Steam Turbine

Dhiraj Kumar
 Steam Turbine

• The more modern device to extract shaft power from

Microscopic kinetic Power is the steam turbine.
• Steam turbines have been the norm in various land based
power plants for more than 100 years.
• Turbine is a flow device develops a variable pressure form
inlet to outlet.
• A flowing steam performs work transfer, while moving from
high inlet pressure (Live Steam) to low outlet pressure (Dead
Steam).
• The volume of steam continuously increases during this
process.
• The infinitesimal work done by a flowing fluid is defined as
 Concept of Flow work : The Steam Turbine

phigh
Thigh
hhigh psat _ amb
Live Steam
Tamb
W  Vdp W  Vdp hlow
pdead

Wout 
in   V
p Live
dp
 Pturbine  m  hlive  hlow  Dead Steam

  m r V ,exit  V ,inlet i

n n

P
i 1 i 1
ith  stage
Quasi-static Execution of Flow Work Transfer

phigh
Thigh
hhigh

psat _ amb
Tamb
hlow
Rotor System of A Power Plant Turbine
 Classification of Multi-stage Turbines
• Multi-stage impulse turbines:
• a) Pressure compounded Steam Turbine : The Rateau
Design
• b) Velocity compounded Steam Turbine : The Curtis
Design
• c) pressure and velocity compounded Impulse turbines
: The Rateau-curtis Design.
• Multi-stage Steam Reaction Turbines: Parson Turbine
 Maximum Efficiency of Impulse Blade
1

0.8

0.6
Reaction
0.4
Impulse
0.2

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
 Blade Power at Maximum Efficiency
Conditions

 U Va1 cos1  U 
Ideal Impulse Stage : Pimpulse  Blade  2m

U cos1  Pimpulse Blade  2m

U2

Va1 2
m Va21 cos2 1
Pimpulse  Blade 
2
 U 2Va1 cos1  U 
Ideal Parson Stage : PParson  m

U  PParson  m U 2
 cos1
Va1
 PParson  m Va21 cos2 1
Moderate Capacity of Parson Blading for
Same Blade Velocity

 Pimpulse Blade opt  2m

U2  PParson opt  m
U2
At optimum U/Va1, an impulse stage produces TWICE the power
of a 50% reaction stage for same blade speed!
This means that an impulse turbine requires only half the number
of stages as a 50% reaction turbine for a given application!

This fact has a major impact on the construction of the turbine

It is also responsible for some of the greatest misunderstandings,
since people assume that impulse blading is cheaper overall - this is
NOT true!
Impulse turbines have fewer stages, but they must use a different
form of construction which is expensive
Mechanical Arrangements of Steam Turbines

• The blade velocity is defined at mean diameter of rotor

wheel.
• For same wheel speed, the blade velocity is directly
proportional to blade height.
• The height of the blade is proportional to specific volume of
steam.
• Solutions to Turbo-machinery Speed Issues (TSI)
 Radial Turbines
Development of radial flow turbines dates back to 1830's by
Fourneyron, who developed the radial outflow type turbine.

• Later on Francis and Boyden developed the radial inflow

type turbine.

• The inward-flow radial (IFR) turbine covers tremendous

ranges of power, rates of mass flow and rotational speeds.

IFR turbines are used in a variety of applications ranging

from hydroelectric power plants to small gas turbines.
 90° IFR turbine
• This turbine has a striking similarity with a centrifugal compressor.
• The flow direction and blade motion are reversed. The flow enters
the turbine radially and exits the turbine axially.
• Straight radial blades are generally preferred as curved blades would
incur additional stresses. The rotor or impeller ends with an exducer.
• Usually the flow exiting the rotor passes through a diffuser to recover
KE, which would otherwise be wasted.
90° IFR turbine
Construction and Manufacturing Process of HP (High-Pressure) Turbine
Rotor and LP (Low-Pressure) Turbine Rotor:

Turbine rotors, whether high-pressure (HP) or low-pressure (LP), are critical

components in power generation systems, particularly in steam turbines used in
thermal power plants. The construction and manufacturing processes for these
rotors involve precision engineering and advanced metallurgy to ensure optimal
performance and durability.

1. Design and Engineering: The process begins with meticulous design and
engineering, taking into account factors such as operating conditions, material
properties, aerodynamics, and stress analysis.

2. Material Selection: Turbine rotors are typically made from high-strength, heat-
resistant alloys such as nickel-based superalloys or stainless steels. The
material selection is crucial to withstand high temperatures, pressures, and
mechanical stresses experienced during operation.
3. Forging: The chosen alloy is heated to a high temperature and then forged into
the desired shape using hydraulic presses or hammers. Forging helps align the grain
structure of the metal, improving its mechanical properties and reducing the risk of
defects.

4. Machining: After forging, the rotor undergoes precision machining to achieve the
final dimensions and surface finish. CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines
are used to mill, turn, drill, and grind the rotor to exact specifications.

5. Heat Treatment: Heat treatment processes such as annealing, quenching, and

tempering are employed to further enhance the mechanical properties of the rotor,
including hardness, strength, and toughness. Controlled heating and cooling cycles
are applied to achieve the desired microstructure and properties.

6. Blade Attachment

7. Final Assembly
Stiffening of turbine blades refers to the incorporation of structural
enhancements or features to increase the rigidity and strength of the blades. Turbine
blades operate in harsh conditions, experiencing high temperatures, rotational forces,
and aerodynamic loads. Stiffening is crucial to ensure that the blades can withstand
these conditions without deformation or failure.
Here are some common methods of stiffening turbine blades:
Structural Design: The overall geometry and structure of the blade are designed to
provide inherent stiffness. This includes the blade's cross-sectional shape, thickness,
and the arrangement of internal structural elements.
Ribbing and Spar Arrangements: Turbine blades often have internal ribs or spars
strategically placed to enhance stiffness. These elements help distribute loads more
evenly and resist bending or twisting.
Material Selection: High-strength materials, such as superalloys and advanced
composites, are commonly used to construct turbine blades. These materials provide
the necessary stiffness and strength to withstand the mechanical and thermal stresses
encountered during operation.
Aerodynamic Design: The aerodynamic shape of the blade is carefully designed to
balance efficiency and structural integrity. A well-designed aerodynamic profile
contributes to the overall stiffness of the blade.
Cooling and Thermal Management: Stiffening may also involve the incorporation of
cooling channels or features to manage the high temperatures generated during
operation. Proper thermal management is essential for preventing material
degradation and maintaining structural integrity.
Coatings and Surface Treatments: Protective coatings and surface treatments can be
applied to enhance the resistance of the blade to corrosion and erosion, which can
affect its stiffness and overall structural performance over time.
Precision Manufacturing: The manufacturing process itself plays a crucial role in
achieving the desired stiffness. Precision machining and manufacturing techniques
ensure that the blade maintains its intended geometry and structural features.

Stiffening is a critical aspect of turbine blade design to ensure reliable and efficient
performance over the operational lifespan of the turbine. It requires a
multidisciplinary approach that considers aerodynamics, structural mechanics,
materials science, and manufacturing processes. Advances in materials and
engineering techniques continue to contribute to the development of turbine blades
with improved stiffness and overall performance.
Blade erosion refers to the gradual wear or removal of material from the surfaces
of turbine blades due to the impact of solid particles carried by the fluid (such as
air or gas) flowing over the blades. This phenomenon is commonly observed in
various types of turbines, including aircraft engines, power plant turbines, and gas
turbines. Erosion can affect both compressor blades and turbine blades, but it is
often more critical for turbine blades exposed to high-velocity exhaust gases.
Key points related to blade erosion include:
Causes of Erosion: Erosion typically occurs when solid particles, such as sand, dust,
salt, or other contaminants, are present in the fluid flow. These particles impact the
surfaces of the turbine blades, gradually wearing away the material.
Effect on Performance: Blade erosion can lead to a reduction in aerodynamic
efficiency and overall turbine performance. As material is eroded from the blade
surfaces, the original aerodynamic shape is altered, leading to decreased turbine
efficiency.
Materials Susceptible to Erosion: The susceptibility of turbine blades to erosion
depends on the material composition. Some materials are more resistant to erosion
than others. However, even high-strength materials, such as superalloys, can
experience erosion over time.
Prevention and Mitigation: To address erosion, turbine blades may be designed with
protective coatings, such as erosion-resistant coatings or thermal barrier coatings.
These coatings help minimize the impact of abrasive particles on the blade surfaces.
Monitoring and Maintenance: Regular inspections and monitoring of turbine blades
are essential to detect erosion early on. Maintenance practices may include repairing
or replacing eroded blades to ensure the continued reliability and efficiency of the
turbine.
Research and Development: Ongoing research focuses on developing materials and
coatings that are more resistant to erosion. Improvements in design and
manufacturing processes are also pursued to enhance the durability of turbine
blades.

Blade erosion is a significant concern in the operation of turbines, as it can impact

performance, increase maintenance costs, and potentially lead to premature failure if
not addressed. Engineers continually work on developing strategies and materials to
mitigate the effects of erosion and improve the longevity of turbine components.
 Sequence of Energy Losses in a Stage

Steam
Thermal
Blade
Power
Steam kinetic
kinetic Power
Power

Nozzle Losses Stage Losses

Moving Blade
Isentropic efficiency of Losses Blade Friction Factor
Nozzle
Turbine Losses

1. Internal losses, which are connected with the flow of steam.

2. External losses, which occur outside the turbine casing.

The internal losses may be enumerated as follows:

(a) Losses in regulating valves
(b) Nozzle friction losses
(c) Blade friction losses
(d) Disc friction losses
(e) Partial admission losses
(f) Gland leakage losses
(g) Residual velocity losses
(h) Carry-over losses
1. Losses in regulating valves: Steam, before entering the turbine, passes through
the main valve and the regulating valves, the flow through these being
accompanied by pressure losses. Steam gets throttled adiabatically with constant
enthalpy. However, the enthalpy drop in the turbine decreases yielding less
specific output. Thus, some available energy of steam is lost due to the
irreversible process of throttling. The pressure drop varies from 3 to 5% of the
inlet steam pressure.

2. Nozzle friction losses: The friction losses in nozzles were mentioned earlier. The
effect of friction is taken care of by the nozzle efficiency. Losses are due to the
growth of boundary layer and the formation of eddies in the wake, apart from
the frictional resistance of walls, which varies with the height and length of
passage. Losses are higher in a turbulent boundary layer than in a laminar one.
In reaction turbine where pressure or enthalpy drop per stage is less due to
lower velocity, the laminar condition persists over a greater length of passage.
So, the friction loss is less than the impulse stage. However, due to the large
number of stages, the total surface area exposed to flow is more, which
increases the friction loss. Thus, the nozzle loss depends on its size, surface
roughness, its length, roundness of entrance, divergence angle, space between
nozzles, moisture and trailing edge.
3. Blade friction losses Losses in moving blades are caused by various factors as
enumerated below:(a) Impingement losses: Steam issuing out from the nozzles
meets the leading edges of the blades and energy may be lost if the entry is not
smooth enough and eddies are formed.(b) Frictional losses: Steam encounters these
losses in the blade passages, which depends on the roughness of the blade
surface.(c) Turning losses: These occur as the steam turns in the blade passage.(d)
Wake losses: These occur at blade exit, depending on its shape and tip thickness. The
moving blade losses are taken care of by the blade friction coefficient (k=V/V)
representing the reduction of relative velocity of steam from V₁, to V due to
friction.

4. Disc friction losses When the turbine disc rotates in the viscous steam, there is
surface friction loss due to relative motion between the disc and steam particles. Due
to centrifugal force, steam is thrown radially outward. The moving disc surface
exerts a drag on the steam, sets it in motion from root to tip, and produces a definite
circulation. Some part of the kinetic energy of steam is lost due to this friction.
5. Partial admission loss An impulse stage operating with partial admission, or an
early stage in such a turbine with nozzles provided only over a part of the blade
periphery, will have blades idle during part of the revolution. Some portion of
kinetic energy of the incoming steam is spent in clearing away the steam existing
within the blade passage. These are called "scavenging losses" which together with
disc friction losses are often referred to as windage loss.

6. Gland leakage losses Leakage of steam can occur between stages and along the
shaft at inlet and exit ends of the casing. Diaphragm leakage takes place in both
impulse and reaction stages through the radial clearance between the stationary
nozzle diaphragm and the shaft or drum. Tip leakage occurs in reaction stages
through the clearance between the outer periphery of the moving blades and the
casing because of the pressure difference existing across the blades. Shaft leakage
occurs through the radial clearance between the shaft and casing at bot high and low
pressure ends of turbines. At the HP end, steam leaks out to the atmosphere, while
at the LP end, the pressure being less than atmospheric, air leaks into the shell.
7. Residual velocity loss: Steam leaving the last stage of the turbine has a certain
velocity which represents an amount of kinetic energy that cannot be imparted to
the turbine shaft and is thus wasted.

8. Carry-over losses Some energy loss takes place as steam flows from one stage to
the next. The kinetic energy leaving one stage and available to the next is given by
nco(V2/2), where nco is the carry-over efficiency.

External losses:

There are some energy losses in the bearings and governing mechanisms which
can be reduced by improving the lubrication systems. Some energy is consumed by
oil pumps. Since the turbines are adequately insulated the surface heat loss by
radiation and convection is small. Modern large electric generators are hydrogen
cooled, well designed, and very efficient, where the energy losses are within 2 to 3
per cent.
Blade Fastening:

There are a number of methods for fixing turbine blades to the disc
or drum. The selected type of fastening must be able to resist the
centrifugal and bending forces to which the blades may be subjected.
Blades which are loosely fastened to the disc or drum will amplify any
vibrations induced in the blades, causing fatigue failure. The failure of
one blade may lead to the destruction of the entire turbine.
A steam chest in a turbine is a chamber located at the top of the turbine where
high-pressure steam enters before it is directed towards the turbine blades.

The steam chest serves as a distribution point for the high-pressure steam coming
from the boiler. It ensures that the steam is evenly distributed to the turbine blades
for efficient power generation.

The steam chest contains various valves and nozzles that regulate the flow of
steam into the turbine blades. These valves and nozzles are carefully designed to
optimize the turbine's performance and prevent any damage due to excessive steam
flow.

The design and operation of the steam chest can significantly impact the efficiency
of a turbine. Proper distribution and control of steam flow through the steam
chest ensure that the turbine operates at its maximum efficiency and generates the
desired amount of power.
Turbine governing and control

The function of a governor is to maintain the shaft speed constant as the

load varies.

The simplest type of governor is the centrifugal flyball type (Fig. 7.50).
The power available at the shaft is equal to 2TN/60, where T is torque
and N is the rpm. As load (or torque) decreases, speed increases.
Consequently, with the increase of centrifugal force, the flyballs fly apart
and raise the sleeve which, operating through a lever and a fulcrum,
actuates the main valve to close and reduce the mass flow of steam
admitted to the turbine.

An oil-separated servo system in addition may be used to enhance the

sensitivity of governor.
Thank You