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 COST-EFFECTIVE OPTIONS FOR PARACHUTE TESTING ON HIGH-ALTITUDE SOUNDING ROCKETS
L. Pepermans1, C. Simpson2, E.F. Menting1
1
T-Minus Engineering, Delft. 2Kingston University, London.
ABSTRACT
Parachute testing has always been an integral part of the
verification and validation of planetary landers and other
missions requiring a parachute decelerator. It is desirable for
these tests to be performed in conditions as close to the
intended flight as possible. Amongst the various testing
options, flight testing offers a significant advantage over
wind tunnel testing, as it includes body-decelerator
(aero)dynamics and the testing of full-scale parachutes at
supersonic conditions. Furthermore, flight testing allows for
system evaluation in analogue atmospheric environments.
Traditionally, the costs for high-altitude launches for
parachute testing are extremely high and prevent repeated
testing.
This paper reports on the possibility of using the rocket
launched test vehicles, potentially powered by the recently
developed and qualified 215mm diameter motor of the T-Minus
Engineering Barracuda rocket, for dedicated parachute research.
By varying payload mass and launch angle, the flight test
conditions attained at deployment can be significantly
changed. The Barracuda motor for example, is able to
accelerate payloads of 10 to 80kg on trajectories that reach
some of the conditions of Martian entry. Altitudes can range
from 80 to 200km depending on launch profile, allowing a
wide range of Mach and dynamic pressure conditions to be
achieved during the parachute deployment window. A
baseline Parachute Test Vehicle (PTV) currently under
design, can accommodate typical parachutes up to a nominal
diameter of approximately 7 meters.
Index Terms— Sounding rocket, Parachute, Testing,
Supersonic, Parachute test vehicle
1. INTRODUCTION
The use of parachutes on missions for the exploration of the
solar system has a long history spanning over 70 years.
Forming an essential part of a probe’s entry, descent, and
landing (EDL) system within many missions, the types of
parachutes used have undergone many changes and
developments over these years. Multiple projects have been
carried out by NASA to examine the suitability of various
parachute designs over the years, many of which included
testing via rocket launch.
During a review of the capabilities of the T-Minus
Barracuda sounding rocket, a large amount of possible use
cases was analysed. These ranged from microgravity research
2nd International Conference on Flight Vehicles, Aerothermodynamics and Re-entry Missions & Engineering (FAR)
19 - 23 June 2022. Heilbronn, Germany
to supersonic and hypersonic flight testing [1]. One of the
possibilities identified was for use in parachute test flights.
Parachute testing can be done relatively easily at subsonic
conditions, by for instance airdrop. Supersonic testing has
been done using rocket or balloon-assisted test platforms.
Traditionally, the costs for high-altitude launches for
parachute testing are extremely high and prevent repeated
testing. Two recent examples are the ExoMars balloon drops
and the ASPIRE missions for Mars2020; both of which are
dedicated tests for flagship missions.
By proposing a reusable rocket propelled generic test vehicle
that can be used for various missions, a decrease in cost and
increase in frequency of testing, can both be achieved. This
enables future growth in the field of entry descent and landing
by offering a low-cost alternative to traditional testing
methodologies.
2. BACKGROUND
Over the course of four early test programs – the Planetary
Entry Parachute Program (PEPP) [2], Supersonic Planetary
Entry Decelerator (SPED) [3], Supersonic High-Altitude
Parachute Experiments (SHAPE) [4] and the Balloon
Launch Decelerator Test (BLDT) series [5] – a total of
twenty rocket-powered test flights in a low-density
supersonic environment were carried out. They covered
three different parachute designs - disk-gap-band, Ringsail
and cruciform - and recorded data in Mach ranges of 1.16 to
3.31. Whilst the analysis of the test results provided
valuable information on the behaviour of canopies at
supersonic speeds, the tests also proved complex and costly,
which effectively ruled out high altitude supersonic tests for
most missions in the immediate future.
To enable Mars missions with higher payload masses or
MOLA highland destinations, the Low-Density Supersonic
Decelerators (LDSD) program was conducted in 2014 [6]
and 2015 [7] with a budget of $230 million [8]. A number of
technologies were tested including two forms of inflatable
aerodynamic decelerators and a new Supersonic Ringsail
(SSRS) parachute [9]. The inflatable elements of the test
flights worked well, however, both flights saw canopy
failures well below the flight load limit causing designers to
re-evaluate the way in which parachutes were tested and the
risk assessment methodologies used for parachute
performance predictions.
For more recent missions, such as Mars 2020, engineers
needed more data on parachute behaviour in Mars analogue
environments. Data gathered would de-risk the parachutes
needed for landing the largest ever payload mass and would
also help to refine simulations and computer models for
future work and to re-examine the performance of the MSL
DGB parachute in the wake of the lessons learned in the
LDSD program.
In 2016-2018, NASA conducted the Advanced
Supersonic Parachute Inflation Research Experiments
(ASPIRE) program to specifically address these issues. The
program saw two MSL heritage parachutes developed in
parallel – a build to print (BTP) version of the MSL
parachute and a ‘strengthened’ version. The initial test, saw
the ‘build to print’ variant flown aboard a modified Black
Brant IX sounding rocket and deployed at the MSL Mars
analogue of Mach 1.77 with a dynamic pressure of 452 Pa
[10]. Two further subsequent flights were conducted to test
the BTP and strengthened version of the parachute at higher
loads than those experienced on Mars, where they
experienced a maximum of Mach 1.97 and a maximum
dynamic pressure of 932 Pa [11]. This risk reduction
exercise proved a success. It generated differences in
expected versus observed CD in the supersonic regime, a
data set only capable of being generated in real-world
testing environments. The high-speed camera footage also
assisted engineers to examine the inflation dynamics at
supersonic speeds in much greater detail.
The final mission of note is SuperMAX. This mission
saw a small re-entry vehicle launched aboard a MAXUS
rocket from Kiruna in 2017 [12]. This piggy-back payload,
attached to the rocket's interstage coupler, was carried to
192km, and released to continue on a ballistic trajectory to
approximately 700km before beginning its return to earth.
After aerothermal heating during the re-entry phase, the
parachute was deployed at 19.7km altitude whilst travelling
at Mach 1.7. The data provided validated the mission goals
to provide “supersonic testing of larger subscale parachutes
under representative conditions at modest cost”.
The use of the T-Minus Barracuda rocket and proposed
parachute test vehicle is an extension of this same mentality
to provide real-world testing capabilities in Mars analogue
conditions. Being able to complete this at a fraction of the
cost of full-scale parachute testing programs seen in the
earlier examples employed by NASA, which often run to the
tens (and sometimes hundreds) of millions of dollars to
execute. By generating capability at a much lower cost
point, the use of rocket-propelled supersonic testbeds for
parachutes and other EDL technologies once again becomes
a cost-effective option for EDL designers and engineers.
3. REQUIREMENTS AND DRIVERS
2nd International Conference on Flight Vehicles, Aerothermodynamics and Re-entry Missions & Engineering (FAR)
19 - 23 June 2022. Heilbronn, Germany
The parachute test vehicle is designed to encompass a large
number of possible missions. These range from qualification
testing of parachutes for planetary landers to the R&D
testing for future parachutes and the gathering of flight data
in analogue environments.
The use of parachutes within specific EDL architectures is
driven in part by the proposed mission profile and the
eventual destination. The exploration of the solar system
continues to provide locations that are both suitable and yet
challenging for parachute-based EDL technologies.
Although Mars has been the primary focus for exploration
over the past decade, the Planetary Decadal survey by the
National Academies [13] and the Voyage report by ESA
[14], have both highlighted and given support to missions
returning to Titan, Venus, and the gas giants of the outer
solar system, in addition to further exploration of Mars.
These endeavours are likely to utilise parachutes in their
EDL system architecture.
Historically, the parameters for parachute deployment on
Mars missions have encompassed a range of velocities and
dynamic pressures. Mach regimes have ranged from just
over 1.5 to just under 2 with dynamic pressures between 490
Pa and over 750 Pa. However, these do not map directly
onto the testing requirements for mission planners. In order
to grant a measure of security to any system in terms of its
performance, a safety factor comes into play that raises
these parameters significantly, sometimes by as much as 50
or 60% over the intended target condition.
For example, the Mars 2020 mission recovery system
deployed at Mach 1.82 with a dynamic pressure of 522Pa
[15]. However, the ASPIRE test flights deployed the Mars
2020 parachutes at a maximum of Mach 1.97 and a
maximum dynamic pressure of 932 Pa [11], conditions
significantly greater than those expected to be encountered
during the actual mission.
So, whilst mission planners may be targeting deployments
around Mach 2 and 500-600Pa dynamic pressure, the reality
is that testing may be sought at significantly higher values,
possibly around Mach 2.5 to 3 and 800-900Pa, in order to
general that safety margin previously mentioned.
Venus can be similarly considered. With its dense
atmosphere, a planetary probe / lander is likely to decelerate
to subsonic velocities before parachute deployment.
Previous work has shown that at altitudes below 70km, a 2m
probe is subsonic and at 58km can already have slowed to
Mach 0.5. However, the dense atmosphere results in high
dynamic pressures and does cause high parachute loading
during inflation [16]. With the density of the Venusian
atmosphere at 60km roughly analogous to Earth at sea level,
the opportunities for parachute testing are present and
possible.
 burns for 15s at a peak thrust of 25kN. This is powerful
As a final discussion point, Titan, as another valid target for enough to send a vehicle mass of 10kg to roughly 200km
exploration, has atmospheric conditions where parachute altitude. Alternatively, the rocket can be launched at a lower
deployment has previously been used, as recorded during angle, leading to a supersonic flight in the lower
the Huygens mission. The probe utilised a three-parachute atmosphere. Using the in house developed flight simulation
combination during its landing in 2004 with the main chute tool, together with commercially available tools, a set of
predicted to open at a velocity of Mach 1.5 and a dynamic possible flight profiles can be made.
The full range of apogee altitude/Mach numbers can be
pressure or around 350Pa. Whilst no data could be sourced
found in Figure 1. A Mach/dynamic pressure plot can be
to indicate the reconstructed values experienced by the
found in Figure 2.
probe, the estimations of the probes maximum deployment
Mach number increased from Mach 1.76 to Mach 2.0 and
the dynamic pressure range increased from 287-440 Pa to
240-500 Pa as a result of improved calculation during its
journey [17].
In the three examples above, the majority of the range of
conditions presented lie within the capabilities that a rocket
launched PTV could target by utilising a variety of flight
profiles to achieve a range of velocities and dynamic
pressures.
From the earliest days of the Viking program, the use of
mathematical, and more recently computational, modelling
has been used to try and understand the complexities of
parachute operation at supersonic speeds. The complex
nature of the unsteady flow fields around supersonic
Figure 1 - Dynamic pressure at apogee as a function of
parachutes especially when trailing blunt forebodies and the
payload mass and the launch angle.
wake effects this introduces, provides a difficult problem for
computational analysis. Whilst recent developments in both
FSI and CFD simulation have refined the predictive
modelling capability available to ADS designers [18], there
are still discrepancies between numerical simulations and
experimental data [19]. It is this gap between predicted and
observed data that provides an opportunity for subscale
parachute testing to contribute meaningfully to the
validation process. Although a 7m nominal diameter
parachute is well below full scale, the measurable results it
can provide still adds valuable flight validation data to
increase the confidence in computational modelling where
issues such as area oscillation phenomenon and capsule-
wake/canopy-shock interactions are still problematic [20].

Figure 2 – Mach vs dynamic pressure at apogee

4. FLIGHT OPERATIONS
4.1 Rocket Motor Performance
Whilst many different rocket motors could be used for this
research, the simulations presented below have been
conducted using the T-Minus Barracuda sounding rocket.
The 215mm ammonium perchlorate-based Barracuda rocket
motor has a propellant mass of 100kg which burns 15s at a
peak thrust of 25kN. The 215mm ammonium perchlorate-
based rocket motor has a propellant mass of 100kg which
including plots of previously flown Mars missions. Each
line represents a variation in launch angle for a different
payload mass.
4.2 Proposed Flight Profiles
For parachute testing, five different potential flight profiles
are identified, each with different use cases. Due to the
flexibility of the proposed platform this list is by no means
exhaustive. Each profile has the parachute tests occurring

2nd International Conference on Flight Vehicles, Aerothermodynamics and Re-entry Missions & Engineering (FAR)
19 - 23 June 2022. Heilbronn, Germany
during the ascent or descent phase of the flight respectively
and each generates a different set of test conditions.
The first flight path (FP1) has the parachute deployment
shortly after the separation of the PTV and the motor
section. This will result in high Mach numbers and dynamic
pressures as seen in Figure 3. Missions that have flown
similar flight profiles include SPED and ASPIRE.
The second flight path (FP2) is a delayed deployment where
the PTV deploys the parachute when the pre-described test
conditions are reached, usually on the down leg. Missions
that have flown this flight profile include SuperMAX and
the Supersonic Parachute Experiment Aboard REXUS
(SPEAR) [21]. These missions can use a programmer chute
to control the test conditions and can reach high dynamic
pressures at subsonic velocities, ideal for Venus missions.
Other alternatives alter the design of the parachute test
vehicle in such a way that it can be deployed from an
aeroplane (FP3) or balloon (FP4) and low-altitude rocket
(FP5). Whilst a number of different flight profiles have been
described, there is plenty of scope to adjust the parameters
of launch angle, motor power and deployment position
during flight to accommodate any variation desired by a
specific testing campaign.
These flight profiles can provide valuable functional
repeated testing of re-entry systems. Whilst these tests could
provide a high dynamic pressure for testing purposes, they
are unable to provide the combined deployment conditions
of high dynamic pressure and velocity, similar to planetary
entry.
Figure 3 - Potential flight profiles
5. VEHICLE CONCEPT
For a predictable flight path during descent, a stable
Parachute Test Vehicle (PTV) is required. A vehicle attains
a stable orientation during descent when the centre of
gravity (CoG) lies below the centre of pressure (CoP) with a
minimum distance of 5% of the vehicle length. Thus, for a
nose-down configuration during descent, the CoG should
2nd International Conference on Flight Vehicles, Aerothermodynamics and Re-entry Missions & Engineering (FAR)
19 - 23 June 2022. Heilbronn, Germany
lay closer to the nose tip than the CoP, taking a minimum
static margin [(CoG-CoP)/d] of 1 into account.
In order to move the CoG closer “forward” to the nose tip,
the internal structure of the PTV is designed to place
electronics and required hardware as much forward as
possible. The PTV on the T-Minus Barracuda rocket and a
proposed internal layout of the PTV, can be seen in Figure 4
and 5.
Figure 4 - The PTV on a T-Minus 215mm solid rocket
Barracuda motor
Figure 5 - Cutaway of the PTV showing one possible
configuration of the various parachutes and subsystems.
The CoP for any PTV can be manipulated by adding either
fins or a shoulder to the vehicle to introduce higher drag.
The main drawback of a fin-stabilized vehicle is the risk of
introducing a spin rate if the fins are not properly aligned,
which is not an issue with a shoulder that covers the full
diameter. However, the shoulder solution results in a
significantly reduced internal volume as the diameter ratio
between the shoulder and body is fixed by the stability
requirements. The increased amount of internal volume
desired for the PTV, led to the fin-stabilized solution as the
preferred concept.
Where the vehicle itself is designed to descend as fast as
possible, there may be a need to control and decrease the
velocity to meet the test criteria set by the customer. For this
purpose, which is predominantly required in the FP2 flight
profile, a programmer chute can be included. The
programmer chute must be able to handle the supersonic
flight and has to be stable, which leads to an initial selection
of a conical ribbon parachute. This parachute sits above the
packed main parachute and is deployed using a spring-based
system.
Once the ideal test conditions are reached, there are two
options for main deployment. Either the programmer chute
is released and the main parachute is deployed using a
pyrotechnic mortar or a pilot chute (or the programmer
chute) can be used to pull out the main parachute.
In order to preserve the hardware and sensors in case the
experimental parachute fails, or the descent velocity is too
high, a backup parachute system can be provided. This
parachute is located in the middle section of the PTV and is
released through a hatch or clamp band system when pre-
programmed “velocity and altitude”, “altitude” or “time”
triggers are met. The back-up parachute system will
decelerate to a safe landing velocity for retrieval.
The PTV sensor suite is based on SuperMax [12], and
includes: IMU’s, a three-axis accelerometer, a
magnetometer, a barometer, a GPS sensor, load pins and
cameras. All data is both stored onboard in a strengthened
electronics box and transmitted down to the ground station.
This combination allows for redundancy in case the vehicle
is not safely recovered or cannot be found.
The flight phases are divided into five categories, each with
its distinct priorities and data that needs to be measured.
Switching between states is done through a timer system to
increase reliability and decrease the complexity of the
system. The timer settings can be set before launch to
increase the chance of a successful mission. Upon request,
the remaining electronics can be used to enhance the logic.
6. CONCLUSION
The option to use a rocket powered PTV in not a new
concept but as the discussions have shown there is now a
real possibility of using newer and more cost-effective
solutions, to complete a range of physical tests in analogue
environments. By varying a range of parameters, such as
mass and launch angle, a number of possible flight
envelopes can be generated that cover data acquisition
conditions pertinent to multiple locations such as Mars,
Venus and Titan.
ADS designers will employ FSI modelling extensively
to assess and characterise the interactions of the complex
unsteady aerodynamic behaviours integral to supersonic
parachutes. Whilst the proposed PTV flight profiles may not
be perfect mission analogues, they have the capability to
generate valid real-world data to assist in the validation and
verification of predictive FSI computational frameworks for
supersonic parachute modelling.
The proposed parachute test vehicle has the capability to test
parachutes up to a diameter of 7 meters at a range of Mach
numbers and high dynamic pressures. With a low launch
angle, supersonic flights with Mach numbers in excess of 3
can be reached at high dynamic pressures. When testing at
2nd International Conference on Flight Vehicles, Aerothermodynamics and Re-entry Missions & Engineering (FAR)
19 - 23 June 2022. Heilbronn, Germany
apogee conditions from near vertical launch, supersonic
high Mach conditions can be reached but with low dynamic
pressures, similar to the requirements of a Mars entry.
A Venus entry, requiring a high dynamic pressure at
subsonic conditions, could still utilise the proposed PTV by
employing it via a drop vehicle type mission, rather than a
test at apogee.
The proposed parachute test vehicle is designed to be
relatively generic but has reconfigurable internal equipment
and multiple options for expansion. This flexibility and
reconfigurable nature grants it the ability to map to customer
requirements easily and provide a range of deployment and
recovery system test capabilities. Besides flight testing
specific canopies for planetary lander missions, the vehicle
could also be used for frequent, low-cost parachute testing at
supersonic conditions, increasing the global bank of
knowledge relative to supersonic parachute behaviour.
Whilst this paper has chosen the T-Minus Barracuda rocket
as an example of a potential rocket vehicle, there are many
other rockets from other sources that are capable of
providing the same flight profiles highlighted in this paper.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Al Witkowski for his help
in determining the need for parachute testing and for
providing valuable feedback.
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