MODERNISM

Modernism is a literary and artistic movement that began in the late 19th century and
departed from previous traditional and classical forms of art and literature. It is a global
movement where creatives radically produced new imagery, mediums, and means to best
portray modern life. The movement not only was embraced by literature but art, music,
architecture and other fields of thinking.
Modernism rejected all the movements that became before it, arguing that these forms of
representation no longer adequately reflected the new forms of society.
Modernist broke from traditional forms of writing as they did not best reflect the struggles
and issues of society. Modernism grew out of a critical turning point in nearly every area of
civilisation; it is marked by profound shifts in human perception. This was a time of
increasing internalisation of narration in literature, with aspects such as stream of
consciousness, rejection of narrative continuity, and non-linear chronology.
Modernism Time Period
Modernism was born out of a time of great societal upheaval caused by industrialisation,
modernisation and the first World War.
WW1 (1914–1918) shattered the concept of progress to many, resulting in fragmentation in
both content and structure. The ideals of the Enlightenment claimed that new technology
would bring progress to humans: technological advances would improve society and quality
of life. Yet this was destroyed by WW1, as technological advances simply increased the mass
destruction of life. The war resulted in the disillusionment of society and a deep pessimism
of human nature; themes picked up by Modernism such as in the poem 'The Waste Land'
(1922) by T. S. Eliot.
By the beginning of the twentieth century, the western world was using various inventions of
the Industrial Revolution, such as the automobile, aeroplane and radio. These technological
innovations challenged traditional notions of what was possible in society. Modernists could
see the whole of society being transformed by machines.
Yet the Industrial Revolution and resulting urbanisation and industrialisation also led to
significant social and economic inequalities. Many modernist authors such as Franz Kafka
and T. S. Eliot explored the effects of these events on the population and the disillusionment
and sense of loss people experienced.
The mass urban movement meant that the city became the key context and reference point
for both human nature and humans. As a result, the city often starred as the main character
in modernist texts.
Industrialisation is the development of economies from agricultural to industrial.
Urbanisation is the mass movement of people from the countryside to cities.
Characteristics of Modernism in Literature
The tremendous social upheavals brought everything into doubt that was once fixed. The
ideals and standards were shattered as warfare caused disillusionment with life.The world
was no longer reliable and set. Instead, it became slippery and dependent on one's
perspective and subjectivity. Requiring new models to express this uncertainty, Modernism
is characterised by experimentation in form, multi-perspectives, interiority and non-linear
timelines.
Experimentation
Modernist writers experimented with their writing styles and broke with previous
storytelling conventions. They went against narrative conventions and formulaic verse by
writing fragmented stories to represent the state of society after great upheavals.
Ezra Pound's 'Make it new!' statement in 1934 about the Modernist movement emphasises
the role of experimentation. This slogan was an attempt to encourage writers and poets to
be innovative in their writing and experiment with new writing styles.
Modernist poets also rejected traditional conventions and rhyme schemes and started to
write in free verse.
Subjectivity & Multi-Perspectives
Modernist texts are characterised by a growing mistrust of language to be able to reflect
reality. Modernist writers rejected the neutrality and objectivity of third-person omniscient
narrators often used in Victorian literature. Instead, Modernist writers embraced subjective
language dependent on perspective.
Example
From a neutral, object perspective, a red apple is simply a red apple. Yet, in subjective texts,
this red apple is perceived through the narrator, who will see and describe this apple from
their own subjective perspective. Maybe for one narrator, the red apple is actually deep
oxblood red, whereas the red apple appears to be light pink for another narrator. So the
apple will change depending on who is perceiving it.
Yet if reality changes depending on who perceives it, how can we really trust what we see?
And what even is the reality in this new slippery world?
Modernist texts tried to deal with these questions by using new narrative perspectives,
which became increasingly fragmented and turned inward into the characters. Many
Modernist writers wrote in the first-person but with different characters to present each
character's individual thoughts and add complexity to the story. This multi-perspectival
narration used several different viewpoints to present and evaluate a novel.
A first-person narrator is a narrator that is inside the text (a character in the story). The story
is filtered through their perspective. An example is Nick Carraway in The Great Gatsby
(1925). Multi-perspectival narration includes various perspectives in one text. Namely, a text
is created through multiple narrators, who each bring in their own perspective. James
Joyce's Ulysses (1920) is an example. Modernist texts had an increased awareness of the
unreliability of perspective, so they did not include fixed viewpoints but used techniques like
paradox and ambiguity to add depth to the story.
Interiority and Individualism
Believing that traditional forms of storytelling were no longer fit to describe the world they
were in, many experimental forms of writing increasingly turned inward into the characters.
The following literary techniques allowed the writers to enter the interiority of the
characters and emphasis the individual:
Stream of consciousness: a narrative device that attempts to express the character's
thoughts as they come. A type of interior monologue, the text is more associative that often
has sudden leaps in thought, long sentences and limited punctuation.
Interior monologue: is a narrative technique where the narrator enters the characters'
minds to present their thoughts and feelings.They didn't believe that actions reveal
intentions ,thoughts and feelings .
Free indirect speech: a narrative technique where a third-person narration uses some
elements of first-person narration by presenting characters' inner workings.
By turning inward into the individual characters, modernist texts attempted to explore the
diverse and ambiguous sense of self. Yet by doing this, the external reality and the perceiving
mind become blurred.
Non-Linear Timelines
In 1905 and 1915, Albert Einstein published his theory of relativity, which proposed that
time and space were relative to one's perspective. This means that time is not neutral or
objective but changes depending on who perceives it. This theory exploded the linear
perspective that ordered the world: that time can be easily categorised into past, present
and future.
Drawing on this, modernist writers often rejected linear timelines. Modernist texts often
dissolve the different time periods of past, present and future. Time becomes discontinuous,
creating a text in "flux". Just as human thought processes are non-linear, so too became the
plots and timelines.
Example: Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five (1969) has a non-linear structure that
frequently uses flashbacks.
Modernism Movement: Themes
Individualism & Alienation
Modernist writers focused on individuals instead of society. They followed the lives of these
characters, coming to terms with a changing world and overcoming their trials and
tribulations. Often these individuals felt alienated from their world. Caught up in the rapid
pace of modernity, the characters are unable to find their bearings in the constantly
changing environment through no fault of their own.

Nihilism
Modernism was inspired by the philosophy of nihilism in the sense that it rejected moral and
religious principles that were perceived as the only way to achieve social progress.
Modernists often believed that for people to be their authentic selves, individuals needed to
be free from the overwhelming and restrictive control of conventions. Nihilism is the
philosophy that holds that all beliefs and values are intrinsically senseless. As such, life has
no intrinsic meaning.
Absurdity
War made a significant impact on the public and also on writers. As poets and writers died
or were greatly wounded during World War I, globalisation and capitalism re-created society.
This contradiction in people's lives created a sense of absurdity. Franz Kafka's novella The
Metamorphosis (1915) presents the absurdity of modern life when the protagonist, a
travelling salesman, wakes up one day as a giant cockroach.
Absurdism is a branch of Modernism that finds the modern world meaningless, and thus all
attempts to find meaning are inherently absurd. Unlike Nihilism, Absurdism found positivity
in this meaninglessness, arguing that if all is meaningless anyway, you might as well have
fun.
Modernism's Writers
James Joyce
James Joyce is regarded as one of the great masters of modernist writing, with his incredibly
complex texts often requiring intense studying to grasp them fully. Joyce pioneered the
radical use of narration, turning such texts as Ulysses (1922) into the modernist canon. The
experimental novel Ulysses (1922) mirrors Homer's Odyssey (725–675 BCE), yet in the
former, all the events take place in one day. Joyce uses symbolism, stream of consciousness
and various types of narration to explore the complexity of the inner consciousness.
James Joyce's work: Dubliners (1914), A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916)
Ulysses is a groundbreaking and complex modernist novel by Irish author James Joyce that
was published as a full work in 1922 after parts had been serialized in the journal Little
Review from 1918 to 1920. The takes place over the course of a single day, June 16, 1904, in
Dublin, Ireland, as it follows the activities of three main characters—Stephen Dedalus,
Leopold Bloom, and Molly Bloom—through various episodes that parallel Homer’s The
Odyssey. While the structure and characters of Ulysses suggest a series of parallels with
Homer’s epic poem, the literary, historical, and political references within the work are
almost limitless. Joyce’s meticulous and innovative use of language and narrative techniques
makes Ulysses a challenging but highly influential work.
The setting of Dublin is not merely a backdrop but a character in itself, as Joyce intricately
weaves the city’s streets, landmarks, and cultural nuances into the fabric of the narrative.
The novel captures the essence of early 20th-century Dublin, providing a snapshot of the
city’s social, political, and cultural landscape. Each episode of the novel offers a unique
perspective on the characters and their experiences, creating a rich tapestry that reflects the
diversity of Dublin life.
Historically, the episodes in Ulysses take place in time of significant social and political
change, including the waning days of British political control prior to Irish independence,
which occurred in December of 1921. Joyce’s exploration of the human condition and the
intricacies of everyday life reflects the broader concerns of the modernist movement.
Franz Kafka
Franz Kafka's work is so unique that it has even received its own adjective, 'kafkaesque'. Yet
it clearly draws on many hallmarks of Modernism. Kafka's experimental use of narrative
perspective blurs the subject and object. Moreover, his non-linear use of time is framed
through the characters' subjectivity. For example, the passing of time in the novella The
Metamorphosis (1915) is inextricably linked to the protagonist Gregor Samsa. The length
that Gregor passes out at the end of each part is directly linked to the length of time passing
in the novella.
Franz Kafka's works: The Metamorphosis (1915), The Trial (1925), The Castle (1926)

Virginia Woolf
Virginia Woolf is often hailed as one of the great modernist writers. Her texts pioneered the
literary device of stream of consciousness. Through interior monologue, she created
developed and inward-looking characters that exhibited complex emotions.
Virginia Woolf's work: Mrs Dalloway (1925), To The Lighthouse (1927)
Ezra Pound
As well as being well known in Modernism in which he used allusion and free verse
extensively, Ezra Pound was also one of the first to use imagism in Modernist poetry.
Ezra Pound's works: 'In a Station of the Metro' (1913), 'The Return' (1917).
T s eliot
T.S. Eliot’s poetry, comprising notable works such as “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,”
“The Waste Land,” and “Four Quartets,” represents a profound exploration of modernist
themes and a transformation in poetic expression.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” published in 1915, is a modernist masterpiece that
delves into the fragmented psyche of its protagonist, Prufrock. Eliot employs stream-of-
consciousness techniques to convey Prufrock’s internal monologue, reflecting the
uncertainty and alienation prevalent in the early 20th century. The poem captures the
essence of modernist disillusionment, combining rich imagery and intricate symbolism to
create a haunting portrayal of the human condition.

“The Waste Land,” published in 1922, stands as one of Eliot’s most complex and influential
works. A sprawling collage of voices, cultures, and historical references, the poem explores
disillusionment and despair in the aftermath of World War I. Eliot weaves together myth,
religion, and contemporary society, creating a fragmented yet cohesive narrative that
exposes the cultural and spiritual desolation of the time. “The Waste Land” is a landmark in
modernist poetry, showcasing Eliot's ability to synthesize diverse sources into a cohesive
commentary on the fractured state of the world.
The Waste Land,' with its overarching complexity, fragmented structure, and vast allusions, is
a masterpiece of literary modernism depicting the mood of its times, including the
desolation and hopelessness of the modern human condition.
“Four Quartets,” composed between 1935 and 1942, represents a later phase in Eliot’s
career. This collection of four interconnected poems—“Burnt Norton,” “East Coker,” “The
Dry Salvages,” and “Little Gidding”—delves into spiritual and philosophical themes. Eliot
reflects on time, existence, and the search for meaning, offering a more contemplative and
transcendent perspective compared to his earlier works. “Four Quartets” demonstrates
Eliot’s evolution as a poet, moving from the disillusionment of the early 20th century to a
more reflective and spiritually inclined exploration of the human experience.
William Faulkner
The Sound and the Fury is a modernist novel published by William Faulkner in 1929. It tells
the story of the Compson family’s fall from grace and the tragedies that befall their four
children, Cady, Quientin, Benjy, and Jason, whose perspectives make up each section of the
novel. Known for its impressive deployment of the stream of consciousness style, The Sound
and the Fury contributed to William Faulkner winning the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1949.
As I Lay Dying by Nobel Prize winning author William Faulkner and first published in 1930. It
is a work of some daring—one that forgoes the unified perspective of a single narrator and
fragments its text into 59 segments voiced from 15 different perspectives. Its structuring
requires readers to take an active part in constructing the story and allows for multiple and
sometimes conflicting interpretations while enabling the achievement of remarkable levels
of psychological insight.
The novel is a narrative tour de force that follows the Bundren family’s journey to bury their
deceased mother, Addie, in Jefferson, Mississippi. The novel is set in Yoknapatawpha County,
a fictional but recurring setting in Faulkner’s works, capturing the impoverished and rural
atmosphere of the American South during the Great Depression. One of the distinctive
features of the novel is its multiple perspectives, with each chapter offering insights into the
thoughts and experiences of different family members, providing a complex and layered
portrayal of their struggles.
As I Lay Dying is rooted in the challenges faced by individuals dealing with death and the
impermanence of existence and identity that death brings to the fore. The novel’s
exploration death, grief, and family relationships reflects the psychological depth of
Faulkner’s characters and his ability to delve into the human condition. Despite its historical
setting at the start of the Great Depression, the novel’s themes remain relevant, resonating
with readers for its universal exploration of the complexities of family and the quest for
redemption. The novel continues to be a significant piece in Southern gothic literature and
American modernist literature, appreciated for its innovative narrative technique and
profound exploration of the human experience.
Gertrude stein
Gertrude Stein was born in the United States but spent most of her adult life as an
expatriate in Paris. Stein wrote novels, plays, short stories, poetry, and essays. She held
frequent meetings for artists and writers in her Paris home where she was known for hosting
salon nights. She was beloved by a community of experimental and modern writers and
artists and has always symbolized experimental writing approaches to the writing world at
large. Tender Buttons was published in 1914 in the context of the early avant-garde.
Gertrude Stein's Tender Buttons was published in 1914. While the subject matter of the
collection is everyday objects, the formal presentation of the writing is experimental and
resists easy meaning-making for the reader. The collection of experimental poetry is often
compared to visual experimental movements from the early twentieth century such as the
Cubists and the Dadaists. The book plays with syntax, refuses to follow a genre, and presents
objects in ways that make the reader think about the objects' meanings and how language
works. The book is divided into three sections: "Objects," "Food," and "Rooms." The work
presents everyday concepts using unexpected syntax and descriptions.

Criticism
While some critics argue that we still are in the movement of modernism, others suggest
that a new literary movement of postmodernism has evolved since the 1950s.
Postmodernism is characterised by fragmentation and intertextuality in a hyperconnected
world. Modernist literature rejected previous forms of poetry and prose as it felt that they
were no longer sufficient to represent modern life. In contrast, postmodernism consciously
used previous forms and styles to comment on intertextuality. Intertextuality is the
relationship between texts. This can be achieved by writers directly referencing texts within
their own work, creating a dialogue between writers and works.