1. What are the four primary tissue types? Describe the main function of each.

List
examples of each tissue type and label on the diagram where you can find them. (5 points)

The four primary tissue types in the human body are epithelial tissue, connective tissue,

muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. Each type has distinct structures and functions that are

vital for the body's physiology.

Epithelial Tissue: This tissue serves as a protective layer covering the body and its organs,

both externally and internally. It functions in protection, absorption, secretion, and sensation.

Epithelial cells are closely packed together and form continuous sheets. Examples include

the skin epidermis (outer layer of the skin) and the lining of the gastrointestinal tract.

Connective Tissue: The primary function of connective tissue is to support, bind together,

and protect tissues and organs in the body. It has various types, ranging from soft to hard.

Examples include adipose tissue (fat), bone, tendons (connecting muscle to bone), and

ligaments (connecting bone to bone).

Muscle Tissue: Muscle tissue is responsible for producing force and causing motion, either

movement of the body parts or movement of organs within the body. There are three types

of muscle tissue: skeletal (attached to bones and responsible for voluntary movements),

cardiac (found in the heart and responsible for pumping blood), and smooth muscle (found

in the walls of hollow organs like the intestines and blood vessels, controlling involuntary

movements).

Nervous Tissue: This tissue is specialized for communication. It consists of neurons (nerve

cells) that receive and transmit electrical signals in the body, and glial cells that provide

support and nutrition to neurons. Nervous tissue functions in the reception of stimuli and the

transmission of signals to and from different parts of the body. Examples include the brain,

spinal cord, and nerves.

2. Describe the general structural characteristics of epithelial tissue and all the different
classifications of epithelial tissue, providing as many examples of where each
classification can be found (e.g. simple squamous epithelium is described as a single
layer of flattened cells; can be found in capillaries). (10 points)
Epithelial tissue, one of the four primary types of tissues in multicellular organisms,
plays a crucial role in covering body surfaces, lining body cavities and hollow organs,
and forming glands. It serves various functions, including protection, absorption,
filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception. The general structural
characteristics of epithelial tissue include:

Cellularity and Specialized Contacts: Epithelial tissues consist of closely packed cells
with minimal extracellular material between them. Cells are connected by specialized
junctions, such as tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

Polarity: Epithelial cells have polarity with distinct apical (top) and basal (bottom)
surfaces. The apical surface may bear microvilli or cilia, whereas the basal surface is
attached to a thin, supportive basal lamina.

Support by Connective Tissue: All epithelial sheets are supported by and attached to an
underlying layer of connective tissue known as the basement membrane, composed of
a basal lamina and reticular fibers of the underlying connective tissue.

Avascularity but Innervated: Epithelia are avascular, meaning they lack blood vessels.
However, they are supplied by nerve fibers and receive nutrients via diffusion from the
underlying connective tissues.

Regeneration: Epithelial cells have a high capacity for renewal through cell division,
facilitating repair and maintenance.

Epithelial tissues are classified based on the number of cell layers and the shape of the
cells. The two key dimensions are:

Number of Cell Layers

Simple Epithelium: Consists of a single layer of cells, each extending from the basal surface to
the apical surface. This type is typically involved in absorption, secretion, or filtration processes.

Stratified Epithelium: Comprises two or more layers of cells, primarily protective, with only the
basal layer attaching to the basement membrane.

Shape of Cells
Squamous Cells: Flat and scale-like.
Cuboidal Cells: As tall as they are wide, resembling cubes.
Columnar Cells: Taller than they are wide, resembling columns.

Combining these, we get various types of epithelial tissues:

Simple Squamous Epithelium: A single layer of flattened cells. It's found in locations where rapid
diffusion is crucial, such as the air sacs of the lungs (alveoli), the lining of the heart
(endocardium), blood vessels (endothelium), and lymphatic vessels.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: A single layer of cube-like cells. It occurs in areas of secretion and
absorption, such as the kidney tubules, ducts of small glands, and ovary surface.

Simple Columnar Epithelium: A single layer of tall, column-like cells. This type is found where
absorption and secretion occur, such as in the lining of the stomach, intestines, and parts of the
respiratory tract. Goblet cells, which secrete mucus, are often found interspersed among simple
columnar epithelial cells.

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium: Appears stratified due to cell nuclei at different
levels but is actually a single layer with all cells touching the basement membrane. It is primarily
found in the respiratory tract, where some cells have cilia.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Multiple layers of cells, with the outermost being squamous.
This type is designed for protection and is found in areas subjected to abrasion, such as the
skin (epidermis), mouth, esophagus, and vagina.

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium: Typically two layers of cube-like cells, found in larger ducts of
sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands.

Stratified Columnar Epithelium: Several layers of cells, with the top layer being columnar. It is
rare but can be found in parts of the pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts.

Transitional Epithelium: specialized to stretch and return to its normal state, found lining the
urinary bladder, ureters, and part of the urethra, allowing these organs to stretch to hold varying
amounts of urine.

3. Describe the general characteristics of connective tissue and all the different classifications of
connective tissue, providing as many examples of where each classification can be found (e.g.
connective tissue proper is described as having a matrix made of fibers; loose fibers describe
adipose tissue and can be found in the subcutaneous layer). (10 points)
Connective tissue is a fundamental tissue type in the body, characterized by its role in providing
support, linking other tissues, and playing a crucial role in body defense and maintenance. It is
distinguished from other tissue types (epithelial, muscle, and nervous tissues) by its sparse
distribution of cells embedded within an extracellular matrix. This matrix, composed of fibrous
proteins and a ground substance, grants connective tissue its various physical properties,
allowing for functions ranging from elasticity to rigidity. Here's an overview of the general
characteristics and classifications of connective tissue, along with examples of where each type
can be found:

General Characteristics of Connective Tissue

Extracellular Matrix Dominance: The matrix, more than the cells, determines the tissue's
mechanical properties. It contains fibrous proteins (like collagen, elastin, and reticular fibers),
and a ground substance, which can be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified.

Diverse Functions: Functions include support and structural framework, connection of body
tissues, protection of organs, storage of energy (as in fat), and defense against pathogens.

Variety of Cell Types: Connective tissue contains various cell types, including fibroblasts
(producing fibers and ground substance), macrophages (involved in defense), and adipocytes
(fat cells), among others.

Classifications of Connective Tissue

1. Connective Tissue Proper

Loose connective Tissue: characterized by a loose arrangement of fibers and cells. Examples
include:

Areolar Tissue: Found widely throughout the body, wrapping and cushioning organs.
Adipose Tissue: Stores fat, found in the subcutaneous layer beneath the skin, around organs for
insulation and protection.
Reticular Tissue: Supports the framework of organs like lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.

Dense Connective Tissue: Characterized by a dense network of fibers. Examples include:

Dense Regular Connective Tissue: Provides strong attachment between structures. Found in
tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone).

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: Provides tensile strength in multiple directions. Found in the
dermis of the skin, fibrous capsules of organs, and joints.

Elastic Connective Tissue: Contains a high proportion of elastic fibers, allowing for stretching.
Found in the walls of large arteries, certain ligaments, and bronchial tubes.
2. Supportive Connective Tissue
Cartilage: Provides support and flexibility. Types include:

Hyaline Cartilage: supports and reinforces; found in the nose, trachea, and at the ends of long
bones.

Elastic Cartilage: Maintains shape and structure while allowing flexibility; found in the ear and
epiglottis.

Fibrocartilage: absorbs compressive shock; found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and
discs of the knee joint.

Bone (Osseous Tissue): supports and protects body structures and stores calcium. Found in the
skeleton.

3. Fluid Connective Tissue

Blood: transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and other substances throughout the body.
Found within the cardiovascular system.

Lymph: Returns fluid and proteins filtered from the blood back to the bloodstream; involved in
immune responses. Found within the lymphatic system.

Each classification of connective tissue plays a unique role in the body's structure and function,
showcasing a remarkable diversity that enables the vast array of physiological capabilities seen
in complex organisms.

4. Describe the general characteristics of muscle tissue and all the different classifications of
muscle tissue, providing examples of where each classification can be found. (10 points)

Muscle tissue is a specialized type of tissue in animals that enables movement and force
generation. It is one of the four primary types of tissues, along with epithelial, connective, and
nervous tissues. Muscle tissues share several key characteristics, including excitability (the
ability to respond to stimuli), contractility (the ability to shorten and generate force), extensibility
(the ability to be stretched without being damaged), and elasticity (the ability to return to their
original shape after being stretched or contracted).

Skeletal Muscle: Characteristics: Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles, meaning their
contractions are usually controlled consciously. They have a striated appearance due to the
organized arrangement of contractile proteins. These muscles attach primarily to the skeletal
system through tendons, allowing for the movement of bones.

Examples: Muscles like the biceps brachii (involved in bending the elbow) and the quadriceps
femoris (involved in extending the knee) are examples of skeletal muscles.
Cardiac Muscle: Characteristics: Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle tissue is responsible
for pumping blood throughout the body. It shares some similarities with skeletal muscle, such as
striations, but it functions involuntarily. Cardiac muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs,
which facilitate synchronized contractions of the heart muscle.

Example: The myocardium, the muscular layer of the heart wall, is composed entirely of
cardiac muscle tissue.

Smooth Muscle: Characteristics: Smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of hollow organs
and structures such as the intestines, bladder, blood vessels, and uterus. Unlike skeletal and
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is not striated and operates under involuntary control. It plays a
key role in various functions, including moving food through the digestive tract, controlling the
diameter of blood vessels, and assisting with childbirth.

Examples: The muscles in the walls of the intestines (which help in peristalsis) and the muscles
within the walls of arteries (which regulate blood pressure by contracting and relaxing) are
examples of smooth muscle tissue.
Integumentary System Terminology Exercise
1. Describe the main layers of the skin, the sublayers of each main layer, and the main
functions of the skin. (10 points)

The skin, the largest organ of the body, serves as a protective barrier, regulates temperature,
and facilitates sensation. It comprises three primary layers, each with distinct sublayers and
functions:

Epidermis: This is the outermost layer of the skin, acting as a waterproof barrier and creating
our skin tone. The epidermis itself consists of several sublayers:

Stratum corneum: The outermost sublayer, composed of dead cells that shed periodically.

Stratum lucidum: present only in thick skin, like the soles of the feet and palms, providing an
extra layer of toughness.

Stratum granulosum: Here, cells begin to die and help to form a waterproof barrier.

Stratum spinosum: This layer provides strength and flexibility to the skin.

Stratum basale: The deepest layer, where new cells are produced and melanin (which gives
skin its color) is found.

Dermis: Beneath the epidermis, this layer contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles, and
sweat glands. The dermis is divided into two areas:

Papillary layer: The upper layer, containing a thin arrangement of collagen fibers.

Reticular layer: The deeper layer, housing dense, irregular connective tissue.

Hypodermis (Subcutaneous layer): This is not part of the skin but is vital for attaching the skin
to the underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It
consists mainly of loose connective tissue and fat cells, which help insulate the body.

Functions

Protection: Shields the body against pathogens, UV radiation, and physical abrasions.

Regulation: Helps regulate body temperature through sweat production and the dilation or
constriction of blood vessels.
Sensation: Contains nerve endings that respond to temperature, touch, vibration, pressure, and
pain.

Excretion: Eliminates waste products through sweating.

Vitamin D Synthesis and Storage Lipids: Initiates the production of vitamin D from cholesterol
when exposed to UV light.

2. Describe the accessory organs of the integumentary system, their structures, and
their functions.
(10 points)

Accessory Organs of the Integumentary System

Hair: Each hair follicle originates in the dermis, extending up through the epidermis. Hair
protects from UV radiation, provides insulation, and aids in sensation.

Nails: Composed of keratin, nails protect the dorsal surface of the last bone of each toe and
finger.

Sebaceous (Oil) Glands: Connected to hair follicles, these glands secrete sebum, an oily
substance that lubricates skin and hair.

Sweat Glands: There are two types:

Eccrine glands: These are widespread, secreting sweat directly onto the surface of the skin to
cool the body through evaporation.

Apocrine glands: Found in the armpits and the genital area, these secrete a thicker sweat,
which, when broken down by bacteria, is responsible for body odor.

Sensory Receptors: Embedded within the skin, these receptors detect touch, temperature, pain,
and pressure, sending signals to the brain to help navigate the environment.
1. E-cigarettes have been on the rise in recent years, with some research studies suggesting
that they are equally as harmful as regular cigarettes. Smoking has been reported to destroy the
cilia found on many cells of the epithelium in the respiratory system (a more thorough
discussion will be carried out during that unit). People who smoke have also been observed to
cough more often than non-smokers. Based on this information and your knowledge of the
function of cilia, come up with a detailed hypothesis of why smokers cough.

The hypothesis regarding why smokers, including those who use e-cigarettes, cough more
frequently than non-smokers revolves around the important role of cilia in the respiratory
system. Cilia are hair-like structures on the surface of epithelial cells lining the respiratory tract.
They play a key role in the body's defense mechanism against environmental pollutants,
pathogens, and particulate matter by rhythmically waving back and forth to propel these
unwanted particles out of the respiratory system.

When a person smokes, the smoke and its constituents, including various toxic chemicals and
particulates, are inhaled into the respiratory tract. These substances can cause damage to the
cilia, impairing their function or destroying them. When the cilia are damaged or destroyed, their
ability to effectively remove mucus and foreign particles from the lungs is compromised. As a
result, mucus can accumulate in the airways, making it harder to breathe and necessitating
coughing as a means to clear the mucus.

Furthermore, the body may increase mucus production in response to the irritation caused by
smoke inhalation, attempting to protect the respiratory tract. However, without fully functional
cilia to move this excess mucus out of the airways, the mucus can build up, further necessitating
coughing as a physical mechanism to expel it.

In summary, I hypothesize that smokers cough more often than non-smokers because the
smoke from cigarettes and e-cigarettes damages the cilia in the respiratory tract, impairing their
ability to clear mucus and foreign particles. This leads to mucus accumulation and increased
irritation, which the body attempts to alleviate through coughing. This hypothesis is based on an
understanding of the essential role of cilia in maintaining respiratory health and the known
effects of smoking on these structures.