IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 33, NO.
5, OCTOBER 2005
Distribution of Cathode Current Density and Breaking
Capacity of Medium Voltage Vacuum Interrupters
With Axial Magnetic Field
Sergey M. Shkol’nik, Vasiliy P. Afanas’ev, Yury A. Barinov, Alexey M. Chaly, Alexander A. Logatchev,
Sergey I. Malakhovsky, Irina N. Poluyanova, and Konstantin K. Zabello
Abstract—A high-speed photographic technique incorporating
computer-aided reconstruction of the cathode current density
was applied to butt solid contacts with an external axial magnetic
field (AMF) at relatively low current density 2 kA cm2 . In
the present work, we have further developed this technique. This
advanced technique is applicable for the analysis of the current
density distribution on the complicated electrodes of commercial
vacuum interrupters (VIs) carrying currents up to = 50 kA
at current density up to 4 kA cm2 . The experiments have
been carried out for three types of electrode designs generating
AMFs with different configurations. The results obtained by
this new technique proved a previously derived conclusion that
current density tends to distribute evenly across that part of
the contact surface where the AMF induction fits the inequality
(1) (2)
, where (1) , (2) are characteristic induc-
tion fields defined in our previous work. Results of the analysis
of erosion tracks on the electrodes are also in agreement with
this conclusion. Slots on the electrode surface lead to substantial
nonuniformity of current density distribution even if the AMF is
properly configured. Comparison of the breaking capacity and
distribution of current density for different electrode designs
proves that interruption failure occurs at peak current density
3 5 kA cm2 . This value exceeds by at least 50% previous
estimates of maximum current density interruptible by a com-
mercial VI. We have also found that changing the configuration
of the AMF may substantially improve breaking capacity. In
our experiments, a slight modification of the AMF distribution
provides a 12% increase of the breaking capacity.
Index Terms—Axial magnetic field, breaking capacity, high-
current vacuum arc, image treatment, vacuum interrupters.
I. INTRODUCTION
S TABILIZATION of arc discharges with the aid of axial
magnetic fields (AMFs) is an established and prevalent
method for improving the performance of various discharge
devices [1], [2]. In particular, AMFs have remarkably increased
the breaking capacity of vacuum interrupters (VIs) [3], [4].
The free burning high-current vacuum arc (HCVA) is inher-
ently unstable [5]. Due to the retrograde movement of cathode
spots (CSs) under the effect of the self-magnetic field generated
by the arc current, the area occupied by the CSs (cathode arc at-
tachment) expands after arc ignition until a substantial fraction
Manuscript received December 30, 2004; revised May 13, 2005.
S. M. Shkol’nik, V. P. Afanas’ev, Y. A. Barinov, A. A. Logatchev, and
K. K. Zabello are with the A.F. Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute, Russian
Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 194021, Russia.
A. M. Chaly, S. I. Malakhovsky, and I. N. Poluyanova are with the IG Tavrida
Electric, Moscow, 123298, Russia.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPS.2005.856531
0093-3813/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
1511
of the CSs leave the front surface of the contact and migrate onto
its lateral surface. This provides extra loss of ions, which in turn,
creates the conditions necessary for the development of an arc
instability and transition from the diffuse to the constricted arc
mode (refer to [6] and [7] for more details). This transition limits
the breaking capacity of free burning HCVAs to kA.
Application of an AMF dramatically affects the dynamics of
CSs, preventing them from leaving the front contact surface [8].
The AMF also narrows the CS plasma jets [9], reducing radial
ion losses providing additional stabilization of the HCVA. These
effects hamper constriction of the HCVA and increase the VIs
breaking capacity.
However, the breaking capacity is not unlimited. At a certain
current level, even if the arc is restrained by the AMF in the
diffuse mode, the anode surface temperature becomes too high,
producing enough vapors to facilitate breakdown across the con-
tact gap after current zero. While the breakdown mechanism is
not clearly understood today, it can be reasonably assumed that
for a HCVA stabilized by an AMF, higher breaking capacity cor-
responds to the current being more uniformly distributed over
the entire electrode surface.
For a uniform AMF, the optimum current distribution in a
quasi-stationary arc is achieved when the AMF induction is, on
one hand, sufficient to hold the CSs on the front cathode sur-
face, and, on the other hand, not too high, so that it does not
prevent the CSs from occupying the entire cathode surface [8].
For a commercial VI, the AMF is generally not uniform. It has
been shown [10] and [11] that the AMF shape may affect the dis-
tribution of current density. However, to our knowledge, these
observations were exclusively qualitative.
Gaining quantitative data on the current distribution in a
HCVA is a complicated problem. Magnetic probes have been
successfully applied for vacuum arcs with butt electrodes with
currents of several kiloamperes [12]. However, conventional
VIs operate at currents of several tens of kiloamperes. This
current will severely thermally stress the magnetic probes,
and may exceed their thermal limit, and thus, the applicability
of this technique is doubtful. Another problem is associated
with the fact that conventional VI electrodes have slots which
disturb the axial symmetry. Numerous measurements will be
required to determine the two-dimensional (2-D) distribution
of the current density.
High-speed photography remains up to now the main tech-
nique for obtaining information on the current distribution in a
HCVA. Modern equipment allows simultaneous filming in two
1512
Fig. 1. Electrode design.
directions [13]. However, at the present stage of vacuum arc
theory, only qualitative estimation of the arc current distribu-
tion may be inferred from the distribution of radiation intensity
from the arc column. The same is true with regards to techniques
using erosion tracks.
Previously, we described a technique using high-speed pho-
tography of a HCVA cathode surface in combination with com-
puter-aided data processing which reconstructs the distribution
of current density on the cathode of the developed arc stabilized
by an AMF [14]. This technique has been applied for solid butt
contacts with an external AMF [15]. Later, we successfully ap-
plied this technique for electrodes with a self-generated AMF,
allowing us to find the optimal AMF configuration [16].
The goals of the present study are as follows:
1) to determine if this technique can be applied to commer-
cial VIs with AMF electrode design;
2) to measure the distribution of current density on the elec-
trodes of a commercial VI operated at high current;
3) to determine if it is possible to influence the current den-
sity distribution by varying the AMF configuration;
4) to correlate the measured current density distribution with
the VI breaking capacity.
II. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE
The experiments were carried out for three electrode designs
(N1, N2, and N3), generating AMFs with different configura-
tions. Contact plates were manufactured from copper-chromium
composition (CuCr30). Contact plates had radial slots for eddy
current suppression. Electrode diameter was 55 mm (Fig. 1).
The experiments were performed in a demountable vacuum
chamber under continuous pumping, providing a pressure of
Pa. The block diagram of the experimental setup is shown
in Fig. 2. The inter-electrode gap was fixed at mm. The
discharge was ignited on the cathode surface at a distance
mm from the edge using a molybdenum needle. The discharge
was powered from a generator providing a rectangular current
pulse with an adjustable current up to 50 kA and duration up to
10 ms. The duration of the pulses used in the present work was
5 ms. Prior to making measurements, the cathode surface was
cleaned with a set of high-current pulses.
The discharge current and voltage were measured with a Tek-
tronix TDS3012 oscilloscope. The voltage was measured with
a P5205 differential probe connected directly to the reverse side
of the contacts. The current was measured with a Rogowski coil.
The transmission band for current measurement was MHz.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 33, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2005
The cathode surface was photographed using a high-speed
photography (HSP) camera. The camera could capture 60
sequential frames during a single current pulse. The start of
filming could be delayed by 0–5 ms. The exposure could be
varied within wide limits. This allowed first filming the entire
pulse, and then, with higher time resolution, selected intervals.
The camera axis was inclined by with respect to the
cathode surface. A red light filter was used to suppress plasma
radiation and to improve the contrast of the CS images.
After completion of the arc tests, the arc erosion tracks on the
electrodes were analyzed.
Breaking capacity was tested using a double-synthetic circuit,
providing the International Electrotechnical Committee (IEC)
specified transient recovery voltage (TRV) with a voltage peak
of 20 kV. Three types of VIs, having the same electrode designs
as those photographically investigated, were constructed and
tested for breaking capacity. The VI contacts were driven with
a magnetic actuator used for a commercial VCB. The “up and
down” test method was used to define the maximum breaking
capacity. In this method, applied current is increased after suc-
cessful interruption by a selected current step, and is decreased
by the same step after interruption failure.
III. IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUE AND DETERMINATION OF
CURRENT DENSITY DISTRIBUTION
The original technique applied for determination of the cur-
rent density distribution on the cathode of AMF-stabilized de-
veloped HCVAs includes the following steps [14]:
1) capturing the cathode image with a high speed camera;
2) reconstructing the cathode spot positions;
3) determining the current density as the density of CSs. (In
so doing, we assume that the current per each CS
, where is the number of CSs. This assumption
will be discussed below.)
Fig. 3(a) and (b) show typical images obtained after step 1
and 2 of the image processing procedure from an arc with rel-
atively low average current density, kA cm . This
current density is close to that in which the previous technique
was applicable. However, when the previous technique was at-
tempted with these images at higher current densities, it was
seen that better quality images and improved processing tech-
niques were required. Using fine-grain film with high resolu-
tion and large photographic latitude (Kodak T-max 100) along
with varying some filming parameters (exposure, optical filter)
allowed us to obtain satisfactory images of a high current den-
sity discharge. Fig. 4 shows an example photograph of an arc
using the N2 design with current kA. Processing of
such images required revision of the filtering algorithm and its
parameters (a minimum perimeter of equal intensity contour, a
minimum number of nested contours in a spot, etc. [14]), since,
with a large number of cathode spots per film unit area, the im-
ages appeared to be crowded and its structure appeared to be
very complicated. This calls for a thorough analysis of nested
contour systems to resolve partially merged spot images.
For the last step, Voronoy diagrams ([14, ref. [8]]) were ap-
plied in our previous work. This diagram relates each CS to a
polygon. Each point of this polygon is located closer to a par-
ticular CS than to any other one. Then the local current density
SHKOL’NIK et al.: DISTRIBUTION OF CATHODE CURRENT DENSITY AND BREAKING CAPACITY OF MEDIUM VOLTAGE VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
Fig. 2. Block diagram of the experimental setup.
Fig. 3. Arc stabilized by a uniform axial magnetic field I = 11:3 kA,
B = 0:27 T. CuCr Electrodes, diameter 30 mm, electrode gap 4 mm. (a) HSP
frame (negative, exposure 75 s) Ellipse marks the electrode edge (axis labels
in pixels). Cathode is in the bottom. In the center, one can see the ignition hole.
(b) Reconstructed cathode spot positions.
was calculated as a value inversely proportional to the square of
the mentioned polygon. This method was successively applied
1513
Fig. 4. HSP frame (positive, exposure 25 s) of the arc on N2 electrodes, h =
4 mm, I = 45:4 kA. Cathode is on the bottom.
for solid contacts with more or less uniform distribution of cur-
rent density.
It was found that the conventional VI electrode current den-
sity may be distributed quite nonuniformly (Fig. 4). As can be
seen from this picture, slots located on the contact surface dis-
turb the CS distribution. In this case, Voronoy diagrams may
substantially distort the computed current density.
The present work has the function approximating the current
density distribution constructed as a sum of current density dis-
tributions from a single spot in the form ,
where is the distance from the spot and –conditioning param-
eter, which is of order of the mean distance between spots. The
variation of parameter within reasonable limits has a weak ef-
fect on the final result.
This method of determination of the current density distribu-
tion seems to be reasonable for high-current arcs with a great
number (hundreds) of CSs, which burn simultaneously on the
cathode, if one believes that the characteristics of the CS does
not depend on CS position on the cathode and if the frame ex-
posure time meets the condition (here, is
the mean life time of the CS and is the mean time of the CS
migration for the distance equal to the mean distance between
CSs). Estimates show that should be of order of several tens of
1514 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 33, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2005

Fig. 5. Oscillograms of the arc current and voltage (t-1 ms/div, I -10 kA/div,
U -10 V/div). N1 electrodes.

microseconds to meet the above inequality. In our experiments,

we used an exposure time s.
As for the dependence of CS characteristics on the position
of the CS, it is conceivable that CSs near the periphery of the
electrode carry a different current than CSs near the center be-
cause the local magnetic field, which changes significantly first
of all due to variation of the self-generated component. Really,
it is shown experimentally in [17] that in the tangential mag-
netic field (including the self-generated field in the free-burning
HCVA), the current per CS increases significantly if the tangen-
tial field induction increases over the value T. The
Fig. 6. AMF calculation results (N1 electrodes). Rectangular current pulse.
authors of the work give the following explanation of this result. (a) t = 0:2 ms after arc ignition. (b) t = 0:6 ms. (c) t = 3 ms.
It is energy-optimal for CSs under action of the tangential field
to associate into a group CS because the association results in
the decrease of Hall parameter and lowers the voltage drop over
the CS plasma jet. But if the arc is superposed also with an AMF,
the voltage drop over the CS jet decreases significantly when
increases and if , the voltage drop across the CS does
not depend on [18]. This result supports our assumption that
in the developed arc stabilized by an AMF all CSs carry the Fig. 7. HSP frame (positive, exposure 25 s) of an arc on N1 electrodes in the
same mean current. It is obvious that this problem is complex quasi-stationary state. I = 35 kA. Cathode is on the bottom.
and calls for further investigation.
It could be assumed that for relatively short AMF-stabilized
HSP-filming supported the above assumption. In the initial
vacuum arcs (relevant for medium voltage VIs), the anode cur-
stage after arc ignition (the development of the arc), the CSs oc-
rent distribution does not differ substantially from the cathode
cupied only the peripheral area (where a substantial AMF had
one. This assumption is supported by comparison of erosion
been established). With the penetration of the AMF into central
footprints on the cathode and on the anode [15].
area (in 2–3 ms after arc ignition), the CSs moved into it, estab-
lishing the quasi-stationary arc state. This behavior complied
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION with the “self-adjustment” of the arc to the momentary configu-
Fig. 5 presents typical oscillograms of arc current and voltage. ration of the AMF observed previously [16] for simple electrode
It may be seen that the current attained its quasi-stationary level configurations.
in several hundred microseconds after arc ignition, while stabi- In the present work, we were interested in quasi-stationary
lization of the arc voltage required a further 2–2.5 ms. state of the arc. So, we performed HSP-filming of the arc for
Computation of the AMF evolution (Fig. 6) for a current pulse all three electrode designs 3.5 ms after arc ignition. Currents
with a shape that is identical to that used in the present exper- were varied from 25 to 45 kA, the filming duration was fixed at
iment, showed that the AMF reached a quasi-stationary state 1.5 ms, and the exposure time was 25 s per frame.
ms after arc ignition; the relatively long time was due to Fig. 7 shows an image of the N1 cathode at 35 kA current.
eddy currents. On this basis, we assumed that the time required Similar to Fig. 4, zones of CS concentration and rarefaction can
for stabilization of the arc voltage was determined by the time be observed on opposite sides of the contact slots.
required for stabilization of the AMF. Computation of the AMF This effect is better distinguished in Fig. 8(a), which presents
was done using finite element method. the 2-D distribution of current density obtained with the aid of
SHKOL’NIK et al.: DISTRIBUTION OF CATHODE CURRENT DENSITY AND BREAKING CAPACITY OF MEDIUM VOLTAGE VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
Fig. 8. Processed arc images. N1 electrodes, I = 35 kA. (a) 2-D distribution
of the current density. (b) Azimuthally averaged (0-360 ) radial distribution of
the current density–curves 1, 2, 3. 1: Sum over the whole filming. 2 and 3: Sum
over the first and the second halves of the filming. Azimuthally averaged (0-30 )
radial distribution of the current density–curve 4. Position of the sector with the
angle of 30 is shown in Fig. 8(a).
the computing procedure described above, and summing the re-
sults of all 60 frames during the quasi-stationary state of the arc
in a single pulse.
Fig. 8(b) presents the radial distribution of azimuthally aver-
aged current density. Curves 1–3 were averaged over 0 –360 ,
with curve 1 based on the entire filming duration, while curves
2 and 3 were based on the first and second halves of the filming
duration, respectively. Coincidence of all three curves indicates
consistency of the approach.
Curve 4 of Fig. 8(b) shows the radial distribution of the cur-
rent density, but azimuthally averaged only within the 30 sector
located in the middle of contact petal [see Fig. 8(a)].
As can be seen from Fig. 8(b), the current density aver-
aged within 0 –360 was nearly constant in the central area
( ), and gradually decreased in the slotted peripheral
area ( ). Here, is the contact plate radius.
At the same time, the current density decreased substantially
slower for the sector located far from the slots [Fig. 8(b)]. On
this basis, we conclude that the contact slots are responsible
for the substantially nonuniform distribution of current density
that has a negative effect on the breaking capacity of AMF
electrodes.
In all of the curves, the current density decreased rapidly with
radius when . The computed AMF at this point
was approximately equal to the characteristic value , de-
fined previously [16]. This observation supports the basic con-
clusions [16] that if the AMF configuration is convex (opposite
of the “magnetic barrier” configuration [16]), the CSs tend to
occupy that part of the cathode surface where AMF induction
meets the condition , where also is
a previously defined characteristic field value [16]. The detailed
1515
Fig. 9. Normalized radial distributions of current density (azimuthally
averaged). N1 electrodes currents are in range 28-39 kA.
Fig. 10. Azimuthally averaged radial distributions of the current density of the
arcs with I 35 kA with different electrode designs.
discussion of these questions, the definitions of and
and their dependencies on the arc parameters can be found in
[19]. Here we note only that can be approximated by the
expression (where in T, (the mean cur-
rent density) in kA cm , in centimeters) [19]. On the basis
of this approximation, one can compute ratio. For the
present experimental conditions, it appears to be mT kA.
Fig. 9 presents normalized azimuthally averaged (from 0 to
360 ) radial distributions of current density for the electrode de-
sign N1 for different currents. It can be seen that within the cur-
rent range of 28-39 kA, the normalized distribution of current
density did not depend on current. This may be because the gen-
erated AMF strength is proportional to current.
Similar results were obtained with electrode designs N2 and
N3. However, the current distribution tended to be wider. The in-
crease of the area occupied by the CSs on the cathode is, as the
comparison of Figs. 10 and 11 shows, a consequence of growth
in the size of the region where the induction of the AMF gener-
ated by electrode system exceeded .
It is interesting to compare the cathode current distribution
in the developed arc and the erosion tracks of the arc on the
anode in different electrode designs. Fig. 12 shows collated az-
imuthally averaged radial distributions of current in electrode
designs 1 and 3 and photographs of anode surfaces after comple-
tion of a series of identical arc tests with currents up to .
The photographs suggest that the heating of the central part of
anode design 1 [Fig. 12(a)] was greater than that of anode de-
sign 3 [Fig. 12(b)], and vice versa, the periphery of anode 3 was
1516
Fig. 11. Calculated radial distributions of the AMF induction for different
electrode designs, for a section across the middle of a contact petal.
Fig. 12. Arc erosion prints on anodes and azimuthally averaged current density
distributions. (a) N1 electrodes. (b) N3 electrodes.
more intensely heated. It is in accordance with the redistribu-
tion of the current over the cathode of electrode design 3 from
the central part toward the periphery. But it is necessary to take
into account that the erosion track mirrors the cumulative effect
of the arc action during the process of arc development and arc
burning in a quasi-stationary state.
The most severe melting for both designs occurs near the slots
of the contact system. This is a natural consequence of heat-
transfer drop at an edge.
As one can see from Fig. 12, melted material moves az-
imuthally and toward the central region. Such structure is
hardly explicable by excitation of capillary waves as in work
[20]. A more reasonable guess is that the melt dynamics is
caused by the action of the Ampere force on the liquid con-
ductor with current flow while immersed in a magnetic field.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 33, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2005
Fig. 13. Current density in the central not-slotted area versus current for
different electrode designs and their limiting interrupting currents.
The difference in the near axis anode surface appearance be-
tween anode designs 1 and 3 is likely to arise in part due to the
melt dynamics.
It should be noted that the arc behavior and modes observed
here were markedly different from that in the electrode design
described in [20]–[22] even though they have a similar design
(unipolar AMF) and geometric parameters. In particular, in
[20], an arc 4 mm long (as in the present experiments) switched
from the diffuse mode to diffuse columnar arc mode already
at the current of 25 kA [20, Fig. 1], whereas we observed no
such transition for current up to 45 kA. This may be attributed
to the nonoptimal design of the electrodes [20]–[22]. Another
plausible explanation follows from the recent work [23], which
showed that the repeated loading of electrodes with current
pulses of identical but sufficiently large amplitude causes a
transition from the “diffuse columnar arc” mode to the “diffuse
arc” mode [23, Fig. 6]. The transition may be caused by de-
gassing of the electrodes warmed with high current. The results
of the work [23] are, in our opinion, very interesting and worthy
of further study.
The results of testing the studied electrode designs using a
double synthetic circuit will now be presented. Fig. 13 shows
the dependency of current density in the solid central cathode re-
gion on current for different electrode designs and their limiting
interruption currents. The current density was computed on the
basis of the present method. It may be seen that electrode design
N3 with the widest AMF distribution had much better switching
performance. It can also be seen that the limiting breakable cur-
rent in various electrode systems examined in the present exper-
iment corresponded to roughly the same current density in the
paraxial region of the contact plate, kA cm .
V. CONCLUSION
The developed technique allows deriving the 2-D distribution
of current density in a HCVA with a current on the order of
several tens of kiloamperes. This technique is applicable not
only for butt solid contacts with an external AMF but also for
commercial complicated electrodes with a nonuniform AMF.
Application of this technique for these electrodes supported a
previous conclusion that the current density in HCVAs tends to
distribute evenly across that part of the contact surface, where
SHKOL’NIK et al.: DISTRIBUTION OF CATHODE CURRENT DENSITY AND BREAKING CAPACITY OF MEDIUM VOLTAGE VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
AMF induction fits the inequality , where
and are characteristic inductions defined previously
[16].
We also discovered that slots on the contact surface lead to
substantially nonuniform distribution of current density even if
the AMF is properly configured.
Comparison of the breaking capacity and the current den-
sity distribution for different electrode systems showed that in-
terruption with electrodes examined in the present experiments
failed at a current density of kA cm .
We also found out that changing the configuration of the
AMF may substantially improve breaking capacity; in our
experiments, a slight modification of the AMF distribution
increased the breaking capacity by 12%.
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[21] H. Schellekens and M. S. Schulman, “High-current diffuse vacuum arcs
on axial magnetic field contacts: Arc visualization and contact temper-
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[22] E. Dullni, H. Fink, and W. Shang, “Optical investigations of vacuum arc
development with different axial magnetic field contacts,” in Proc. XX
ISDEIV, Tours, France, Jul. 2002, pp. 311–314.
[23] W. Hartman, W. Haas, M. Romheld, and N. Wenzel, “AMF vacuum arcs
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Sep. 2004, pp. 450–453.
Sergey M. Shkol’nik was born in Leningrad,
U.S.S.R. (now St. Petersburg, Russia), in 1946.
He received a degree from the Physical Faculty,
Leningrad State University, in 1970 and the Candi-
date of Physical-Mathematical Sciences degree from
A.F. Ioffe Physical–Technical Institute, Academy of
Sciences, Leningrad, in 1979.
Since 1970, he has been with the Laboratory
of “Low Temperature Plasma Physics,” A.F. Ioffe
Physical–Technical Institute. Since 1985, he has
been Head of the “Electrode Phenomena” Group. His
main efforts were devoted to the study of electrode phenomena in high-current
low- and atmospheric pressure discharges and vacuum arcs. Considerable
attention has been given to the development of highly ionized dense plasma
diagnostics, especially by means of electric probes. In recent years, he has
also taken part in the investigations of the discharge with liquid nonmetallic
electrodes in air at atmospheric pressure. This kind of electrical discharge
generates plasma, which is far from thermodynamical equilibrium and has
good prospects for different applications.
Vasiliy P. Afanas’ev was born in Likchoslavl,
U.S.S.R. (now Russia), in 1946. He received a
degree from the Physical Faculty, Leningrad State
University, Leningrad, U.S.S.R., in 1970 and the
Candidate of Physical–Mathematical Sciences
degree from A.F. Ioffe Physical–Technical Institute,
Academy of Sciences, Leningrad, in 1976.
Since 1970, he has been with the Charged Parti-
cles Optics Group, A.F. Ioffe Physical–Technical In-
stitute. Since 1984, he has been with the Laboratory
of Low Temperature Plasma Physics. His main ef-
forts were devoted to the study of various electron-optics devices, plasma dy-
namics, and nonequilibrium plasma thermodynamics in connection with high-
current arcs.
Yury A. Barinov was born in Leningrad, U.S.S.R.
(now St. Petersburg, Russia), in 1962. He received
a degree from the Physical Faculty, Leningrad State
University, in 1990. His specialization was in radio
physics.
Since 1985, he has been with the Laboratory of Low
Temperature Plasma Physics, A.F. Ioffe Physical-
Technical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg. In recent years, he has also taken
part in the investigations of the discharge with liquid
nonmetallic electrodes in air at atmospheric pres-
sure. At present, the subject of his research is the investigation of high-current
vacuum arc.
1518
Alexey M. Chaly graduated from the Engineering In-
stitute, Sevastopol, U.S.S.R., in 1983. He received the
Doctor of Science and Engineering degree from the
Russian Electrotechnical Academy, Moscow, Russia,
in 1997.
In 1983, he joined the Scientific Laboratory, En-
gineering Institute, Sevastopol, U.S.S.R., where he
was involved in development vacuum switchgear. In
1990, on the basis of this experience, he created a
privately owned company, Tavrida Electric, Moscow,
Russia, that laid down the foundation of the Indus-
trial Group Tavrida Electric, involved in the research, development, and manu-
facturing of vacuum switchgear. His main areas of interest cover switching in
vacuum and design of vacuum interrupters and circuit breakers.
Alexander A. Logatchev was born in Leningrad,
U.S.S.R. (now St. Petersburg, Russia), in 1964. He
graduated from the Physical Faculty, Leningrad
State University, in 1987. His specialization was in
optics and plasma physics.
Since 1987, he has been with the Laboratory of Low
Temperature Plasma Physics, A.F. Ioffe Physical-
Technical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg. At present, the subject of his research
is the physical investigation of high-current vacuum
arc.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 33, NO. 5, OCTOBER 2005
Sergey I. Malakhovsky was born in Ukraine,
in 1950. He received a degree from the Electron
Devices Faculty, Lvov Polytechnic Institute, Lvov,
Ukraine, in 1972.
In 1972, he joined the Electron Devices Plant,
Lvov. In 1990, he joined Tavrida Electric, Moscow,
Russia, and organized the Vacuum Interrupter
Department.
Irina N. Poluyanova received a degree from the En-
gineering Institute, Sevastopol, Ukraine, in 1994.
In 1994, she joined Switchgear Research Labo-
ratory, Industrial Group, Tavrida Electric, Moscow,
Russia. At present, the main areas of her interest
cover switching in vacuum and design of vacuum
interrupters.
Konstantin K. Zabello was born in Leningrad,
U.S.S.R. (now St. Petersburg, Russia), in 1976. He
graduated from the Radiophysics Faculty, Saint
Petersburg State Technical University, in 1999.
Since 1999, he has been with the Laboratory of Low
Temperature Plasma Physics, A.F. Ioffe Physical-
Technical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow. At present, the subject of his research is
the investigation of high-current vacuum arc.