATIONS

Determination of moisture content

Moisture content (air dried) = [(weigh before drying – weight after drying)/weight before drying]
x100

= [(B – D)/C] X 100

where:

A – Weight of empty crucible

B – Weight of empty crucible + sample

C – Weight of sample

D – Weight of crucible + sample after ignition

Determination of Volatile matter

VM (air dried) = (Total weight – (Wt loss + Moisture)/Total weight) x 100

32
Determination of ash content

Weight of ash = Weight of ash + crucible – Weight of crucible.

Weight of sample = Weight of sample + crucible - Weight of crucible

% Ash (air dried) = (Weight of ash/ Weight of sample) x 100

= [(G3 – G1)/G4] X 100

where:

G1 - weight of empty crucible

G2 - weight of empty crucible + weight of sample

G3 - weight of empty crucible + weight of sample after ignition (burn)

G4 - weight of sample

Determination of Fixed carbon

%FC = 100% - (%M + %VM + % A).

Determination of Gross Calorific Value

1. Useful Heat Value

= 8900 − 138 𝐴% + %𝑀 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔

2. Gross Calorific Value (Air dry basis)

= 𝑈𝐻𝑉 + 3645 − 75𝑀% /1.466 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔

3. Ash % (As fired basis)

= [𝐴%] 100 − 𝑇𝑀 %
%
100 − 𝑀%

33
4. Gross Calorific Value (As fired Basis)

= [𝐺𝐶𝑉𝐴𝐷] 100 − 𝑇𝑀 % / 100 − 𝑀% 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔

5. Net Calorific Value

= [𝐺𝐶𝑉] − 10.02𝑀% 𝐾𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑘𝑔

34