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BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (KEE-201)

AKTU SYLLABUS

Module -3: Transformers [08]

Magnetic materials, BH characteristics, ideal and practical transformer, equivalent

circuit, losses in transformers, regulation and efficiency. Auto-transformer and three-

phase transformer connections.

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Magnetic Materials
We can classify materials into three categories viz. diamagnetic, paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic. The behaviour of these three classes of substances is different in an external magnetic
field.
 When a diamagnetic substance (e.g. copper, zinc, bismuth etc.) is placed in a magnetic field,
the substance if feebly magnetised in a direction opposite to that of the applied field.
Therefore, a diamagnetic substance is feebly repelled by a strong magnet.
 When a paramagnetic substance (e.g. aluminium, antimony etc.) is placed in a magnetic field,
the substance is feebly magnetised in the direction of the applied field. Therefore, a
paramagnetic substance is feebly attracted by a strong magnet.
 When a ferromagnetic substance (e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt etc.) is placed in a magnetic field,
the substance is strongly magnetised in the direction of the applied field. Therefore, a
ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted by a magnet.
Note that diamagnetism and paramagnetism are weak forms of magnetism. However, ferromagnetic
substances exhibit very strong magnetic effects.

Q27. Define the terms (a) magnetic circuit (b)Magnetic flux(c)Magnetic flux
density(d)mmf (e)magnetic field intensity(f)permeability, relative and absolute
permeability (g)reluctance.Also Describe the analogies between electrical and
magnetic circuit in brief.

Magnetic Circuit
The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit.
In a magnetic circuit, the magnetic flux leaves the N-pole, passes through the entire circuit, and
returns to the starting point. A magnetic circuit usually consists of materials having high permeability
e.g. iron, soft steel etc. It is because these materials offer very small opposition to the „flow‟ of
magnetic flux.

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Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.):

It is a magnetic pressure which sets up or tends to set up flux in a magnetic circuit and may be
defined as under :
The work done in moving a unit magnetic pole once around the magnetic circuit is called the
magnetomotive force (m.m.f.). It is equal to the product of current and number of turns of the coil i.e.
m.m.f. = N I ampere-turns (or AT)
Magnetomotive force in a magnetic circuit corresponds to e.m.f. in an electric circuit. The only
change in the definition is the substitution of unit magnetic pole in place of unit charge.
Reluctance(S):
The opposition that the magnetic circuit offers to magnetic flux is called reluctance. The
reluctance of a magnetic circuit depends upon its length, area of X-section and permeability of the
material that makes up the magnetic circuit. Its unit is AT/Wb.
Magnetic Field:
The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force is called a magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux (ϕ):

The number of magnetic lines of force in a magnetic field determines the value of magnetic
flux. The more the magnetic lines of force, the greater the magnetic flux and the stronger the magnetic
field.
The total number of magnetic lines of force produced by a magnetic source is called magnetic
flux. It is denoted by Greek letter f (phi). Its unit is Weber.
Magnetic Flux Density (B):
The magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux passing through per unit cross
sectional area.
i.e. Magnetic flux density, B = ϕ /A Wb/m2

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where ϕ= flux in Wb
A = area in m2 normal to flux
The SI unit of magnetic flux density is Wb/m2 or tesla.
Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Force (H):
The Magnetic Field Intensity or Magnetic Field Strength is a ratio of the MMF needed to create
a certain Flux Density (B) within a particular material per unit length of that material. H = At/m,
ampere-turns per meter. Often, N is used as the number of turns of wire around a core or magnetic
material.
So the H = N*I/m.

Magnetic Permeability (μ):

The magnetic permeability is defined as the property of the material to allow the magnetic
line of force to pass through it. In other words, the magnetic material can support the development of
the magnetic field. The magnetic line of force is directly proportional to the conductivity of the
material. Their SI unit is Henry per meter (H/M).

Absolute permeability (μ0):

The magnetic permeability of the material is directly proportional to the number of lines passing
through it. The permeability of the air or vacuum is represented by μ0 and known as Absolute
permeability which is equal to 4π×10-7 H/m. The permeability of air or vacuum is very poor

Relative Permeability (μr):

The relative permeability of the material is the comparison of the permeability concerning the
air or vacuum. The actual permeability of the air or vacuum is very poor as compared to the absolute
permeability.

The relative permeability of the material is the ratio of the permeability of any medium to the
permeability of air or vacuum. It is expressed as

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Analogies between electrical and magnetic circuit

Q28. Draw and explain the hysteresis loop. What is its significance? Explain eddy
current loss and its remedy in magnetic circuit.

Q29. Draw and explain the B-H curve. What is meant by saturation, coercive force
and residual magnetism? Show them in diagram.

The Hysteresis Loop (B-H Curve) and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material by
studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced magnetic
flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example
hysteresis loop is shown below.

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The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or
has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line
demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the
component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase
in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the
point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point
"b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the
magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the
remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain
aligned but some have lost their alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to
point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve.
(The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the
material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material is called the
coercive force or coercivity of the material.

As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become
magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the curve to
point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction.
Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to
the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve
will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the loop.

From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be
determined.

1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction
of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of
residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The
value of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.)
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a material
when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same
when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual
magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach
the saturation level.

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3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point c on the hysteresis
curve.)

Eddy Current Loss:

When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material, an emf is induced in the
material itself according to Faraday‟s Law of Electromagnetic induction. Since the magnetic material is
a conducting material, these EMFs circulate current within the body of the material.

These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur when the conductor
experiences a changing magnetic field.

As these currents are not responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss)
in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss. Similar to hysteresis loss, eddy current loss
also increases the temperature of the magnetic material.

The hysteresis and the eddy current losses in a magnetic material are also known by the name
iron losses or core losses or magnetic losses.

A sectional view of the magnetic core is shown in the figure above. When the changing flux
links with the core itself, it induces emf in the core which in turns sets up the circulating current called
Eddy Current. And these current in return produces a loss called eddy current loss or (I2R) loss, where
I is the value of the current and R is the resistance of the eddy current path.

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If the core is made up of solid iron of larger cross-sectional area, the magnitude of I will be very
large and hence losses will be high. To reduce the eddy current loss mainly there are two methods.

1. By reducing the magnitude of the eddy current.

The magnitude of the current can be reduced by splitting the solid core into thin sheets called
laminations, in the plane parallel to the magnetic field. Each lamination is insulated from the other by a
thin layer of coating of varnish or oxide film.

By laminating the core, the area of each section is reduced and hence the induced emf also
reduces. As the area through which the current is passed is smaller, the resistance of eddy current path
increases.

2. The eddy current loss is also reduced by using a magnetic material having a higher value of
resistivity like silicon steel. Contents:

Q30. Explain the working principle of single phase transformer with schematic

diagram. What will happen if A.C supply is given to the transformer? Derive the

emf equation of single phase transformer.

Definition of Transformer:

An electrical power transformer is a static device, which transforms electrical energy from one
circuit to another without any direct electrical connection. It also performs this with the help of mutual
induction between two windings. It can transform power from one circuit to another without changing
its frequency, but may be at different voltage levels depending upon the need.

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Transformer Construction:

The three main parts of a transformer are:

 Primary Winding: The winding that takes electrical power, and produces magnetic flux when
it is connected to an electrical source.
 Magnetic Core: This refers to the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding. The flux
passes through a low reluctance path linked with secondary winding creating a closed magnetic
circuit.
 Secondary Winding: The winding that provides the desired output voltage due to mutual
induction in the transformer.

Working Principle of 1-Φ Transformer:

The working principle of the single phase transformer is based on the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Basically, mutual induction between two or more windings is responsible
for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

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The primary winding is supplied an alternating electrical source. The alternating current through
the primary winding produces an alternating flux that surrounds the winding. Another winding, also
known as the secondary winding, is brought close to the primary winding. Eventually, some portion of
the flux in the primary will link with the secondary. As this flux is continually changing in amplitude
and direction, there is a change in flux linkage in the second winding as well. According to Faraday‟s
law of electromagnetic induction, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the secondary winding
which is called as induced emf. If the circuit of the secondary winding is closed an induced current will
flow through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformation; this is the most basic
working principle of a transformer.

The principle of operation of a transformer has been explained in the following simple steps:

 As soon as the primary winding is connected to a single–phase supply, an AC current starts

flowing through it.
 An alternating flux is produced in the core by the AC primary current.
 The alternating flux gets linked with the secondary winding through the core.
 Now, according to Faraday‟s laws of electromagnetic induction this varying flux will induce
voltage into the secondary winding.

Unsuitability of d.c supply for Transformer

D.C supply produced steady state flux in the core. So when a dc supply is provided to the
transformer primary, no self induced emf (E1) will be generated (no back emf). Therefore heavy
current will flow in the transformer primary winding which may result in burning down the transformer
primary winding. In case suppose, if the Primary winding is not burn, then also the transfer will not
work as secondary induced emf (E2) also will not be produced resulting no power supplied in the load.

EMF equation of the Transformer:

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)

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Q31. Write the comparison between (a) step up and step down transformer (b)
core type and shell type transformer

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Core Type Transformer:

Shell Type Transformer:

In core type transformer both the primary and the secondary windings are placed on the side
limbs whereas, in shell type transformer, the windings are placed on the central limbs of the
transformer. The core type transformer has two magnetic circuits whereas the shell type
transformer has one magnetic circuit.

Advantages of Shell Type Transformer:

 Controlling of leakage magnetic flux is good.

 Size of this transformer is compact
 Easily transported
 These are protected from outflow magnetic flux.

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Disadvantages of Shell Type Transformer:

 It needs special manufacturing services to design this transformer

 It uses more iron in construction
 It is complex
 Manufacturing cost will be high due to labor cost
 We cannot provide natural cooling.
 Repairing of this transformer is not easy

Applications of Shell Type Transformer:

 These transformers are applicable for low voltage applications which include electronic circuits
as well as converters in power electronics.
 These are used where a small amount of voltage is required.
 The cost of this transformer used in low-voltage applications can be low due to the cross-section
area core like rectangular or square.

Which is a better core type and shell-type transformer?

Shell type transformer is better due to fewer losses. So the output of this transformer is high.

Q32. What do understand by the term “ideal transformer”? Why the efficiency of

the transformer is high as compared to other machine?

Ideal transformer and its characteristics:

1. There is no winding resistance & reactance, which eliminates the copper losses inside a transformer.
2. There are no core losses i.e. there is no hysteresis loss or eddy current loss
3. There is no leakage flux; the entire magnetic flux is linked through the core.
4. 100% efficiency
5. For an ideal transformer, E1I1 = E2I2.
Why the efficiency of transformer is high as compared to other Electrical

machine?
The efficiency of transformer is greater than any other electrical machines. This is due to
transformer is a static device and there are no mechanical losses in transformers. While if you say
DC machine then there is a rotational part so their losses is greater than the transformer.

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Q34. Define transformation ratio. Prove that V1/V2 = E1/E2= N1/N2 = I2/I1. What
are the different types of losses in the transformer? Explain them.

Transformation Ratio (K) is defined as the ratio of the EMF in the secondary coil to that in the
primary coil.
K = E2/E1 = (4.44.Φm.f.N2) / (4.44.Φm.f.N1)
Therefore,
K = E2/E1 = N2/N1….(1)
Now,
V1 = E1 + voltage drop
E2 = V2 + voltage drop
Due to the resistance in the windings and some leakage flux, there is some loss in voltage. This is
called as Voltage Drop.
But, in ideal case, voltage drop can be neglected.
Hence,
V1 = E1
E2 = V2
Hence,
E2/E1 = V2/V1…..(2)
Also, in a transformer, the power across the primary as well as the secondary winding is same. Hence,
V1.I1 = V2.I2
V1/V2 = I2/I1……..(3)
Now, combining (1), (2) & (3), we get,
K = E2/E1 = N2/N1 = V2/V1 = I2/I1
Where,
1 represents the primary coil
2 represents the secondary coil
E is emf in the respective coil
V is the voltage in the respective coil
I is the current in the respective coil
N is number of turns of the respective coils
Φm is the mutual flux in the core.
Transformer on No Load
A transformer is said to be on “no-load” when its secondary side winding is open circuited, in
other words, nothing is attached and the transformer loading is zero. When an AC sinusoidal supply is

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connected to the primary winding of a transformer, a small current, IO will flow through the primary
coil winding due to the presence of the primary supply voltage.

 An in-phase current, IW which supplies the core losses (eddy current and hysteresis)
known as working component.
 A small current, IM at 90o to the voltage which sets up the magnetic flux known as
magnetizing component.

Q35. Develop the equivalent circuit of a single phase transformer refer to primary.

Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer is basically a diagram which can be resolved into an
equivalent circuit in which the resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer are imagined to be
external to the winding.

The equivalent circuit diagram of transformer (Refer to Primary) is given below:-

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Where,
R1 = Primary Winding Resistance.
R2= Secondary winding Resistance.
I0= No-load current.
Iµ = Magnetizing Component,
Iw = Working Component,
This Iµ & Iw are connected in parallel across the primary circuit. The value of E1 ( Primary e.m.f
) is obtained by subtracting vectorially I 1 Z1 from V1 . The value of X0 = E1 / I0 and R0 = E1 /Iw. We
know that the relation of E1 and E2 is E2 /E1 = N2 /N1 = K , ( transformation Ratio )

From the equivalent circuit , we can easily calculate the total impedance of to transfer voltage,
current, and impedance either to the primary or the secondary.

The secondary circuit is shown in fig-1. and its equivalent primary value is shown in fig- 2,

The total equivalent circuit of the transformer is obtained by adding in the primary impedance
as shown below:

And It can be simplified the terminals shown in fig

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Further simplify the equivalent circuit is shown below. At last, the circuit is simplified by omitting I 0
altogether as shown

Q36.What is the different types of losses in the transformer? Explain them

Losses in the Transformer:

Core losses are also known as Iron losses which are fixed losses. They are not variable with the
load. Cu losses are also sometimes known as winding losses, as they are taken place at windings and
windings are made of Cu conductors. Cu losses are two types (i) Primary winding Cu losses(I12 R1
Watt) (ii) Secondary winding Cu losses (I 22R Watt).

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Transformer Efficiency:

The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of useful output power to the input
power. The input and output power are measured in the same unit. Its unit is either in Watts (W) or
KW. Transformer efficiency is denoted by Ƞ.

Where,

 V2 – Secondary terminal voltage

 I2 – Full load secondary current
 Cosϕ2 – power factor of the load
 Pi – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current losses
 Pc – Full load copper losses = I22Res

Consider, the x is the fraction of the full load. The efficiency of the transformer regarding x is
expressed as

The copper losses vary according to the fraction of the load.

Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer:

The efficiency of the transformer along with the load and the power factor is expressed by the
given relation:

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The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. Thus, for a given power factor
the Transformer efficiency depends upon the load current I 2. In equation (1), the numerator is constant
and the transformer efficiency will be maximum if the denominator with respect to the variable I 2 is
equated to zero.

i.e Copper losses = Iron losses

Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency when their copper loss is equal to the iron loss.

From equation (2) the value of output current I2 at which the transformer efficiency will be maximum is
given as

If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum then,
Copper losses = x2Pc (where Pc is the full load copper losses)
Iron losses = Pi
For maximum efficiency
x2 Pc = Pi

Therefore

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Thus, output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Putting the value of x from the above equation (3) in equation (4) we will get,

The above equation (5) is the maximum efficiency condition of the transformer.

Auto Transformer:

The "auto" prefix refers to the single coil acting alone, not to any kind of automatic mechanism.
An autotransformer is a kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary shares same
common single winding. So basically it‟s a one winding transformer.

Autotransformer Theory

In an auto transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as secondary
winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used for primary and secondary
purpose. A circuit diagram of auto transformer is shown below.

The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as primary winding. This winding is tapped from point
′C′ and the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let‟s assume the number of turns in between points
′B′ and ′C′ is N2.
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If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′.

Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,

As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood that value
of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of that auto transformer. When load is
connected between secondary terminals i.e. between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I2 starts flowing. The
current in the secondary winding or common winding is the difference of I 2 and I1.

Three phase transformer connections

Windings of a three phase transformer can be connected in various configurations as (i) star-
star, (ii) delta-delta, (iii) star-delta, (iv) delta-star, (v) open delta and (vi) Scott connection. These
configurations are explained below:

Star-star (Y-Y)

Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers. Because of

star connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is
1/√3 times of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.

𝑉𝐿2 √3 𝑉𝑃 2 𝑁2
Voltage Ratio = = =
𝑉𝐿1 √3 𝑉𝑃 1 𝑁1

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𝐼𝐿2 𝐼𝑃 2 𝑁1
Current Ration = = =
𝐼𝐿1 𝐼𝑃 1 𝑁2

Delta-delta (Δ-Δ)

This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers. Number of required
phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star connection.

𝑉𝐿2 𝑉𝑃 2 𝑁2
Voltage Ratio = = =
𝑉𝐿1 𝑉𝑃 1 𝑁1

𝐼𝐿2 √3 𝐼𝑃 2 𝑁1
Current Ration = = =
𝐼𝐿1 √3 𝐼𝑃 1 𝑁2

Star-delta OR wye-delta (Y-Δ)

The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with
neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.

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𝑉𝐿2 𝑉𝑃 2 1 𝑁2
Voltage Ratio = = =
𝑉𝐿1 √3𝑉𝑃 1 √3 𝑁1

𝐼𝐿2 √3𝐼𝑃 2 √3𝑁1

Current Ration = = =
𝐼𝐿1 𝐼𝑃 1 𝑁2

Delta-star OR delta-wye (Δ-Y)

The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is connected in star with
neutral grounded. Thus it can be used to provide 3-phase 4-wire service.

𝑉𝐿2 √3𝑉𝑃 2 √3𝑁2

Voltage Ratio = = =
𝑉𝐿1 𝑉𝑃 1 𝑁1

𝐼𝐿2 𝐼𝑃 2 𝑁1
Current Ration = = =
𝐼𝐿1 √3𝐼𝑃 1 √3𝑁2

Open delta (V-V) connection

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Two transformers are used and primary and secondary connections are made as shown in the
figure below. Open delta connection can be used when one of the transformers in Δ-Δ bank is disabled
and the service is to be continued until the faulty transformer is repaired or replaced. It can also be used
for small three phase loads where installation of full three transformer bank is un-necessary.

Scott (T-T) connection

Two transformers are used in this type of connection. One of the transformers has centre taps on
both primary and secondary windings (which is called as main transformer). The other transformer is
called as teaser transformer. Scott connection can also be used for three phase to two phase conversion.

Numerical on Transformer:

1. A step-down transformer has a turns ratio of 4 to 1 or 4. If the transformer secondary voltage is

120 V, determine the primary voltage.

Sol: Primary voltage = 120 V X 4 = 480 V,

The turns ratio tells us that the primary voltage is four times as great as the secondary voltage.

2. A single-phase transformer with a 2-kVA rating has a 480-V primary, and a 120-V secondary.
Determine the primary and secondary full-load currents of the transformer.

3. A transformer has a primary coil and a secondary coil with the number of loops are 500 and
5000. Input voltage is 220 V. What is the output voltage?
Solution :
Known : Vs / Ns = Vp / Np
Primary coil (NP) = 500 loops Vs / 5000 = 220 / 500
Secondary coil (Ns) = 5000 loops Vs / 5000 = 0.44
Primary voltage (VP) = 220 Volt Vs = (0.44)(5000)
Wanted : Secondary voltage (VS) Vs = 2200 Volt

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4. A transformer has primary coil with 1200 loops and secondary coil with 1000 loops. If the
current in the primary coil is 4 Ampere, then what is the the current in the secondary coil.

Known : Solution :
Primary coil (NP) = 1200 loops IS/IP = NP/NS
Secondary coil (NS) = 1000 loops The current in the secondary coil :
The current in the primary coil (IP) = 4 Ampere IS/4 = 1200/1000
Wanted: The current in secondary coil (IS) IS/4 = 1.2
IS = 1.2 (4)
IS = 4.8 Ampere

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