Engr. Elesio Fuentes Camiller III, M.

Eng
 Table of Contents

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Role Of Structural Analysis In Structural Engineering Projects
1.3 Classification Of Structures
1.4 Loads on Structures

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 Introduction

Structural engineering is the science and art of planning, designing, and

constructing safe and economical structures that will serve their intended
purposes.

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.

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 Introduction
TOWERS
BUILDINGS

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 Introduction

BRIDGES

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 Introduction

SHIP FRAMES

AIRCRAFT FRAMES

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 Introduction
TANKS

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 Introduction

PRESSURE VESSELS

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 Role Of Structural Analysis
In Structural Engineering
Projects
Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural engineering
project, its function being the prediction of the performance of the
proposed structure.

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 Role Of Structural Analysis
In Structural Engineering
Projects

Phases of a
Typical Structural
Engineering Project

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 Role Of Structural Analysis In Structural
Engineering Projects

Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

1. Planning Phase. The planning phase usually involves the establishment
of the functional requirements of the proposed structure, the general layout
and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the possible types of
structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be feasible and the types of
materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete). This
phase may also involve consideration of nonstructural factors, such as
aesthetics, environmental impact of the structure, and so on. The outcome
of this phase is usually a structural system that meets the functional
requirements and is expected to be the most economical. This phase is
perhaps the most crucial one of the entire project and requires experience
and knowledge of construction practices in addition to a thorough
understanding
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 Role Of Structural Analysis In Structural
Engineering Projects

Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

2. Preliminary Structural Design. In the preliminary structural design
phase, the sizes of the various members of the structural system selected
in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate analysis, past
experience, and code requirements. The member sizes thus selected are
used in the next phase to estimate the weight of the structure.

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 Role Of Structural Analysis In Structural
Engineering Projects

Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

3. Estimation of Loads. Estimation of loads involves determination of all
the loads that can be expected to act on the structure.

4. Structural Analysis. In structural analysis, the values of the loads are

used to carry out an analysis of the structure in order to determine the
stresses or stress resultants in the members and the deflections at various
points of the structure.

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 Role Of Structural Analysis In Structural
Engineering Projects

Phases of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

5. Safety and Serviceability Checks. The results of the analysis are used
to determine whether or not the structure satisfies the safety and
serviceability requirements of the design codes. If these requirement are
satisfied, then the design drawings and the construction specifications are
prepared, and the construction phase begins.

6. Revised Structural Design. If the code requirements are not satisfied,

then the member sizes are revised, and phases 3 through 5 are repeated
until all the safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied.

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 Classification Of Structures
Tension Structures
The members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension under the
action of external loads. Tension structures composed of flexible steel cables
are frequently employed to support bridges and long-span roofs. Cables have
negligible bending stiffness and can develop only tension

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 Classification Of Structures
Compression Structures
Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the
action of external loads. Two common examples of such structures are
columns and arches. Columns are straight members subjected to axially
compressive loads. When a straight member is subjected to lateral loads
and/or moments in addition to axial loads, it is called a beam-column. An
arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable.
Such structures are frequently used to support bridges and long-span roofs.
Arches develop mainly compressive stresses when subjected to loads and
are usually designed so that they will develop only compression under a major
design loading.

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 Classification Of Structures

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 Classification Of Structures

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 Classification Of Structures
Trusses
Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged
connections to form a stable configuration. When the loads are applied to a
truss only at the joints, its members either elongate or shorten. Thus, the
members of an ideal truss are always either in uniform tension or in uniform
compression. Real trusses are usually constructed by connecting members to
gusset plates by bolted or welded connections. Although the rigid joints thus
formed cause some bending in the members of a truss when it is loaded, in
most cases such secondary bending stresses are small, and the assumption of
hinged joints yields satisfactory designs.

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 Classification Of Structures

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 Classification Of Structures

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 Classification Of Structures
Shear Structures
Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls, are used in
multistory buildings to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and
earthquake excitations. Shear structures develop mainly in-plane shear, with
relatively small bending stresses under the action of external loads.

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 Classification Of Structures
Bending Structures
Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of
external loads. Some of the most commonly used structures, such as beams,
rigid frames, slabs, and plates, can be classified as bending structures. A beam
is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. Rigid
frames are composed of straight members connected together either by rigid
(moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to form stable
configurations. Unlike trusses, which are subjected only to joint loads, the
external loads on frames may be applied on the members as well as on the
joints. The members of a rigid frame are, in general, subjected to bending
moment, shear, and axial compression or tension under the action of
external loads. Frames, like trusses, are among the most commonly used types
of structures. Structural steel and reinforced concrete frames are commonly
used in multistory buildings, bridges, and industrial plants.

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 Classification Of Structures
Slabs

Beams
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 Classification Of Structures

Frames

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 Loads on Structures

The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped
according to their nature and source into three classes: (1) dead loads due to the
weight of the structural system itself and any other material permanently attached
to it; (2) live loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the
structure; and (3) environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects,
such as wind, snow, and earthquakes.

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 Loads on Structures

The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the structures
must be designed are usually specified in building codes. The national code
providing guidance on loads for buildings, bridges, and other structures is the
NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES.

The loads described in the codes are usually based on

past experience and study and are the minimum for
which the various types of structures must be designed.
However, the engineer must decide if the structure is to
be subjected to any loads in addition to those
considered by the code, and, if so, must design the
structure to resist the additional loads. Remember that
the engineer is ultimately responsible for the safe
design of the structure.
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 Loads on Structures
Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act
permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural
system itself and of all other material and equipment permanently attached to
the structural system. For example, the dead loads for a building structure include
the weights of frames, framing and bracing systems, floors, roofs, ceilings, walls,
stairways, heating and air-conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems, and
so forth.

The weight of the structure is not known in advance of design and is usually
assumed based on past experience. After the structure has been analyzed and the
member sizes determined, the actual weight is computed by using the member
sizes and the unit weights of materials. The actual weight is then compared to the
assumed weight, and the design is revised if necessary.

see Table 204-1, 2; 205-2 NSCP 2015

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 Loads on Structures
Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of
the structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the
structure that are not dead loads, including environmental loads, such as snow
loads or wind loads. However, since the probabilities of occurrence for
environmental loads are different from those due to the use of structures, the
current codes use the term live loads to refer only to those variable loads caused by
the use of the structure. It is in the latter context that this text uses this term.

see Table 205-1; 205-2 NSCP 2015

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 Loads on Structures

Impact Load

When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than
those that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied
gradually. The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in the
structure is referred to as impact. To account for the increase in stress due to
impact, the live loads expected to cause such a dynamic effect on structures are
increased by certain impact percentages, or impact factors. The impact
percentages and factors, which are usually based on past experience and/or
experimental results, are specified in the building codes.

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 Loads on Structures
Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of
wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the
structure, obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the
geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the structure itself. Although the
procedures described in the various codes for the estimation of wind loads usually vary
in detail, most of them are based on the same basic relationship between the wind
speed V and the dynamic pressure q induced on a flat surface normal to the wind flow,
which can be obtained by applying Bernoulli’s principle and is expressed as

see section 207, NSCP 2015

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 Loads on Structures
Earthquake Load
An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions
during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground
motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most structures.
It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural damage
and that must be considered in designs of structures located in earthquake-prone
areas.

Effect of Earthquake on a
Structure

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 Loads on Structures
HYDROSTATIC AND SOIL PRESSURES

Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures
partially or fully submerged in water must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure acts normal to the submerged surface of the structure, with its
magnitude varying linearly with height.

Hydrostatic
Pressure

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 Loads on Structures
LOAD COMBINATIONS
As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads for a structure have
been estimated, an engineer must consider all loads that might act simultaneously on
the structure at a given time. For example, it is highly unlikely that an earthquake and
the maximum wind loads will occur simultaneously. Based on past experience and
probability analysis, the ASCE 7 Standard specifies various load combinations to be
considered when designing structures. It is important to realize that the structure
must be designed to have adequate strength to resist the most unfavorable of all the
load combinations.
In addition to the aforementioned strength or safety requirements, a structure must
also satisfy any serviceability requirements related to its intended use. For example, a
high-rise building may be perfectly safe, yet unserviceable if it deflects or vibrates
excessively due to wind. The serviceability requirements are specified in building
codes for most common types of structures and are usually concerned with
deflections, vibrations, cracking, corrosion, and fatigue.
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 Loads on Structures

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