Nervous System

ANAT 1053 | UNIT 2: NERVOUS SYSTEM, PART I

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 Learning Objectives
WEEK 3: WEEK 4:
1. Classification of the ▪ Term Test 1
nervous system ▪ Autonomic nervous system
2. Describe neurons
3. Nerve impulses
▪ Resting membrane
potential
▪ Graded potential
▪ Action potential
4. Synaptic transmission
and neurotransmitters
5. Spinal cord
6. Spinal nerves and
cranial nerves
▪ Pre- and post-ganglions
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 The Nervous System
Part 1
“The Information Highway”
 So How Does The System Work?

Sensory input

Sensory receptor

Motor output

Brain and spinal cord

Effector

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Figure 7.2 Organization of the
nervous system. Central Nervous System
(brain and spinal cord)

Peripheral Nervous System

(cranial and spinal nerves)

Sensory Motor
(afferent) (efferent)

Sense Somatic Autonomic

organs (voluntary) (involuntary)

Skeletal Cardiac and

muscles smooth muscle,
glands

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

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 Structural Classification of the
Nervous System
▪ Central nervous ▪ Peripheral nervous
system (CNS) system (PNS)
“Command Centre” “The Messenger”
▪ Organs ▪ Nerves extending from
▪ Brain the brain and spinal
▪ Spinal cord cord
▪ Spinal nerves—carry
impulses to and from
the spinal cord
▪ Cranial nerves—carry
impulses to and from
the brain

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 Functional Classification of the
Peripheral Nervous System
▪ Sensory (afferent) ▪ Motor (efferent) division
division ▪ Nerve fibers that carry
▪ Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
information to the CNS CNS
▪ Somatic sensory fibers: ▪ Somatic nervous
carry information from the system (Somatic motor
skin, skeletal muscles, fibers): voluntary
and joints conscious control of
▪ Visceral sensory fibers: skeletal muscle
carry information from ▪ Autonomic nervous
visceral organs
system (Visceral motor
fibers): involuntary
control of smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle
and glands

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons
▪ Neurons = nerve cells ▪ What is the function of:
▪ Cells specialized to Dendrites “tree”
transmit messages ▪ branched processes
▪ transmit incoming
messages toward the
cell body

Axons
▪ long projection of nerve
cell
▪ transmits nerve
impulses away from the
cell body to other cells

-Direction of flow…
-Neurons only have one axon
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Figure 7.4a Structure of a typical motor neuron.

Mitochondrion Dendrite
Cell body

Axon hillock

Axon
Nucleus

One Schwann cell

Axon Node of Ranvier

terminal Schwann cells,
forming the myelin
sheath on axon

(a)
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 Gray Matter and White matter
Myelin…
▪ Gray matter: Collection ▪ White matter: Collection
of unmyelinated axons of myelinated axons
and dendrites/cell bodies ▪ Helps to increase the
▪ Most neuron cell bodies speed of impulse
are found in CNS transmission

Cell Bodies Axons

▪ Nuclei: clusters of
cell bodies within the
CNS
▪ Ganglia: collections
of cell bodies within
PNS
▪ Tracts: bundle of
axons in CNS
▪ Nerves: bundle of
axons in the PNS

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 3 Functional Classification of Neurons

Sensory (Afferent) Motor (Efferent) Neurons

Neurons • Carry impulses from the central
• Detect stimuli such as light, nervous system to viscera,
heat, pressure muscles, or glands
• Transmit information about
stimuli to CNS

Interneurons (Association
Neurons)
• Has its cell body, axon and
dendrites entirely within the
central nervous system
• Transmit impulses between
neurons
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 • All neurons can transmit electrical signals
• We call these signals nerve impulses
• (A form of energy resulting from the flow of charged particles)

Nerve Impulses
Resting membrane potential
Graded potential
Action potential
Depolarization and Repolarization
 Action Potential (General Idea)
▪ The neuron transmits
the signal as an
impulse called
an action potential.
▪ During an action
potential, ions cross
back and forth across
the neuron’s
membrane, causing
electrical changes that
transmit the nerve
impulse.

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 Resting Membrane Potential (General Idea)

▪ Resting neuron:
▪ The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
▪ As long as inside is more negative than outside, the
cell stays at rest (inactive)

▪ Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside

▪ K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell
▪ Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell

▪ See Figure 7.9, page 235, Marieb

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 What is a Resting Membrane Potential or RMP? (More Detail)
• An electrical potential – caused, in cells, by difference in concentration of ions
across the cell membrane;
o in cells, a current isn’t caused by electrons moving, but by charged
particles or ions;

• Can also say: cell is polarized (polarity: difference in charge across two points);
o When there is a difference in charge (or any other kind of energy), there is
the potential for something to happen, or to do work – so this is why we
call it an electrical potential.

• So there is a difference in charge across the membrane (between the inside

and outside of the cell); this is called a membrane potential (MP);

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 • In a cell like a neuron (but not in cells of SA or AV node in the heart; last
week’s lecture), the MP is stable – meaning it’s static or “resting” (the
potential is, not the cell – it is still doing a lot of work to maintain the
potential; e.g., the Na+-K+ pump discussed below).
o So potential does not change, unless there is a stimulus.
o When a stimulus does occur, it can cause an action potential (AP; in
the nodes of the heart, this is not the case – they are able to generate
their own APs because they have an unstable RMP).

• In neurons the value of the RMP is -70 mV;

o Negative signifies that ICF (inside cell) is more negative than ECF
(outside cell);

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 Why is there an RMP and why is it -70mV?

• Why an RMP: electrolytes unequally distributed between ECF and ICF

o Three factors contribute to this unequal distribution:
1) Diffusion of ions down concentration gradient;
2) Membrane selectively permeable (some ions can pass more easily
than others);
3) Electrical attraction of +’ve and –‘ve ions.
• K+ most “important” ion in RMP;
o Reason: membrane more permeable to K+ than to any other ion;

• To understand dynamics of ion movement that establish the RMP, image

that:
o initially all the K+ ions are in the cell (so ICF); and
o in the cell are –‘ve particles, anions, that can’t leave the cell (because
of charge or size).

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• Consider K+ first:
o Because K + can diffuse through membrane it starts to leave cell
(concentration gradient).
o As they leave the cell, cell becomes more –‘ve (because anions can’t leave).
o At some point, however, the –‘ve charge within the cell starts to attract
some of the K + back in, until an equilibrium is reached.
o Even at equilibrium, though, still many more K+ in ICF than ECF (approx. 40x);
o If this were the only factor, RMP would be about -90 mV (instead of -70 mV);

• Na+ is also a factor:

o more concentrated in the ECF than ICF (about 12x);
o Membrane not as permeable to Na+ as to K+ but the ICF is more negative
than the ECF (because K+ has left cell, as explained above) and Na+ is more
concentrated outside than inside cell;
o so some Na+ enters cell; this lowers the RMP (makes it less negative);

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 • Na+-K+ pump another factor:
o Continually works to transport Na + out of and K + into cell:
o 3Na+ out for every 2K+ in, so more +’ve charges leave cell than enter it;
o this contributes to increasing the RMP (makes it slightly more negative);

• Overall effect of all these ions moving (with, clearly, K+ having the greatest
effect) is an RMP of -70mV).

• So this is the “initial” situation before we can discuss what happens to

generate an AP.

• Now we can discuss APs, but first: Graded Potentials.

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 Graded Potential
“Localized Depolarization”
▪ Short-lived localized changes in membrane potential, as a
result of sodium entering neuron, is triggered by stimulus
▪ Occurs in dendrites and cell body of neuron
▪ Summates, and if resulting change in membrane potential
reaches threshold, graded potential leads to firing of action
potential

Local patches of depolarization

at dendrite and cell body

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 Action Potential
“Axon Depolarization” or “Nerve Impulse”
▪ When graded potentials summate above threshold, an action
potential starts at the axon hillock and travels down the axon
▪ An “all-or-none” change in membrane potential that travels
like a “domino-effect” down the axon towards the axon
terminal
▪ “The domino effect” = sodium channels opening down the
axon

Impulse travels down the axon

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 Action Potential (More Detailed)
• Occurs once threshold reached: -55 mV
Why Does It Occur?
• Voltage-gated Na + channels open quickly,
K + channels more slowly
• As Na + enters, further depolarizes membrane
(more +’ve charge in cell), which causes even
more channels to open, more Na + enters, even
more channels open, and so on.
• Result, very quick change in potential.
• Around 0 mV channels begin to close, but by the
time they all close, potential is +35 mV (typically,
depends on the specific neuron).
• Means: cell is more +’ve on inside: polarity has
been reversed;

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 Getting Back to RMP
• K+ channels, close more slowly, so they are still
open at peak depolarization at -35 mV;
o K+ starts to leave cell because of +’ve charge
(inside cell has lots of +’ve charges);
• So, K+ starts to leave cell and potential becomes
falls (less +’ve);
• K+ channels stay open longer than Na+ channels,
so more K+ leaves than Na+ entered and so the
potential becomes more negative than RMP
(hyperpolarization);
• At this point Na+ starts to enter cell and K+
removed by astrocytes from the ECF, which causes
the RMP to be restored at -70 mV.

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 Repolarization
“Going back to Resting Membrane Potential”
▪ Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the membrane to a
negative charge and outside of the membrane to a positive charge
▪ This happens because potassium channels open, and potassium
ions rush out of the neuron (after sodium ions rush in),
repolarizing the membrane.
▪ But sodium and potassium still have to get back to their original
places. Initial ionic conditions are restored using the
sodium-potassium pump
▪ This pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration
▪ Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two potassium
ions are returned to the cell

▪ Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot conduct another

nerve impulse. Once these ions are completely returned to their
resting potential location, the neuron is ready for another stimulus.

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 Na+ K+ Pump
moves:
• 3 Na+ out of the cell
• 2 K+ into the cell
• (to restore resting membrane potential)

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 Do all axons transmit impulses at the same speed?
Saltatory Conduction
▪ Myelinated fibers:
▪ Fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses
much faster because the nerve impulse literally
jumps from node to node along the length of the fiber
▪ No electrical current can flow across the membrane
of the axon where there is myelin insulation
Action Potential

The action potential

“leaps from one node to
another as it travels
down the axon

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 Question

▪ We’ve seen how the nerve impulse travels down the

axon of a neuron…
▪ How does the impulse travel from one neuron to
another? How do we transfer the signal to the next cell?
▪ What happens when the nerve impulse arrives at
the axon terminal?

Ca++ neurotransmitter

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 Transmission of a Signal at Synapses
When the action potential reaches the axon
terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium
channels

Calcium entry causes synaptic vesicles

containing neurotransmitters to fuse with the
axonal membrane and create pore-like openings
to release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft

The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across

the synapse and bind to receptors on the
membrane of the next neuron

Enough neurotransmitter will cause an action

potential in the next neuron

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 2

Axon of
transmitting
neuron
Receiving
neuron

1 Action
Dendrite potential
Opens
arrives. Ca2+
Vesicles channels
Axon terminal
Synaptic
cleft Ca2+
enters

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 3

2 Vesicle Transmitting neuron

fuses with
plasma
membrane.

Synaptic
cleft Ion Neurotransmitter
channels molecules

Receiving neuron

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 4

2 Vesicle Transmitting neuron

fuses with
plasma 3 Neurotrans-
membrane. mitter is
released into
synaptic cleft.

Synaptic
cleft Ion Neurotransmitter
channels molecules

Receiving neuron

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 5

2 Vesicle Transmitting neuron

fuses with 4 Neurotrans-
plasma 3 Neurotrans- mitter binds
membrane. mitter is to receptor
released into on receiving
synaptic cleft. neuron’s
membrane.

Synaptic
cleft Ion Neurotransmitter
channels molecules

Receiving neuron

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses.

Binding of NT If enough NT
causes ion causes a
channels to strong enough
open
Neurotransmitter change in
electrical
Receptor
This changes charge.
Na+
the electrical
charge across It can cause
membrane an action
potential in
next neuron
5 Ion channel opens.

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 Transmission of a Signal at Synapses

▪ The neurotransmitter is ▪ Transmission of an

quickly removed from impulse is
the synapse by either: electrochemical
▪ Reuptake by the axon ▪ Transmission down
terminal neuron is electrical
▪ Enzymatic activity ▪ Transmission to next
enzymes degrade NT neuron is chemical
▪ Diffusion away

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses.

Neurotransmitter
is broken down
and released.

Na+

6 Ion channel closes.

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 Neurotransmitters

▪ Excitatory neurotransmitters:
▪ Binding of the neurotransmitter to chemical gates causes
the opening of Na+ and K+ gates (and the ions to flow in
opposite directions). The net effect is membrane
depolarization.
▪ Examples of Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (Ach),
Norepinephrine (NE), Epinephrine (E), Dopamine (DA)
Ach is the neurotransmitter of the
somatic nervous system.

Ach, NE and E play important roles

in the autonomic nervous system.
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 Neurotransmitters

▪ Inhibitory neurotransmitters:
▪ Opens K+ channels, causing K+ to move out of cell (does
not open Na+ channels)
▪ Binding of these neurotransmitters inhibits the post-
synaptic neurons ability to generate action potential by
moving neuron away from threshold
▪ Example: GABA, serotonin

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 Time for a short break!

After the break:

▪ Spinal Cord
▪ Spinal Nerves
▪ Cranial Nerves

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 Review Question #1

All neurons are myelinated.

A. True
B. False

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 Review Question #1

B. False - Not every neuron axon is myelinated

The myelin sheath increases the speed of impulse

transmission (the impulse can skip over the
myelinated/insulated parts of the neuron), but speed
is not important everywhere (like the digestive tract).

If every neuron was myelinated, neurons would take

up a lot more space, too.

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 Review Question #2

All neurotransmitters excite the neuron to propagate

an action potential.

A. True
B. False

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 Review Question #2

B. False

There are excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Excitatory neurotransmitters move the neuron closer

to action potential firing threshold, and will generate an
action potential if there is enough stimulus. (Ach, NE, E,
D)

Inhibitory neurotransmitters move the neuron further

away from action potential firing threshold, making it
less likely for an action potential to fire. (GABA, Seritonin)

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 Spinal Cord,
Spinal Nerves
and Cranial
Nerves
 Review

▪ What are two important functions of the spinal cord?

▪ Connects the PNS to the brain

▪ (provides 2 way conduction to and from the brain)

▪ Simple Reflex Centre

▪ Eg: pulling your hand away from a hot object
▪ Simple reflexes are managed by the spine - (quicker than
sending info up to brain and waiting for instructions)

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 Spinal Cord

▪ The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the
brain and peripheral nervous system

▪ A long fragile tube-like structure of nervous tissue that extends

down from the foramen magnum to the L1 or L2 vertebra - below
which the nerves hang individually like a “horse’s tail” (cauda
equina) before exiting the spine.

▪ It has meningeal coverings Lumbar

▪ Dura mater puncture…
▪ Arachnoid mater
▪ Pia Mater

▪ It lies protected within the vertebral column

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Figure 7.21 Spinal cord with meninges (three-dimensional view).

White matter Dorsal (posterior)

Dorsal root Central canal horn of gray matter
ganglion Lateral horn of
gray matter

Spinal nerve
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal root of
horn of gray matter
spinal nerve

Ventral root
Pia mater
of spinal nerve

Arachnoid mater
Dura mater
Figure 7.6 Neurons classified by function.

Central process (axon)

Sensory
Cell neuron Spinal cord
body (central nervous system)
Ganglion
Dendrites Peripheral
process (axon)

Afferent
transmission Interneuron
(association
Peripheral neuron)
nervous system

Receptors
Efferent transmission

Motor neuron

To effectors
(muscles and glands)
 Spinal Cord Anatomy – Gray matter

▪ Dorsal (Posterior) Horns

▪ Receive information from sensory neurons (afferent
pathway) - cell bodies are located in the dorsal root
ganglion)
▪ House interneurons

▪ Ventral (Anterior) Horns

▪ House cell bodies of motor neurons
▪ Sends information out ventral root (efferent pathway)

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 Question

If you place your hand on a hot surface, which root

carries the impulse to the spinal cord?
Which is incoming?

A. Ventral
B. Dorsal
C. Interneuron

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 Dorsal - sensory - incoming
Afferent neurons carry sensory impulses through
the dorsal root, to the dorsal horn of the spinal
cord (cell bodies are in dorsal root ganglion).

Ventral - motor - outgoing

Efferent neurons carry motor responses from the
ventral horn, through the ventral root to effector
cells in the tissue. (cell bodies are in the ventral horn)

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 Spinal Cord Section

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 Some of the Spinal Pathways

Pathway Location Direction Function

in SC

Corticospinal tract lateral Descending Skilled motor to extremities

Posterior column Posterior Ascending Touch, vibration sense,

proprioception
Anterior anterior Ascending Touch, pressure
spinothalamic tract

Lateral Anterior- Ascending Pain, temperature

spinothalamic tract lateral

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 Spinal Nerves (peripheral nervous system)

▪ Spinal nerves arise ▪ There are 31 pairs of

from the Spinal Cord spinal nerves
▪ How many pairs in each
▪ Formed by the joining region?
of the ventral and o Cervical: 8
dorsal roots of the o Thoracic: 12
spinal cord o Lumbar: 5
o Sacral: 5
▪ Named for the region o Coccygeal: 1
from which they arise =31 spinal nerves

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 Spinal Nerve Plexuses
▪ Plexus - nerves exiting 1. Cervical Plexus – (C1-4)
the spine coming neck and phrenic nerve
together into a network (phrenic nerve innervates
diaphragm)
▪ Four plexuses:
1. Cervical
2. Brachial 2. Brachial Plexus – (C5-T1)
3. Lumbar control of arm and shoulder
4. Sacral
3. Lumbar Plexus – (L1-4)
▪ What areas do each of anterior / medial thigh
these innervate?

▪ Which spinal nerves 4. Sacral Plexus – (L4-S4)

make up each plexus? buttocks, perineum, back of
thigh, lower leg
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Figure 7.25a Spinal nerves.
C1
2
3 Ventral rami form
Cervical 4
cervical plexus
5
nerves 6 (C1 – C5)
7
8
Ventral rami form
T1 brachial plexus
2 (C5 – C8; T1)
3
4
5
Thoracic
6
nerves
7

8
No plexus
9
formed
(intercostal
10
nerves)
Lumbar 11
(T1 – T12)
nerves 12

Sacral L1
nerves 2

3 Ventral rami form

lumbar plexus
4
(L1 – L4)
5

S1 Ventral rami form

2 sacral plexus
3 (L4 – L5; S1 – S4)
4
(a)
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 Cranial Nerves
peripheral nerves that come off the brain
▪ 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and
neck
▪ CN I and II connect to forebrain, the rest 10 connect
to brainstem
▪ Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic
and abdominal cavities
▪ Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only:
1. Optic (CN II)
2. Olfactory (CN I)
3. Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII)

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 Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device

▪ Oh – Olfactory (CN I)
▪ Oh – Optic (CN II)
What is the role of
▪ Oh – Oculomotor (CN III) each of these cranial
▪ To – Trochlear (CN IV) nerves?
▪ Touch – Trigeminal (CN V)
▪ And – Abducens (CN VI)
▪ Feel – Facial (CN VII)
▪ Very – Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII)
▪ Green – Glossopharyngeal (CN IX)
▪ Vegetables – Vagus (CN X)
▪ A – Accessory (CN XI)
▪ H – Hypoglossal (CN XII)
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 Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
▪ Oh – Olfactory (CN I) smell

▪ Oh – Optic (CN II) vision

▪ Oh – Oculomotor (CN III) 4 out of 6 eye muscles / lens / pupil

▪ To – Trochlear (CN IV) superior oblique eye muscle

▪ Touch – Trigeminal (CN V)

sensory from face / motor to chewing muscles

▪ And – Abducens (CN VI) lateral rectus eye muscle

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 Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
▪ Feel – Facial (CN VII) motor to all face muscles (expression)
except chewing / some taste / sensory from ear

▪ Very – Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) hearing and equilibrium

▪ Green – Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) taste / sensory pharynx /

some muscles in swallowing

▪ Vegetables – Vagus (CN X) sensory, motor and autonomic

glands, digestion, heart rate

▪ A – Accessory (CN XI) muscles in head movement

▪ H – Hypoglossal (CN XII) muscles of tongue
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Figure 7.24 Distribution of cranial nerves.

III Oculomotor
IV Trochlear
VI Abducens
I Olfactory
V Trigeminal V Trigeminal
II Optic

VII Facial

Vestibular
branch

Cochlear
branch
VIII Vestibulocochlear

X Vagus
IX Glossopharyngeal
XII Hypoglossal XI Accessory
 Summary

▪ Structural classification of the nervous system

▪ CNS and PNS (sensory and motor (somatic and autonomic))
▪ Neurons (afferent, efferent, interneuron), nuclei, ganglia,
tracts and nerves
▪ Nerve Impulses: resting membrane potential, graded
potential, action potential
▪ Transmission of signal at synapse and neurotransmitters
(excitatory and inhibitory)
▪ Spinal cord anatomy and pathways
▪ Spinal nerves (31 pairs), and cranial nerves (12 pairs)

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 For studying
Good to be able to define and explain:
▪ Action potential
▪ Resting membrane potential
▪ Depolarization
▪ Repolarization
▪ Myelin sheath
▪ Ganglion
▪ Nuclei
▪ Tract
▪ Nerve
▪ Plexus

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Term Test 1
Things to know
Topics covered
▪ 60 minutes, 40 multiple choice questions

▪ Topics covered Include:

▪ Week 1: Blood (~13 questions)
▪ Week 2: Cardiovascular System (~13 questions)
▪ Week 3: Nervous System – Part 1 (~14 questions)
What to expect
▪ Bring pencils, eraser and your student ID
▪ Please wait outside classroom
▪ Upon entering, please leave all items
(including phones) at front of class
▪ Except pencil, eraser and student ID
▪ After 30 minutes or when test
completed, hand it in and have a break!
▪ Come back for when lecture begins
▪ If you have an emergency and will not
be able to write the test - important to
send me an email before test begins
Final Tips

▪ Review and study using active learning

▪ (study notes, study groups, attend learning
group sessions, read textbook)
▪ Read question carefully (not, true, false)
▪ Read ALL options first, and eliminate clearly
wrong answers
▪ Answer all the questions you know first, then
go back to more challenging ones
▪ Don’t change your answers unless you’re
sure you’re changing to a correct answer