1 THE UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

SCHOOL OF MINES AND GEOSCIENCES – SoMG

DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING
ENGINEERING
MP 499: FINAL YEAR PROJECT II

PROJECT TITTLE: DESIGN OF A SMELTER FOR RECOVERY OF COPPER FROM

COPPER CONCENTRATE.
PROJECT NUMBER: MP-7-2022
STUDENT’S NAME: MHANILA BENEDICT H
REGISTRATION NUMBER: 2019-04-07090
DEGREE PROGRAM: BSc. METALLURGY AND MINERAL PROCESSING
ENGINEERING
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2022/2023
SUPERVISOR: DR AMBROSE ITIKA

Student’s signature: ________________________

Supervisor’s signature: _____________________
 Abstract
This report presents a comprehensive study on the design of a copper smelter aimed at
recovering copper concentrates produced by small-scale miners in Tanzania. The lack of a copper
smelter in the region has led to the exportation of concentrates at lower prices, resulting in
reduced revenue for investors and the government. The main objective of this project is to
identify a suitable copper smelting technology that can increase the value of the copper
concentrates.

To achieve this goal, a thorough review of previous developments at UDSM through

documentary research and physical observations was conducted. Relevant data, including
information on the types of ore, known mining sites, status of prospective users, and conditions
of potential smelter sites, was collected. Based on this data, design criteria were established, and
the appropriate technology was selected on each section. Scientific analysis of operating
parameters, including mass and energy balance, was performed to determine the suitable
materials of construction and estimate the dimensions of the smelter. The conceptual smelter-
model design was created using AutoCAD and SolidWorks 3D software.

After careful evaluation, the Noranda type smelter was identified as the most suitable for this
application. The copper concentrate was found to contain 34.4% Cu, and accordingly, the proper
dimensions 1400 x 400 m (D X L) and models of the smelter were determined. Diesel fuel was
selected as the most suitable fuel for this application, and Silica refractory bricks were chosen as
the suitable refractory materials for construction.

Mixing fuels for this application is highly discouraged due to potential safety and efficiency
concerns. It is recommended that further research be conducted before proceeding with the
fabrication of the equipment. Modifications to dimensions and equipment configurations should
be made as necessary to ensure optimal performance.

In conclusion, this report provides a suitable smelter design that promises to increase the value of
copper concentrates, presenting potential for further research in this field. The designed smelter
is expected to be cost-effective, employing appropriate technology while meeting safety,
durability, and environmental standards. The implementation of this smelter will significantly
enhance the value of small-scale copper mining and processing operations.

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 Acknowledgment
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Ambrose Itika, my project supervisor, for his
guidance, corrections, and positive attitude during my consultation sessions.

I would like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to the distinguished panel of markers for my
initial report, MP 498. Their valuable contributions through thoughtful feedback, corrections, and
active participation in presentations are deeply cherished. I am truly grateful for their unwavering
support and affection. It is their constant encouragement that has fueled my daily progress and
enabled me to present my very best work today. Special thanks Eng. Simon Mwakalinga, MMPE
staff members, students, and all others who are attuned to our feelings and responsive to our
needs. Those who love us understand us and are available to us with attention, appreciation,
acceptance, and affection we can feel. They make room for us to be who we are and what we do
now.

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Contents
1 Introduction. ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Project Background. ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Project objectives. ............................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Scope of the project .......................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Significance of the project................................................................................................ 3
2 Literature review. .................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Copper. ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Processing and Extraction of copper ores ........................................................................ 7
2.2.1 Processing of Oxide Ores.......................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Processing of Sulfide Ore ....................................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Important information about the concentrate .......................................................... 13
2.3 Smelting Process ............................................................................................................ 15
2.3.1 Chemical equations involved in copper smelting ................................................... 16
2.4 Types of copper smelters ................................................................................................ 17
2.4.1 Flash Smelting Furnace........................................................................................... 17
2.4.2 Bath matte Smelting ................................................................................................ 21
2.4.3 Noranda Furnace and Teniente Furnace .................................................................. 24
2.4.4 Reverberatory Furnace ............................................................................................ 26
2.5 Design aspects of a copper smelter ................................................................................ 27
2.6 Fuel selection.................................................................................................................. 28
2.7 Refractory Lining ........................................................................................................... 33
3 Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 36
3.1 Sample Concentrate Composition .................................................................................. 36
3.2 Determination of Suitable Type of a Copper Smelter. ................................................... 36
3.3 Establishment of suitable construction and operating parameters for a smelter. ........... 37
3.4 Smelter Design ............................................................................................................... 37
3.4.1 Process design ......................................................................................................... 38
3.4.2 Mechanical Design.................................................................................................. 38
3.4.3 Selection of Suitable Furnace Fuel ......................................................................... 39
4 Results and Discussion. ........................................................................................................ 41

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 4.1 Concentrate’s Composition ............................................................................................ 41
4.2 Determination of suitable type of a copper smelter ....................................................... 42
4.3 Smelter design. ............................................................................................................... 42
4.4 The Equipment ............................................................................................................... 45
4.5 Fuel selection.................................................................................................................. 45
4.6 Selection of refractory Materials .................................................................................... 46
5 Conclusions and recommendations....................................................................................... 47
5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 48
6 Nomenclature ........................................................................................................................ 49
7 References ............................................................................................................................. 50
8 Appendices ............................................................................................................................ 53
8.1 Concentrate composition ................................................................................................ 54
8.2 Selection Matrix; Design criteria of a copper smelter.................................................... 54
8.3 Selection Matrix for Fuel Selection ............................................................................... 55
8.4 Mass and energy balance Calculations........................................................................... 56
8.5 Heat loss ......................................................................................................................... 60
8.5.1 Heat loss calculation ............................................................................................... 61
8.5.2 Fuel quantity calculation ......................................................................................... 62
8.7 Mechanical Design Calculations. ................................................................................... 65
8.8.1 Estimation of furnaces parameters. ......................................................................... 65

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Copper Mining status in various areas of Tanzania......................................................... 1
Figure 2: Copper occurrences of Tanzania . .................................................................................. 2
Figure 3: Common copper ore minerals ........................................................................................ 5
Figure 4: Copper ores, (a) Native Copper ore, (b) Chalcopyrite ore .............................................. 6
Figure 5: Different processes which copper ores with different chemistry are treated. ................. 7
Figure 6: Heap Leaching and Solvent Extraction of Oxide Ore ..................................................... 9
Figure 7: Typical copper sulfide concentrator arrangement Blowers Specifications ....................11
Figure 8: New hydrometallurgical process to treat CCR anode slimes (simplified) .................... 14
Figure 9: Simplified partial phase diagram for the Fe-O-S-SiO2 system showing liquid-liquid
(slag-matte) immiscibility caused by SiO2. .................................................................................. 15
Figure 10:Cutaway View of Outokumpu enriched Air Flash Furnace.......................................... 18
Figure 11: Cutaway View of Inco Oxygen Flash Furnace ............................................................ 20
Figure 12: Process flow sheet for the Mitsubishi process ............................................................ 21
Figure 13: Cutaway view of an IsaSmelt TSL bath smelting furnace. ......................................... 23
Figure 14: Noranda smelting furnace .......................................................................................... 25
Figure 15: Structure of Reveberatory furnace. ............................................................................. 26
Figure 16: Effect of Carbon/Hydrogen ratio on flame emissivity ................................................ 30
Figure 17: Effect of fuel type on heat transfer in a furnace .......................................................... 31
Figure 18: Furnace’s refractory bricks ready for use. ................................................................... 35
Figure 19: Bulk fibers ................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 20: Initial Furnace shell’s design sketches. ....................................................................... 39
Figure 23: Elemental composition of flotation sample concentrate of Tanga. ............................. 41
Figure 24: Schematic diagram of the furnace design process....................................................... 44
Figure 25: Quantitative description of the process operation. ...................................................... 45
Figure 26: Percent reduction of wall loss during smelting operation ........................................... 46

List of Tables
Table 1: Furnace Parameters. ........................................................................................................ 47
Table 2: Examples of reagent schemes used in the treatment of copper sulfide ores ................... 53
Table 3: Concentrate’s Composition. ............................................................................................ 54
Table 4: Rating values for Furnace selection. ............................................................................... 54
Table 5: Selection matrix for Selection of Furnace. ..................................................................... 54
Table 6: Selection Matrix for Fuel choice. .................................................................................... 55
Table 7: Properties of some liquid fuels ...................................................................................... 63
Table 8: Noranda furnaces details . .............................................................................................. 65
Table 9: Furnace's Parameters. ...................................................................................................... 66
Table 10: Dimensions of selected parts. ....................................................................................... 67
Table 11: Pumps specifications. .................................................................................................... 68
Table 12: Blowers Specifications.................................................................................................. 68

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1 Introduction.
1.1 Project Background.
Tanzania exports copper concentrates to Vietnam, Netherlands, U. A. E, South Korea, India and
South Africa. These concentrates are obtained from both Oxide (Malachite, Tenorite and Cuprite)
and Sulfide Copper ores (chalcopyrite, chalcocite and covellite) present in the mainland.

Copper deposits are located in various parts of Tanzania. This includes Ibindi, Lake Victoria
Region (Bulyanhulu, Buzwagi, and Samena), Ibaga, Uluguru Mountains, Sangu, Kapanga,
Kapalagulu, Kapalamsenga, Ntaka, Lufusi, Gagwe and Tambi area of Dodoma (Geological
Survey of Tanzania; Beak Consultants GmbH; University of Dar es salaam; Technical University
Bargakademie Freiberg; Southern and Eastern African Mineral Centre, 2015). In some areas with
copper occurrences mining activities has already begun while others are in progress for
extraction. This information is summarized in the table below,
Name Region Ore’s composition Mining/Exploration
Bulyanhulu Shinyanga Gold, Copper, Silver Mining Active
Buzwagi Shinyanga Gold, Copper, Fluorite Mining, inactive
Gangwe Kigoma Copper Mining Active
Kapalamsenga Rukwa Copper Mining Active
Kapanda Rukwa Gold, Copper Mining Active
Kabanga Kagera Nickel, Copper, PGM, Prospect Active
Cobalt, Gold
Luezi Hill Mbeya Copper Prospect Inactive
Figure 1: Copper Mining status in various areas of Tanzania (Geological Survey of Tanzania;
Beak Consultants GmbH; University of Dar es salaam; Technical University Bargakademie
Freiberg; Southern and Eastern African Mineral Centre, 2015)
Depending on the ore material's chemical composition, the ore can be produced either
pyrometallurgically or hydro-metallurgically. The hydrometallurgical route is used only for a
very limited amount (20%) of the world’s copper production and is normally preferable to oxide
ores (Schlesinger, 2019). The most effective techniques are in situ leaching or heap leaching
(Stanley & Wilkinson, 2020). The pyrometallurgical route is used for processing of sulfide ores
and is more expensive than leaching (Kordosky & Harvey, 1988) due to high cost incurred in
operation, fuel consumption, construction and installation of equipments and facilities (Elliott,
1984; Kordosky & Harvey, 1988). Low level of science and technology for processing sulfide
ores poses a great problem to the development of copper mining industry in Tanzania. This result
to the exportation of concentrate ore at lower price instead of pure copper which would

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otherwise be sold at a higher price. Therefore, low revenue to the miners as well as the
government.

Figure 2: Copper occurrences of Tanzania (Geological Survey of Tanzania; African Minerals

and Geosciences Centre; Beak Consultants GmbH, 2023) .
Despite the government efforts in ensuring that, the mineral resources that are being exported
should be pure minerals rather than concentrate, the efforts have not been successful. Since most
of the miners are practicing small scale mining, and equipments such as smelter required to
process the ore are too expensive for them to afford, resulting to continuation of the problem.

Smelter being one among most essential equipment which is used for extracting a metal from ore
or concentrate by the use of high temperature, involving both melting and chemical reactions for
obtaining matte therefore increasing the value of copper which will enable export at higher price
compared to ore minerals.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem
The contribution of Mining sector in national revenue has been increasing recent years. Despite
of such great reputation the sector has gained, the revenue obtained from mining and extraction
of copper metal has been low and gradually developing. This is the result of the exportation of
raw copper which is due to low level of science and technology of the small-scale miners.
The unavailability of copper smelting technologies in the country is a contributing factor to the
low performance of the subsector.
The government and investors aim at increasing revenue from this metal. Therefore, effort are
needed to improve the processing capacity.

1.3 Project objectives.

Main objective
The main objective of this work is to develop a technical solution for smelting of copper from
copper concentrate produced by small-scale miners in Tanzania.
Specific objectives:
1. Determination of available concentrate composition.
2. Determination of suitable type of a copper smelting technology.
3. Establishment of suitable construction and operating parameters for a smelter.
4. To design a smelter.

1.4 Scope of the project

This project will focus on selection and developing a technical solution (smelter), for smelting of
copper that will be suitable for smelting of copper concentrate produced by small-scale copper
and gold miners of Tanzania. And on establishment of parameters and the materials that will be
suitable for smelting of this concentrates.

1.5 Significance of the project

This project will enable the determination of copper smelter design suitable for copper
concentrates produced. Producing a matte of 75 %Cu grade from copper concentrate and
therefore increasing it’s value.

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Also, it will provide suitable design parameters and type of the materials to be used for
construction of a copper smelter that will be suitable for the concentrates. It lays the foundation
for possibility to process copper ores and stop raw exports. If this goal is realized, there will be
significant creation of employment both for the production of the smelters and the associated
value chain as well as at the processing level. There will be higher income generation for those
engaged in the value chain as employees and also for the entrepreneurs and miners who own the
mining and processing sites. The government will get additional taxes from the increased
activities not forgetting the taxes from personal incomes. The processed copper will fetch higher
prices thus increasing national foreign exchange earnings.

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2 Literature review.
2.1 Copper.
Copper is a nonferrous metal, 29th transition element in a modern periodic table, with molar mass
of 63.546 g/mol. It is reddish, malleable and ductile metal, a good conductor of heat and
electricity. It has a melting point of 1085 ºC (1358 K), boiling point of 2567 ºC (2840 K) and
density of 8.96 kg/m3 at 20 ºC (Housecroft & Sharpe, 2012)
About 550 million tons of copper ore reserves has been estimated on the Earth’s crust
(Housecroft & Sharpe, 2012), these ores are present in bedrock minerals and deep-sea nodules,
they are found in three major groups which are native ores, oxides and sulphide ores. In most
cases copper minerals are extracted from sulphide ores (Dunne, 2019).

Figure 3: Common copper ore minerals (Johnston et al., 2019)

Native copper is only a minor ore of copper worldwide

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 Figure 4: Copper ores, (a) Native Copper ore, (b) Chalcopyrite ore (Klein & Anthony, 2017)

Copper ore deposits are distributed all over the word and production varies from large scale
production to small ones. Chile, peru and china are world leading producers followed by U. S. A,
Congo, Australia, Zambia, Mexico, Russia, and other countries (Mark E. Schlesinger, 2011;
Dunne, 2019). Tanzania is one of the few nations where copper ore reserves have been
discovered. These reserves are located at different parts in the nation and are of different grades
and tonnages, Figure 2.

Pure copper metal is mostly produced from copper ores by concentration, smelting, and refining.
It is the third most widely used metal, after iron and aluminum, due to its distinctive properties,
such as malleability, high ductility and good conductivity of heat and electricity and is resistant
to corrosion, copper is widely used in the piping of water supplies and in refrigeration and air
conditioning. It is extensively used in electrical applications and in electronics, as electrical wire,
and in integrated circuits and printed circuit boards (Wilkinson & Dreisbach, 1988). In
architecture, it has been used as roofing material since ancient times (Jones, 1996). It is a
component in ceramic glazes, gives color to glass, and is a constituent of many copper-based
alloys such as bronze and brass (Wilkinson & Dreisbach, 1988).

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2.2 Processing and Extraction of copper ores
Copper mining is usually performed using open-pit mining, in which a series of stepped benches
are dug deeper and deeper into the earth over time (Mark E. Schlesinger, 2011). Usual mining
procedures are carried out, which are blasting and hauling of materials to the processing plants,
which are then sent through a primary crusher, typically located very close to or sometimes in the
pit (Stanley & Wilkinson, 2020). This primary crusher reduces the size of the ore from boulder to
gravel-sized rocks (50 mm). The processing steps varies depending on the chemistry of the ore,
this is because each type requires different liberation size on the extraction stage, therefore they
are being processed at different number of comminution stages up to reach extraction stage
(Markovic et al., 2008; Biswas & Davenport, 1980).

Figure 5: Different processes which copper ores with different chemistry are treated.
Oxide ores, after blasting only passes to primary crusher stage which are then reduced to gravel
size, and then piled up for the leaching process to take place.

Sulphide copper ores are processed by the use of froth flotation process, this requires further size
reduction more than that which can be achieved by the primary crusher. For sulphide ores to be
floated, the liberation size range between 106-250 µm must be achieved (Dunne, 2019). This
makes grinding stage necessary in processing stage of sulphide ores (Figure 7).

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2.2.1 Processing of Oxide Ores
Copper oxide ores tend to be found near the surface of the Earth, hence they are easier to be
found and are extracted at low cost. But usually they are of low grades (with low concentration
of copper). This requires more ore to be extracted and processed to make profit. The use of low-
cost heap leaching, solvent extraction and electrowinning process has made the attainment of this
goal possible (Stanley & Wilkinson, 2020; Dunne, 2019). About 20% of copper produced
worldwide is obtained by hydrometallurgical processes. Below is the brief description of this
process, it goes through three stages;

➢ Heap leaching and/or In situ leaching.

➢ Solvent extraction
➢ Electrowinning process.

Heap leaching
This process is suitable for extraction of low-grade ore which would otherwise not be
economical to send through a milling process. Following mining, transporting, and crushing to a
consistent gravel sized material, the crushed ore is piled into a heap on top of an impenetrable
layer, on a slight slope. The leaching is mostly done by dripping dilute sulfuric acid on top of
heaps of crushed ore (~0.5% Cu) and allowing the pregnant leach solution of sulfuric acid and
copper sulfate to trickle down through the heap (where it dissolves the copper from the ore) to
collection ponds. The copper compound can now be seen at concentrations of between 60-70%.
For efficient extraction of copper, several months of leaching are required (Mark E. Schlesinger,
2011; Dunne, 2019; Stanley & Wilkinson, 2020). Oxidized minerals are rapidly dissolved by
sulfuric acid by reactions like:

300 𝐶
CuO(s) + H2SO4(l) → Cu2+(aq) + 𝑆𝑂42− (aq) + H2O(l) Eqn (i)
in ore sulfuric acid pregnant leach solution

Solvent extraction
The pregnant solution obtained in leaching process are too dilute in Cu and too impure for direct
electroplating of pure copper metal. Their Cu must be transferred to pure, high-Cu electrolyte.
This is done by mixing the pregnant solution vigorously with solvent, allowing copper to migrate
from the leach solution into the solvent. The two liquids are then allowed to separate based on

8
solubility, with copper remaining in solution in the solvent, and impurities remaining in the leach
solution. The leftover leach solution is then recycled, by adding additional acid and sending it
back to the sprinklers in the heap leaching process. The solvent extraction process is represented
by the reaction below:
300 𝐶
𝐶𝑢2+ (aq) + 𝑆𝑂42− + 2RH → R2Cu + 2H+ + 𝑆𝑂42− Eqn (ii)
in pregnant in organic in organic in aqueous solution;
leach solution solvent solvent recycle to leach

It shows that a low-acid aqueous phase causes the organic extractant to load with Cu (as R2Cu).
It also shows that a high acid solution causes the organic to unload (strip). Thus, when organic
extractant is contacted with weak acid pregnant leach solution, Cu is loaded into the organic
phase. Then when the organic phase is subsequently put into contact with high acid electrolyte,
the Cu is stripped from the organic into the electrolyte at high Cu2+ concentration, suitable for
electrowinning. The extractants absorb considerable Cu but almost no impurities. They give
electrolytes, which are strong in Cu but dilute in impurities (Mark E. Schlesinger, 2011).

Figure 6: Heap Leaching and Solvent Extraction of Oxide Ore (Stanley & Wilkinson, 2020).

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 Electrowinning process
The last step in processing of oxide ores is electrowinning process. Cu from the electrolytes
obtained, is recovered by electroplating pure metallic cathode as copper electrical current passes
through an inert anode (usually lead) positively-charged copper ions (called cations) come out of
solution and are plated onto a cathode (negative electrode) as 99.99% pure copper. The following
reactions occurs in electrowinning of copper:

The cathode reaction is:

600 𝐶
Cu2+(aq) + 2e¯ → Cu(s) Eqn (iii)
Electrons from pure metal
In sulfate external power deposit on
electrolyte supply cathode

The anode reaction is:

600 𝐶
H2O(l) → 0.5O2(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e¯ Eqn (iv)
In electrolyte Evolved on In electrolyte, Electrons to external
inert electrode recycle to organic power supply
stripping

2.2.2 Processing of Sulfide Ore

After mining, transportation, and primary crushing, copper sulfide ores, unlike oxide ore, it goes
to a further size reduction process. (Grinding process), this is done due to hardness of the ores
and complex mineralogy of copper sulphide ores. The grinding process is aimed at achieving the
liberation size of (-38+0) m, and small amount of locked particles appears in fractions from 38
up to 74 m for sulfide ores (Markovic et al., 2008), after attainment if this liberation size, the
grinding mill throughput is then sent to the flotation cells (rougher cells) Figure 7. Sulfide
materials goes through four stages described below:

Froth flotation
Due to variations in composition, chemistry and nature of the copper ores, different flow sheets
for flotation are used. The throughput from the grinding circuit is fed to the rougher cells where
it is mixed with several reagents (collectors, depressants, frothers, Ph modifiers) enabling Cu
minerals to become selectively attached to air bubbles rising through a slurry of finely ground
ore in water while depressing all associated gangue materials as the mixture flows from the

10
rougher cell to the final cleaner cell. The concentrate from the final cleaner cell may contain up
to 30% Cu (Bulatovic, 2007).

Figure 7: Typical copper sulfide concentrator arrangement (Dunne, 2019)

These concentrates primarily consist of copper and iron sulfide minerals, it is thickened and
filtered before being fed to a smelter. Prior to filtration, concentrate usually contains about 60%
to 68% solids. The filter cake obtained after thickening usually contains 8% -10% moisture
content. This is beneficial as it reduces the risk of fire (Schlesinger, 2019). In a few cases, these
concentrates are sent direct to smelting furnaces. However, for flashing furnaces these
concentrates are dried first to achieve a moisture content of about 0.5 wt% or less. Drying keeps
clogs from forming in concentrate burners and improves the ignition of concentrates.

Copper smelting
The concentrate (30 %Cu), obtained from the flotation process, is the fed to the smelter furnace
with a mixture of silica flux and air or oxygen-enriched air and blasted at a temperature of 1250
ºC resulting into the oxidation of Fe and S metals to produce a Cu-enriched molten sulfide phase

11
called matte. Matte contains about 45% - 75% Cu from the concentrate (Schlesinger, 2019; Mark
E. Schlesinger, 2011; Davenport & Partelpoeg, 1987).

FeSiO4, gangue and flux oxides are discharged as by products from the smelter. In the furnaces
where fossil fuels are used the off gasses contains about 10% - 60% SO2 which is used in
production of sulfuric acid which helps to conserve the environment from pollution.

The matte from the furnace is charged to converters, where the molten material is oxidized in the
presence of air/Oxygen to remove the iron and sulfur impurities (as converter slag) and to form
blister copper (World Bank, 1998).

Electrolysis
This is the final step in processing of sulfide ores. The impure copper obtained from smelting
and converting processes contains about 0.01% - 0.05% of the dissolved sulfur and 0.1% - 0.8%
of dissolved oxygen will react to produce SO2 gas bubbles if it is casted directly into the smelter.
The SO2 bubbles formed by this reaction leave behind small bubbles called blisters as they leave
the solidifying surface copper, hence the name blister copper (Schlesinger, 2019). To prevent this
copper is refined before it can be used for any purpose. This done in two refining steps fire
refining and electrorefining. The primary aim of fire refining is to remove the dissolved sulfur
and oxygen while electrorefining primarily removes/recovers the other impurities such as Au and
Ag which can be sold at profit.

Fire refining takes place in an anode converter, this vessel operates in similar ways as Peirce–
Smith converter. The only difference between the two is that it has only two tuyeres unlike 30
used in Peirce-Smith converter. Fossil fuel, typically Natural gas is used as a fuel in this process.
Fuel combustion air and the air blown in through the tuyeres are unenriched into the vessel. The
vessel tilts to accept input through the hole at the top, and tilts over the same way to let purified
molten copper flow out after refining is complete. A hood is provided for the removal of product
gases. The refining cycle in an anode furnace begins when enough blister copper (200–300 t) has
been charged. Then air is blown in to oxidize most of the remaining sulfur in the metal, S + O2
→ SO2 the reaction is left to continue until the dissolved sulfur remains about 20 – 30 ppm. This
process takes place for duration of one hour. As a result of this process the concentration of
dissolved oxygen in the molten blister increases which makes the second refining step necessary.

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Copper electrorefining entails electrochemically dissolving copper from impure anodes into
CuSO4 - H2SO4 - H2O electrolyte, and electrochemically plating pure copper (without the anode
impurities) from the electrolyte onto stainless steel cathodes. This process takes 7 - 14 days. The
cathodes obtained are then removed from the cell, and copper is stripped, washed, and sold or
melted and cast into useful products. The Electrolyte is an aqueous solution of H2SO4 (150-200
kg/m3) and CuSO4 (40-50 kg Cu/m3). It also contains impurities and trace amounts of chlorine
and organic addition agents.

2.2.3 Important information about the concentrate

The concentrate obtained as the by-product of Gold ore processing, after the recovery of gold,
remaining copper concentrate will be the feed for the smelter designed. Using froth flotation
techniques, some of the gold from the ore can be recovered directly as a gold concentrate. Still,
significant quantities of Gold, Silver and platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium,
osmium) remain within the copper concentrate (Ferron, 2016). Since gold and silver are highly
valuable, its important to recover them in-order to obtain high revenue. Gold can be present in
the copper flotation concentrate as free gold or in solid solution in the chalcopyrite itself
(Sluzhenkin, 2003). Gold and Silver contained in the concentrate can be recovered as a
byproduct from the copper smelting process and in smelting of other base metals. Often platinum
group metals (PGMs) contained, are also recovered as a component of the byproduct (Ferron,
2016).
Gold, silver, and other PGMs remain closely associated with copper during the smelting
operation due to mutual solubility. Within the matte and then within the blister. Finally, gold is
concentrated and collected with the anode slimes during electrorefining of the blister copper. The
composition of anodic slimes depends on the concentrate composition and the efficiency of the
operation. But usually contain significant amounts of copper, lead, silver, selenium, nickel, and
tellurium. Most of the copper in the anode dissolves during electrorefining and approximately 5 -
10 kg of anode slimes are produced per ton of anode. In those slimes, gold has been released as
tiny (< 1 μm) metallic Au particles that settle at the bottom of the cell, to be eventually
embedded in a matrix of copper sulfate and a complex oxidate phase of a Cu-Ag-As-S-O
composition. Close association of gold with an Ag-Cu selenide phase appears probable (Ferron,
2016).

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The slimes obtained from refining process, can be recovered Glencore CCR Refinery process
developed by Noranda Research Center. This process can be summarized in flowsheet below.

Figure 8: New hydrometallurgical process to treat CCR anode slimes (simplified) (Ferron,
2016).

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2.3 Smelting Process
Smelting is the process of heating, fusing and melting or reacting an ore at temperature to
chemically extract a metal in effect to obtain a pure metal (Dunne, 2019). This case focuses on
smelting metal sulfide concentrates which refers to flash smelting. It is used primarily for copper
sulphide concentrates, but it is also used to a significant extent for nickel sulphide concentrates.
The main objective of this process is to oxidize S and Fe from the Cu-Fe-S concentrate so as to
produce a Cu-enriched molten sulfide phase called matte (hence matte smelting), it is sulfide rich
product of flash smelting process. Oxide rich product of the process is referred as slag. Figure 9
below shows the Cu2S-FeS-SiO2 phase diagram, which serves as the basis of matte smelting. The
diagram shows a large miscibility gap between a molten oxide–based iron silicate slag and matte.

Figure 9: Simplified partial phase diagram for the Fe-O-S-SiO2 system showing liquid-liquid
(slag-matte) immiscibility caused by SiO2 (Schlesinger, 2019; Dunne, 2019).
The figure shows what occurs when FeO, FeS, and SiO2 are heated to 1200 ºC. The diagram's
left edge depicts a solution made up solely of FeS and FeO. A single oxysulfide liquid forms in
silica-free melts with FeS contents exceeding 31% mass. There is a liquid-state miscibility gap,

15
nevertheless, when silica is included. As more silica is added, this gap enlarges. Lines a, b, c and
d represent the equilibrium compositions of the two liquids.

In smelting of copper several inputs are used, the most important one is copper concentrate
(30%Cu). Other inputs include oxygen-enriched air, carbonaceous fuel, flux, converting slag and
reverts, and purchased copper scrap.

Concentrates usually contain varying levels of impurities, solid solutions in the sulfide minerals;
these include valuable impurities such as gold, silver, selenium, and tellurium, and undesirable
impurities, particularly antimony arsenic, and bismuth. Concentrates also contain 8%-10%
moisture to reduce the risk of fire. These concentrates require drying treatment before entering
the furnace. This process reduces the moisture content to 0.5 %wt or less. This keeps clogs from
forming in concentrate burners and improves the ignition of concentrates. Indirect heating of
concentrate is normally used to accomplish this process (Schlesinger, 2019).

Apart from the concentrate, other materials are added for specific purposes, these are discussed
in the following paragraphs

Air/Oxygen enriched air increase’s reaction temperatures and thus process kinetics, reduces
nitrogen flow-through and the heat losses that result from it, and reduces off-gas volumes and the
size of the equipment required to handle it.

The scrap is added to converting furnaces as cold dope to absorb excess heat from the converting
reaction.
Silica flux is included in the feed to all-flash furnaces. Its principal role is to react with the iron
oxides formed during smelting to create a molten slag which can be easily removed from the
furnace. The amount of silica added depends upon producing a slag that is immiscible with matte
(Biswas & Davenport, 1980), has slight solubility for Cu, and is reasonably fluid (Elliott, 1984).
The flux used in flash smelting is usually sand, siliceous run-of-mine ore or crushed quartz.

2.3.1 Chemical equations involved in copper smelting

Chemical reactions taking place at this stage are usually highly exothermic. They provide most
or all energy for heating, melting and superheating the furnace products. In fact, when industrial
oxygen or highly oxygen-enriched air is used to provide the O2 for reactions (v) and (vii), little or
no fossil fuel needs to be combusted in the furnace.

16
 30ºC 1220ºC
2CuFeS2(s) + 3.25O2(g) → Cu2S · 0.5FeS(l) + 1.5FeO(s) + 2.5SO2(g)…………………………Eqn (v)
In oxygen enriched air Molten matte

FeS2 + 2.5O2 → FeO(s) + 2SO2(g) ………………………………….…………………………………Eqn (vi)

1220 ºC 30 ºC 1250 ºC
2FeO(s) + SiO2(s) → Fe2SiO4(l) …………………………………………………………………...……… Eqn (vii)
In quartz flux Molten slag

The main objective of reaction Eqn (v) is to oxidize Fe and S from the Cu-Fe-S concentrate to
produce a Cu-enriched molten sulfide phase (matte). At the same time, gangue minerals in the
concentrate dissolve in the molten silicate slag.

2.4 Types of copper smelters

2.4.1 Flash Smelting Furnace
It involves blowing air, oxygen, dry Cu-Fe-S concentrate, silica flux, and recycled materials into
a hearth furnace operating at 1250 C. The concentrate's sulfide mineral particles react quickly
with the O2 blast once they are inside the hot furnace. This causes a controlled oxidation of the
Fe and S in the concentrate, a significant increase in heat, and particle melting (Biswas &
Davenport, 1980; Mark E. Schlesinger, 2011). The process is continuous. When extensive
oxygen enrichment of the blast is practiced, it is nearly autothermal. It is perfectly matched to
smelting fine particulate flotation concentrates (100 µm).

The products of flash smelting are:

➢ Molten Cu-Fe-S matte, ⁓ 65% Cu, considerably richer in Cu than the input concentrate
➢ Molten iron-silicate slag containing 1-2% Cu.
➢ Hot dust-laden off-gas containing 30-70 vol.-% SO2 (Davenport & Partelpoeg, 1987).

The molten matte is the principal product of the flash furnace. It is always sent on to a converting
furnace where its Fe and S are oxidized with air or oxygen-enriched air, leaving behind impure
molten blister copper. This copper is subsequently refined and marketed. Off-gas strong enough
in SO2 for its efficient capture as sulfuric acid.

17
There are two types of the flash smelting furnaces classified depending on differences of the
blowing method. One is Outokump/Outotec method and another is INCO method.

Outotec flash furnace, in this method, the furnace has the structure that dry copper concentrates
are blown in with the heated oxygen enriched air to the furnace form the top of the reaction shaft.

Outotec flash furnaces vary considerably in size and shape. However, they all have five main
features:
Concentrate burners (usually one, but a few have four), which combine dry particulate feed with
O2-bearing blast and blow them downward into the furnace
➢ A reaction shaft where most of the reaction between O2 and Cu-Fe-S feed particles takes
place
➢ A settler where molten matte and slag droplets collect and form separate layers
➢ Water-cooled copper block tap-holes for removing molten matte and slag
➢ An uptake for removing hot SO2-bearing off-gas (Schlesinger, 2019).

Figure 10:Cutaway View of Outokumpu enriched Air Flash Furnace (Mark E. Schlesinger,
2011).

18
Advantages of Outotec Flash Furnace:
1. High Efficiency: The Outotec Flash Furnace is highly of metal efficient, with a high rate
recovery and low energy consumption, reducing costs and improving the overall
efficiency of the smelting process.
2. Low Emissions: The Outotec Flash Furnace is designed to minimize emissions through
the use of gas convertors. This helps reducing the environmental impact of the smelting
process (Dunne, 2019).
3. Flexibility: The Outotec Flash Furnace can be adapted to handle a wide range of
feedstocks, (ores, scraps and slags) making it a flexible option for metal producers.

Disadvantages of Outotec Flash Furnace:

1. High Capital Costs: The Outotec Flash Furnace requires significant investment in
infrastructure, including facilities for ore processing and refining, which can increase the
overall cost of production.
2. Flash furnaces generate considerable quantities of dust. To reduce this dust generation, a
large settling area is built into flash furnaces. This increases the size of the vessel, and
thus its cost.

INCO method, the furnace has the structure to blow in concentrates, oxygen, SiO2 flux, and
recycle materials from both the right and the left ends of the furnace horizontally, and off-gas is
exhausted from the center of the furnace.

The INCO flash furnace is made of high-quality MgO and MgO-Cr2O3 brick. Its main
components are:
➢ Concentrate burners, two at each end of the furnace.
➢ End- and sidewall water-cooled copper cooling jackets.
➢ A central off-gas uptake.
➢ Sidewall tapholes for removing matte
➢ An end wall taphole for removing slag
➢ An end wall chute for charging molten converter slag

19
 Figure 11: Cutaway View of Inco Oxygen Flash Furnace (Davenport & Partelpoeg, 1987).
Disadvantages of INCO process:

1. Pollution: this process relesess generates waste products, including sulfur dioxide and
other pollutants, which can have negative impacts on the environment and human health
if not properly managed.
2. Energy Intensive: The INCO process is energy-intensive, requiring large amounts of
energy to operate it , which can drive up costs and increase greenhouse gas emissions.
3. High Capital Costs: The INCO process requires significant investment in infrastructure,
including facilities for ore processing and refining, which can increase the overall cost of
production.

A major disadvantage of flash smelting is that the amount of copper inclusion in slag can hardly
be reduced which makes it necessary to prolong the retention time of melts in furnace slag
holding (or cleaning) furnace in addition to the flush smelting furnace for effective separation of
matte from slag. Furthermore, flash smelting involves the use of fine, dry concentrate particles as
feed. Fine particles react faster, which is desirable (Davenport & Partelpoeg, 1987). However,
they also settle less quickly.

20
2.4.2 Bath matte Smelting
Bath smelting is the type of smelting process in which metal is melted in a bath of molten slag,
rather than in refractory lined furnace. This method is typical used in nonmetals, such as copper,
and is done in submerged – arc furnace. The slag provides insulation and reducing atmosphere,
allowing the metal to be melted and refined efficiently. Bath smelting technologies can be
divided into top, side, and bottom-blown technologies. These processes are described below
The Mitsubishi Process
This is the most recent Ausmelt processing operation, it has the following features,
➢ High-intensity smelting furnace that produces a mixture of matte and slag.
➢ Settling furnace (usually electric) that separates matte from slag.
➢ Converting furnace e usually a PeirceeSmith but increasingly an Ausmelt C3 converter.

In this process, dried copper concentrates and fluxes with oxygen-enriched air are blown in from
the top of smelting furnace (S-furnace), and melts of matte and slag are produced (Anderson,
2016; Biswas & Davenport, 1980). The generated matte and slag are sent to slag cleaning
furnace (CL-furnace) of electric heating type through launder, and matte and slag are separated
by the difference of their specific gravities, then slag is to be discharged.

Figure 12: Process flow sheet for the Mitsubishi process (Schlesinger, 2019).

21
The Mitsubishi process operates continuously, using three connected furnaces to smelt, settle,
and convert copper concentrates. This results to following merits,
➢ Ability to smelt all concentrates, including CuFeS2 concentrates.
➢ Elimination of Peirc-Smith converting with its SO2 collection and air infiltration
difficulties.
➢ Continuous production of high SO2-strength off-gas, albeit from two sources. Relatively
simple Cu-from-slag recovery.
➢ Minimal materials handling.

Advantages of Mitsubish copper smelter.

1. High Temperature: Reverberatory furnaces can reach high temperatures, which makes
them suitable for refining metals such as copper and lead.
2. Good Heat Distribution: The shape of the furnace promotes good heat distribution and
enables the furnace to operate with high energy efficiency.
3. Simple Design: Reverberatory furnaces have a simple design, making them easy to
construct and maintain.
Disadvantages:
1. Limited Capacity: Reverberatory furnaces have a limited capacity, making them
unsuitable for large-scale production.
2. Fuel Efficiency: Reverberatory furnaces are not as fuel-efficient as other types of
furnaces, which can lead to higher operating costs.
3. Pollution: Reverberatory furnaces can emit high levels of pollution, including particulate
matter and hazardous gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and lead fumes.
4. Hazardous Working Conditions: The high temperatures and potential for exposure to
toxic fumes in a reverberatory furnace make it a hazardous work environment, requiring
appropriate safety measures to protect workers

Isasmelt Furnace and Ausmelt Furnace.

Isasmelt is a smelting technology that uses an upward-blowing lance to inject a mixture of
oxygen and a fuel, such as coal or oil, into a bath of molten slag and metal (Reuter &

22
Nasaruddin, 2010; Schlesinger, 2019). This creates a high-intensity flame that melts and refines
the metal, producing high-quality matte or blister copper (Davenport & Partelpoeg, 1987).

Ausmelt is a similar technology, but instead of an upward-blowing lance, it uses a downward-

lancing tuyere to inject air into the bath (Schlesinger, 2019). This creates a more-gentle oxidation
reaction that is better suited to refining complex alloys, such as lead, zinc, and nickel.

Both Isasmelt and Ausmelt are designed to be more energy-efficient and environmentally
friendly than traditional smelting methods, as they produce fewer emissions and require less raw
materials (Reuter & Nasaruddin, 2010).

Figure 13: Cutaway view of an IsaSmelt TSL bath smelting furnace (Schlesinger, 2019).

23
Advantages of Ausmelt and Isasmelt Furnace:
1. Versatility: The Isasmelt furnace can be adapted for use with a wide range of feedstocks,
including concentrates, matte, and scrap, and it occupies less space making it a versatile
option for copper producers.
2. Low Emissions: The Isasmelt furnace is designed to minimize emissions, reducing the
environmental impact of the smelting process and improving air quality.

Disadvantages of Ausmelt and Isasmelt Furnace:

1. High Capital Costs: The Ausmelt furnace requires significant investment in
infrastructure, including facilities for ore processing and refining also the technology is
sold at high price by monopoly corporation, isasmelt .
2. Limited Application: The Ausmelt furnace is only suitable for use with specific types of
feedstocks (sulphide ores), making it less versatile compared to other smelting furnaces.

2.4.3 Noranda Furnace and Teniente Furnace

Noranda process utilize flash smelting and conversion to blister copper in a single unit. It uses air
or oxygen-enriched air and extraneous fuel to supply heat required. Noranda process involves the
following basic steps,
➢ Concentrates and flux are introduced in one end of the reactor which is similar in cross
section to a Pierce-Smith converter.
➢ Smelting takes place at the feed end.
➢ Matte and slag flows are controlled as they move slowly to tapping ports.
➢ Oxidizing gas is introduced into the matte to oxidize the FeS.
➢ Continued injection of the gas into the resulting white metal oxidizes the Cu2S to metallic
copper.
➢ Metallic copper is tapped periodically after settling periods.
The products of the processes are super high-grade molten matte (72-74% Cu, 3-7% Fe, ~20%
S), slag (6-10% Cu, 1200-1250 ºC), and off-gas with 20-26 vol.-% SO2 (before dilution). The
matte is sent to Peirce-Smith converters for copper-making, the slag is sent to a Cu recovery
process, and the off-gas is sent to cooling, dust recovery, and a sulfuric acid plant (Mark E.
Schlesinger, 2011).

24
 Figure 14: Noranda smelting furnace (Metal Economics Research Institute, 2010).
Noranda smelting entails:
➢ Continuously blowing oxygen-enriched air blast (40 vol.-% O2, 1.6 bar gauge) through
submerged tuyeres into the molten matte.
➢ Continuously blowing dried concentrate and blast through five special submerged tuyeres
into the matte layer (Antofagasta, Chile) and/or continuously feeding moist concentrate
through an end-wall onto the slag bath surface (Rouyn-Noranda, Canada).
➢ Continuously drawing off-gas through a large mouth and hood at the top of the furnace.
➢ Intermittently tapping matte and slag through submerged tapholes.

Advantages of Noranda type copper smelter

1. High efficiency: The products of the processes are super high-grade molten matte (72-
74% Cu, 3-7% Fe, ~20% S), slag (6-10% Cu, 1200-1250 ºC), and off-gas with 20-26
vol.-% SO2 (before dilution)
2. Flexibility in feed materials: this process is versatile in its ability to handle a variety of
feed materials, including complex ores, concentrates, recycled materials and scrap
copper. This allows for greater flexibility in sourcing raw materials and reduces
production costs.

25
2.4.4 Reverberatory Furnace
Old smelting furnace of lump ores, capable of heating and smelting copper ore is blast furnace,
reverberatory furnace, electric furnace. There are blast furnace, reverberatory furnace and
electric furnace as the pyrometallurgical copper smelting furnace which is able to heat and melt
lump ores, etc. These furnaces are also the type of process for melting ores to produce matte and
slag and for recovering copper by concentrating copper into matte (Metal Economics Research
Institute, 2010). The concentration of SO2 (2%) in the exhaust gas is lower than that required for
the production of sulfuric acid and a large amount exhaust gas is generated, the consumption of
energy increases and almost of these furnaces are not used at this stage.

Figure 15: Structure of Reveberatory furnace.

Advantages of Reverberatory copper smelter.

1. High Temperature: Reverberatory furnaces can reach high temperatures, which makes
them suitable for refining metals such as copper and lead.
2. Good Heat Distribution: The shape of the furnace promotes good heat distribution and
enables the furnace to operate with high energy efficiency.
3. Simple Design: Reverberatory furnaces have a simple design, making them easy to
construct and maintain.

26
Disadvantages:
1. Limited Capacity: Reverberatory furnaces have a limited capacity, making them
unsuitable for large-scale production.
2. Fuel Efficiency: Reverberatory furnaces are not as fuel-efficient as other types of
furnaces, which can lead to higher operating costs.
3. Pollution: Reverberatory furnaces can emit high levels of pollution, including particulate
matter and hazardous gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and lead fumes.
4. Hazardous Working Conditions: The high temperatures and potential for exposure to
toxic fumes in a reverberatory furnace make it a hazardous work environment, requiring
appropriate safety measures to protect workers.

2.5 Design aspects of a copper smelter

The design of a smelter involves several interrelated aspects that need to be considered in order
to ensure efficient and effective operation. Some of the key aspects of designing a smelter are:

1. Feed material and process flow: Determining the type and quality of the feed material and
the processing flow for converting it into the desired product
2. Furnace design: Selecting the type of furnace and its configuration, such as the shape,
size, and orientation, to accommodate the feed material and ensure efficient heat transfer
3. Energy and heat sources: Choosing the most efficient and cost-effective energy sources,
such as fuel or electricity, to heat the furnace
4. Refractory lining: Designing and selecting the type of refractory lining to withstand the
high temperature and corrosive conditions in the furnace
5. Gas handling and treatment: Designing the system for handling and treating the flue
gases and emissions to minimize the impact on the environment
6. Control and automation systems: Implementing control and automation systems to
monitor and regulate the process, ensuring consistent and safe operation
7. Maintenance and safety: Incorporating features to facilitate maintenance and ensure the
safety of personnel and equipment

27
2.6 Fuel selection
Fuel consumption is the smelting furnace's major operating cost and affects the quality of matte
produced. Therefore, the most appropriate fuel for a particular furnace application must be given
consideration. Often a fuel is chosen because of it’s availability on the site; example, natural gas
is utilized because it is already available, and cheap.
Overall, the following factors are considered when selecting furnace fuels
• Fuel Cost, Availability and security of supply
• Chemical compatibility with process
• Heat transfer characteristics
• Ease of handling (Fuel Handling, System Capital and Running Costs)
• Environmental issues, NOx, SOx, CO2,
• Refractory life.
Fuel Cost, Availability, and security of supply
The fuel to be used in a furnace has to be readily available and ensure constant supply over the
entire production period. Given the complexity of the topic, geographical and political
influences, its difficult to predict future fuel supply issues. Therefore, the fuel selection is based
on the fuel's economic feasibility.

Fuel Handling System Capital and Running Costs

The most suitable fuel should be easily handled and low capital cost for handling system.
Generally, Natural gas is more associated with low costs. Oil, LPG and solid fuel systems are
substantially more expensive owing to the need to store substantial quantities of fuel on-site.
Solid fuel handling is the most complex and, therefore the most expensive system and this
additional cost must be amortized in lower fuel costs or other benefits to justify incurring it
(Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).

Refractory Life
Fuel choice and furnace operating conditions have a major influence on refractory life and hence
on operating costs. Refractory is a major furnace component and significantly contributes to its
capital cost. Furthermore, the life of most refractories is limited, so it needs to be replaced and
maintained regularly. Ts maintenance is one of the larger contributions to operating costs

28
(Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014). Gaseous fuels tend to provide longer refractory life than other
fuels. Where coal and other solid fuels are used, ash slagging needs to be considered. Molten ash
tends to react with the refractory surface and bond to it. This can protect the refractory but is also
a potential source of failure caused by the different coefficients of thermal expansion (Sarkar,
2017) While this is not a problem with a continuously operating furnace when the furnace is
allowed to cool then the differential contraction causes stress in the near-surface zone of the
refractory and the top 10 –15 mm spalls off and repeated heating and cooling leads to rapid
refractory failure (Schacht, 1995; Sarkar, 2017).

Chemical compatibility with process

Properties of interest to furnace designers and operators are the ash's chemical composition and
whether this will affect the product and the ash slagging and fouling properties. Slagging and
fouling properties need to be determined under conditions that are similar to those that will
prevail in furnace designed, especially temperature and atmosphere; most ashes tend to melt at
lower temperatures under reducing conditions. Ash is highly reactive at typical furnace operating
temperatures (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).

This non-combustible residue arises from most solid fuels and heavy fuel oil. In the latter, it is
mainly catalyst residue from the refining process and, to a lesser extent, metallic organic
compounds in the oil (W. Trinks et al., 2004). It is present in very small quantities (usually less
than 0.1%) and does not cause a significant problem for most processes. Coal, wood, and wastes
such as straw, paper, cardboard, etc. contain significant quantities of mineral matter (2–60%) that
is both physically intrusive and potentially chemically reactive (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).
Most ashes contain SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, Fe2O3 and SO3. Ash reactivity is dependent both on the
ash composition and the product chemistry. (W. Trinks et al., 2004; Sarkar, 2017).

Environmental issues.
The selected fuel to be used in the furnace should have low-emission environmental harmful
gases. Sulfates, carbon compounds, and nitrates are among the common waste pollutants in fuels.

29
Heat transfer characteristics
The primary driving force for high furnace efficiency is effective heat transfer. And the heat
transfer from flames is largely by radiation (Peters, 1895; Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014). The
radiant heat transfer in turn is proportional to the flame emissivity. Figure 16 shows the influence
of the fuel C/H ratio on the emissivity of similar flames.

While there are means of modifying the flame that increase the emissivity of low carbon fuels by
changes to burner design to increase soot formation, the increase achieved is relatively small
because the fundamental fuel chemistry limits the soot formation. The furnace needs to be
designed to accommodate the heat transfer characteristics of the chosen fuel. High-emissivity
fuel is preferred for high-temperature processes because radiation normally contributes a greater
proportion of heat transfer under these conditions (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).

Figure 16: Effect of Carbon/Hydrogen ratio on flame emissivity (Weber, 1998)

30
Overview of the suitability of selected fuels for the copper smelting process.

Natural Gas
Natural gas is often the default choice yet its low carbon/hydrogen ratio results in low emissivity
flames and relatively poor radiant heat transfer, hence not preferable for use in copper furnaces.

Figure 17: Effect of fuel type on heat transfer in a furnace (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).
Waste Fuel
Waste fuels include any combustible waste that can be utilized as fuel. Materials such as paper,
wood bark, cardboard, plastic chippings, demolition wood, recovered solvents, domestic
garbage, spent transformer oil, and sewage sludge. This fuel has higher combustion air/Oxygen
requirements per total MJ of energy and similarly produces larger flue gas volumes. Also, they
decrease overall heat transfer in the system. This will lead to reduced output and poor product
quality in the process (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).
Furthermore, this material is more difficult to handle than conventional fuels, and the relative
capital cost of an effective waste fuel handling system is higher than for conventional fuel, this
makes it unsuitable for use for this purpose.

Waste lubricating oil.

Waste lubricating oil is currently being used as supplementary fuel in several plants (Mullinger
& Jenkins, 2014). This fuel can be used in the furnace (Md Nurun Nabi et al., 2013), yet it has
several disadvantages which make it unsuitable. It usually has high viscosity making it necessary
to heat (at least 70 ℃) to ensure that the viscosity is suitable for the atomization process in the

31
burner. The supplies are limited. Contains the amount of water that must be removed before
using it in the furnace and particulate matters (lead, wear products from bearings) which can
contaminate the product and cause excessive emissions of these pollutants (Mohd. Nematullah
Nasim et al., 2014; A. Zahir Hussain et al., 2020). For these reasons, this fuel becomes unsuitable
for use in the furnace.

Diesel
It is a product of the distillation process of crude petroleum oil obtained between kerosene and
lubricating oil. It contains Sulphur as an impurity (Gupta, 2016). The use of this fuel increases
the amount of S fed to the smelter. However, the action of copper smelting and converting is
governed by the fact that Sulphur has a greater affinity for copper than iron. The amount of
Sulphur charged in the smelter determines the grade of matte formed. Charged copper takes
enough Sulphur to form Cu2S and the remaining Sulphur that is not oxidized forms FeS. The
Sulphur charged is divided between the matte and the gases, the latter part mostly burning to SO2
(Allison Butts et al., 1943). In addition, a high sulfur-to-iron ratio increases the completeness of
separation of matte and slag, as does the presence of calcium and alumina in the slag phase
(Sundstro¨m et al., 2011).
Such fuel has a contribution to the chemistry of the smelting process and provides enough heat
necessary for the reaction to take place.

Coal (pulverized coal)

Combustion of coal results to the formation of ashes. This may cause damage to the furnace's
inner walls (refractory Bricks). Furthermore, coal consists of impurity metals such as Mercury
(Hg) and Lead (Pb). Such metals may contaminate the matte produced and therefore lowers it's
quality.

The initiation of the combustion in pulverized coal burner requires preheating the system with
alternate fuel. A diesel burner is commonly used to pre-heat the system to the coal ignition
temperature before initiating pulverized coal firing (Gupta, 2016). This will result in an increase
in the furnace's operation cost and capital cost. However, coal is generally cheaper than either oil
or gas it becomes the economically preferred fuel where the ash and trace chemicals can be
accommodated by the process (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).

32
Other solid fuels (firewood, charcoal)
Handling this form of fuel is difficult and requires a lot on the site at a time. This increases
difficulties in handling such fuels and raises the operational cost of the furnace (transportation
cost and storage). And it has a considerably low heat value for the process. Furthermore, such
materials tend to contribute a number of trace elements (impurities) in the process (R. F. Tylecote
et al., 1977). Therefore, the use of solid fuels

Gasoline/Petrol
this is the product of the distillation process of crude oil. The main constituents include aliphatic
hydrocarbons. It has a boiling point below room temperature which causes its evaporation and
vapor formation and it is highly flammable (Gupta, 2016). Due to this property, the fuel is
difficult to handle.

Using multiple flues should be avoided because it is very difficult to balance and predict
circulation with them, often raising flue gas temperatures. Further, Gases flowing from one zone
through the other zones prevent proper temperature control in the downstream zone, increasing
flue gas exit temperature, raising fuel rate, and causing nonuniformities in product temperature
(W. Trinks et al., 2004).

2.7 Refractory Lining

Refractories materials can withstand high temperatures under a high load. These heat-resistant
materials constitute the linings for high-temperature furnaces and reactors (Ritwik Sarkar, 2017)
. In the smelting furnace’s application, the materials are installed in the form of Bricks.

Refractory bricks' three major roles are insulating the high-temperature process from the low-
temperature environment, insulating temperature-sensitive supporting structures, and conserving
heat energy by minimizing heat loss (Charles A. Schacht, 1995; Ritwik Sarkar, 2017). Usually,
they do not deform or change chemically at high temperatures. They do not interfere with the
chemistry of the process during operations. This property enhances the furnace’s durability and
maintains the product quality of the furnace.

Refractories used in furnaces have different properties which complies to their applications.
Temperature it can withstand, tensile stress and chemical compatibility with respective
application are among key factors considered. To vary this properties, different methods and raw

33
materials ere used in their manufacturing process. And therefore, classified depending on the
methods of production or their chemical composition (raw materials used). For this purpose,
classification according to their chemical compatibility will be considered. Below are refractory
materials considered;

Almina refractories.
Alumina refractories are made from high alumina content minerals, Al2O3>60%, such as bauxite
or fused alumina with various bonding minerals (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014). Al2O3 has a
melting point of 2015 °C. It can be used up to about 1900°C. Alumina refractory are made
impervious to gases. In this case, the resistance to spalling is impaired. Porous ware is less
susceptible to thermal shock. Slag resistance is poor, especially toward FeO and basic slags. It
is unaffected by gases, except F2. It is also resistant to fused alkalis (A. O. Surendranathan, 2015)

Silica refractories.
Silica bricks are made with the following composition: 95% SiO2, 1% Al2O3, and alkalis 0.3%.
“The raw materials, from which silica bricks are made, are ganister, quartzite, sand, and flint.
Another raw material is silcrete. They are extremely resistant to ash and slag by forming a
viscous glaze, and are volume stable” (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014; A. O. Surendranathan, 2015).
They have refractoriness of 1710°C and at 1630°C initial softening occurs under load. The
porosity is about 15% in high duty refractories which results to very low permeability. They have
an apparent density of 1800 kg/m3. Which means that they are fairly light (Gilchrist, 1977).

Dolomite Refractories
They are made from calcined or dead-burnt naturally occurring dolomite or limestone deposits.
They have a high cold crushing strength and 500 ℃ refractoriness under load, 1.1 X 105 thermal
expansivity and 2520 kg/m3 (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014). They are basic refractories.

Carbon Refractories
These are made from hard metallurgical grade coke, naturally occurring graphite or dead burnt
petroleum coke. They have very high refractoriness and high strength and rigidity and are inert to
slags, metal and reducing atmospheres. They react and gasify above 350℃ with oxidizing
atmospheres and metal oxides. They have very high mechanical strength, thermal conductivity,
corrosion and thermal shock resistance (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).

34
Insulating Refractories
Insulating refractory materials are characterized by high porosity, relatively low refractoriness,
low crushing strength and low thermal conductivity. They are used as hot-face insulators,
backing material behind a higher duty refractory (Gilchrist, 1977). Therefore they are of little
application in this purpose.

Figure 18: Furnace’s refractory bricks ready for use.

The use of ceramic fiber materials constructs the second layer. They are classified based on their
major constituents. They can be fabricated into wool, blankets, ropes boards, or blocks. For this
application, bulk fibers will be used.

Figure 19: Bulk fibers (Sarkar, 2017).

They have low thermal conductivity and heat storage, are lightweight, relatively resistant to
thermal shocks, and are chemically stable. The fluffy nature of the material reduces heat loss to a
great extent (Ritwik Sarkar, 2017) and protects the furnace’s outer shell from exposure to
excessive temperature.

35
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Sample Concentrate Composition
Concentrate’s composition was determined through the use of XRF machine. 1 kg sample of
copper concentrates obtained from small scale copper miners of Tanga was taken and divided
into six more portions. Each portion was mixed with binder and pressed into pellet by using
hydraulic pressing machine. The obtained pellet was then placed into sample holder and
analyzed using an XRF machine. The average result of all portions were analyzed and recorded.

Mechanism of XRF machine.

High-energy X-ray photons from an X-ray generation analyzer are used in the XRF machine to
trigger secondary fluorescence-specific X-rays in materials. In an analyzer, the distinctive line
spectra given off by the various elements contained in the sample are found. Each line's strength
varies according to how concentrated each element is (Haldar, 2018). The results are given in %
composition and used for further calculations.

3.2 Determination of Suitable Type of a Copper Smelter.

From the literature provided above, the most suitable type of copper smelter was determined
through the use of selection matrix. Various criteria were considered and assigned weight
according to the order of importance. The ones with highest importance and highly desired was
assigned high value while the less desired ones were assigned smaller values. For the case of
undesired criteria, the highly undesired was assigned with smaller weight, while less undesirable
was given the higher value number. The most suitable smelter was obtained by taking the highest
score in comparison to the alternatives.

The following criteria were used in selection of a suitable furnace design.

➢ Energy Consumption: suitable smelter should have low energy (fuel) consumption to
minimize operating cost while attaining operating temperature required for smelting
process.
➢ High Efficiency: suitable copper smelter should have a high rate of metal recovery and
low energy consumption, reducing costs and improving the overall efficiency of the
smelting process.

36
 ➢ Low Environmental Pollution: smelter which generate minimal waste, reducing the
environmental impact of the smelting process and reducing the cost of waste disposal is
preferable.
➢ Operation Cost: the smelter should have low operating cost of operation and
maintenance.
➢ Construction cost: overall low constructing cost while delivering durable and efficient
equipment.
➢ Complexity: suitable copper smelter should not require specialized knowledge and
technology to operate, making it difficult for some producers to adopt and implement.
➢ Versality: the smelter should be able to smelt a wide range of feedstocks, including
concentrates, matte, and scrap and recycle materials, making it a versatile option for
copper smelting.

Criteria Criteria’s Weight

Energy Consumption 18
* Efficiency 25
Environmental Pollution 10
Operation Cost 21
Construction cost 13
Complexity 5
* Flexibility 8
Total 100

3.3 Establishment of suitable construction and operating parameters for a smelter.

The construction parameters for the smelter design, were established based on process
requirements and the industrial standards and ratios of dimensions parameters established. This
were determined through extrapolation and estimation of such dimensions in relation to the
required dimensions of the smelter design intended.

3.4 Smelter Design

The design work is divided into two main sections, Process design and Mechanical design.
Process design is concerned with mass and energy balance, chemical and thermodynamic

37
processes to suit a proposed duty of the furnace. Whilst Mechanical design was undertaken in
great detail to produce fabrication drawings and concepts for the workshop that will build the
furnace. Below is the brief description of the two design sections

3.4.1 Process design

In the designing process, several assumptions have been made to make calculations and
estimation feasible. The system is operating in equilibrium in three independent stable phases
including matte, slag and gas phase. The following is the list of assumptions made throughout
the design process

i. The system is approximately under the isothermal and isobaric airtight conditions.
ii. The smelting temperature is around 1473 K (1200 °C) to maximum of 250 ℃.
iii. The components were taken into consideration in the matte phase including Cu2S, Cu,
FeS, FeO, Fe3O4, Zn and Ti
iv. The components were take into consideration in the slag phase including FeO, Cu2S,
Cu2O, Fe3O4, FeS, PbO, ZnO, Cao and K.
v. The components were taken into consideration in the gas phase including SO3, SO2,
O2, N2 and H2O.
vi. The components of H2O and SO2 are all in the gas and slag phase, respectively.

3.4.2 Mechanical Design

Mechanical design was carried out after determination of furnace’s dimensions and functionality
required to contain and facilitate the smelting process intended to be undertaken. This started
with few hand-sketches and advanced to detailed drawings and 3D models, providing all
necessary information required for the fabrication process of the system.

SolidWorks is a 3D CAD (computer-aided design) software that is used to create 3D models of

products. SolidWorks has been used to design the entire copper smelter model, from the basic
structure to the individual components. The software allowed to create a precise and accurate
model, which can be used for the fabrication process. To show the configuration of different
components, orientation, and relation to one another. It also has been used to create detailed
drawings of the copper smelter and its assembly model of it. Below are is the brief description of
what has been done.

38
 Figure 20: Initial Furnace shell’s design sketches.
3.4.3 Selection of Suitable Furnace Fuel
Based on the literature review on fuel, provided above, the most suitable type of fuel for the
furnace was determined through the use of selection matrix. Seven major criteria were
considered and weighted according to their order of importance, the compatibility with the
furnace and the desired characteristics of the intended furnace design. Below are the criteria
under consideration.
• Availability and security of supply
The suitable fuel should be readily available in the site area and it should be reliable over the
entire period of operation.
• Chemical compatibility with process
The suitable fuel should not disturb the quality of matte produced from the furnace by
introducing particulate matters
• Economic factor
Suitable fuel should be cheap in comparison with other alternatives.
• Environmental friendliness
Suitable fuel should be environmentally friendly by emitting less of harmful gases as by
products. Example compounds of NOx, SOx, CO2,
• Handling (Fuel Handling, System Capital and Running Costs)
Suitable fuel should be easy to handle, not requiring much storage space, attention or
transportation difficulties.
• Heat transfer characteristics

39
Suitable fuel should be able to supply the heat energy required effectively to the furnace system.
• Refractory life.
Suitable fuel should be less destructive to the refractory materials used in the construction of the
furnace’s walls.
These criteria were assigned weight as described in the table below.

Criteria Weight
Availability 10
Chemical compatibility 20
Economic factor 17
Environmental Friendliness 5
Handling 13
Heat Transfer characteristics 15
Refractory life 20
Total 100

Rating was done based on correspondence of fuel characteristics and the criteria under
evaluation.
The values of each parameter were rated depending to the following values

Rated value Implication

1 Very Low
2 Low
3 Medium
4 High
5 Very High

40
4 Results and Discussion.
4.1 Concentrate’s Composition
The elemental composition of flotation sample concentrate used (from small scale Copper miners
of Tanga) was determined through the use of XRF machine, and the result is presented in the
figure below,

Concentrate's Composition
34.58
35
30
25
20
%

15
10 6.26
1.14
5 1.28 0.33 0.17 0.08 0.07
0
Cu Fe S Ca K Ti Zn Ba

Element

Figure 21: Elemental composition of flotation sample concentrate of Tanga.

The main component of the concentrates is Chalcopyrite. It with associated metals are smelted to
obtain molten matte, slag and off gases. Matte is rich in Copper, Iron and sulfur. Impurity metals
are contained in the slag (alkaline metals, Al, Ti, K) while others are oxidized and volatized (Zn,
Bi, Ba, As and Ar). Quantity of metals that has mutual solubility with that of copper, (Au, Ag and
platinum metals) are contained in the molten matte produced. Hence they can be recovered at
profit since most are precious metal.

To obtain high grade matte, concentrates with high copper content 34 % - 40 % should be fed
into the reactor. The higher the grade of concentrate the higher the matte grade. Feeding high
amount of O2 will oxidize more of the Fe contained in the concentrate, so less Fe sulfide ends up
in the matte. This produces higher matte grade. In other hand too much oxygen encourages
oxidation of Cu contained in the matte. The Cu oxide generated by this reaction dissolves in the
slag, which is undesirable. As a result addition of optimal amount of Oxygen is highly

41
recommended in order to reduce copper losses in the slag. Establishment of suitable construction
and operating parameters for a smelter.

The establishment of the operating parameters was done based o the process requirements and
the capacity of meeting them with equipment installed and the available standards. The
dimensions of the smelter design were established through extrapolation of standard dimensions
and ratios of the Noranda type copper smelter and based on the proves requirements that was
determined during mass and energy calculations. Such dimensions are established in a way that
the process takes place while meeting all necessary requirements to produce products, without
damage or harm. The framework and structure of the furnace design to meet requirements was
further considered.

4.2 Determination of suitable type of a copper smelter

Noranda and Tenite copper smelters obtained the highest score (249) in comparison to the other
alternatives from the analysis done using selection matrix presented in Table 5, in the appendix
B. This means that it is the most suitable smelting technology among examined technologies.
This smelting technology, offers high recoveries low pollution, low operating and construction
costs. Apart from the simplicity of the design, it is easier to operate and offers high flexibility
compared to the alternatives. For these reasons, it was decided that, the designing of a desired
smelter must base on the fundamentals of this smelter type. Yet the design has to be modified to
comply with the desired parameters. Therefore, some components of the design are slight
different from exact Noranda type design.

4.3 Smelter design.

Process Design
Mass and energy balances were undertaken at the earliest stage of the overall process design to
provide basic process information. The reliability of the mass and energy balance is dependent
on the reliability of the input data, which might have been less accurate as the process is new.
Nevertheless, trial balances developed early were the only quantitative data initially available to
the furnace design process.

This data was used in the establishment of the design capacity of the furnace, turndown
conditions, and specifications of the furnace components. Although, the mass and energy balance

42
provided only steady-state scenarios this offers some clues as to how the furnace might function
under these conditions.

Process description.

The feed into the furnace involves four main components, copper concentrate, silica flux, air and
industrial oxygen. The concentrate that are going to be treated in the smelter are produced by
froth flotation process. Their size ranges between 50 – 100 µm. the main mineral in these
concentrates is Chalcopyrite. These concentrates should have 30 – 40 % Cu. High grade will
result to high recoveries.
These concentrates are mixed with silica flux. Its principal role is to react with the iron oxides
formed during smelting process to create a molten slag which can be easily removed from the
furnace. The amount of flux is based on producing slag which is immiscible with matte, has a
small solubility for Cu and is reasonably fluid. The normal flux-Concentrate ratio is 1:1.5.

The industrial oxygen being feed in the reactor through two lances each located on either side of
the shell this facilitates the oxidation reaction in the furnace while air enters the furnace with the
blast.

The feed, Copper concentrates mixed with silicon flux, directly added into the furnace from the
top feed port. To trigger the reaction, the feed materials need to be raised to a high temperature.
This is because the activation energy of the reaction is relatively high. However, the overall heat
input required is small, and heat transfer is rarely the limiting factor (Exothermic reactions
require a low thermal input and the designed furnace is heat transfer limited). This reaction
together with fuel combustion, generate enough heat to produce a molten copper phase that can
be separated from the hematite (iron oxide) produced by the oxidation of copper Concentrates.

Oxygen-enriched air delivers kinetic energy to melts, and a steady flow field is generated within
the melt, resulting in strong mass and heat transfer among the gas-liquid-solid three phases.
Furthermore, this Oxygen enriched air together with SiO2 flux plays a major role in oxidation of
iron contained in the concentrate to form a molten slag that is lighter than the molten copper. The
slag floats to the surface and is physically separated from the copper. However, this physical
separation process is not very efficient due to the turbulence of the molten copper bath. As a

43
result, a significant amount of copper remains entrained in the slag and to recover it, slag must be
sent to another furnace to be separated.

The process produces gaseous by-products (Flue gases) rich in Sulphur dioxide. This is due to
high composition of S in both feed concentrates and the fuel. Other components of flue gases are
CO2, CO, NOX and H2O as vapor. This gases leaves the furnace at 900 ℃.

Temperature is evenly distributed between phases during the reaction. Molten slag has 1250 ℃,
1200 ℃ molten copper matte. And all of these components are discharged from the furnace at
the same respective temperatures. Consider the figure below for the above process description.

Figure 22: Schematic diagram of the furnace design process.

The furnace will be operating in batch mode, whereby feed of 1000 kg (mixture of concentrates
and flux by 1:1.5) will be combusted by 400 kg of fuel. To satisfy both the oxidation and
combustion reactions, total of 465.4 kg of oxygen will be feed in the reactor. This process will
produce a matte 669 kg of 65.68 %Cu. The mass loses that has been observed is due to the
oxidation of sulfur contained in the concentrates. Oxygen feed of 465.4 kg, represents the exact
amount necessary for steady-state operation of the furnace. The other calculated quantities are all
consistent with this oxygen input. Addition of Oxygen will cause the furnace to heat up while
reduction will cause it to cool down.

44
 Figure 23: Quantitative description of the process operation.

4.4 The Equipment

The structure of the furnace is similar to Noranda type furnace. It is constructed of a horizontal
cylindrical reactor (shell) similar to a Noranda furnace. The size of the furnace is d 0.65 m × 1.61
m long, and it is lined with 100 mm thick silica-rich refractory bricks. Two oxygen lances are
installed on either side of the furnace to blow oxygen-enriched air into the molten bath. The four
oxygen lances are arranged in two rows, each on either side of the furnace near the feed chamber.
From the vertical axis, both rows (a total of 4 lances) are located at 20° with the vertical.
The system is accompanied by the burner composed of a Pump, oil heater fuel tank, blower, and
control system attached to a mild steel frame. This system enables the supply of energy required
by the system necessary for the accomplishment of the process.

4.5 Fuel selection

From analysis done in the selection matrix Table 6, Diesel fuel earned highest scores, 358
compared to other alternatives. Therefore, Diesel is determined to be the most suitable fuel for
the furnace design. With high compatibility with the process, efficiency, highly availability and
security. Less emphasis was given on the environmental friendliness. It was determined that
exact 374.5 kg of fuel is required for smelting of 1000 kg of concentrates. But considering heat
loses and pre-heating fuel required, it was established that 400 kg of fuel will be fed for every
1000 kg of the feed concentrates. The major by-product of this fuel is Sulfur dioxide gas that will
be released during the combustion process.

45
4.6 Selection of refractory Materials
The furnace shell is made up of three main layers. The innermost layer is made up of refractory
bricks of 100 mm thickness. The middle layer comprises ceramic fibers 25 mm thick and the
outermost layer is made up of a plain carbon steel sheet of 3 mm thick. The refractory brick layer
will be able to provide insulation to the furnace up to 63.3 %. Since the designed furnace is
intended for smelting of copper concentrates only, the refractory bricks chosen are acid-wear
resistant bricks. The acidic property of the process results from Fe-SiO fluxes used in the
smelting process.

Figure 24: Percent reduction of wall loss during smelting operation (W. Trinks et al., 2004).
Based on the literature review provided above, analysis and process requirements and the design
data, Silica refractory brick were selected for the use in design and construction purpose. The
iron contained in the concentrates must be oxidized to obtain high recoveries. This is task is
accomplished by the addition of silica flux and the oxygen fed into the reactor. The oxidized iron
together with silica and other gangue materials will form slag. This slag has high composition of
silica, hence referred to as silicate slag. The silicate slag formed is acidic in nature. This makes it
necessary for the process to be contained in acid resistant material. This property is well
accomplished by silicate refractory bricks along with the addition of acid neutralizing fluxes.

46
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
5.1 Conclusion.
• The concentrate was determined to be composed of 34.58 %Cu, 6.26 %Fe and 1.14 %S.
• Noranda type smelting technology was determined to be the most suitable smelting
technology among the evaluated alternatives.
• The smelter is designed have the following parameters
Table 1: Furnace Parameters.

Parameter Value Operating Value

Temperature
Inner Diameter 400 mm Matte 1200 ℃
Length 1400 mm Slag 1250 ℃
Volume 175.93 mm3 Off gases 900 ℃
Feed rate 10.27 kg/hr
Production per day 265.5 Kg/day Shell's Dimensions
Production 90 t/yr Inner layer thickness 100 m
Fuel Consumption 400 kg/tone of concentrate Middle Layer 25 mm
Oxygen Consumption 465.4 kg/t Outer layer 3 mm

• High concentrate composition provides a higher matte grade.

• The Fe/SiO2 in slag and temperature determine the solid proportion, significantly
affecting physical entrained and chemically dissolved copper in the slag.
• Other precious minerals such as Gold and Silver that are contained in the feed, will be
contained in matte and recovered of during the electrorefining process of copper anodes,
from the anodic slimes. These valuable minerals from slimes will be recovered by
Glencore CCR Refinery process developed by Noranda Research Center. A description of
the process is provided in the literature review above.
• The Equipment is constructed of two main components, which is Burner (made up with
burner, blower, fuel tank and heater), Shell/reactor and the oxygen-enriched air supply
sub system.
• The main component of the smelter is a shell constructed of three variable layers made up
of refractory bricks (inner layer), ceramic fibers in the middle and a mild-steel sheet in
the outermost layer.
• Analysis favors use of diesel as fuel.
• Analysis favored Silica refractory bricks.

47
5.2 Recommendations
• It is recommended that concentrates feed should preferably be of high grade.
• Concentrate’s composition should be determined earlier before feeding to establish
proper Concentrate-flux ratios for maximum recoveries and proper furnace functioning.
• Mixing of fuels should be avoided as it may result to higher environmental pollution,
interfere with the chemistry of the process and functioning of the furnace.
• Addition of clearance lengths and modifications of furnace dimensions during
fabrications should be done whenever necessary.

48
6 NOMENCLATURE
% Percentage
℃ Degree Celsius
Atm Atmosphere
cm Centimeter
CO Carbon monoxide
Cu2S Copper II sulfate
CuFeS2 Chalcopyrite
FeO Iron Oxide
GST Geological survey of Tanzania
H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid
HCl Hydrochloric acid
S Sulfur
SO2 Sulfur dioxide gas
T Absolute temperature, K
t/h Tones per hour
TSL Top Submerged Lance
Qg Flue gas flowrate
Cpg Mean specific heat of flue gas
Tg Flue gas exit temperature
△H Enthalpy change (kJ/mol)
n Amount of substance (mol)
Cp Specific heat capacity (J/(kg K))
MGas,j Amount of j in gas phase (kg)
QNheat Net heating value of fuel (J)
QLheat Low heat value of fuel (J)

49
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W. Trinks, M. H. Mawhinney, R. A. Shannon, R. J. Reed, & J. R. Garvey. (2004). Industrial
Furnaces (6th ed., Vol. II). Hoboken,, New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
https://doi.org/10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Weber, R. (1998). The spirit of Ijmuiden. International Flame Research Foundation, 34.
https://doi.org/ISBN 90-801495-2-7
Wilkinson, R. F., & Dreisbach, R. L. (1988). Copper: Its trade, manufacture, use, and
environmental status. Chicago: CRC Press.
World Bank. (1998). Copper Smelting. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, 1-4.

52
8 Appendices
Appendices A: Useful information
Table 2: Examples of reagent schemes used in the treatment of copper sulfide ores (Bulatovic,
2007)

From a processing point of view, copper ores could be divided into:

• Copper sulfide ores, where the pyrite content can vary from 10% to 90%. The predominant
sulfide mineral in this ore is pyrite, but may also contain pyrrhotite and marcasite. Some
copper sulfide ores also contain significant quantities of gold and silver. According to the
mineral compositions, these ores can be sub-divided into three main groups including (a)
copper–gold ore, (b) copper sulfide ore with moderate pyrite content and (c) massive sulfide
copper ores.

53
• Copper porphyry ores are the most abundant copper ores; more than 60% of the world’s
copper production is from these ores. They most often contain molybdenum, which is
recovered as a by-product. There are several major areas in the world where copper
mineralization occurs, known as copper belts. Some of the most important copper resources
Chilean porphyry region including Peru, Zambian copper belt, Pacific rim region and Congo
copper belt
Appendices B: Analysis and selection of Materials
8.1 Concentrate composition
In the examination of sample using XRF machine, the following results were obtained.
Table 3: Concentrate’s Composition.
Element % Composition Error +/-
1 Cu 34.5815 0.07291
2 Fe 6.2610 0.03507
3 S 4.1364 0.24861
4 Ca 1.2887 0.02469
5 K 0.3304 0.03436
6 Ti 0.1678 0.00684
7 Zn 0.0817 0.00355
9 Ba 0.0759 0.01207

8.2 Selection Matrix; Design criteria of a copper smelter

Scores:

Table 4: Rating values for Furnace selection.

* Desirable Undesirable Score

3 1 High
2 2 Moderate
1 3 Low
Note: -The suitable copper smelter should give the highest score compared to the rest.

Table 5: Selection matrix for Selection of Furnace.

54
 Criteria’s INCO Isasmelt and Mitsubishi Noranda and Reverberatory
Criteria Outotec
Weight process Ausmelt Process Tenite type Furnace
Energy
18 1 1 2 1 3 1
Consumption
* Efficiency 25 2 3 2 3 2 2
Environmental
10 2 2 2 2 3 1
Pollution
Operation Cost 21 1 2 2 1 2 1
Construction cost 13 1 2 2 1 3 2
Complexity 5 1 1 2 1 2 2
* Flexibility 8 1 1 1 2 3 3
Total 100 135 194 192 168 249 159

8.3 Selection Matrix for Fuel Selection

Table 6: Selection Matrix for Fuel choice.

Natural Waste Waste

Component Weight Coal Diesel Petrol
Gas Fuels Lubricating Oil
Availability 10 4 3 4 4 3 2
Chemical compatibility 20 2 4 4 2 2 2
Economic factor 17 4 4 3 4 1 4
Environmental
5 5 3 3 3 2 2
Friendliness
Handling 13 4 2 4 2 3 3
Heat Transfer
15 1 3 4 3 2 2
characteristics
Refractory life 20 4 2 3 4 2 2
Total 100 320 304 358 314 206 247

Appendix C: Calculations.

i. Surface area of the furnace's shell

From;

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ

𝐴 = 2 𝑥 0.3 𝑥 1.4

55
 𝐴 = 0.84 m2

ii. Quantity of heat contained in the matte

From:
Eqn (viii)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝛥𝑇
Taking mass of 100 kg, the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of this
concentrate from 25 ℃ to 1250 ℃ is,
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐽
𝑄 = 100 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 0.205 𝑥 (1250 − 25)℃
𝑔℃
𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 2,550
𝑘𝑔
Therefore;
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 2,550 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔
The quantity of heat out-side the furnace, Qout, according to (W. Trinks et al., 2004)
can be estimated as follows;
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2,550 (1 − 0.633)𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2,550 (1 − 0.633)𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 935.85 𝑘𝐽𝑘𝑔

8.4 Mass and energy balance Calculations.

Mass Balance Calculation.
The reaction process can be summarized in the chemical equation below,

2CuFeS2(s) + 3.25O2(g) → Cu2S · 0.5FeS(l) + 1.5FeO(s) + 2.5SO2(g)

Assuming the mass of the feed concentrate is 1000 Kg of CuFeS2

From the stoichiometry of the reaction, it is known that 2 moles of CuFeS2 react with 3.25 moles
of O2 to produce 1 mole of Cu2S · 0.5FeS, 1.5 moles of FeO, and 2.5 moles of SO2.

A) Copper Balance
Copper enters the furnace in concentrate and leaves as Cu2S in matte. The copper mass
balance per 1000 kg of concentrate is, therefore
Mass Cu in = Mass Cu out

56
 % 𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 80 %𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆
1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥
100 100

34.6 80
1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥
100 100
346 𝑘𝑔 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥 0.8
373.8
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 =
0.80
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 = 432.5 𝑘𝑔/ton of ore feed

B) Sulphur balance
Mass of S in = Mass of S out

% 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
1000 𝑥
100
20 %𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥
100
36 %𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒𝑆
+ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥
100
50 % 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑂2
+ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑥
100

35 20 36
1000 𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥
100 100 100
50
+ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑥
100

350 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥 0.2 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥 0.36

+ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥 0.5

C) Iron balance
All iron enters the furnace with the concentrate. It leaves, however, in two products—FeS
in matte and FeO in slag. Therefore;
Mass Fe in = Mass Fe out

57
 % 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
1000 𝑥
100
64 %𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒𝑆
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥
100
78 %𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒𝑂
+ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑥
100

30.4 64 78
1000 𝑥 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑥
100 100 100

304 𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 𝑥 0.64 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑥 0.78

D) Oxygen Balance
It is assumed that Oxygen that enters the furnace through only one input, in blast. It leaves the
furnace in two forms—FeO in slag and SO2 in off-gas. The oxygen balance is:
Mass O in = Mass O out

22 %𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒𝑂 50 %𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑂2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂2 𝑥
100 100

22 50
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂2 𝑥
100 100

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑥 0.22 + 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑂2 𝑥 0.50

O in SiO2 is ignored in the oxygen balance because it enters and leaves the furnace bound to Si.

E) SiO2
SiO2 enters the furnace in flux (only) and leaves the furnace in slag (only). Therefore, the SiO 2
balance is;
mass SiO2 in = mass SiO2 out
Mass SiO2 in flux = Mass SiO2 in slag.

58
SiO2 balance introduces two unknowns and only one equation. A second equation is provided by
the specification that the slag contains 30% SiO2 and 70% FeO. This specification may be
written as,
𝑆𝑖𝑂2
Mass SiO2 in slag = mass FeO in slag x ( mass ratio in slag)
𝐹𝑒𝑂

Therefore;
30% SiO2
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑒𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑥
70% 𝐹𝑒𝑂

Solving over all equations above,

Mass of O2 in blast = 222 kg (155 Nm3)
Mass of SiO2 in flux = 84 kg
Mass Cu2S in matte 433 kg
Mass FeS in matte = 236 kg
Mass of FeO in slag = 196 kg
Mass of SiO2 in slag = 84 kg
Mass of SO2 in off-gas = 357 kg
All are in kg per 1000 kg of concentrate and the system is assumed to be operating at steady
state.
80 %𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 𝑥
% 𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 = ( 100 ) 𝑥 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒

Mass of copper in matte = 433 kg

Total mass of matte = 433 kg + 236 kg = 669 kg
80 %𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆
433 𝑥
% 𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 = ( 100 ) 𝑥 100
669

% 𝐶𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒 = 65.68 % ∗

59
Heat Balance Calculation
For the metallurgical chemical reaction system, the heat balance equation can be expressed as
follows
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 or 𝑄𝑖𝑛 – 𝑄 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
Eqn (ix)
But from first law of thermal dynamics,
𝑄 − 𝑊𝑠 = 𝛥𝐻 + 𝛥𝐸𝑝 + 𝛥𝐸𝐾 Eqn (x)

Since the system does no work, and there is no energy change due to change in height (𝛥𝐸𝑝 ) or
due to motion (𝛥𝐸𝐾 ), the equation remains,
𝑄 = 𝛥𝐻 Eqn (xi)
Then for heat balance for the furnace is calculated as

𝛥𝐻 = ∑( 𝛥𝐻𝑓(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − 𝛥𝐻𝑓(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) ) Eqn (xii)

𝑛

From stoichiometric equation 1 above, this can be calculated as follows

2CuFeS2(s) + 3.25O2(g) → Cu2S · 0.5FeS(l) + 1.5FeO(s) + 2.5SO2(g)

𝛥𝐻 = [(𝛥𝐻𝑓(Cu2 𝑆) ) + 0.5 𝛥𝐻𝑓(FeS𝑙) + 1.5𝛥𝐻𝑓(Fe𝑂(𝑠)) + 2.5𝛥𝐻𝑓(𝑆𝑂2) ]

− [2𝛥𝐻𝑓(𝑁2 ) + 3.25𝛥𝐻𝑓(𝑂2) + 2𝛥𝐻𝑓(CuFeS2(s)) ]

𝛥𝐻 = [(−79.3) + 0.5 𝑥 (−113.9) + 1.5 𝑥 (−272.2) + 2.5 𝑥 (−296.8)]

− [2 𝑥 (0) + 3.25 𝑥 (0) + 2 𝑥 (−340.4)]
𝛥𝐻 = −776.1 𝑘𝐽.
Therefore, -776.1 kJ of heat is released by the reaction.

8.5 Heat loss

Heat is lost in the furnace by conduction through furnace walls and then by radiation and
convection from the outside furnace surfaces. This have a significant effect on furnace economy.
Furnace walls built of insulating refractories and encased in a steel shell reduce flow of heat to
the surroundings. the loss is further reduced by insertion of ceramic fibers between the shell's
wall and steel casing

60
8.5.1 Heat loss calculation
Energy inform of heat is transferred from the furnace to the surrounding through process of
convection and radiation. This process is referred to as heat loss. Heat is transferred from the
surface of the furnace to the surrounding. The total heat loss is equal to the sum of heat loss by
convection process and the heat loss by radiation process. It has been found that heat is always
in at the surface of the body. Therefore, heat loss by conduction is nil. And the loss by convection
is independent of the nature of the surface but depend on the shape and position of the surface
while heat loss by radiation depends much on the nature of the surface of the body (Allison Butts
et al., 1943).
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 Eqn (xiii)

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝛼 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑆 Eqn (xiv)

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 4 4
𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = εΩA(𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 )

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 4 4
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝛼 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )𝑆 + εΩA(𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 )
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 4 4
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝛼 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑥 0.84 + εΩA(𝑇𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 ) Eqn (xv)

Considering heat loses by the flue gases,

𝐻𝑔 = 𝑄𝑔 𝑥 𝐶𝑝𝑔 𝑥 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑎 ) Eqn (xvi)

Overall Heat loss in the furnace,

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝐻𝑔 Eqn (xvii)

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝜶 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 + 𝛆𝛀𝐀(𝑻𝟒𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒓 − 𝑻𝟒𝑾𝒂𝒍𝒍 ) + 𝑸𝒈 𝒙 𝑪𝒑𝒈 𝒙 (𝑻𝒈 − 𝑻𝒂 )

Assumptions made.

• The off gases are leaving at 900 ℃

• Ambient temperature is 25 ℃
• The outer surface of the shell is at 65 ℃
• 𝛼 = 1.139kJ/kg K (R. J Brook, 1991)
• Gas flow-rate

61
 𝐻𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 1.139 (1250 − 65)𝑥 0.84
+ 0.77 x5.67037442 × 10−8 kg s −3 K −4 x 0.84 x(14734 − 3384 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
+ 2 𝑥 700 𝑥 (900 − 25)
ℎ 𝐽𝐾

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 212.31 𝑘 𝐽

Therefore, the total heat loss from the furnace is 212.31 KJ

8.5.2 Fuel quantity calculation

To complete the oxidation reaction of the smelting process an additional amount of heat energy
must be provided to reach the required temperature. The difference in the amount of heat input
and heat output of the process is always less than zero. This makes it necessary to provide
additional fuel in the process (Mullinger & Jenkins, 2014).

The heating value of fuel can be calculated at gas temperature T and assuming the fuel is
completely combusted to generate H2O and CO2. The net heat value provided by the fuel is
calculated using the Equation below;

𝑇
Eqn (xviii)
𝑄𝑁ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄𝐿ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 − ∑ 𝑚𝐺𝑎𝑠,𝑐 ∫ 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇
𝑐 298

And fuel consumption

Eqn (xix)
𝑚𝐺𝑎𝑠,𝑐 = (𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 )/𝑄𝑁ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡

Different fuels offer variable Net heat values after complete combustion due to variation in their
composition. The table below provides a list of few fuels’ Net heat values

62
 Table 7: Properties of some liquid fuels (Gilchrist, 1977).

The best fuel established for the designed furnace is Diesel. According to Gilchrist this fuel
offers net heat value of 43,100 kJ/kg. Therefore QNheat = 43,100 kJ/kg.

Therefore, amount of fuel consumed can be calculated by using Eqn (xix) above, as follows,
2,550 − 935.85
𝑚𝐺𝑎𝑠,𝑐 =
43,100

𝑚𝐺𝑎𝑠,𝑐 = 0.3745 𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 1𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑚𝐺𝑎𝑠,𝑐 = 37.45 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟 100 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠

Therefore, a maximum of 40 kg of diesel will be required to melt 100 kg of concentrates

provided.

The amount of Oxygen required for the complete combustion of fuel is calculated as
follows,

Considering the oxidation reaction of diesel fuel

C12H23(l) + 11O2(g) → 12CO2(g) + 13H2O(g)

This is a complete combustion, carbon in C12H23 is converted to carbon dioxide and all of the
hydrogen is converted to water vapor.

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The amount of oxygen required for 1 kg (basis) of C12H23 complete combustion is calculated as
follows:

11
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶12 𝐻23 𝑥 ( )
12

Substituting the mass of C12H23 (1 kg) into the equation, we get:

11
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1 𝑘𝑔 ∗ ( ) = 0.917 𝑘𝑔
12

Therefore, 0.917 kg of oxygen is required for 1 kg of C12H23 complete combustion.

This will be associated with 3.45 kg of Nitrogen when entering the burner. Therefore, a total of
4.37 Kg of air will be required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of Diesel fuel fed to the
furnace.

To make it cost-effective, the burner will be installed with a powerful blower enough to supply
the amount of air required for complete combustion and excess air along with it.

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8.7 Mechanical Design Calculations.
8.8.1 Estimation of furnaces parameters.
Consider the dimensions of copper smelting furnaces below, adapted from extractive metallurgy
of copper by Mark E. Schlesinger, 2011.
Table 8: Noranda furnaces details (Schlesinger, 2019).

Industrial furnaces are ~5 m in diameter and 21-26 m long (Mark E. Schlesinger, 2011) the ratio
of diameter (D) to length (L) of furnaces ranges from 1:3.5 to 1: 5.2. Since the furnace being
designed is of small dimensional parameters, the lowest ratio (1:3.5) will be suitable for
establishing its parameters.

Let's use the Paipote, Chile furnace data provided in the figure above as the reference/ basis for
the establishment of the dimensions of the furnace.

Given that; Length = 14 m

Diameter = 4 m

The volume of this furnace,

From:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟2 ℎ

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 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (3.14 𝑥 22 𝑥 14)𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 175.92904 𝑚3

Annual copper production = 90,000tonnes / year

Copper production = 90,000tonnes 1 year 1 Day

Year 365 Days 24 hrs

Copper production = 10.27 t/hr

Let's the diameter of the furnace designed be 40 mm, using the minimum D-L ratio, length is
1400 mm.
Then, the Volume of the furnace =

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟2 ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = (3.14 𝑥 2.52 𝑥 21)𝑚3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 412.334 𝑚3

The varying radius of the furnaces, the parameters can be established as follows

Table 9: Furnace's Parameters.

r (m) L (m) V (m3) P (kg/h) P (t/y) P (t/d)

2 14 175.929 10273.97 90000 246.575
0.15 1.05 0.07422 4.334332 37.9688 0.10402
0.175 1.225 0.11786 6.882759 60.293 0.16519
0.2 1.4 0.17593 10.27397 90 0.24658
0.225 1.575 0.25049 14.62837 128.145 0.35108
0.25 1.75 0.34361 20.06635 175.781 0.48159
0.275 1.925 0.45735 26.70832 233.965 0.641
0.3 2.1 0.59376 34.67466 303.75 0.83219

The selected furnace is of 0.2 m radius and 1.4 m length of working area. The total volume of the
furnace is 0.17593 m3 (± 0.003 m3) but the molten material will fill the vessel by 40 %.
Therefore, the total volume of molten material in the furnace is 0.070373 m3. Assuming that 50
% of this molten material is matte. The slag tap-hole height from the bottom of the shell can be
calculated as follows;

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The volume of molten material = 0.17593 m3
From 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟2 ℎ, the height, if the slag tap-hole is the function of the radius of the
smelter's shell (working area). Then from the volume of molten material, the

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟2 ℎ
0.070373 m3 = 3.14 𝑥 𝑟2 𝑥 1.4
0.016 m2 = 𝑟2
𝑟 = 0.12649 𝑚
The differences between the two radii
△ 𝑟 = (0.2 – 0.12646)𝑚
△ 𝑟 = 0.07351 𝑚
Now, to determine the total height of molten material, the change in radius will be multiplied by
2, since the material will settle only on the bottom area of the furnace. Then

ℎ =2𝑥 △𝑟
ℎ = 2 𝑥 0.07351 𝑚
ℎ = 0.1470 𝑚
Therefore, the height of slag tap hole from the bottom of the shell's working area is 0.1470 m
(14.70 cm). Now since 50 % of the material is matte in the cylindrical section of the reactor, the
slag matte boundary will be half of this total area of materials. This is 0.0735 m (7.35 cm ≃ 8
cm).

Material and Equipments specifications

Other estimated parameters of the furnace are tabulated below.
Table 10: Dimensions of selected parts.
# Component Dimensions
1 Feed Charge opening 200 x 150 mm (L x W)
2 Lances Ø 25 mm
3 Tuyere's opening Ø 25 mm
4 Matte tap-hole Ø 50.8 mm
5 Slag tap-hole Ø 59.8 mm
6 Off-gases pipe Ø 100 mm
7 Shell’s outer sheet 3 mm (mild steel)

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Pump
Table 11: Pumps specifications.
# Part Property
1 Motor Casing: AISI 300 Series stainless steel
2 Motor wire junction box: AISI 300 Series stainless steel
3 Nuts & Bolts AISI 300 Series stainless steel
4 Lifting Loop: AISI 300 Series stainless steel
5 Power 1 HP
6 Voltage: 220 – 240 Volts / Single Phase
7 Frequency 50 – 60 Hz
8 Service Factor 1.15
9 Minimum L10 Bearing Life 50,000 hours
10 Insulation Class: F
11 Time Rating Continuous
12 Type Squirrel Cage Induction
13 Air Filled
14 Stator Winding shall be Vacuum
Pressure Impregnated

Table 12: Blowers Specifications.

#
1 Power 1/15 HP
2 Potential difference 115 V
3 Frequency 50/60 Hz
4 RPM 1400/1640
5 CFM 310 @ Free air 60 Hz

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