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IET ENERGY ENGINEERING 95
Principles of Planar
Near-Field Antenna
Measurements
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Principles of Planar
Near-Field Antenna
Measurements
2nd Edition
Stuart Gregson, John McCormick and Clive Parini
The Institution of Engineering and Technology

Published by SciTech Publishing, an imprint of The Institution of Engineering and
Technology, London, United Kingdom
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England &

Wales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698).
† The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2023
First published 2023
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research
or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in
the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those
terms should be sent to the publisher at the undermentioned address:
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Futures Place
Kings Way, Stevenage
Hertfordshire SG1 2UA, United Kingdom
www.theiet.org
While the author and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this
work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making
use of them. Neither the author nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any
loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or
omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is
disclaimed.
The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-83953-699-1 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-83953-700-4 (PDF)
Typeset in India by MPS Limited

Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon
Cover Image - Close up of a Dual Robotic Antenna Measurement System.
(Courtesy of Boeing)
Contents
About the authors xiii

List of abbreviations xv
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The phenomena of antenna coupling 1
1.2 Characterisation via the measurement process 4
1.2.1 Free space radiation pattern 6
1.2.2 Polarisation 8
1.2.3 Bandwidth 8
1.3 Assumed (suppressed) time dependency 12
1.4 The organisation of the book 12
References 13
2 Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic wave propagation 15

2.1 Electric charge 15
2.2 The electromagnetic field 16
2.3 Accelerated charges 17
2.4 Maxwell’s equations 20
2.5 The electric and magnetic potentials 27
2.5.1 Static potentials 27
2.5.2 Retarded potentials 27
2.6 The inapplicability of source excitation as a measurement
methodology 31
2.7 Field equivalence principle 32
2.8 Characterising vector electromagnetic fields 34
2.9 Summary 36
References 37
3 Introduction to near-field antenna measurements 39

3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Antenna measurements 39
3.3 Forms of near-field antenna measurements 46
3.4 Plane rectilinear near-field antenna measurements 49
3.5 Chambers, screening and absorber 51
3.6 RF subsystem 53
3.7 Robotics positioner subsystem 58
viii Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
3.8 Near-field probe 63

3.9 Generic antenna measurement process 66
3.10 Summary 68
References 68
4 Plane-wave spectrum representation of electromagnetic waves 69

4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Overview of the derivation of the plane-wave spectrum 70
4.3 Solution of the scalar Helmholtz equation in Cartesian co-ordinates 71
4.3.1 Introduction to integral transforms 71
4.3.2 Fourier transform solution of the scalar Helmholtz equation 72
4.4 On the choice of boundary conditions 84
4.5 Operator substitution (derivative of a Fourier transform) 85
4.6 Solution of the vector Helmholtz equation in Cartesian co-ordinates 86
4.7 Solution of the vector magnetic wave equation in Cartesian
co-ordinates 89
4.8 The relationship between electric and magnetic spectral components 89
4.9 The free space propagation vector k 92
4.10 Plane-wave impedance 93
4.11 Interpretation as an angular spectrum of plane waves 95
4.12 Far-field antenna radiation patterns: approximated by the angular
spectrum 97
4.13 Stationary phase evaluation of a double integral 100
4.14 Co-ordinate free form of the near-field to angular
spectrum transform 106
4.15 Reduction of the co-ordinate free form of the near-field to far-field
transform to Huygens’ principle 109
4.16 Far-fields from non-planar apertures 111
4.17 Microwave holographic metrology (plane-to-plane transform) 112
4.18 Far-field to near-field transform 114
4.19 Radiated power and the angular spectrum 118
4.20 Summary of conventional near-field to far-field transform 121
References 123
5 Measurements – practicalities of planar near-field antenna

measurements 125
5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Sampling (interpolation theory) 125
5.3 Truncation, spectral leakage, and finite area scan errors 127
5.4 Antenna-to-antenna coupling (transmission) formula 133
5.4.1 Behaviour of evanescent plane wave mode coefficients 141
5.4.2 Simple scattering model of a near-field probe during a
planar measurement 144
5.5 Effect of acquiring near-field data using an electric dipole probe 146
5.6 Rotationally symmetric, x-polarised, near-field probe 150
Contents ix
5.7 Evaluation of the conventional near-field to far-field transform 151

5.7.1 Standard techniques for the evaluation of a double Fourier
integral 152
5.8 General antenna coupling formula: arbitrarily orientated antennas 157
5.9 Plane-polar and plane bi-polar near-field to far-field transform 162
5.9.1 Boundary values known in plane polar co-ordinates 164
5.9.2 Boundary values known in plane bi-polar co-ordinates 177
5.10 Regular azimuth over elevation & elevation over azimuth
co-ordinate systems 187
5.11 Polarisation basis and antenna measurements 190
5.11.1 Cartesian polarisation basis – Ludwig I 190
5.11.2 Polar spherical polarisation basis 191
5.11.3 Azimuth over elevation basis – Ludwig II 193
5.11.4 Copolar and cross-polar polarisation basis – Ludwig III 195
5.11.5 Circular polarisation basis – RHCP and LHCP 198
5.12 Linear and circular polarisation bases – complex vector
representations 204
5.13 Overview of antenna alignment corrections 208
5.13.1 Scalar rotation of far-field antenna patterns 208
5.13.2 Vector rotation of far-field antenna patterns 211
5.13.3 Rotation of copolar polarisation basis – generalised
Ludwig III 213
5.13.4 Generalised compound vector rotation of far-field
antenna patterns 214
5.14 Brief description of near-field co-ordinate systems 217
5.14.1 Range fixed system (RFS) 217
5.14.2 Antenna mechanical system 218
5.14.3 Antenna electrical system 218
5.14.4 Far-field azimuth and elevation co-ordinates 219
5.14.5 Ludwig III co-polar and cross-polar definition 219
5.14.6 Probe alignment definition (single port probe) 219
5.14.7 General vector rotation of antenna radiation patterns 219
5.15 Directivity & gain 220
5.15.1 Directivity 220
5.15.2 Calculating the power radiated in a direction-cosine
coordinate system 222
5.15.3 Direct evaluation of directivity for a uniformly illuminated
square aperture 224
5.15.4 Gain 228
5.15.5 Gain-transfer (gain-comparison) method 229
5.15.6 Approximation of the gain of a rectangular
pyramidal horn 231
5.16 Calculating the peak of a pattern 235
5.16.1 Peak by series solution 235
5.16.2 Peak by polynomial fit 237
5.16.3 Peak by centroid 239
x Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
5.17 Estimating the position of a phase centre from far-field data 240
5.18 Summary 243
References 243
6 Probe pattern characterisation 245

6.2 Effect of the probe pattern on far-field data 246
6.3 Desirable characteristics of a near-field probe 248
6.3.1 Open-ended rectangular waveguide probes 250
6.3.2 Dual-polarised waveguide probes 253
6.3.3 Broadband probes 254
6.3.4 Other less commonly encountered types of near-field
probes – dipoles 257
6.4 Acquisition of quasi far-field probe pattern 257
6.4.1 Sampling scheme 259
6.4.2 Electronic system drift (Tie-scan correction) 264
6.4.3 Channel balance correction 265
6.4.4 Assessment of chamber multiple reflections 268
6.4.5 Correction for rotary errors 270
6.4.6 Remote source antenna tilt-angle correction 273
6.4.7 Re-tabulation of probe vector pattern function 273
6.4.8 Alternate interpolation formula 277
6.4.9 Approximate unwrapping of two-dimensional
phase functions 280
6.4.10 True far-field probe pattern 283
6.5 Finite element model of open ended rectangular waveguide probe 285
6.6 Probe displacement correction 289
6.7 Channel balance correction 289
References 290
7 Computational electromagnetic model of a planar near-field

measurement process 293
7.2 Linear superposition of electric dipoles 294
7.3 Method of sub-apertures 296
7.4 Aperture set in an infinite perfectly conducting ground plane 299
7.4.1 Plane wave spectrum antenna–antenna coupling formula 304
7.5 Vector Huygens method 306
7.6 Kirchhoff–Huygens method 308
7.7 Current elements method 314
7.8 Equivalent currents method – near-field to far-field transform,
antenna diagnostics, and range reflection suppression 324
7.9 Generalised technique for the simulation of near-field antenna
measurements 338
7.9.1 Mutual coupling and the reaction theorem 339
Contents xi
7.10 Near-field measurement simulation 342

7.11 Reaction theorem 345
7.11.1 Lorentz reciprocity theorem (field reciprocity theorem) 345
7.11.2 Generalised Reaction theorem 350
7.11.3 Mutual impedance and the Reaction theorem 352
7.12 Full wave simulation of a planar near-field antenna measurement 353
7.13 Summary 357
References 357
8 Antenna measurement analysis and assessment 359

8.2 The establishment of the measure from the measurement results 359
8.2.1 Measurement errors 360
8.2.2 The sources of measurement ambiguity and error 363
8.2.3 The examination of measurement result data to establish
the measure 365
8.3 Measurement error budgets 368
8.3.1 Applicability of modelling error sources 369
8.3.2 The empirical approach to error budgets 370
8.3.3 Applicability of the digital twin to assessing error budgets 371
8.3.4 Truncation 373
8.3.5 Numerical truncation and rounding error 376
8.3.6 Probe x,y (in-plane) position error 376
8.3.7 Aliasing (data point spacing) 379
8.3.8 Systematic phase, e.g. drift 381
8.3.9 Dynamic range 382
8.3.10 Summary 382
8.4 Illustration of the compilation of range assessment budgets 383
8.5 Quantitative measures of correspondence between data sets 388
8.5.1 The requirement for measures of correspondence 388
8.6 Comparison techniques 389
8.6.1 Examples of conventional data set comparison techniques 389
8.6.2 Novel data comparison techniques 393
8.7 Summary 408
References 410
9 Advanced planar near-field antenna measurements 413

9.2 Active alignment correction 413
9.2.1 Acquisition of alignment data in a planar near-field facility 416
9.2.2 Acquisition of mechanical alignment data in a planar
near-field facility 417
9.2.3 Example of the application of active alignment correction 420
9.3 Amplitude only planar near-field measurements 426
9.3.1 Plane-to-plane phase retrieval algorithm 427
xii Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
9.3.2 Plane-to-plane phase retrieval algorithm – with aperture

constraint 431
9.4 Non-iterative phase retrieval technique 434
9.4.1 Current phase retrieval techniques 435
9.4.2 AUT phase and probe position reconstruction from four
or more reference antenna phase measurements 438
9.4.3 Simulation of the measurement system 441
9.5 Traditional position correction algorithms, in plane and z plane
corrections 451
9.5.1 Taylor-series expansion 452
9.5.2 K-Correction method 459
9.6 Non-canonical transforms, plane wave spectrum-based treatment 464
9.6.1 Matrix inversion method – solution of a system of equations 464
9.6.2 Non-uniform FFT-based algorithms 472
9.6.3 Non-canonical transform 475
9.7 Compressive sensing 483
9.7.1 Introduction to compressive sensing 483
9.7.2 Defective element detection using compressive sensing 486
9.7.3 Compressive sensing applied to a 2D array 488
9.7.4 Practical implementation 495
9.7.5 Compressive sensing using near-field scanning 502
9.7.6 Summary of compressing sensing technique 507
9.8 Three antenna extrapolated gain measurements 507
9.9 Partial scan techniques 517
9.9.1 Auxiliary translation 517
9.9.2 Rotations of the AUT about the z-axis 520
9.9.3 Auxiliary rotation – bi-planar near-field antenna
measurements 523
9.9.4 Near-field to far-field transformation of
probe-corrected data 531
9.9.5 Applicability of the poly-planar technique 537
9.9.6 Complete poly-planar rotational technique 541
9.10 Concluding remarks 545
References 545
Appendices 551
Index 595
About the authors
Professor Stuart Gregson is an honorary visiting professor at Queen Mary

University of London and the director of Operations & Research at Next Phase
Measurements. He received his BSc degree in Physics in 1994 and his MSc degree
in Microwave Solid State Physics in 1995 both from the University of Portsmouth.
He received his PhD degree in 2003 from Queen Mary University of London. From
his time with: Airbus, Leonardo, NSI-MI and the National Physical Laboratory;
Prof. Gregson has developed special experience with near-field antenna measure-
ments, finite array mutual coupling, computational electromagnetics, installed
antenna and radome performance prediction and design, compact antenna test
range design & simulation, electromagnetic scattering, 5G OTA measurements and
has published numerous peer-reviewed research papers on these topics regularly
contributing to and organizing industrial courses on these subject areas. He is a
fellow of the Antenna Measurement Techniques Association, a fellow of the
Institution of Engineering and Technology, a fellow of the Institute of Physics and
is a chartered engineer and physicist.
Dr John McCormick has extensive experience in many areas of metrology ran-

ging from wet chemistry laboratories to free-space electromagnetic measurement
facilities. His expertise relevant to these volumes relates to his involvement over a
number of decades in research and development related to naval and airborne radar
systems along with RCS and EW. This experience has been gained in the course of
his working relationships with DERA, BAE Systems SELEX ES and latterly
Finmeccanica, where he has been engineering lead on a range of advanced pro-
grammes that required the development and implementation of diverse and novel
measurement techniques. He holds degrees at BA, BSc, MSc and PhD levels, is a
fellow of the Institute of Physics, a fellow of the Institution of Engineering
Technology and is a chartered physicist and chartered engineer. Additionally, he
takes a strong and active interest in the encouragement of public awareness of all
areas of science and engineering especially within the school environment where he
acts as a schools STEM ambassador.
Professor Clive Parini is a professor of antenna engineering at Queen Mary

University of London and until his part retirement in October 2021 headed the
Antenna & Electromagnetics Research Group. He received his BSc(Eng) degree in
Electronic Engineering in 1973 and PhD in 1976 both from Queen Mary University
of London. After a short period with ERA Technology Ltd., he joined Queen Mary
xiv Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
University of London as Lecturer (1977), moving to reader (1990) and then pro-
fessor (1999). He has published over 400 papers on research topics including array
mutual coupling, array beam forming, antenna metrology, antennas for mobile and
on-body communications, millimetrewave compact antenna test ranges, milli-
metrewave integrated antennas, quasi-optical systems and antenna applications for
metamaterials. In 1990, he was one of three co-workers to receive the IEE
Measurements Prize for work on near-field reflector metrology. He is a fellow of
the IET and a past member and chairman of the IET Antennas & Propagation
Professional Network Executive Team. He is a past member of the editorial board
and past honorary editor for the IET Journal Microwaves, Antennas & Propagation.
In 2009, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering.
List of abbreviations
Abbreviation Definition
3D three dimensional
AAPC advanced antenna pattern correction
AC alternating current
AES antenna electrical system
AESA active electronically scanned array
AMS antenna mechanical system
AMTA antenna measurement techniques association
APC antenna pattern comparison
AR axial ratio
AUT antenna under test
Az azimuth
CAE computer-aided engineering
CATR compact antenna test range
CDF cumulative distribution function
CEM computational electromagnetic
CP circularly polarised
CW continuous wave
dB decibel
DC direct current
DFT discrete Fourier transform
DUT device under test
EFT electromagnetic field theory
EHF extremely high frequency
EIRP effective isotropic radiated power
El elevation
EM electromagnetic
EMI electromagnetic interference
EMPL equivalent multipath level
ESA European Space Agency
ET edge taper
FCC federal communications commission
FDTD finite difference time domain
FF far-field
FF-MPAC far-field multi-probe anechoic chamber
FFT fast Fourier transform
GBM Gaussian beam mode
GPIB general purpose interface bus
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spécial
Mobile
GTD geometric theory of diffraction
xvi Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
HF high frequency
HVAC heating ventilation and air conditioning
I in-phase receiver channel
IDFT inverse discrete Fourier transform
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IET Institution of Engineering and Technology
IF intermediate frequency
IFFT inverse fast Fourier transform
ITU International Telecommunication Union
LF low frequency
LHCP left hand circular polarisation
LI Ludwig 1st definition of cross-polarisation
LII Ludwig 2nd definition of cross-polarisation
LIII Ludwig 3rd definition of cross-polarisation
LO local oscillator
LP linearly polarised
LPDA log periodic dipole array
MARS mathematical absorber reflection suppression
MC mirror cube
MHM microwave holographic metrology
MoM method of moments
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NBS National Bureau of Standards
NF near-field
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
OEFS opto-electric field sensor
OEWG open ended waveguide probe
OMT orthogonal mode transducer
OTA over the air
PCU power control unit
PDF probability density function
PIN p-type intrinsic n-type construction for diode junction
PNF planar near-field
PO physical optics
PTD physical theory of diffraction
PTFE polytetrafluoro-ethylene
PTP plane-to-plane
PWS plane wave spectrum
PWSC plane wave spectrum components
Q quadrature receiver channel
QMUL Queen Mary, University of London
QZ quiet zone
RA range assessment
RADAR radio detection and ranging
RAL Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
RAM radar absorbent material
RCS radar cross-section
RF radio frequency
RFS range fixed system
RHCP right hand circular polarisation
RI range illuminator
RMS root mean square
RSA remote source antenna
List of abbreviations xvii
RSS root sum square

Rx receive
SAR synthetic aperture radar
SD standard deviation
SFD saturating flux density
SGA standard gain antenna
SGH standard gain horn
SHF super high frequency
SMA subminiature A
SNR signal-to-noise ratio
SRD step recovery diode
SWR standing wave ratio
TE transverse electric
TEM transverse electric and magnetic
TM transverse magnetic
TRP total radiated power
Tx transmit
UHF ultra high frequency
UTD universal theory of diffraction
UWB ultra wideband
VHF very high frequency
VNA vector network analyser
VSWR voltage standing wave ratio
WG waveguide
This page intentionally left blank
Foreword
Second edition of Principles of Planar Near-field Antenna Measurements

Ed Joy, Professor Emeritus, Georgia Institute of Technology
2 February 2023, Boulder, Colorado
Significant advancements have been made in Planar Near-field Measurements in

the 16 years since the publication of the first edition of Principles of Planar Near-
field Antenna Measurements. The second edition of Principles of Planar Near-field
Antenna Measurements updates the first addition with these advances. The authors
present these advances in a clear and understandable manner, including their
practical implementation, recommended measurement procedures and necessary
mathematics. The authors, Prof. Stuart Gregson, Dr John McCormick, and Prof.
Clive Panini, are leading practitioners, researchers and teachers of planar near-field
antenna measurement techniques. Many of the advancements presented were
developed by them.
A highly visible update is the use of an abundance of color photos, figures, and
diagrams, notably, of modern near-field measurement systems and equipment
including robots and drones. New topics are spread throughout the book to docu-
ment the advances in near-field measurement practice and theory which take
advantage of the modern equipment.
First and foremost, the second edition sticks to its roots as a book all about planar
near-field measurements. Chapters on Maxwell–Heaviside equations, near-field
antenna measurement techniques, plane wave spectra, practical implementation of
planar near-field systems, near-field probe characterization, the computational model
of the planar near-field measurement process, near-field measurement error analysis,
and advanced measurement techniques are still there, with additions. The second edi-
tion retains the first edition’s collection of useful appendices with the addition of a Fast
Fourier Transform Appendix.
Major additions found in Chapter 5 are the plane-polar near-field transform
and the plane-bipolar transform, including transforms with acceleration. A detailed
discussion of zero padding and associated phase compensation, insights into near-
field evanescent waves and their properties, closer examination of the dipole as a
near-field probe, the advantages of a rotationally symmetric near-field probe, the
use of parabolic and Taylor-series approximations of an antenna’s main beam to
determine main beam direction and phase center, derivation of the directivity of a
xx Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
uniformly illuminated square aperture, and the NRL formula for the approximate
gain of a pyramidal horn also have been added to Chapter 5.
Addition of examples of common near-field probes in Chapter 6 include a
rectangular open-ended wave guide, a dielectrically loaded open-ended waveguide,
a dual polarized circular open-ended waveguide, an open boundary wideband dual-
ridged horn, a linearly polarized log periodic array, and a miniature electric near-
field probe. The discussion on the merits of the various near-field probes has been
expanded.
The increase in computer modeling of planar near-field antenna measurement
systems over the last 16 years has led to the increased size of Chapter 7. Six
methods for the simulation of an AUT near-field are presented using: an array of
electric dipoles; an array of sub-apertures; a plane-to-plane transform; Kirchhoff–
Huygens’ method; current elements method; and equivalent currents method.
These methods are fully explained and recommendations are given for the best use
of each. Chapter 7 concludes with a full wave simulation of a planar near-field
antenna measurement. A commercially available method of moments tool was used
to model a measurement of a standard gain horn with an open-ended rectangular
probe on a planar near-field measurement system, illustrating the possibilities and
challenges of full wave simulations.
The computer modeling tools developed in Chapter 7 are put to use in
Chapter 8 to help assess planar near-field measurement system errors and form a
range error budget. Error assessments presented include: planar measurement
truncation, numerical truncation and rounding, in plane position error, out of plane
position error, aliasing, RF system amplitude and phase drift with time and receiver
dynamic range. The chapter concludes with a planar near-field range assessment
example of the measurement of a standard gain horn with a rectangular open-ended
waveguide. The example includes 18 sources of measurement uncertainty.
Chapter 9, Advanced planar near-field measurements, is a fun chapter, a peek
into the future of planar near-field measurements. It is interesting to see how many
of the advanced topics presented in First Edition of Principles of Planar Near-Field
Measurements have become standard practice. We are treated to a new list of
advances, including: drones and robotic test systems and non-iterative phase
recovery methods; non-conical near-field to far-field transforms – matrix inversion
method, with examples including use for plane-polar transforms; non-conical near-
field to far-field transforms – non-uniform FFT for irregular sampling; examples of
using non-conical transforms for near-field measurements using drones; compre-
hensive sensing for array diagnostics using plane wave spectrum processing; and a
three-antenna extrapolated gain method also using plane wave spectrum
processing.
This second edition is a brilliant collection of the body-of-knowledge of planar
near-field measurements with extensions to the future. I highly recommend this
book for antenna measurement practitioners, researchers, and teachers, and for
those who need a thorough introduction to planar near-field antenna measurements.
Preface
So often, it is the very everyday nature of the physical phenomena around us that
blind us to their universality and their importance, both in how we understand and
use them in our environment. The list of technological advances over the ages
engineered by exploiting these so often ignored or unappreciated phenomena would
run to a work of thousands of pages crammed with ingenuity, inventiveness and
insight. Our entire technological society is riddled with examples of devices, tools
and mechanisms that are based on the existence of these physical phenomena,
designed and manufactured by engineering techniques based on, and exploiting the
fundamental physical laws that govern these phenomena.
As with so many other of the technological wonders of the present day that are
taken for granted, countless generations must have dreamt of gazing down on the
dark side of the moon. Only a few decades separate us from that day when the crew
of Apollo 8 were the first humans to see that sight so permanently hidden from
other humans by a manifestation one of the most universal of all observed physical
phenomena, the Coupling of Harmonic Systems. Every schoolboy and girl know
that despite their physical isolation, the harmonic oscillation of the earth rotating on
its axis is coupled to the periodic orbit of the moon so that the same side of the
moon always points towards the earth. Of course, what the crew of Apollo 8 saw
was conveyed to us back here on the earth by making use of the same universal
phenomena of coupled harmonic systems, except that in this case they were cou-
pled electronic, as opposed to massive gravitational, systems.
No one who has studied electronic engineering, to any appreciable level, has
escaped from hours spent in the pursuit of the solution to problems concerning the
arrangement of resistances, capacitances, and inductances in circuits, to produce
harmonic systems that have in turn their associated resonant frequencies, bode
plots, and Q factors. However, much of what is involved in the modern electronic
technologies is based on the existence of harmonic circuits and the universally
observed phenomena that these circuits couple together. By way of illustration, in
essence, the entire field of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is an attempt to
minimise the extent to which systems couple. Conversely, the fields of commu-
nications and radar in turn both involve attempts to maximise this coupling. So, the
extent to which electronic systems interact, as a result of this coupling, is funda-
mental to large swathes of electronic engineering and therefore also to our modern
technological society.
This interaction can be minimised by using a variety of strategies, physical
isolation, screening, the judicious choice of systems components to separate
xxii Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
resonant frequencies are all viable, but this coupling can never be completely
removed. However, for many systems, the existence of this coupling and its
exploitation for the transfer of information in the form of a signal is imperative to
the successful operation of the technologies. This of course means that for these
technologies, techniques and components must be developed that maximise the
coupling between harmonic electronic systems.
Many strategies have been employed to maximise this coupling and the sub-
sequent transfer of information between the systems. However, if the systems are
physically isolated from each other and no fixed or transmission line can be
established between them, as with the earth and the moon, the free space between
them must be exploited as a medium to facilitate the interaction between these
apparently isolated systems. The most commonly used strategy for enhancing the
interaction between such isolated electronic systems is the inclusion of circuit
elements within the electronic systems that enhance this interaction, these indivi-
dual circuit components are usually referred to as Antennas.
It is not the purpose of this book to hypothesis or examine in great detail the
mechanisms by which the interaction facilitated by the antennas between the
electronic systems occurs, although a variety of such mechanisms and the basis of
their associated mathematical algorithms are briefly discussed in Appendix A. In
this text, the interaction will primarily be described in terms of the propagation of
an angular spectrum of transverse, to take account of polarisation, waves propa-
gating in a non-dispersive medium, these waves being consistent with solutions to
Maxwell’s equations. In a large variety of circumstances, this is a particularly
successful algorithm for the description of the interaction in question, but the
treatment, in this volume, will be such that other hypothesised interaction
mechanisms and their attendant mathematical algorithms will not be precluded by
the explanations introduced.
One of the most common techniques adopted to characterise, predict, and
quantify this coupling between electronic circuits is to attempt to reduce the pro-
blem of circuit coupling to that of antenna performance. Thus, by characterising
antennas in a known circuit configuration, the extent to which they enhance cou-
pling in other situations can be predicted. This is the fundamental procedure
adopted in antenna test ranges, where the inclusion of antennas in a configuration
of two coupled circuits, usually referred to as the transmit, (Tx), and the receive,
(Rx), circuits allows this measurement process to be performed. This means that the
characterisation of the antennas in this circuit configuration can be used to predict
the response of other circuit configurations which include the same antennas.
The accurate characterisation of how the presence of antennas will affect the
coupling of electronic circuits can be accomplished using a number of different
range configurations, one of the most accurate being the antenna near-field range.
This technique allows the characterisation of antennas where measurements are
made in close physical proximity to the antennas and thus these measurements can
be performed in small highly controlled environments where extraneous noise and
interference, mechanical, environmental and electromagnetic, can be eliminated or
effectively suppressed. This means that highly stable, repeatable measurements
Preface xxiii
from which the antenna characteristics can be extracted are possible. All mea-
surement techniques have their limitations and ranges of applicability, not least
near-field antenna measurements. However, the necessary information required to
inform and influence the design of systems in which antennas are used to enhance
the coupling between electronic circuits can be obtained by the skilful and expert
use of such antenna test ranges.
Therefore what is intended, in the following chapters, is an initial examination
of the properties of antennas that allow them to enhance the free-space interaction
of electronic systems. This will then be followed by the description of the theory of
an effective, efficient, and accurate methodology for characterising these properties
using the antenna measurement technique of planar near-field scanning. This will
be followed by a review of the practical implications of making such measurements
in terms of, techniques, instrumentation, processing, and analysis of data. The uti-
lity of the planar methodology is then illustrated with example measurement
campaigns. These include a discussion of the characterisation of high gain instru-
ments, electrically large reflector assemblies, planar array antennas along with the
ability to transform back to array elements in the aperture plane, to confirm element
excitations, and to optimise the overall antenna performance. The determination
and compilation of measurement uncertainty budgets is included together with an
illustration of the way in which computational electromagnetic simulation, and the
concept of the digital twin, may be exploited in their development. Some of the
latest advances in such methodologies will be examined particularly with respect to
the introduction of statistical image classification techniques which aim to assess
the accuracy, sensitivity, and repeatability of given data. These techniques are
applicable to all types of antenna pattern, both measured and theoretical, and so are
of interest to a wide range of readers who undertake, or are required to interpret
antenna radiation pattern data. Finally, many of the most recent advances in the
technique which deal with measurement correction, the introduction of non-
canonical transforms, and partial scan techniques based on auxiliary translations
and rotations to produce poly-planar near-field data sets will be described. This will
involve an explanation of the measurement techniques, the assessment of the
additional terms introduced in the error budget associated with the technique, and
the theoretical basis of the transforms developed to allow their deployment. A large
number of facilities exist world-wide, and these techniques will be of interest to
current and new planar near-field users alike, as they enable the maximum size of
the antenna that can be measured within a given facility to be significantly
increased. Furthermore, many of the techniques developed within this technique
will be of great utility to those practitioners working with positioning systems
comprising uninhabited air vehicles, i.e. drones, or multi-axis industrial robots
where the non-canonical scanning data transformation and post-processing tech-
niques will be of enormous utility.
In summary, the updated and expanded volume will provide a comprehensive
introduction and explanation of both the theory and practice of planar near-field
measurements, from its basic postulates and assumptions, to the intricacies of its
deployment in complex and demanding measurement scenarios.
xxiv Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
The International System of Units (SI) is used exclusively. This text uses the
approximation m0 = 4p10–7 NA–2. Following the redefinition of SI base units, the
kilogram, ampere, kelvin and mole, on 20 May 2019, the difference between this
value of m0 and the SI (experimental) value of m0 is less than 110 9 in relative
value which is negligible in the context of the uncertainty budgets discussed herein.
However, this assumption should be noted and re-examined periodically as it does
subtlety affect the permittivity of vacuum, impedance of vacuum and admittance of
vacuum. Numbers in parenthesis () denote equations whilst numbers in brackets []
denote references.
Our thanks to the many individuals who generously gave assistance, advice, and
support. We gratefully acknowledge the invaluable suggestions, corrections and
constructive criticisms of the many people who gave freely of their time to review the
manuscript at various stages throughout its preparation. However, any errors or lack
of clarity must remain the responsibility of the authors, who would welcome any and
all such mistakes being brought to their attention. The authors are grateful to their
wives, (Catherine Gregson, Imelda McCormick and Claire Parini) and children,
(Elizabeth Gregson and Robert Parini), whose unwavering understanding, support,
encouragement and good humour, were necessary factors in the completion of this
work. A special vote of thanks must be devoted to Catherine for her tireless work on
the manuscript. To the companies and individuals who generously provided copyright
consent. The authors are also extremely grateful to Prof. Ed Joy for his many valuable
comments and suggestions as well as for his generous encouragement.
There are many useful and varied sources of information that have been tapped
in the preparation of this text; however, mention must be made of four books which
have been of particular help to the authors, and will be referred to throughout. In no
particular order.
H.P. Hsu, Applied Fourier Analysis, Harcourt Brace College Publishing.
H. Anton, Calculus with Analytic Geometry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
M.R. Spiegel, Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis and an Introduction to
Tensor Analysis, Schaum Publishing Company.
R.H. Clarke and J. Brown, Diffraction Theory and Antennas, Ellis
Horwood Ltd.
Although the nomenclature and development of the theory of planar near-field
measurements as presented within this text has not followed that of the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) format, the technical publications
originating from that organisation have also been a rich source of valuable infor-
mation. In particular.
D.M. Kerns, Plane-Wave Scattering-Matrix Theory of Antennas and Antenna-
Antenna Interactions, Nat. Bur. Stand. Monograph 162.
A.C. Newell, Planar Near-Field Antenna Measurements, Electromagnetic
Fields Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO.
Stuart Gregson, John McCormick, Clive Parini

London & Edinburgh
January 2023
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 The phenomena of antenna coupling

This chapter describes the phenomenological basis of antenna measurements and
attempts to set out the processes and techniques that are developed in this text
against the background of what can actually be observed about the action of
antennas as circuit elements.
As is abundantly clear from the title, this volume has been penned for a very
specific purpose, to explain clearly, concisely and in an understandable form the
theory and practice of Planar Near-Field Antenna Measurements. Again, as
already stated in the preface, to do this the volume will confine itself to considering
the radiative coupling between electronic systems in free space for a number of
very sound reasons.
First, in almost every practical engineering circumstance, this is the mode in
which antennas are utilised. If coupling between systems that are not physically
separated by large distances is required, various forms of transmission lines can be
utilised; however, large separation distances almost invariably require the use
of antennas. Communication systems contain transmit, (Tx) and receive, (Rx) sub-
systems, which use at least two antennas, broadcast systems, and considerably
more. Radars may, or may not, use the same antenna for their Tx and Rx sub-
systems, and the coupling may well be profoundly affected by the scattering from
some target, but in essence, we are still considering coupling between electronic
sub-systems.
Careful consideration of all electronic systems that utilise antennas as a com-
ponent reveal that it is the extent of this coupling that is fundamental to their
operation. Replace Rx antenna with another transducer, e.g. bolometer for power
detection and rectifier for rectenna (power transmission by microwave signal), and
you have summed up almost every possible engineering circumstances except for
those systems designed to detect transmissions from naturally occurring radiation
sources, e.g. radiometers.
Second, the fundamental electromagnetic (EM) properties of antennas are very
limited. If you place a passive antenna in an incident field, it will scatter energy,
and depending on the power flux incident, it may get a little hot, that is, about all. It
is a common fallacy to assign properties to antennas that actually belong to the
systems within which they are embedded. By way of example, often antennas are
2 Principles of planar near-field antenna measurements
described as being reciprocal devices, in fact by definition reciprocity is a property

that can only be applied to objects that are either sources or sinks for energy [1].
Thus, it is correct to say that electronic systems that are reciprocal, e.g. that include
generators and loads and satisfy the usual requirements of isotropy, will not have
this property affected by the inclusion of passive antennas within them. However,
to talk of antennas in the absence of well-defined terminals, where load impe-
dance’s and source voltages are attached, being reciprocal is to misinterpret the
concept of reciprocity. In fact, almost all of the properties usually assigned to
antennas, and of engineering importance, are in fact properties of systems con-
taining antennas. Antennas do not by themselves transmit or receive energy across
free space they are simply bi-directional transducers that can be included as circuit
components in electronic systems. It is systems that include antennas as compo-
nents that have the emergent property that they can radiatively couple power across
large ranges in free space. Thus, the characterisation of antennas via measurements
to quantify their performance is really the characterisation of highly specified
electronic systems containing Tx and Rx antennas that can be used to predict the
response of other systems in which the same or similar antennas will be utilised.
Finally, as has already been stated in the preface, this volume will not attempt
to hypothesise or examine the variety of postulated physical mechanisms by which
the interaction, which is optimised by the antennas, between the electronic systems
occurs. However, as it will attempt to develop a thorough theoretical explanation of
near-field antenna measurements, it must, at least, be consistent with physical law.
Very little that is encountered within the discipline of electronic engineering is of a
more relativistic nature than the operation of antennas. By definition, the interac-
tion facilitated by the presence of antennas occurs at the speed of light thus rela-
tivity cannot be completely ignored when considering the action of antennas.
In this text, only Tx and Rx antennas that are in translational equilibrium
will be considered and their velocities relative to each other will be specified to
be zero. Additionally, the EM interactions will be observed from an inertial
reference frame coincident with the fiducial mechanical datum of the Tx
antenna. These conditions make it possible to consider the antenna character-
isation without reference to any relativistic effects associated with a multiplicity
of reference frames or to any known inertial effects. This simplifies the expla-
nations, without invalidating them in more complex situations, and makes it
convenient to consider the measurement process in terms of classical electro-
magnetic field theory (EFT) based on the work of the famous Scottish Physicist,
James Clerk-Maxwell. Maxwell’s equations, whose mathematical form as we
know them today, have much to do with simplification provided by the
renowned German experimentalist Heinrich Hertz and are themselves relati-
vistically invariant. Therefore, the solution of the Helmholtz wave equation that
will be developed within the text is automatically compliant with this facet of
physical law. Thus, it is largely possible to develop a consistent theoretical
explanation of near-field antenna measurements based on classical EFT.
However, classical EFT has limitations built into its basic structure and, as
with all other postulated mechanisms for the interaction of antennas across
Introduction 3
space and time, will produce inconsistent answers when used outside of its range
of applicability. One of the most striking limitations in the theory becomes
manifest when dealing with any single antenna. Calculations of the power
required to accelerate the electrons within antennas, to produce currents, that
provide values for the energy and momentum transferred to these distributions
of electrons can be achieved fairly easily. However, if the amount of energy and
momentum transferred to or from the EM field as a result of these accelerations
is calculated, it is found that the values calculated from circuit theory and the
values calculated from field theory do not agree. Thus, the radiation resistance
of the antenna will define an equivalent resistance required to dissipate a given
amount of power, which is not equal to the power transferred to the EM field
around the antenna, meaning that for an individual antenna, energy and
momentum are not conserved locally.
Globally for the level of energy to fall at one point in a space, it must
increase elsewhere, for energy to be conserved there must therefore be a change
in the energy distribution and density in the space. This rate of change of
energy with respect to time, dE/dt = power will, as a result of the requirement
for local conservation, be manifest as a flux between the regions in the space
where the energy density is changing. Thus, the existence of an energy density
at a point in space, in the absence of a flux, does not imply the development of
power, an important factor when consideration is given to the near-fields of any
antenna.
This local aspect of conservation requires that the power dissipated in the
antenna via its radiation resistance be equal to that developed in the flux around it,
and this is not the case for calculations based on simple classical EFT. Therefore,
the energy and momentum dissipated from the antenna do not equate to that in the
flux propagating away from the antenna. Nothing could be more at odds with all of
classical physical science than the concepts that the law of energy conservation in
time, and the law of momentum conservation in space can be violated.
Many theoretical mechanisms have been postulated to account for this
apparent anomaly, some of which invoke the concept of non-point-like charged
particles being involved, e.g. Poincare stresses [2]. Others involve the retention
of the advanced wave solution to the Helmholtz wave equation, most famously
the Wheeler Feynman absorber theory of radiation [3]. The absorber theory is
particularly attractive as it is by definition relativistically invariant, as will be
expanded upon in Chapter 4, and work extending and eliminating some of its
limitations by John Cramer at Washington State University in Seattle [4] has
made it also applicable within the realms of quantum as well as classical
mechanics.
However, making use of the reciprocal nature of systems including antennas
allows the consideration of systems where the power launched into the EM field is
coupled out by the presence of the same or other antennas. Therefore, the local
power imbalance identified in a system containing one antenna will be eliminated
when considering any set of systems where energy is coupled into then out of
free space. Thus, any physical system containing a Tx antenna and at least one
Rx antenna will satisfy the local conservation laws of energy and momentum for
the systems containing the antennas.
In summary:
Almost every imaginable engineering situation will involve coupling
between Tx and Rx antennas (this coupling is what engineers are actually
interested in).
Almost every possible measurement scenario will involve both Tx and Rx
antennas (it is what can actually be measured).
Finally, classical electromagnetism is applicable in situations that involve both
Tx and Rx antennas (it is a situation that can actually be described rigorously and
accurately using theory).
For all these reasons, this volume will confine itself to antenna measurements
designed to characterise the radiative coupling between electronic systems in free
space, a homogeneous linear isotropic dielectric medium, facilitated by the
presence of antennas within the systems, but what exactly do we mean by
measurements?
1.2 Characterisation via the measurement process
Measurement is often defined as ‘The quantitative determination of a physical

magnitude adopted as a standard, or by means of a calibrated instrument. The
result of a measurement is thus a numerical value expressing the ratio between
the magnitude under examination and a standard magnitude regarded as a unit’
[5]. A definition originally made popular by Lord Kelvin in the nineteenth
century.
However, the passage of years resulting in an increased level of under-
standing of the physical process of measurement, along with the introduction
of system-centred concepts and the development of information theory, has led
to a more generalised view of the measurement process. This gives an infor-
mation conversion definition of measurement as ‘Consisting of information
transfer with accompanying energy transfer. Energy cannot be drawn from a
system without altering its behaviour, hence all measurements affect the
quantity being measured. Measurements therefore are a carefully balanced
combination of physics, (energy transfer) and applied mathematics, (infor-
mation transfer)’ [6].
This information extraction concept is particularly applicable to antenna
measurements were the test range holds many similarities to a communication
system. Although the procedure involves a Tx signal, which initially contains no
information, as it is completely predictable, information can be extracted from the
input Tx signal via its comparison with the output Rx signal.
Whatever conceptual model of the measurement process is adopted, as will be
highlighted in this volume, the raw data from any near-field antenna measurement
must be processed to provide predictions of the parameters of the antenna that are
required. Thus, the measurement process must be consistent with the formal
Introduction 5
mathematical definition of measurement [7], which is included for completeness as

shown in Box 1.1.
Box 1.1
For a well-defined, non-empty class of extra-mathematical entities Q, let
there exist upon that class a set of empirical relationships R = {R1, R2, . . . ,
Rn,}. Let us further consider a set of numbers N (in general a subset of the
set of real numbers R), and let there be defined on that set a set of
numerical relationships P = { P1, P2, . . . , Pn,}.
Let there exist a mapping M with domain Q and a range in N, M: Q !N
which is a homomorphism of the empirical relationship system <Q,R> and
the numerical relationship <N,P>. The triplet P =<Q,N,M> constitutes a
scale of measurement of Q. It is required that M be a well-defined operational
procedure, it is called the fundamental measurement procedure of Q. ni [ N
the image of qi [ Q under M will be denoted by ni = M(qi), ni will be called
the measure of qi on the scale P, qi the measurand and Q the measured class.
There will in general be other procedures of mapping Q onto N
denoted by M0 : Q ! N such that M(qi) = M0 (qi) either for all qi [ Q or qi [
Q0 where Q0 ⊂ Q any such procedure is a measurement procedure Q or Q0
on the scale P.
The statistical nature of establishing the measure in any practical circumstance

from the measurements (measure [Box 1.1] empirically being defined as the limit
in the behaviour of the measurement procedure as the number of measurement
trials tends to infinity) is discussed further in Chapter 5.
So, whether the measurement process is thought of in purely physical terms
or also as the extraction of knowledge from a system containing information, it is
clear that there must be a very well-defined and controlled measurement proce-
dure. Additionally, the process must have a clearly defined measurand and a
recognisable scale or standard against which the response or behaviour of the
system during the measurement procedure can be assessed. For near-field antenna
measurements, the measurand is the power coupled into the Rx system, the source
of both the energy and the information bearing signal transferred in the process.
The scale is relative to a reference signal, which can be calibrated against a
standard and the measurement procedure is the stated subject of this volume,
near-field antenna measurements.
Having defined exactly what the measurand in the measurement system is,
how can measurements of the power coupled between such systems be used to
characterise the antennas embedded within them and give a measure of the anten-
nas performance in another circumstance. In electronic engineering, the interaction
between such systems is usually described in terms of a number of useful design
parameters that are ascribed to the Tx and Rx antennas. The most important free
space parameters being the following.
1.2.1 Free space radiation pattern

Antennas do not radiate equally in all directions, and the concept of an isotropic
radiator is useful as a standard relative to which any other antenna’s performance
can be quantified but is in theory and practice impossible to construct. Therefore,
the variation in the ratio of the radiated power, as a function of angle relative to the
fixed mechanical datum of any antenna, is an important parameter. Figure 1.1
illustrates a co-ordinate system against which this variation can be judged with the
z- or f-axis conforming to the mechanical datum, often referred to as boresight, of
the Tx antenna.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the relative angular position of the Tx and Rx systems as
Rx moves around a circular path at a fixed value of f with q varying along the
circular path and with Tx at its centre. For any sufficiently large fixed value of R,
the extent to which power is transferred between the two antennas relative to the
value at q = 0 would vary as a function of the angle q.
Clearly this variation in relative power would also be a function of the angle f
so, the so-called radiation pattern of the antenna would actually be a function of q
and f the angles which define the direction of the displacement R, the path between
Tx and Rx antennas. The pattern function is an important parameter of any antenna
and, assuming the magnitude of R, the distance between the two antennas is elec-
trically large, for two such antennas the variation along a segment of the circular
path shown in Figure 1.2 could be of the Cartesian form shown in Figure 1.3. Here,
the maximum-recorded signal is normalised to unity, i.e. zero on a dB scale. An
alternative to the Cartesian form is the polar plot in which the pattern is plotted with
the amplitude in the radial axis and the angle in the azimuthal. This is a generally
Theta axis
yAMS
θ^
ϕ^ –
–
Chi axis
kAMS
ϕ
θ
zAMS
Phi axis xAMS
Figure 1.1 Illustrating the antenna co-ordinate system, where the square
represents the antenna aperture
Introduction 7
YAMS
ZL
Rx
R
Zg
θ
~
Tx
ZAMS
Figure 1.2 Orientation of Tx and Rx antenna, including all circuit components
–10
–20
Amplitude [dB]
–30
–40
–50
–60
–60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60
θ [deg]
Figure 1.3 Recorded power normalised to zero as Rx is moved around the circle
typically less commonly encountered form of presentation, however, it has benefits

when representing antennas with very broad pattern functions.
The measurement of absolute levels of power coupled or the levels relative to
calibration standards are also possible but again detailed discussion of this will be
delayed until a simple model of radiating structures is developed in Chapter 2.
There are also, those concepts relevant to the characterisation of antennas as circuit
elements that cannot by definition be measured by, conventional near-field scanners,
but that are still relevant to them. These include scattering parameters and their
relevance to definitions of gain in terms of accepted as opposed to delivered power in
any circuit and their possible use in scattering matrix descriptions of Tx and Rx
antennas. A logarithmic scale is generally used to present antenna pattern plots as it
tends to focus attention on the regions where the largest values are encountered
thereby compressing the scale in a way that renders the graphical interpretation
perhaps easier to interpret, i.e. it tends to enhance the main-beam region of the plot.
In Figure 1.3, the peak of the pattern has been normalised to 0 dB with the rest
of the pattern plotted relative to this (arbitrary) value. To establish an absolute
y-axis datum, we need to introduce the concept of gain (or directive gain), which
enables the antenna engineer to compare different antennas directly with one
another. The concept of directivity and gain is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
1.2.2 Polarisation
Having measured this pattern function, you might be forgiven for assuming that you
now know everything about the angular variations in coupled power between the Tx
and Rx systems. However, for any position of Tx and Rx, where either of the antennas
to be rotated about their mechanical datum, i.e. about phi axis for the Tx antenna as per
Figure 1.1, a variation in the amount of power coupled as a function of f would be
observed. This variation is ascribed to the polarisation of the antenna and various
polarisation bases that can be used to describe this polarisation will be developed over
the course of the text. Figure 1.4 being a typical measured response of what would be
termed a linearly polarised Rx antenna’s response if Tx had the same so-called
polarisation. This concept of polarisation will be further examined in the light of the
development of the Helmholtz wave equation developed in succeeding chapters.
1.2.3 Bandwidth
This is the range of frequencies, f, in Hz over which the antenna is effective in
facilitating the EM interaction. Figure 1.5 illustrates a plot of the measured power
in a receiver as a function of frequency for boresight Tx and Rx, where a 3 dB and
10 dB bandwidth for an antenna is marked. For a full characterisation, such a
bandwidth response would of course be required for each combination of pattern
and polarisation.
By systematically varying the position, orientation, and frequency of excitation
of the Tx antenna relative to the Rx antenna in terms of the parameters q, f, f, and
R, it is possible to characterise the interaction between the Tx and Rx sub-systems
in terms of, pattern, polarisation and bandwidth. However, one other additional
class of measurement can be included that is directly related to the action of
antennas as initiators of harmonic coupling between electronic circuits.
The basis of all free space antenna measurement techniques, and indeed much
of Electromagnetism, is the assumption that the antennas under tests (AUTs) and
the systems used in any test procedures behave in a linear fashion, in fact lack of
Introduction 9
–5
–10
–15
–20
Amplitude (dB)
–25
–30
–35
–40
–45
–50
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Phi (deg)
Figure 1.4 The variation in coupled power as a function of f
–3
–6
–9
dB
–12
–15
–18
–21
8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12
Frequency/GHz
Figure 1.5 Showing normalised pattern at q = f = zero from 8 to 12 GHz

linearity will be a source of uncertainty in the measurement process that will be

referred to in Chapter 8. Such linear systems can be described by linear differential
equations like (1.1) shown:
d n f2 ðtÞ d n1 f2 ðtÞ df2 ðtÞ

cn : þ c n1 : þ :::::::c1 : þ c0 :f2 ðtÞ ¼ f1 ðtÞ (1.1)
dtn dtn1 dt
For any simple system that can support harmonic oscillations, this can be
truncated to a second-order equation of the form:
d 2 f2 ðtÞ df2 ðtÞ

c2 : þ c1 : þ c0 f2 ðtÞ ¼ f1 ðtÞ (1.2)
dt2 dt
where the constants and functions in the equation can be related to the usual circuit
parameters of capacitance (C), inductance (L), voltage (V), charge (q) and resistance
(R), to give
d 2 qðtÞ dqðtÞ 1
L: 2
þ R: þ :qðtÞ ¼ V ðtÞ (1.3)
dt dt C
This is an equation relating to the circuit parameters, with a harmonic solution
that will be familiar to any student of alternating current (AC) theory. However,
such an equation is inadequate to describe the harmonic solutions present in a
circuit at radio or microwave frequencies. If a voltage is applied to such a circuit,
this voltage will be propagated through the circuit at approximately the speed of
light, 0.3 billion metres per second. Thus, at 50 Hz, this will produce a spatial
harmonic variation in the circuit voltage that will be cyclic over some 6 million
metres. Therefore for any circuit harmonically oscillating in time at 50 Hz, it is
reasonable to assume that the voltage and currents are constant at all points in the
circuit at any specified time. However, at the microwave frequency of 10 GHz, the
associated cyclic spatial variation of the currents and voltages in any circuit will be
repetitive over a distance of the order of 3 cm. At this frequency, assuming the
circuit itself is at least of the order of a few centimetres in length, the currents and
voltages in that circuit will vary harmonically both as a function of when and where
they are observed.
A harmonic system in which such oscillations are a function of space and
time will be described by a partial differential equation. Such an equation that
linearly relates the rate of change of the variables with respect to time and
space is a wave equation. This means that measurements of the instantaneous
power made at different points in the circuit at the same time will give different
results, and these results can be related to provide a measure of the relative
phase of the harmonic oscillation at the different points in the circuit. These
measurements that can be used to assign a phase to the harmonic coupling are
the other additional class of measurements that can be made on antennas. As
will be discussed in Chapter 3, these measurements are the source of the in
phase and at quadrature data that will be fundamental to the near-field mea-
surement process.
Introduction 11
All of the above measurements can be made in an effort to characterise the

coupling between antennas; however, one point that has been briefly mentioned
will need further explanation. Figure 1.2 shows an Rx system including antenna
placed at a position along the circular path, and Figure 1.3 shows the variation in
the antenna pattern with angle q. The text then goes on to state that provided R is
large enough the pattern will just be a function of q and f, but how electrically
large must R be for this to be true.
When R is small, of the order of a few wavelengths in free space, the extent of
coupling between the circuits is profoundly affected by the instantaneous dis-
tribution of charge on the surfaces of the antennas. The ratio of the power coupled
is strongly dependent on R. This is the so-called reactive region around an antenna
where reactive coupling dominates radiative coupling. As the distance R increases,
the power coupled between the circuits is no longer dominated by this charge
distribution, Figure 1.6 illustrates such a situation.
In Figure 1.6, the displacement from Tx to Rx is again labelled R but many
displacements, e.g. R’ are also paths between the antennas, meaning that in the
situation illustrated, there is no unique path between the two antennas. Only when R
is infinitely large will the displacements R and R’ be effectively the same.
Therefore, only when R is infinitely large can we define a unique path with a
definite length where all parts of the two antennas are effectively at equal distances
apart, when this is so, the two antennas are in each other’s far-field. In practice,
since in the vast majority of engineering situations, we are concerned with antennas
that are at large but finite distances apart, the far-field is defined as being when all
parts of the Tx antenna are effectively at the same distance from the Rx antenna. At
this distance, the angular field distribution is essentially, but not strictly, indepen-
dent of R. The distances at which R can be considered to be large enough to define a
YAMS
Z
Rx R᾿
R
Zg
θ
~
Tx
ZAMS
Figure 1.6 Two of the possible paths between the Tx and Rx antenna
far-field region will be examined in the following chapters when a mechanism of

interaction based on classical EFT will be expounded.
Finally, that region in which the coupling is dominated by radiation but the
distance R is not sufficiently large to uniquely define a single path is called the
radiating near-field, this is the region surrounding the antennas that will be, in many
senses, the practical focus of this text. In engineering situations, as a result of how
they are employed, almost invariably it is the far-field performance of antennas that
is of interest. However, for practical reasons that will be examined in this text, the
ability to make near-field measurements that can be used to predict far-field para-
meters is extremely important in antenna engineering.
This short description of the observables and hence measurable parameters
associated with antennas concludes the initial phenomenological description of the
action and characterisation of antennas. In the rest of the following chapters, a
particular model explaining the interaction between Tx and Rx systems via the
application of classical EFT will be developed and used to explain and examine
antenna measurements, procedures and analysis [8].
1.3 Assumed (suppressed) time dependency
The time factor of EM field data can be specified either as being exp(jwt) or as exp
(iwt). In RF and antenna measurements, most commercial test equipment pro-
vides the output with an assumed exp(jwt) time dependency. In practice, this con-
vention can be confirmed by increasing the measurement distance slightly where if
the time dependence is positive, i.e. exp(jwt) the phase dependence will be given by
exp(–jkr) and, the measured phase will therefore decrease when the distance
increases. This text assumes a positive, suppressed, time dependency of exp(jwt).
1.4 The organisation of the book

The mathematical nature of the predictive algorithms associated with theory will be
rigorously examined and included in the text. However, if the reader wishes to take
as read certain of the key assumptions and results they will find that full derivations
are only included within numbered boxes as per Box 1.1 which mathematically
defines measurement. The arguments put forward in the text can be followed
without recourse to these numbered boxes on an initial or subsequent examination,
but they are included to provide a full, complete and rigorous explanation within
the body of the text. This separation of much of the fundamental theory behind the
plane wave spectrum and its use in near-field scanning also has other advantages. It
allows these derivations to be utilised out with the main thrust of the text and makes
them readily available to the reader less interested in the measurement process and
more concerned with plane wave techniques and its application in other
engineering areas.
Throughout the text as the arguments developed move from the theoretical
nature of interaction of antennas through the reasons behind the choice of
Introduction 13
parameters chosen to characterise antennas along with the implications and prac-
ticalities of antenna measurement procedures, the text will continue to be rigor-
ously illustrated, described and explained. Along with the complete mathematical
development of the theory of near-field measurements, which the reader can choose
to follow or take as assumed from the contents of the boxes, the text will attempt to
inform and advise on the practical implications of the use of near-field antenna
measurements. This will extend to the assessment of near-field measurement data
as an input to engineering tools and the development of practical methodologies for
the analysis of the results of such measurements.
Chapter 2 mainly concerns itself with the fundamental relationship between field
and charge, and this forms the basis for Chapter 3 that introduces the near-field
scanning technique. Chapter 4 examines the theory of the plane wave spectrum, the
theoretical basis of the near-field to far-field processing concept, and Chapter 5 deals
with the practicalities of near-field measurements. Chapter 6 explains the nature and
requirement for probe characterisation in near-field scanner measurements, while
Chapter 7 develops effective modelling concepts that can be used to assess any near-
field scanning procedure. Chapter 8 describes the representative theory of measure-
ments and how the impact of this theory on the accuracy of measured data sets can be
assessed together with the compilation of range uncertainty budgets. Finally, while
throughout attempting to develop consistent logical explanations of all the relevant
aspects for near-field scanning, the very latest developments in near-field scanning are
discussed in Chapter 9, including the poly-planer technique, drone and industrial
robotic arm-based measurements, extrapolation range measurements and array antenna
diagnostics using modern compressive sensing.
However, the explanations of these methods and techniques will have to be
delayed until a model of radiating structures, and how the near-field scanning
measurement procedure relates to it, based on EFT is developed and explained.
This is the subject of the following chapters in this volume.
References
[1] Olver A.D., The Handbook of Antenna Design, vol. 1, Peter Peregrinis Ltd,
UK, 1986, pp. 11–12.
[2] Feynman R.P., The Feynman Lectures on Physics, vol. 2, Addison Wesley
Publishing, Boston, MA, 1964, pp. 28.1–28.10.
[3] Wheeler J.A. and Feynman R.P., “Interaction with the absorber as the
mechanism of radiation”, Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 17 nos. 2 and 3,
1945, pp. 157–181.
[4] Cramer J.G., “The transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics”,
Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 58, 1986, pp. 647–688.
[5] Scrivenor P. (Ed.), “New Caxton Encyclopaedia”, Caxton Publishing
Company, London, 1964.
[6] Stein P.K., “Measurement Engineering”, 1st ed., Stein Engineering Services,
Phoenix, AZ, USA, 1964.
[7] Sydenham P.H., “Measuring Instruments Tools of Knowledge and Control”,

Peter Peregrinus Ltd in Association with Science Museum London, 1979,
Steleaus UK and New York, NY.
[8] IEEE Standard 145-1993 (Revision of IEEE Standard 145-1983), IEEE
Standard Definition of Terms for Antennas. Sponsor Antenna Standards
Committee IEEE of the Antennas and Propagation Society. Approved March
18, 1993. IEEE Standards Board.
Chapter 2
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic
wave propagation
2.1 Electric charge

It is an empirical fact that under investigation, electric charge appears to exist in
two forms, usually but not exclusively referred to as positive and negative. This
chapter will attempt to explain the action of antennas in terms of an explanation of
the nature of the interaction of these different types of charge when they are in
motion within the structure of an antenna. This explanation of this interaction will
be developed via the concept of the electromagnetic field.
Although the text in the main attempts to confine itself to the classical repre-
sentations of field concepts, as antenna theory concerns the propagation of elec-
tromagnetic energy between physically remote antennas at the speed of light it is
not possible to completely ignore the relativistic aspects of antenna theory. This
does not invalidate the approach that will be adopted as the principle equations
used, based on the seminal work of James Clerk–Maxwell, are as will be seen in the
text themselves relativistically invariant in form.
However, as the concept of relative motion is fundamental to any under-
standing of the concept of magnetism it can be helpful to bear in mind during any
descriptions of a priori principles of special relativity, these being:
● The principle of the constancy of the speed of light: which states that the speed
of light in vacuum will be measured to be c 3 108 ms1 in all inertial
frames of reference, irrespective of the state of motion of the frame.
● The principle of relativity: which states that the laws of physics can be
expressed in the same form in all inertial frames of reference. Therefore, any
description or explanation of any physically observable phenomena that is not
invariant between inertial reference frames is not consistent with physical law.
Only very occasionally within the arguments constructed within this text will it
be necessary to return to these principles but without them being explicitly stated it
is unclear that they do in fact underpin the entire theory of classical electro-
magnetism within the framework of physical law.
Another empirically established fact is the conservation of electric charge. This
means that electric charge can be neither created nor destroyed thus any change in
its distribution within space must involve the motion of charged particles. This can
be summed up by a continuity equation,

@r
rj þ ¼0 (2.1)
@t
where r is the charge density and j is the current density
It can be seen from (2.1) that any change in charge density within a volume
constitutes a current density flowing out of or into that volume.
2.2 The electromagnetic field

An electromagnetic field can be thought of as constituting that ‘state of excitement’
induced in space by the presence of a possibly time dependent, distribution of
electric charge that has the potential to act on other charges if they are present
within the field. The action on any test charges [1] present will be such that it alters,
or tends to alter, their state of motion. Although there is only one field, the elec-
tromagnetic field associated with charge distributions, historically it has been split
into the concept of an electric and a magnetic field due to the different circum-
stances under which both are most easily observed.
The electric field E can be expressed in terms of the Coulomb force law as
q1 q2
F ¼ R (2.2)
4pR2
where F is the force that acts on q1, by definition equal and opposite to that which
acts on q2; R is the distance between charges q1 and q2; R is the unit displacement
vector in the direction defining the displacement between q1 and q2; q1 and q2 are
two distinct point-like distributions of charge.
Thus,
F ¼ q1 E (2.3)
where E is defined as
q2
E ¼ R (2.4)
4pR2
Thus, in this case, we are defining E as the field producing the force acting on
q1, i.e. the field produced by the presence of q2. These simple formulas quantify the
forces acting on any stationary point charge, a test charge, at a point in space where
the field E is present. Where force is itself defined as that which alters or tends to
alter the motion of bodies.
Of course, as a direct result of the principle of relativity and the equivalence of
inertial reference frames, all states of transitional equilibrium are equivalent.
Therefore, in a similar fashion it must be possible to define the force that acts on the
test charge even if it is initially in a state of uniform motion, as opposed to being
stationary. However, although a distribution of separate charges may be individu-
ally in translational equilibrium they may be in motion relative to each other and
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic wave propagation 17
therefore there will be no inertial frame relative to which all of the charges con-
stituting the distribution are stationary.
To take account of this relative motion, a second vector B is defined that
relates the force that acts on the test charge in the presence of fields at the points in
space the charge instantaneously occupies when it is in motion. From the experi-
ment, it is found that these fields apply a force F on the charge q moving with
velocity v which is given by the Lorentz force law as
F ¼ qðE þ v B Þ (2.5)
Clearly as v ! 0 the Lorentz Force law tends to the Coulombic formulation.
In this formulation, relativistic effects can be taken into account by modifying
the mass of the particle so that it becomes a function of the relative velocity and the
rest mass. Additionally, the vectors E and B will vary as a function of the inertial state
of any observer. However, a range of Lorentz invariant parameters, e.g. E, H, [2], can
be defined which allow transformations of the E and B fields between inertial refer-
ence frames. This allows the Lorentz force law to be a considered a fundamental law
of physics and to act as the definition of the vector quantities E and B.
Another inevitable consequence of special relativity, with respect to the principle
of the constancy of the speed of light, has to be taken into account in any theory that
attempts to describe a mechanism for the interaction of physically remote antennas.
At any point in time, the field produced at a point in space remote from the charge
distribution, that is its source, is not equal to the field that would be produced by the
charge distribution at that instant in time. Since time elapsed is equal to distance
divided by speed, it is in fact the field that would be created by the charge distribution
a period of time equal to the magnitude of the displacement of the test charge from
the source divided by the speed of light. Thus, at any point in time, the field at a point
in space mirrors the charge distribution that was present at a point in the past equal to
the magnitude of the displacement from the source divided by the speed of light.
This in turn means that the effect of any change in the charge distribution will
take a finite amount of time to act on the test charge. Therefore, any change in the
field will be retarded by a period of time directly proportional to the magnitude of
the displacement of the test charge from the source. The concept that the finite
velocity of propagation retards the effects of the variation of any field source across
space is crucial to the development of classical electromagnetic field theory. This is
especially important when electromagnetism is framed in terms of a theory of
potentials that will also be retarded by the constant, large, but finite speed of light.
2.3 Accelerated charges

Figure 2.1 illustrates the well-known tool for the representation of electric fields in
free space, field lines [3]. It shows a positive charge situated at point A at time t1.
As illustrated in Figure 2.2, the charge is accelerated to point B at a time
t 1 + t/2.
A B
Figure 2.1 Fields lines around an isolated +ve charge
A B
Figure 2.2 Curvature of field lines associated with accelerating charge
It is then moved back to point A at a time t1 + t, and Figure 2.3 illustrates the
pattern of field lines around the point charge after it has arrived back at A.
If a further period of time equal to t is allowed to elapse with the charge held
stationary a situation similar to Figure 2.4 would be observed.
Clearly if the point charge was subject to alternating, sinusoidal, time-
harmonic displacements between points A and B, an arrangement of field lines
similar to Figure 2.5 could be expected.
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic wave propagation 19
A B
Figure 2.3 Curvature of field lines associated zero total displacement at t1+t
A B
Figure 2.4 Curvature of field lines associated with propagation after t1+2t
From Figures 2.1 to 2.5, it can be seen that accelerated motion of a charge will
result in curvature in the field lines (those areas of the figures that are shaded in
grey). As a result of the finite speed of propagation, the retardation of the transverse
disturbance of the field can be seen to radiate outwards with a speed of c. It will be
shown in the next section where we examine the relationships between E and B as
described by Maxwell’s equations that this retarded transverse disturbance is in fact
the basis of an electromagnetic wave. Where the changing electric field and its
A B
Figure 2.5 Field lines associated with propagation of harmonic displacement
associated changing magnetic field form a propagating harmonic disturbance

through space.
2.4 Maxwell’s equations

Classically, the relationships between the components of any electromagnetic field
are described by Maxwell’s field equations and by the equations representing the
properties of the medium in which that field exists. Maxwell’s equations can be
written in differential form as, e.g. [4–7],
rD ¼r (2.6)
rB ¼0 (2.7)
@B
rE ¼ (2.8)
@t
@D
rH ¼J þ (2.9)
@t
The definitions and units of these quantities are: E is the electric field intensity
in volts per meter, H is the magnetic field intensity in amperes per meter, J is the
current density composed from the impressed, or source electric current, and the
conduction electric current density all of which are in amperes per square meter, D
is the electric flux density in coulombs per square meter, B is the magnetic flux
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lettre où elle fit passer par la plume de Diane ses appréhensions
maternelles et les expressions de sa tendresse.
« Tu sais, mon Hervé, disait-elle, combien je t’aime et comme je

pense à toi tout le long du jour. Prends donc bien garde à ta santé !
Je ne dis pas aux balles et aux obus ; je sais que mon enfant fera
grandement son devoir comme un Kéravan qu’il est : « Bon sang ne
peut mentir ! » Mais veille à ta santé, pour ta vieille grand’mère qui
t’en prie, si ce n’est pour toi.
« Je dis mon chapelet matin et soir pour que sainte Anne et la
Vierge te protègent. Qu’elles gardent ton corps sain et ton âme sans
tache. Je sais que tu ne négliges aucun de tes devoirs. Cependant
je te rappelle que tu m’as promis de dire la prière que je t’ai envoyée
chaque fois que tu devras aller à l’assaut. Y penses-tu ? Je dors si
peu que chaque nuit, je te suis en pensée, je te vois… sachant que
ces heures de la nuit sont les plus terribles pour les combattants. Je
te recommande à Celui qui peut tout et je Le supplie de me rendre le
fils bien-aimé qui est le seul bonheur de ma vie !
« Je t’aime et t’embrasse de toutes mes forces.
« Ta grand’mère affectionnée.
Pour Mme de Kéravan :
(Signature illisible.)
— Il ne saura pas que c’est moi, se dit Diane en écrivant ; il ne

connaît pas mon écriture. S’il apprenait jamais, qu’en penserait-il ?
Eh bien ! après tout, M. de Kéravan pourrait-il lui en vouloir
d’avoir témoigné de la bonté envers son aïeule ?
Dès lors, la lettre hebdomadaire adressée au lieutenant de
Kéravan fut écrite de la main de Diane de Trivières, qui évitait
toujours de signer lisiblement.
Les mois de janvier et février s’écoulèrent. Hervé ne parlait pas
encore de permission.
Lorsque après la première lettre de Diane, il avait demandé,
anxieux d’apprendre la réponse : « Qui donc écrit maintenant ? »,
Mlle de Trivières, dans la lettre suivante, avait modestement
supprimé les éloges dont voulait la couvrir la vieille dame, pour
répondre simplement : « La personne qui me sert de secrétaire est
une de nos voisines. Elle s’est offerte à remplacer Corentine et
s’acquitte avec plaisir de cette tâche. » Et le lieutenant avait eu beau
insister, supplier qu’on lui dît un nom, il n’en avait pas appris
davantage.
Mais le temps marchait. Les offensives du printemps 1918
allaient bientôt commencer.
CHAPITRE II
Corentine à la fenêtre de sa cuisine recueillait les derniers rayons

d’un jour pluvieux de mars pour achever un raccommodage pressé.
Tout en tirant l’aiguille, elle parlait à sa poule noire, Freluquette,
qui picorait des miettes sur le carreau. La poule s’interrompait par
moments pour regarder la servante de son œil vif et brillant, une
patte levée, d’un air profond.
Tout à coup, Corentine tressaillit :
On avait sonné deux fois à la porte d’entrée.
— Par ma foi ! murmura-t-elle, si je ne savais point que ça n’est
pas le temps de sa permission, je jurerais bien que c’est lui !
Elle alla ouvrir… C’était le lieutenant !
Sa grande taille s’encadra dans le chambranle.
— Jésus, Marie ! Monsieur Hervé ! Si je m’attendais à vous voir
ce soir !
— Embrasse-moi, d’abord, Corentine. Comment va grand’mère ?
— Tout doucement ; elle se maintient. Mais, Seigneur, vous êtes
trempé ! Entrez dans la salle à manger que je vous essuie, vous
allez m’égoutter partout sur mon parquet ciré… Eh bien ! en voilà
une surprise !
— J’ai vingt-quatre heures de permission. Grand’mère est-elle
dans sa chambre ?
— Elle ne l’a point quittée de tout l’hiver, la chère dame. Mais je
vous préviens que la demoiselle est avec elle.
— Quelle demoiselle ?
— La demoiselle qui vient tous les jours, dame ! Celle qui lui fait
la lecture, qui…
— Qui écrit ses lettres à ta place ? dit Hervé vivement.
— Oui, et ça fait tant de plaisir à madame ! Au moins elle peut
vous en mettre long…
C’est plus comme de mon temps !
Hervé se mit à marcher de long en large ; le front penché, il
réfléchissait.
Au grand étonnement de la Bretonne, il n’avait pas l’air pressé
des dernières fois pour courir à sa grand’mère aussitôt entrée.
A quoi rêvait-il donc ?
Tout à coup, le lieutenant s’arrêta et dit à mi-voix :
— Écoute, Corentine, puisqu’elle ne m’attendait pas, je veux faire
une surprise à grand’mère.
J’arriverai doucement dans sa chambre sans qu’elle s’en doute.
Entre chez elle en trouvant un prétexte…
— Je peux toujours porter une bûche au feu, souffla la servante
dont toute la figure se plissa dans un rire silencieux.
— Si tu veux. Tu repartiras ensuite par mon cabinet en laissant la
porte entr’ouverte, tu comprends ?
— La porte entr’ouverte ? Oui, oui, monsieur Hervé.
Ce qu’elle va être contente, madame !
Pendant que la servante entrait dans la chambre de sa maîtresse
par la porte de l’antichambre, le lieutenant traversa la salle à
manger, le salon et de là, il pénétra dans son cabinet où il attendit
dans l’obscurité.
Une minute plus tard, Corentine entra d’un air mystérieux,
laissant entr’ouverte la porte qui communiquait à la chambre de la
baronne.
— C’est fait, monsieur Hervé, dit-elle à voix basse, madame ne
se doute de rien et la demoiselle non plus.
— Va, répondit-il, laisse-moi. J’entrerai tout à l’heure.
Malgré la joie qu’il éprouvait à revoir le cher visage ridé qui lui
faisait face, et ne pouvait le voir, le lieutenant de Kéravan ne se
pressait pas de courir à son aïeule.
Après lui avoir jeté un regard de tendresse, le cœur battant
d’attente et de curiosité, il tenta d’apercevoir l’autre personne, celle
qui, à ce moment, écrivait sous la dictée de Mme de Kéravan.
— Enfin, se disait-il, je saurai qui est cette Rose Perrin. Ce ne
peut être qu’elle, les écritures sont identiques… il n’y a aucun doute !
La jeune femme, assise en face de sa grand’mère, lui tournait à
demi le dos ; il la voyait de trois quarts, c’est-à-dire qu’il n’apercevait
d’elle que la courbe d’un cou très blanc, un ovale fuyant et des
cheveux bruns encadrant la tête penchée sur le papier.
Hervé, de peur de trahir sa présence, ne bougeait plus, le silence
de l’appartement était tel qu’il entendait, de sa place, le grincement
de la plume que maniaient avec dextérité des doigts longs et fins.
— Rose Perrin, se répéta-t-il, c’est elle, je vais la voir ! Comment
se trouve-t-elle ici ? Tant pis !… j’entre !
Il passa le seuil très doucement, et à pas feutrés, assourdis par
le tapis, il se rapprocha de la table…, lentement…, lentement.
La jeune fille — elle était jeune ; la taille, les cheveux, ce beau
cou onduleux, tout l’indiquait — la jeune fille continua d’écrire,
inconsciente de son approche, et l’aveugle dictait :
« Au revoir, mon enfant chéri, je compte les jours jusqu’à ta
prochaine permission. Si ce pouvait être bientôt, je serais si
heureuse !
— … Si heureuse ? répéta une voix qui fit tressaillir le jeune
homme de la tête aux pieds.
— C’est tout, reprit Mme de Kéravan. Mettez : « Je t’embrasse
bien tendrement » et signez.
La jeune inconnue écrivit :
« Je t’embrasse tendrement » ; elle allait signer, lorsqu’elle se
retourna brusquement ; elle venait de sentir une présence tout près
d’elle.
Mais Hervé fit un geste ; lui aussi la reconnaissait. Diane ! c’était
Diane !
Il regarda la jeune fille, hésitant, stupéfait, puis… une inspiration
le saisit ; il voulut savoir.
Prenant la plume que Diane venait de poser, il traça rapidement
deux mots au bas de la lettre.
C’était la signature qui y manquait.
Diane y jeta les yeux, elle lut :
« Rose Perrin ? »
Puis elle leva son regard étonné sur le jeune homme qui tenait le
sien fixé sur elle d’un air interrogateur.
Elle baissa la tête et dit très bas :
— Oui, c’est moi !…
Mme de Kéravan, qui assistait sans la voir à cette scène muette,
s’étonna de ne rien entendre ; elle demanda :
— Vous avez fini, chère enfant ?
— Oui, madame.
— Mais… Vous n’êtes pas seule ! J’entends remuer près de
vous. Qui est là ? Est-ce que Corentine est rentrée ? Il faut lui donner
la lettre.
Hervé allait parler. Mlle de Trivières lui fit signe de se taire, puis :
— Non, chère madame, ce n’est pas Corentine ; et je crois que
nous aurons écrit une lettre inutile…, une lettre que votre petit-fils ne
recevra jamais…
— Grand Dieu ! Est-ce que cela signifie ?…
— Cela signifie que je suis ici, grand’mère, tout près de vous…
Me voici !
Et le lieutenant s’agenouilla sur le tapis pour mettre son visage à
la portée des caresses de l’aïeule. Mme de Kéravan, suffoquée de
joie, embrassait son petit-fils et prononçait des mots entrecoupés :
— Mon petit !… mon enfant ! Hervé ! Dieu soit loué ! Tu es là,
mon chéri… bien portant… Quel bonheur ! Mais… où est Mlle Diane.
Est-elle partie ?
— Non, chère madame, répondit la jeune fille en prenant une des
mains de l’aveugle, mais je vais vous quitter, maintenant que je vous
vois en si bonne compagnie.
— Si tu savais, Hervé, reprit la baronne en retenant Diane par la
main, comme elle est bonne et charmante ! Quelle délicieuse petite
compagne j’ai là !…
— Madame ! dit Diane en riant, laissez-moi partir… Je ne veux
pas en entendre davantage !
Hervé s’était relevé.
— Permettez-moi de vous reconduire, mademoiselle.
D’un air cérémonieux, le lieutenant ouvrit la porte et fit passer
Mlle de Trivières dans le vestibule où elle reprit son manteau de
pluie.
Elle s’apprêtait à en rabattre le capuchon sur sa tête, car on
entendait au dehors la pluie qui cinglait les vitres.
Hervé l’arrêta d’un geste, et, ouvrant le salon, il dit, d’un ton
moitié grave, moitié plaisant :
— Voulez-vous que nous causions un instant ? Ne pensez-vous
pas, mademoiselle, que Rose Perrin me doit quelques explications ?
— Et vous, répliqua-t-elle en le précédant dans la pièce où il
alluma l’électricité, et vous, monsieur de Kéravan, m’expliquerez-
vous que vous me nommiez par ce nom que vous devriez ignorer ?
— Comment pourrais-je l’ignorer, lorsque la personne qui a pris
ce pseudonyme m’écrit depuis près d’un an ?
— Vous écrit… à vous ? Non, mais à votre ami Hubert de
Louvigny !
— Ah ! c’est vrai !
Hervé s’était si bien substitué à son ami qu’il en était arrivé à
oublier qu’il écrivait sous son nom.
Et, se souvenant soudain de tout ce qu’il avait osé écrire, il se
recula dans l’angle le plus obscur du salon.
Mlle de Trivières reprit :
— C’était donc vous qui m’écriviez ? Vous qui signiez H. de L…?
Dites ?
— Oui, de même que vous écriviez sous un nom supposé. Au
moment où est arrivée votre première lettre, Hubert ne se souciait
pas de prendre une correspondante… Il m’a poussé à écrire à sa
place.
— Pourquoi n’avez-vous pas signé de votre vrai nom ?
— Vous disiez connaître Hubert par un ami… J’ai pensé que
vous ne répondriez peut-être pas à un inconnu et…
— Et vous avez abusé de la bonne foi de Rose Perrin…
— Qui abusait de celle d’Hubert de Louvigny !
Ils rirent ensemble en se regardant.
Diane reprit la première d’un ton piqué :
— Si M. de Louvigny ne voulait pas correspondre avec moi, il
pouvait ne pas répondre du tout !
— Cette lettre était si charmante, dit Hervé de sa voix profonde.
Quelque chose me poussait à y répondre… Le regrettez-vous ?
Diane baissa les yeux à son tour, gênée, confuse Elle fit un léger
signe de dénégation, puis elle s’assit devant la table du milieu et
cacha son front dans ses mains.
Hervé se rapprocha, et plus bas :
— Dois-je vous rendre vos lettres ? dit-il, le désirez-vous ?
— A quoi bon ! répondit-elle, sans le regarder. Elles ne sont pas
signées de mon nom et Rose Perrin ne risque pas d’être
compromise par… ses confidences. Mais si vous-même, monsieur,
vous préférez que je vous rende les vôtres, surtout les dernières, où
il est question de certaine personne ?…
Elle osa le regarder…
Elle voulait être plus certaine de ce qu’elle savait déjà.
Hervé était devenu très pâle. Il était si troublé qu’il ne pensait pas
à dissimuler l’altération de ses traits.
Il ne répondit rien et se détourna légèrement.
Diane comprit au tremblement de ses lèvres ce qu’il brûlait de
dire et s’était juré de garder.
Une joie profonde l’inondait. Cet homme si fort, ce héros, ce
brave, tremblait devant elle.
Elle comprenait que son amour pour elle était de ceux qui durent
toute une vie…
Elle attendait, le cœur palpitant, qu’il prononçât le mot qui lierait
leurs destins… Mais non, il ne le dirait point !…
Cependant, ici même, dans ce petit salon, quelque chose avouait
pour lui.
Diane se dirigea vers le piano : elle prit la chanson ouverte et la
présenta en souriant.
— C’est vous qui avez écrit cela ?… Oui, n’est-ce pas ? Je
reconnais la date…
— Vous ne l’avez pas oubliée ?
— Non… Me permettez-vous de vous donner un conseil,
monsieur de Kéravan, puisque nous nous retrouvons ce soir comme
d’anciens amis ?
Relisez bien certaine lettre que Rose Perrin vous écrivait
l’automne dernier ! d’oser… de vous… déclarer !
— Mademoiselle ! Cet amour dont vous parliez aussi… puis-je
croire ?
— Croyez ce que vous voudrez, et ne me parlez de rien
maintenant. Réfléchissez, parlez à votre grand’mère… A bientôt !…
Espérez !
Elle partit très vite, sans qu’Hervé tentât de la suivre.
Il demeura quelque temps dans le salon essayant de comprimer
la joie qui l’étouffait.
Elle l’aimait… Diane ?
Cette chose était possible !
Elle avait compris son amour et elle y répondait…
Comment se méprendre au ton dont elle avait dit : oser, espérer !
Ainsi, son espoir le plus cher pourrait se réaliser ? Quel avenir de
félicités s’ouvrait devant lui !
Tout à coup sa joie tomba et se changea en angoisse… Il venait
de se rappeler la fortune de Diane, la situation de sa famille et la
sienne propre.
Qu’était-il pour la marquise de Trivières autre chose qu’un
inconnu, pauvre, obscur, étranger à son monde et à sa vie ? Et
quelle réponse lui ferait cette mère quand il oserait aller déclarer ses
sentiments ?
N’allait-elle point le renvoyer honteusement comme un vulgaire
intrigant, lui qui possédait pour tout bien son pauvre manoir breton,
sa croix et son épée ?
Et lorsque la marquise apprendrait de quelle façon étrange
étaient nées leurs relations, ne le soupçonnerait-elle point d’avoir
voulu se substituer à Hubert de Louvigny, le prétendant officiel,
d’avoir inventé ce stratagème dont l’enjeu était le cœur de sa fille…
et sa dot ?
Cette pensée amena une rougeur au front de l’officier. Oh non !
non ! Plutôt que de subir certains soupçons, il aurait le courage de
renoncer…
Oh ! Diane ! Diane ! si noble, si parfaite, il faudrait donc se
détourner du bonheur qu’elle-même lui offrait !
Hervé essuya quelques larmes qui avaient coulé jusqu’à sa
moustache sans qu’il s’en aperçût, et, assurant sa voix par un violent
effort, il rentra dans la chambre de l’aveugle.
Mlle de Trivières était rentrée chez elle dans le même état
d’esprit que le lieutenant au début de sa songerie.
Une joie ailée la transportait.
Elle traversa le jardin en rêvant, sans s’apercevoir que la pluie
descendait en cataractes du ciel.
Cette soirée était à ses yeux la plus belle du monde.
Hervé l’aimait, ils s’étaient expliqués…
Diane croyait toucher le bonheur de la main.
Certes, elle ne se dissimulait point les difficultés qu’elle
rencontrerait du côté de la marquise.
Mais elle avait une foi tenace dans la force de son amour et elle
se faisait fort, en fille habituée à faire ses volontés, d’obtenir le
consentement de sa mère.
— Ce ne sera pas très facile, se dit-elle.
Mais elle sourit avec un petit haussement d’épaules, qui bravait
toutes les embûches.
Ils s’aimaient, ils se l’étaient dit…
Ils se l’étaient même écrit sans le savoir…
Dans le piquant de leur aventure la marquise finirait par
reconnaître la main de la Providence qui les destinait l’un à l’autre.
Il lui tardait de parler à sa mère.
— Madame est-elle rentrée ? demanda-t-elle à sa femme de
chambre.
— Non, mademoiselle. Madame la marquise a dit qu’elle ne
rentrerait qu’à huit heures pour le dîner.
— Qui est venu ? dit-elle en prenant des cartes sur un plateau.
— M. le général est venu à six heures, très contrarié de ne
trouver ni madame ni mademoiselle.
— A-t-il dit s’il était revenu depuis longtemps ?
— Depuis hier soir, mademoiselle.
Diane remonta chez elle, pensive.
Bon ami à Paris !
N’était-ce pas une indication de la Providence qu’elle invoquait
tout à l’heure en faveur de son amour ?
Si une opinion était susceptible de peser sur l’esprit de Mme de
Trivières, c’était celle du général.
Diane réfléchit longuement au meilleur parti à prendre.
Elle se dit que le général avait été le meilleur ami de son père et
avait pris devant lui l’engagement de veiller sur ses enfants. Cela,
sans nul doute, impliquait aussi la grave question de leur avenir.
Autant de raisons d’avoir confiance en lui. « Il faut que je le voie,
pensa-t-elle, et seul.
« Bon Ami parlera à ma mère… Ce sera lui que j’enverrai en
ambassadeur… Il est bon, il ne refusera pas… » Elle sentait bien
qu’Hervé n’oserait jamais agir par lui-même et que c’était elle-même
qui devait préparer les voies…
« Bon Ami va être furieux, réfléchit-elle, avec un sourire
moqueur ; il avait si bien comploté son petit roman avec Hubert !…
« Il va tempêter quand il apprendra que cela a tourné au profit
d’un autre.
« Je laisserai passer l’orage… Quand il aura bien crié, il finira par
se rendre à mes raisons.
« A nous deux, nous convaincrons ma mère que le monde et
l’argent ne sont pas les seuls buts du bonheur. Le cœur doit bien
aussi compter pour quelque chose ! »
Si le général d’Antivy, suprême espoir de Diane, avait pu lire
cette dernière réflexion dans l’esprit de sa pupille, il eût été charmé
et étonné de la trouver si bien d’accord avec ses principes.
La jeune fille passa cette soirée en tête-à-tête avec sa mère,
sans rien lui dire du sentiment qui faisait luire son regard et
entr’ouvrait ses lèvres dans un heureux sourire.
Diane chanta.
En l’écoutant, la marquise remarqua que la voix de sa fille prenait
une merveilleuse ampleur et une expression qu’elle n’avait point
atteinte jusqu’alors.
Le pauvre garçon qui pleurait là-haut sur son espoir condamné
entendit-il les accents de cette enchanteresse ?
Leur expression passionnée eût ravivé le lancinant regret qui, à
cette heure même, broyait son cœur et le déchirait d’une douleur
sans nom !
Il était environ dix heures du matin. Le général d’Antivy, reposé
de ses fatigues par une bonne nuit et content de retrouver ses
habitudes, ayant pris sa douche et déjeuné, parcourait les journaux
du matin.
Son ordonnance vint l’avertir qu’une dame désirait lui parler.
Au même instant, Mlle de Trivières entrait sans cérémonie.
Ce visage animé, ces yeux rayonnants ! Le général s’avoua à
part soi que sa pupille avait singulièrement embelli.
— Toi, ma chère enfant ! Tu es gentille d’avoir pensé à venir
embrasser ton vieux tuteur.
Voyons cette mine ?… Superbe !
Tu sais que je suis allé avenue Malakoff, hier. On vous l’a dit ?
— Oui, bon ami. Votre tournée s’est-elle bien passée ? N’êtes-
vous pas trop fatigué ?
— Sain comme l’œil, petite. J’ai retrouvé mes jambes de vingt
ans. Si tu m’avais vu marcher, dans les terres labourées, moi qui me
traîne sur les boulevards, tu ne m’aurais pas reconnu !
A propos de prouesses, j’ai entendu parler de toi ; tu as fait des
merveilles à Vauclair ! Mes compliments ! As-tu reçu mon obole ?
— Votre chèque ? Oui, bon ami, et je vous ai écrit pour vous
remercier. A moins que ma lettre…
Diane cessa de parler, car le général s’était levé comme mû par
un ressort et il se tenait debout devant elle, les bras croisés, la
regardant d’un air courroucé.
— Ah ! oui, mademoiselle, s’écria-t-il d’une voix de stentor,
parlons-en de lettres ! Qu’est-ce que m’a chanté ta mère ? que tu
entretenais une correspondance avec mon neveu ? Voyons, de qui
se moque-t-on ?
Lui as-tu écrit, oui ou non, réponds ?
« Nous y voilà ! » pensa Diane.
Elle s’était demandé tout le long du chemin comment elle
aborderait la question brûlante, et voici que son tuteur entrait de lui-
même dans le vif de la question.
Il n’y avait plus qu’à faire face à l’ennemi.
Elle le regarda. L’ennemi avait des yeux fulminants, une
moustache hérissée, mais Diane fit la réflexion qu’il n’était pas si
terrible qu’il en avait l’air.
Elle répondit d’un ton innocent :
— Je lui ai écrit, certainement, bon ami, c’est-à-dire que…
— Voyons ! tu ne me feras pas croire cela, à moi ! J’en arrive. J’ai
vu Hubert. Il m’a juré ses grands dieux que tu ne lui avais pas écrit
une seule fois ! Pourquoi t’obstiner à soutenir le contraire ?
— Mais, bon ami, vous ne me permettez pas de m’expliquer…
— Il n’y a pas d’explication, mademoiselle !
Aucune !… aucune ! Tu as écrit ou tu n’as pas écrit ! Je ne sors
pas de là !
— J’ai écrit, mon tuteur, et très souvent.
— Alors fichtre ! Qu’est-ce que ces cachotteries de la part
d’Hubert ? J’y perds mon latin ! Sarpejeu ! ne peut-on me dire la
vérité ?
— C’est ce que j’essaie de faire, bon ami.
Hubert ne ment pas… et moi aussi je dis la vérité. Votre neveu
n’a jamais reçu mes lettres, sauf la première, et encore… je ne
l’avais pas signée de mon nom.
Le général se laissa tomber dans son fauteuil.
— Par exemple ! Voilà qui est fort !… Explique-toi, que diable !
Voilà une heure que je te le demande.
— Eh bien, bon ami, voici ce qui s’est passé.
Diane alors ouvrit tout son cœur à son vieil ami qui se demanda
plus d’une fois, en l’écoutant, s’il entendait bien cette histoire
romanesque sortir des lèvres de sa pupille : de la froide, pratique,
insensible Diane, qu’il avait comparée naguère à une idole.
Diane lui avoua son ardent désir d’être aimée pour elle-même,
malgré la question d’argent qui empoisonnait à ses yeux tous les
sentiments, dans l’espoir de se faire aimer sous un nom d’emprunt.
— Très bien ! interrompit le général ; je comprends maintenant
pourquoi Hubert affirme que tu ne lui as jamais écrit : il ignorait que
c’était toi. Mais que vous ayez correspondu sous un nom ou sous un
autre, le résultat est le même : je suis certain qu’il est tombé
amoureux.
— Bon ami, je suis désolée d’accuser votre neveu, et c’est là le
point le plus épineux de l’histoire, mais il est arrivé une chose à
laquelle je ne pensais guère.
C’est qu’Hubert de Louvigny a fait fi de ma lettre et… qu’il l’a
passée à l’un de ses amis.
Le général fit retentir la table d’un coup de poing.
— Le fou !… De sorte que toi, Diane de Trivières, tu as entretenu
pendant un an une correspondance suivie avec un inconnu, qui est
capable de s’être amouraché de toi ?
Elle baissa la tête et dit très doucement :
— Oui, je le crois… Mais ce correspondant, mon cher tuteur,
n’est pas tout à fait un inconnu. C’est un officier de mérite que vous-
même avez connu…
— Son nom ?
— Hervé de Kéravan, lieutenant au même régiment que votre
neveu.
Le visage du général se détendit un peu.
— Ah ! cela aurait pu être pire !
M. d’Antivy se leva et se mit à arpenter son salon à grandes
enjambées, tirant sa barbiche d’une main nerveuse.
Diane le suivait des yeux.
Elle entendait de temps à autre des phrases hachées sortir de sa
bouche comme autant de boulets de canon :
« L’imbécile ! l’idiot ! Je lui tirerai les oreilles… A sa prochaine
permission, je lui flanque quatre jours, aux arrêts, dans sa chambre !
Ça lui apprendra ! »
Tout à coup, le général se planta devant sa pupille :
— Enfin, puisqu’il est trop tard pour revenir sur toutes ces
sottises… j’espère, du moins, que cette correspondance a cessé ?
— Oui, bon ami.
Diane regardait le bout de ses souliers vernis avec un petit air
embarrassé.
Qu’y avait-il encore ?
Le général devint très rouge et dit d’un ton rogue :
— J’espère que tu as déjà oublié ces balivernes et qu’il n’en sera
plus question ? Mettons qu’il y a de ma faute dans tout ceci : j’aurais
dû te parler carrément. Puisque ces lettres ne sont pas signées de
ton nom, elles ne te compromettront pas. Du reste, je connais
Kéravan ; c’est un homme d’honneur.
Laissons cela.
A sa prochaine permission, je te referai faire la connaissance de
mon neveu… Tu verras quel gentil garçon !
Allons, fillette, regarde-moi !
Que diable ! Je m’emporte, mais la minute d’après je n’y pense
plus !
Tu deviendras ma nièce comme je l’ai résolu. Vous ferez un
gentil ménage, Hubert et toi…
Il en sera quitte pour redemander tes lettres à son camarade…
Cela ira tout seul !
Pendant ce petit discours, Diane avait pâli davantage. Elle reprit
peu à peu son empire sur elle-même et, se levant, elle dit d’un ton
calme :
— Bon ami, je ne vous ai pas encore tout dit. J’étais venue ce
matin pour faire appel à votre affection comme à celle du meilleur
ami de mon père. Je vous parle à vous qui le remplacez comme je
lui parlerais s’il pouvait m’entendre.
Très ému, le général prit doucement la main de la jeune fille et la
fit asseoir près de lui.
— Tu me fais peur, Diane. Que vas-tu me dire encore, grand
Dieu !
— Voici, bon ami, c’est que vous aviez deviné juste : M. de
Kéravan m’aime…
— Il ne te connaît pas !
— Pardon, Jacques et lui se sont liés l’été dernier ; nous nous
sommes vus assez souvent. C’était pendant le séjour que ma mère
fit en Suisse.
— Ah ! ta mère a la manie de changer de place ! Mais, mon
enfant, remarque que c’est une chose dont on n’est jamais sûr…, à
moins que l’un des intéressés ne l’avoue…
— M. de Kéravan ne me l’a pas avouée. Il sait la différence de
fortune qu’il y a entre nous. Malgré cela, je suis sûre qu’il m’aime.
— Eh bien, ma chère petite, s’il t’aime, le pauvre garçon, c’est
très regrettable ; mais ce n’est pas cette raison qui t’empêchera
d’épouser Hubert ?
Il ne voulait donc pas comprendre !
Diane pencha la tête et, cette fois, une lueur rose aviva la pâleur
de son teint.
Elle dit presque bas :
— Mon bon ami, je suis désolée de contrarier vos projets, mais…
je n’épouserai pas un autre homme que M. de Kéravan.
— Ah ! ça, Diane ! tu as juré ce matin de me faire sortir de mon
caractère ! Kéravan est un brave garçon, certes, un officier d’avenir.
Mais, ma pauvre petite, il n’a pas le sou ; ce n’est pas un mari pour
toi !
— C’est un mari pour moi si je l’aime ! Et c’est le seul que je
puisse épouser, puisque c’est le seul que j’aimerai.
— Ta ! ta ! ta ! c’est à en perdre la tête, sacrebleu !
Je vous ai donné l’adresse d’un jeune homme, mademoiselle,
pour que vous deveniez amoureuse de celui-là… et non d’un
autre !… Et voilà comme on m’obéit !
— Ce n’est pas ma faute, mon tuteur, répondit Diane avec à-
propos, c’est celle de votre neveu.
« Elle a raison, parbleu ! pensa le général, en se calmant tout à
coup. Voilà qu’elle va pleurer maintenant ! Le diable soit des
femmes ! J’étais plus tranquille en Champagne ! »
— Que dit ta mère de tout cela ? dit-il brusquement.
Diane dit en le regardant d’un certain air :
— Maman ne sait rien encore. J’étais venue à vous, bon ami…
en toute confiance, parce que j’avais pensé…
— Que c’était moi qui aurais la corvée agréable d’aller demander
ta main pour ce monsieur ?
Au fond, il était flatté que sa pupille l’eût pris pour confident de
préférence à la marquise.
Il se laissa entourer le cou de deux belles mains, tandis qu’une
voix câline disait à son oreille :
— Oui, mon cher bon ami : j’ai compté sur vous pour parler à
maman ! Oh ! ne dites pas non, je vous en prie ! vous êtes si bon !
Mais le général détacha les mains de Diane et se remit à
marcher en roulant ses épaules d’un air furibond.
— En voilà une corvée ! Parler à ta mère ! lui demander ta main
pour un autre qu’Hubert !
T’aider à faire un mariage absurde, alors que je t’en avais
arrangé un qui t’allait comme un gant !
Il plaisait à ta mère, il plaisait à ton tuteur, il aurait plu à Hubert…
et à toi quand tu l’aurais mieux connu…
Non… non, mon enfant, ne compte pas sur moi pour cette
besogne ! Tu as voulu embrouiller toute seule tes affaires, au lieu de
suivre tranquillement le plan qu’on t’avait tracé… Arrange-les !… Je
ne m’en mêlerai pas.
Diane se tenait assise auprès du bureau, la figure cachée dans
ses mains.
De temps à autre le général lui lançait un regard entre deux
bouts de phrases.
Soudain, il alla à elle, enleva les mains qui voilaient le beau
visage désolé et, sortant son mouchoir de sa poche, il essuya les
larmes qu’il avait vu couler entre ses doigts.
— Je suis furieux ! bougonnait l’excellent homme, en
l’embrassant, furieux ! On le serait à moins ! Ce n’est pas une raison
pour te désespérer. Allons… allons ! puisqu’il faut finir par céder,
c’est entendu : je parlerai à ta mère.
Mais m’envoyer te demander en mariage pour un autre que pour
mon candidat, bigre ! tu m’avoueras que c’est raide !
Diane revint chez, elle rassérénée : elle avait obtenu de son
tuteur la promesse qu’il viendrait le soir même trouver la marquise
entre cinq et six heures.
Elle ne devait pas être présente à l’entretien. D’autre part, elle
s’était interdit de remettre les pieds chez Mme de Kéravan tant
qu’elle n’aurait point obtenu le consentement de sa mère.
Vers quatre heures, ayant vu rentrer la marquise, Mlle de
Trivières commanda l’auto et, pour tromper le temps de l’attente, elle
se fit conduire dans divers magasins où elle avait à faire des
emplettes pour la Biche-au-Bois.
Lorsqu’elle rentra, le général était parti.
Sa femme de chambre lui remit une lettre qu’on avait apportée
en son absence.
Diane tressaillit en reconnaissant l’écriture d’Hervé ; elle monta à
son appartement sans entrer dans le salon où l’attendait sa mère.
Elle décacheta la lettre d’une main tremblante et lut :
« Mademoiselle,
« Vous m’avez donné hier le plus immense bonheur, et de cela
mon cœur vous gardera une reconnaissance infinie. Je me suis
répété après votre départ les paroles magiques que vous aviez
prononcées : oser, espérer !
« Hélas ! ce rêve est trop beau !…
« Souvenez-vous, mademoiselle, de ce que votre correspondant
écrivait à Rose Perrin à la même époque. « Des raisons majeures
me tiendront pour toujours éloigné d’elle. »
« Ces raisons existent.
« L’honneur, ma conscience, ma fierté m’interdisent de chercher
jamais à me rapprocher de vous. Elles me font un devoir de me
détourner de la félicité incomparable que vous m’avez fait entrevoir.
« Je ne vous dirai rien de mon déchirement. Un soldat n’a point le
droit de penser à soi quand son pays est en péril.
« Je pars ce soir rejoindre mon poste, mais je vous aurai vue !
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Principles of Planar Near Field Antenna

Measurements 2nd Edition Stuart

Mechanical Measurements 2nd Edition S.P. Venkateshan

Davidson’s Principles and Practice of Medicine, 24th

Springer Handbook of Atmospheric Measurements Thomas

Principles of Modern Radar Basic Principles 2nd Edition

Trees of Colorado Field Guide 2nd Edition Tekiela Stan

Trees of Minnesota Field Guide 2nd Edition Stan Tekiela

Birds of Maine Field Guide 2nd Edition Stan Tekiela

Birds of Arizona Field Guide 2nd Edition Stan Tekiela

Stuart Gregson, John McCormick and Clive Parini

The Institution of Engineering and Technology

The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England &

First published 2023

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 978-1-83953-699-1 (hardback)

Typeset in India by MPS Limited

About the authors xiii

2 Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic wave propagation 15

3 Introduction to near-field antenna measurements 39

3.8 Near-field probe 63

4 Plane-wave spectrum representation of electromagnetic waves 69

5 Measurements – practicalities of planar near-field antenna

5.7 Evaluation of the conventional near-field to far-field transform 151

6 Probe pattern characterisation 245

7 Computational electromagnetic model of a planar near-field

7.10 Near-field measurement simulation 342

8 Antenna measurement analysis and assessment 359

9 Advanced planar near-field antenna measurements 413

9.3.2 Plane-to-plane phase retrieval algorithm – with aperture

Professor Stuart Gregson is an honorary visiting professor at Queen Mary

Dr John McCormick has extensive experience in many areas of metrology ran-

Professor Clive Parini is a professor of antenna engineering at Queen Mary

RSS root sum square

Second edition of Principles of Planar Near-field Antenna Measurements

2 February 2023, Boulder, Colorado

Significant advancements have been made in Planar Near-field Measurements in

Stuart Gregson, John McCormick, Clive Parini

1.1 The phenomena of antenna coupling

described as being reciprocal devices, in fact by definition reciprocity is a property

1.2 Characterisation via the measurement process

Measurement is often defined as ‘The quantitative determination of a physical

mathematical definition of measurement [7], which is included for completeness as

The statistical nature of establishing the measure in any practical circumstance

1.2.1 Free space radiation pattern

Figure 1.2 Orientation of Tx and Rx antenna, including all circuit components

typically less commonly encountered form of presentation, however, it has benefits

Figure 1.4 The variation in coupled power as a function of f

Figure 1.5 Showing normalised pattern at q = f = zero from 8 to 12 GHz

linearity will be a source of uncertainty in the measurement process that will be

d n f2 ðtÞ d n1 f2 ðtÞ df2 ðtÞ

d 2 f2 ðtÞ df2 ðtÞ

All of the above measurements can be made in an effort to characterise the

far-field region will be examined in the following chapters when a mechanism of

1.3 Assumed (suppressed) time dependency

1.4 The organisation of the book

[7] Sydenham P.H., “Measuring Instruments Tools of Knowledge and Control”,

2.1 Electric charge