Accepted Manuscript

Review

Triticale: Nutritional composition and food uses

Fan Zhu

PII: S0308-8146(17)31471-1
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.09.009
Reference: FOCH 21678

To appear in: Food Chemistry

Received Date: 16 June 2017

Revised Date: 1 August 2017
Accepted Date: 4 September 2017

Please cite this article as: Zhu, F., Triticale: Nutritional composition and food uses, Food Chemistry (2017), doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.09.009

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1

2 Triticale: Nutritional composition and food uses

4 Fan Zhu*

5 School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142,

6 New Zealand

7 * Corresponding author, email: fzhu5@yahoo.com

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8

9 Abstract

10 Triticale (× Triticosecale Wittmack), a man-made cereal from wheat and rye hybridization, is

11 mainly used as animal feed. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in utilising

12 triticale for food production. Some chemical constituents (e.g., starch and non-starch

13 polysaccharides) of triticale as well as the genetic variability in nutritional composition have

14 been much studied. Various food and beverage products of triticale have been developed,

15 including bakery products (e.g., bread and cookie), pasta, malt, spirit, yoghurt, and

16 biodegradable and edible films. Focusing on the literatures from the last 5 years, this mini-

17 review summarises the recent advances in the nutritional composition and food uses of

18 triticale. There is a wide variation in the chemical composition of triticale, which suggests the

19 potential of triticale as a cereal alternative for various food and beverage applications.

20

21 Keywords: × Triticosecale; starch; dietary fiber; polyphenol; bread; film; malt

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22 1. Introduction

23 In 1875, triticale (× Triticosecale Wittmack) was developed by crossing rye (male parent) and

24 wheat (female parent) (McGoverin et al., 2011). The original idea was to combine the

25 positive quality attributes of both rye (tolerance to harsh growing conditions) and wheat

26 (versatile food applications). The world production of triticale has kept growing during the

27 last two decades, reaching ~17 million tonnes in 2014 (Fig. 1) (FAOSTAT, 2017). The top

28 producers are Poland, Germany, Belarus, France and Russia. China is a major producer

29 outside Europe (FAOSTAT, 2017).

30 Overall, the chemical composition of triticale appears to be more similar to wheat than rye.

31 Some triticale genotypes have a relatively high concentration of lysine, which is the limiting

32 amino acid of cereals (McGoverin et al., 2011). Nutrients of triticale that are gaining research

33 focus include starch, non-starch polysaccharides (e.g., arabinoxylans), polyphenols (e.g,

34 phenolic acids), alkylresorcinols, and vitamins (e.g., vitamin B1) (Rakha et al., 2013;

35 Buchholz et al., 2012). Some health effects of triticale such as in vitro antioxidant and

36 anticholinesterase activities were reported (Senol et al., 2012). Therefore, triticale may play a

37 role in the rising healthy food market and in the formulation of new cereal products. It should

38 be noted that triticale contains gluten and is not suitable for people with celiac disease.

39 Triticale has been mostly used as animal feed (poultry, pigs, and ruminants). Interests in

40 utilizing triticale for food and biofuel production were reported (McGoverin et al., 2011).

41 Triticale by itself appeared to be unsuitable for bread but cookie production. Triticale-wheat

42 composite flour is used for bread formulation (McGoverin et al., 2011). During the last few

43 years, the range of chemical composition of triticale has been expanded through assessing

44 more genetic resources (Manley et al., 2013). Recently, various triticale-based food products,

45 such as bread and pasta, have been formulated in the laboratories (Navarro-Contreras et al.,

3
46 2014). The wide range of composition may provide a solid basis to develop a variety of

47 triticale based food products.

48 A previous review summarised the reports of triticale research up to the year 2010

49 (McGoverin et al., 2011). The reviewed topics included triticale production, chemical

50 composition, food, feed, and biofuel uses, and effects of growing environment on the

51 production and composition (McGoverin et al., 2011). In recent years, more genotypes of

52 triticale have been analysed for nutritional composition. Some specific components such as

53 starch and cell wall polysaccharides have been studied in detail. Various food products of

54 triticale such as edible films have been developed. This mini-review summarises the recent

55 advances in the nutritional composition and food uses of triticale, providing a scientific basis

56 to develop triticale as a sustainable crop.

57

58 2. Nutritional composition of triticale grain

59 The nutritional composition of whole grain triticale flour (1 variety) is listed in Table 1 and

60 has been reviewed previously by McGoverin et al (2011). Recent studies continued to assess

61 more genetic resource of triticale, while reporting a wider variation in the nutritional

62 composition as described in the following sections.

63 2.1.Carbohydrates

64 Carbohydrates, as the major components of triticale, account for over 70% of the dry weight.

65 The influence of genetics and developing grain on the total carbohydrate content of triticale

66 was studied (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2015 and 2016). Complete triticale has the genomic

67 composition of AABBRR (hexaploid) or AABBDDRR (octaploid), whereas the genomic

68 constitutions of substituted triticale are AABBDR or AABBDDDR (Cornejo-Ramírez et al.,

69 2016). Complete triticale (3 genotypes) contained a higher amount of carbohydrates (average:

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70 80.4%) than substituted triticale (3 genotypes) (average: 73.3%) (Cornejo-Ramírez et al.,

71 2015 and 2016). For both types of triticale, the total carbohydrate content in developing

72 triticale increased gradually from ~20−30% at 7 days after anthesis (DAA) to ~70−80% at 40

73 DAA (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2016). The results on the total carbohydrate content of triticale

74 generally agreed with previous reports (McGoverin et al, 2011). The influence of growing

75 and genetics on the total carbohydrate content of triticale was also reflected by the changes in

76 the total content of starch which is the major component of carbohydrates, as described below.

77 2.1.1. Starch

78 2.1.1.1. Content and composition

79 A number of recent studies reported the total starch content of triticale (Frás et al., 2016;

80 Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2015; Makowska et al., 2014). For example, the starch content of

81 triticale grains (9 genotypes) ranged from 60.8−67.6%. Upon milling, the starch content of

82 the resulting flours ranged from 68.2−77.5% (Frás et al., 2016). Starch contents of 5 Polish

83 genotypes were similar (63 to 65.8%) (Makowska et al., 2014). The starch contents of

84 triticale (11 genotypes) ranged from 63.3 to 68.8%, which appeared to be similar to that of

85 wheat (Dennett et al., 2013a). Starch contents of triticale (4 genotypes) ranged from 61 to

86 75.9%. One study showed that there appeared to be no difference in starch content between

87 substituted and complete triticale genotypes (Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014). In contrast, two

88 other studies showed that complete triticale contained a higher amount of starch (e.g., average

89 of 3 genotypes: 60.6%) than substituted triticale (e.g., average of 3 genotypes: 52.2%)

90 (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2015 and 2016). The difference may be due to the different genetics

91 of the samples analysed. Total starch content in developing triticale increased gradually from

92 ~15−24% at 7 days after anthesis (DAA) to ~55−63% at 40 DAA (Cornejo-Ramírez et al.,

93 2016). Effects of water stress during triticale development on starch properties were studied

94 (He et al., 2012). Triticale from 5 DAA were grown in soil with 3 different levels of moisture

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95 (10 to 60%). The starch content was decreased by up to 55% at severe water stress, while the

96 expressions of starch biosynthetic genes were reduced greatly (He et al., 2012).

97 Amylose is a major component of starch and plays an important role in functional properties

98 of starch. A few studies reported the amylose content of triticale starch (Makowska et al.,

99 2014; Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014; Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2015 and 2016). For example,

100 the amylose contents of starches from 247 triticale genotypes ranged from 12.8 to 35.1%,

101 according to an iodine binding-spectrophotometry-based method (Dennett et al., 2009).

102 Amylose contents of starches from 5 Polish genotypes ranged from 19 to 23.8% (Makowska

103 et al., 2014). Amylose content (measured by iodine-binding-spectrophotometry based method)

104 increased from ~7−8% at 7 DAA to ~22−24% at 40 DAA. There appeared to be no

105 difference in the amylose content between complete and substituted triticale (3 genotypes

106 each) (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2015 and 2016). Another study showed that the amylose

107 contents of substituted triticale (21.3 to 25.5%) were higher than that of complete triticale

108 (27.9 to 29.1%) (Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014). Such a difference may be attributed to the

109 different genotypes used in different studies. Moderate water stress (30 to 35% of moisture in

110 soil) enhanced the expression of GBSS1 (granule-bound starch synthase 1), while increasing

111 the amylose content of starch (e.g., from 28 to 34%) during grain development (He et al.,

112 2012). Triticale genotypes with little (e.g., waxy) or high amylose contents remain to be

113 developed by genetic means.

114 Minor components of starch such as protein, lipids, and ash may play roles in the functional

115 properties of starch. One report showed that the protein and lipid contents of starches from 5

116 Polish genotypes were low (0.6−0.7% and 0.2−0.3%, respectively) (Makowska et al., 2014).

117 The concentrations of these minor components much depend on the purification methods.

118 2.1.1.2. Structures

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119 The size of triticale amylose increased in developing grains from ~DP of 250−390 at 16 DAA

120 to DP of ~1300−1600 at 40 DAA. Complete triticale had larger amylose (3 genotypes,

121 average: DP of 1549 at 40 DAA) than substituted triticale (3 genotypes, average: DP of 1313

122 at 40 DAA) (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2016). The weight-average molecular weight of

123 amylose (2 genotypes) were 11 and 23 × 106. The average z-average radius of gyration of

124 amylose was 81 nm (Naguleswaran et al., 2014). Triticale amylose may have some branches,

125 which remains to be studied.

126 The molecular structure of triticale amylopectin was studied (Naguleswaran et al., 2014). The

127 weight-average molecular weight of amylopectin (2 genotypes) were 15 × 106 and 25 × 10 6.

128 The average z-average radius of gyration of amylopectin was 71 nm (Naguleswaran et al.,

129 2014). Amylopectin of complete triticale appeared to have a lower proportion of short unit

130 chains and a higher amount of long unit chains than that of substituted triticale. The longer

131 amylose chains and higher amounts of short unit chains in complete triticale starch were

132 correlated with higher activities of pullulanase and isoamylase (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2016).

133 Amylolysis of isolated amylose and amylopectin by α-amylase and glucoamylase revealed

134 that triticale starch molecules had higher degrees of hydrolysis than wheat starch

135 (Naguleswaran et al., 2014). The cluster structure of triticale amylopectin remains unknown

136 so far.

137 Variations in granule size distribution of starches from 5 Polish genotypes were recorded.

138 The proportion of granules with diameters of >10 µm ranged from 68.9 to 77.1% (Makowska

139 et al., 2014). The sizes of A- (range: 18−41 µm) and B-type (range: 2−13 µm) granules of

140 complete triticale appeared to be larger than those of substituted ones (8–38 µm for A-type

141 and 0.5–6 µm for B-type) (Cornejo-Ramírez et al., 2015). Water stress increased the ratio of

142 large-to-small granules in triticale, whereas the severe water stress (e.g., soil moisture of 10%)

143 induced granule pitting (Fig. 2) which may be due to amylase hydrolysis (He et al., 2012).

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144 2.1.1.3.Physicochemical properties

145 The starch swelling power of 247 triticale genotypes ranged from 12.5 to 23.6 g/g (Dennett et

146 al., 2009). The ranges of To (onset temperature) and ∆H (enthalpy change) of gelatinization

147 [measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)] of starches from 5 Polish genotypes

148 were 52.7−56.7 oC and 7.5−9.6 J/g, respectively. The ranges of PV (peak viscosity), BD

149 (breakdown), and SB (setback) of pasting events were 3292−5179, 1977−2878, and

150 1741−2872 cP, respectively (Makowska et al., 2014). Starch gelatinization properties as

151 measured by DSC were not much affected by water stress (He et al., 2012). Other functional

152 aspects of triticale starch such as dynamic rheology, retrogradation, and in vitro digestibility,

153 remain to be studied in the future.

154 2.2.2. Non-starch dietary fiber components (non-starch polysaccharides,

155 oligosaccharides, and lignins)

156 Various studies reported the content and composition of non-starch dietary fiber

157 compositions of different triticale genotypes (Rakha et al., 2011; Frás et al., 2016; Rakha et

158 al., 2012; Dennett et al., 2013a). Total dietary fiber contents of 8 triticale genotypes grown at

159 two locations in Sweden ranged from 13−16% (Rakha et al., 2011). Dietary fiber mostly

160 included arabinoxylan (mean 6.8%), fructan (mean 2.3%), cellulose (mean 2.1%), Klason

161 lignin (mean 1.6%), and β-glucan (mean 0.7%). Therefore, non-starch polysaccharides are

162 major components of dietary fiber (Rakha et al., 2011). The contents of insoluble and soluble

163 non-starch polysaccharides in triticale grain (9 genotypes) ranged from 7.7−9.1 and 1.5−2.8 %

164 (db), respectively (Frás et al., 2016). Upon milling, their contents of the resulting flours

165 ranged from 2.1−2.9 and 1.0−1.7 % (db), respectively. Lignin, also considered a dietary fiber

166 component, had the contents in triticale grain and milled flour (9 genotypes) ranging from

167 2.1−2.8 and 0.6−1.2 %, respectively (Frás et al., 2016). Another study reported that the

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168 neutral and acid detergent fiber contents of triticale (11 genotypes) ranged from 13.71 to

169 16.53% and from 3.82 to 5.18%, respectively, which appeared to be similar to those of wheat

170 (Dennett et al., 2013a). The ranges of crude fiber, insoluble arabinoxylans, and insoluble non-

171 starch polysaccharides of these triticale genotypes were 3.35−4.75%, 5.61−6.74%, and

172 9.1−10.64%, respectively, which appeared to be similar to those of wheat (5 genotypes)

173 (Dennett et al., 2013a). The yield of water-extractable polysaccharides (WEP) from triticale

174 was much affected by the extraction method (Agil & Hosseinian, 2014). Three different

175 methods were used for WEP extraction from triticale brans, including boiling water,

176 successive enzyme treatment and dialysis, and successive ethanol fractionation. The enzyme-

177 based method gave the highest WEP yield, whereas the ethanol-based method gave the

178 lowest level of simple sugars in WEP. Extraction by boiling water gave the lowest amount of

179 impurities of WEP. Precipitation by 80% ethanol increased the extractability of xylose and

180 arabinose in all the brans by up to 23 and 3%, respectively (Agil & Hosseinian, 2014).

181 The molecular weights of extractable arabinoxylans and β-glucans of triticale were analysed,

182 which were much affected by the growing location (Fig. 3a) (Rakha et al., 2011). The

183 composition of arabinoxylan and β-glucan in triticale were enzymatically fingerprinted by

184 using high-performance anion-exchange chromatography (HPAEC), and was compared with

185 that of tritordeum and barley (Rakha et al., 2012). Triticale tended to have a lower proportion

186 of highly branched arabinoxylan oligosaccharides (AXOS) than tritordeum and barley. The

187 growing location greatly affected the mono-substitution and di-substitution patterns in

188 triticale arabinoxylans. Triticale had a trisaccharide-to-tetrasaccharide molar ratio of 2.5–3.4

189 in β-glucan. The average ratio of xylobiose-to-xylose in arabinoxylans of triticale was 2.3,

190 which was higher than that of barley (1.4) and was similar to that of tritordeum (2.2) (Rakha

191 et al., 2012). Triticale fructans were also analysed by HPAEC, and 80% of triticale fructans

192 had a low degree of polymerization (DP, 3−9) (Fig. 3b) (Rakha et al., 2011). WEP of triticale,

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193 wheat, and rye brans were extracted and studied (Agil & Hosseinian, 2014). Triticale bran

194 had lower molar amounts of arabinose (14.5%) and xylose (17.2%) than wheat bran (19.5 and

195 29.6% for arabinose and xylose, respectively), while having higher amounts of these two

196 sugar units than rye bran (7.2 and 13.4% for arabinose and xylose, respectively). The

197 molecular weights and its distribution of triticale WEP were higher and wider than those of

198 both wheat and rye (Agil & Hosseinian, 2014). These non-starch dietary fiber has major

199 health benefits. The above-mentioned results showed that specific components with desired

200 structure as functional food ingredients can be obtained from the fractionation of triticale

201 bran.

202 Dynamic oscillatory rheology of triticale aqueous extracts was studied and related to the

203 structure of cell wall polysaccharides (Rakha et al., 2013). Growing locations greatly affected

204 the rheological properties of the extracts (e.g., complex modulus 15.6 vs 6.4 Pa at 2.1 Hz).

205 Some of triticale genotypes had similar complex modulus to wheat. Partial least square (PLS)

206 regression analysis showed that arabinoxylans but not β-glucans mostly contributed to the

207 visco-elasticity of the extracts. The fine structure of arabinoxylans, rather than the content or

208 molecular size, contributed to the variation in complex modulus among different triticale

209 genotypes (Rakha et al., 2013).

210 2.2.Proteins

211 2.2.1. Composition and properties

212 Various studies reported the protein content and composition of different triticale genotypes

213 (Frás et al., 2016; Manley et al., 2013; Dennett et al., 2013a; Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014).

214 For example, protein contents of triticale (131 genotypes) grown in South Africa ranged from

215 7.5 to 16.2% (Manley et al., 2013). The protein contents of triticale (11 genotypes) ranged

216 from 10.5 to 14.6%, which appeared to be similar to that of wheat (Dennett et al., 2013a).

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217 The range of protein content of triticale grains (9 genotypes) was 11.8−15.2% (db). Upon

218 milling, protein content of the resulting triticale flour ranged from 9.8−13.9% (db) (Frás et al.,

219 2016). Protein contents of triticale (4 genotypes) were rather similar (12.7 to 13 %). There

220 appeared to be no difference in protein content between substituted (rye chromosome 2R

221 substituted by the wheat chromosome 2D) and complete (with all R chromosomes from rye)

222 triticale genotypes (Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014). Protein content of triticale was much

223 affected by the growing environments (Pattison & Trethowan, 2013). Triticale contained a

224 lower proportion of protein in the endosperm than wheat (Pattison et al., 2014).

225 Fractionation analysis showed that triticale protein appeared to have higher proportions of

226 albumin (38 to 45.4%) and globulin (19.7 to 30.2%), similar gliadin (11.4 to 26.1%), and

227 lower proportions of glutenin (6.8 to 9.6%) and residue fractions as compared with wheat and

228 rye proteins (Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014). Substituted triticale appeared to have higher

229 proportion of glutenin (9.4%) than complete triticale (7.1%).

230 Mixing time of mixograph (2.7 min) and SDS-sedimentation height (35.5 mm) of triticale

231 appeared to be similar to those of soft wheat and lower than those of hard wheat (Pattison et

232 al., 2014). Molecular analysis of protein relationships between triticale and its progenitors

233 durum wheat and rye suggested that triticale of high gluten strength could be made by

234 selecting parents with favourable glutenin alleles (Dennett et al., 2013b).

235 Protein extraction from distillers grains, which were by-products of biofuel production, was

236 conducted by different techniques (Bandara et al., 2011). Five extraction methods included

237 pH shifting, glacial acetic acid, alkaline-ethanol solution, 60% ethanol, and enzyme-assisted

238 extraction (Bandara et al., 2011). Extractions with glacial acetic acid and alkaline-ethanol

239 solution gave a higher protein purity (61 to 65%) than the other methods (35 to 57%).

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240 Enzyme-assisted extraction gave a higher extract yield (up to 82%) with a protein content up

241 to 57% (Bandara et al., 2011).

242 2.2.2. Lunasin

243 Lunasin, a 43-amino-acid-long peptide with cancer-preventive, cholesterol-reducing and anti-

244 inflammatory activities, was discovered in triticale and other cereals (wheat, rye, and barley)

245 grown in Northern Europe (Nakurte et al., 2012). The highest level of lunasin in triticale

246 reached 6.5 mg/g, which was higher than that of wheat (0.23 mg/g) and rye (1.5 mg/g)

247 samples (Nakurte et al., 2012). However, sequences encoding either the lunasin or a

248 precursor protein in wheat and other cereals were not identified by searching transcriptome

249 and DNA sequence databases (Mitchell et al., 2013). A follow-up study on wheat showed the

250 absence of lunasin in wheat species, using chemical [LC–ESI-MS (liquid chromatography-

251 electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry)] and molecular [polymerase chain reaction (PCR)]

252 techniques (Dinelli et al., 2014). Mitchell et al. (2013) suggested that this peptide may be

253 produced by microbiological action.

254 2.2.3. α-Amylase

255 Compared with wheat and rye, triticale tends to have a high α-amylase activity due to late

256 maturity α-amylase (LMA). This presents a technical drawback for triticale processing for

257 food production (Dennett et al., 2013a). The α-amylase activity of rain-affected and dry-

258 harvested triticale (5 genotypes) ranged from 0.231−1.078 and 0.06−0.135 Ceralpha Units

259 (CU), respectively. The former appeared to be similar to that of wheat, whereas the latter was

260 higher than that of wheat (0.051−0.075 CU). Falling number is commonly used to assess α-

261 amylase activity in industry. However, falling number of triticale was not indicative of α-

262 amylase activity due to the interference from other components. Three triticale genotypes

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263 with a similar α-amylase activity to wheat were found, which may be used for further genetic

264 improvement of triticale quality (Dennett et al., 2013a).

265 2.3.Lipids

266 2.3.1. Composition

267 One report showed that the lipid content of triticale grain (9 genotypes) ranged from

268 1.2−1.6%, which appeared to be similar to that of wheat (1.3%) (1 genotype). Upon milling,

269 the lipid content of the resulting flours ranged from 1.2−1.6%, which appeared to be similar

270 to that of wheat (Frás et al., 2016).

271 2.3.2. Alkylresorcinols

272 Alkylresorcinols (ARs) are phenolic lipids found in cereals (Agil et al., 2012 and 2016).

273 Extraction conditions (temperature and solid-to-solvent ratio) of alkylresorcinols (ARs) from

274 triticale bran were optimized by response surface methodology (Agil et al., 2012). At 24 oC

275 with a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:40 (w/v), the AR yield was up to 308 mg/100g, whereas that

276 of the saturated and unsaturated ARs were up to 225 and 29 mg/100g, respectively. HPLC

277 (high-performance liquid chromatography) analysis showed that the saturated ARs included

278 C15:0, C17:0, C19:0, C21:0, C23:0, and C25:0, whereas the unsaturated ones were C17:1,

279 C19:1, C21:1, and C23:1 (Agil et al., 2012).

280 ARs in triticale bran were extracted with acetone and the effects of the extracts on

281 development of obesity and oxidative stress in CF-1 mice were studied (Agil et al., 2016).

282 CF-1 mice were fed with a high–fat diet containing AR extract up to 10%. The AR extract

283 had no effect on the body composition and weight gain of the mice. The extract improved the

284 glucose tolerance and fasting blood glucose levels, while having antioxidant potential through

285 observing the oxidative stress markers. Overall, AR extract had better effects than vitamin E

286 in their antioxidant activity and glucose tolerance in mice (Agil et al., 2016). Apart from

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287 possessing various biological activities, ARs can also be used as biomarkers of wholegrain

288 intake in humans (Luis et al., 2016).

289 2.4.Polyphenols

290 Polyphenols are natural antioxidants with a range of biological activities (Scalbert et al.,

291 2005). Various studies reported the polyphenol content and composition of different triticale

292 genotypes (Kandil et al., 2012; Irakli et al., 2012; Frás et al., 2016). The total phenolic

293 contents of triticale grain (9 genotypes) ranged from 1.3−1.6 mg of gallic acid equivalents

294 (GAE)/g triticale, which appeared to be similar to that of wheat (1.5 GAE/g) (1 genotype).

295 Upon milling, the total phenolic contents of the resulting flours ranged from 0.7−1.1 mg of

296 GAE/g, which were also similar to that of wheat (1.1 mg of GAE/g) (Frás et al., 2016).

297 Another study reported that the total phenolic content of 1 triticale variety was 1135.5 µg/g

298 (db) (Kandil et al., 2012). Phenolic acids in whole grain triticale were mostly in bound form (>

299 90%) and included ferulic, coumaric, protocatechuic and gallic acids (Kandil et al., 2012).

300 Free and bound phenolic acids in whole grain triticale were quantified (Irakli et al., 2012).

301 The level of free phenolic acids in triticale was 295.0 µg/g as measured by the Folin–

302 Ciocalteau method, which was lower than that of rye (475 µg/g), oat (395 µg/g) and barley

303 (377 µg/g) and was higher than that of rice (150 µg/g). The level of bound phenolic acids in

304 triticale was 1346.24 µg/g, which was lower than that of oat (2908 µg/g) and higher than that

305 of rice (484 µg/g). However, the phenolic content measured by Folin–Ciocalteau method

306 appeared to be much higher (up to over 30 times) than that by HPLC-DAD (HPLC with

307 diode-array detection) method due to the lack of chemical specificity of the former. Trans-

308 ferulic acid was the major bound phenolic acid, accounting for 334 µg/g (Irakli et al., 2012).

309 Some purple wheat varieties contain a significant amount of anthocyanins which have many

310 claimed health benefits (Hu et al., 2007). However, so far, there is no report of any purple

311 triticale genotypes, which remains to be developed through breeding.

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312 Triticale bran was treated with ferulic acid esterase of recombinant Aspergillus tubingensis

313 (Zwane et al., 2017). The yield of ferulic acid was 8.9 mg/g bran. The yields of p-coumaric

314 and caffeic acids were also increased by the treatment (Zwane et al., 2017). Free and bound

315 phenolics tend to have different bio-functions (Zhu, 2017). The enzyme-treated bran with an

316 increased ferulic acid concentration may be used as a functional food ingredient.

317 2.5.Vitamins, minerals, and phytic acid

318 Thiamin (vitamin B1) and thiamin phosphate esters of developing (inflorescence emergence

319 to full grain ripeness) triticale in whole grain form were analysed (Buchholz et al., 2012).

320 Triticale, like wheat, rye, oat, and barley, contained no thiamine triphosphate or adenosine

321 thiamin triphosphate. The content of total thiamine (9.74 nmol/g, db), including non-

322 phosphorylated thiamin (T), thiamin monophosphate (TMP), and thiamin diphosphate (TDP),

323 remained similar during seed developing. Overall, T was the major component, which was

324 followed by TDP and TMP. During developing, TDP decreased and T increased which

325 reached over 90% of the total thiamine level. Similar results were found in wheat, rye, oat

326 and barely samples (Buchholz et al., 2012).

327 Various studies reported the ash contents of different triticale varieties (Frás et al., 2016;

328 Manley et al., 2013; Pattison & Trethowan, 2013). For example, the ash content of triticale

329 grains (9 genotypes) ranged from 1.7−2.0%, which tended to be higher than that of wheat

330 (1.6%) (1 genotype). Upon milling, the ash content of the resulting flours ranged from

331 0.7−1.1%, which was higher than that of wheat (Frás et al., 2016). Ash contents of triticale

332 (127 genotypes) grown in South Africa ranged from 1.49 to 2.31% (Manley et al., 2013).

333 The ash contents of triticale wholemeal and flour (10 genotypes) ranged from 1.3−1.9% and

334 0.5−0.9%, respectively, which were higher than those of wheat in average (Pattison &

335 Trethowan, 2013). The ash content is a critical factor affecting the end use of triticale as

15
336 described in the section 3 below. Triticale genotypes with a lower ash content may be

337 developed through breeding programme in future.

338 Phytic acid in foods binds with minerals, reducing the bioavailability of the latter. The phytic

339 acid concentration in tricale (1 genotype) was 1.92 mg/g (db), which appeared to be similar to

340 rye, higher than that of wheat (0.26 mg/g), and lower than that of maize (2.3 mg/g). The total

341 phosphorus concentration of triticale (3.48 mg/g, db) was similar to that of rye and wheat,

342 and was higher than that of maize. Phytase of suitable sources could be employed to

343 completely hydrolyse the phytic acid, improving the mineral bioavailability (Mikulski &

344 Kłosowski, 2015).

345 2.6.Contaminates

346 Mycotoxins are potential contaminants of cereals. Trichothecenes in triticale samples grown

347 in Poland were analysed (Perkowski et al., 2012). A range of mycotoxins were found in

348 triticale (18 spring genotypes), including deoxynivalenol (DON) (0−102 µg/kg, occurrence

349 83%), 3-Ac-DON (0−55 µg/kg, occurrence 94%), and nivalenol (NIV) (0−19 µg/kg;

350 occurrence 50%). Trace amounts (concentrations of less than 4 µg/kg) of 15-Ac-DON, T-2

351 triol, HT-2, and T-2 were also found (Perkowski et al., 2012). Triticale appeared to be less

352 contaminated than durum wheat and more contaminated than barley.

353 Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed the trichothecene-related genotypes producing

354 3-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (3ADON), 15-acetyl-deoxynivalenol (15ADON) or nivalenol (NIV)

355 in the Fusarium species in triticale and other cereals (wheat, barley, rye and oats) (Nielsen et

356 al., 2012). 3ADON, 15ADON, and NIV were present in all the cereals. 3ADON was

357 dominant and NIV was the least in triticale. F. graminearum population in triticale was

358 mainly consisted of 15ADON-related genotypes (Nielsen et al., 2012). Different cereals

359 including triticale were inoculated with Penicillium verrucosum for citrinin and ochratoxin A

16
360 production (Wawrzyniak & Waśkiewicz, 2014). Triticale appeared to be a less suitable

361 substrate for mycotoxin production than rice due to the different chemical composition.

362 Survey of a larger number of triticale samples and related food products for the mycotoxin

363 occurrence should be conducted. Postharvest storage conditions should be optimized to

364 minimize the occurrence of mycotoxins in triticale.

365 2.7.Safety of GM triticale

366 Transgenic triticale genotypes with improved agricultural traits (e.g., better herbicide

367 tolerance) have been produced. A systematic review showed that herbicide (glufosinate-

368 ammonium)-tolerant triticale, like the other GM cereals, had no toxicological effect and was

369 safe to be used as food and feed (Snell et al., 2012).

370

371 3. Uses of triticale grain

372 In recent years, triticale has been continuously exploited for food and beverage production

373 (Table 2). Using triticale for new cereal product development meets the current consumer

374 trends of seeking products of new/rediscovered cereals.

375 3.1.Film

376 Edible and biodegradable films were developed from triticale based ingredients for food

377 applications (Aguirre et al., 2011; Borneo et al., 2016; Bartolozzo et al., 2016; Romero et al.,

378 2016). Triticale protein was processed into films with varying glycerol contents (20−33 g/100

379 g protein) and the physical properties of the films were studied (Aguirre et al., 2011). Water

380 vapor permeability (WVP) of the films ranged from 0.10−4.22 × 10−10 g m −1 s−1 Pa−1. The

381 variations of tensile strength (TS) and percentage of elongation (%E) were 2.9−0.20 MPa and

382 250−110%, respectively. WVP, %E, and total soluble matter (TSM) of films decreased with

17
383 increasing curing temperature (40 to 80 oC). Higher curing temperature facilitated the

384 interactions between polypeptide chains and formation of a more cohesive protein matrix.

385 This limited the water diffusion and sorption. Glycerol addition decreased the TS while

386 increasing WVP, TSM, and %E of the films (Aguirre et al., 2011). Glycerol as the plasticiser

387 may increase the free volume of the system, enhancing the mobility of protein chains. The

388 hygroscopicity of glycerol may also facilitate the water holding capacity of the films.

389 Increasing measurement temperature increased WVP of films due to the increased molecular

390 mobility. Increasing relative humidity enhanced WVP, TSM, and %E and reduced TS of the

391 films due to the practising effect of water molecules. Overall, the results suggested that

392 triticale protein can be used for the production of biodegradable films (Aguirre et al., 2011).

393 Apart from the protein, starch also has good film-forming capacity (Jiménez et al., 2012).

394 Triticale flour, rich in protein and starch, was used for film production (Borneo et al., 2016;

395 Bartolozzo et al., 2016; Romero et al., 2016). Triticale flour based film was produced by

396 casting gelatinized flour (Fig. 4a) (Borneo et al., 2016). Physical properties of the film were

397 studied. The lightness of the film was 85, indicating potential consumer acceptance. Storage

398 up to 60 days had no influence on film permeability, increased tensile strength, Young’s

399 elastic modulus, and puncture force of the films, and decreased the percent of elongation at

400 break. Such changes may be due to the starch retrogradation, moisture-redistribution, and

401 decreasing free-volume for protein molecules. These changes also led to the formation of

402 small cracks on the films towards the end of storage (Fig. 4a). Overall, the functional

403 performance of the films were suitable for potential food packaging (up to 45 days of storage)

404 (Borneo et al., 2016). Muffins were sprayed with gelatinized triticale flour for film formation

405 (Bartolozzo et al., 2016). The changes in some quality attributes of muffins during storage up

406 to 10 days were studied. The hardness and staling rate of muffin were decreased by the film,

407 mostly due to the moisture-retaining. The film also reduced the formation of small pores in

18
408 the muffin (Bartolozzo et al., 2016). Another reported food application of triticale flour-based

409 films was for cheese packaging and shelf-life extension (Romero et al., 2016). Natamycin as

410 an antimicrobial agent was added for film formation. The addition reduced the solubility and

411 water permeability of the films, while increasing the lightness and blueness. The moisture

412 content and puncture force of the film were not affected. The reduced permeability and

413 solubility may be due to the low solubility of natamycin. The natamycin-fortified films

414 significantly inhibited the mold growth on soft cheese stored for 2 weeks (Fig. 4b). Therefore,

415 the triticale based films fortified with natamycin can be used for antimicrobial food

416 packaging (Romero et al., 2016). The above-mentioned functional packaging films of triticale

417 can be used to pack other types of food products.

418 Triticale flour, protein, and starch may be modified to create a wider range of functional

419 properties, which can be further utilised for film production (Jiménez et al., 2012). So far,

420 there is no report on this type of applications. Developing new triticale genotypes with high

421 amylose contents (e.g., > 50%) can aid the production of high quality films.

422 3.2.Malt and spirit

423 Triticale has great potential for malting and brewing due to high α-amylase and proteolytic

424 activities as well as low gelatinization temperatures of starch (Munoz-Insa et al., 2016b). The

425 changes in the protein profile of triticale grains during malting were studied (Munoz-Insa et

426 al., 2016b). PI (isoelectric point) of triticale proteins ranged from 5.1 to 6.6. The molecular

427 weights of proteins ranged from 4,700 to 64,000. Osborne fractionation showed that the

428 molecular ranges of albumin, globulin, gliadin, and glutenin bands were 13,400−153,800,

429 12,700−152,300, 14,500−230,100, and 11,200−102,200, respectively. α-Amylase activity

430 increased from 0 to 100 Ceralpha units/kg (db) during germination, whereas the

431 concentrations of free amino acids, except for aspartic acid, increased during malting. These

19
432 results may provide a basis to develop triticale-based beverages. Triticale malt can be used

433 for beer production (Munoz-Insa et al., 2016a). Sunstruck flavour, as an off-flavor from beer

434 exposed to light, can be from the degradation of compounds in malt apart from isohumulone

435 (Munoz-Insa et al., 2016a). Riboflavin, phenylalanine, sulfur-containing amino acids and

436 peptide glutathione are the initiators for the formation of sunstruck flavor, whereas

437 tryptophan and polyphenols are the inhibitors. The malting parameters positively influenced

438 most of the substances, whereas germination temperature negatively influenced the contents

439 of cysteine, methionine, and tryptophan in triticale (Munoz-Insa et al., 2016a). Large

440 variations in the chemical composition of triticale were described in the section 2. The

441 triticale genotype may also influence the malt properties, which remains to be studied.

442 Furthermore, the resulting malts from the studies remain to be used for beverage production.

443 The quality of triticale-based spirit was studied (Biernacka & Wardencki, 2012; Wiśniewska

444 et al., 2016). Gas chromatography-based techniques were used to profile the volatiles of the

445 spirit. Biernacka & Wardencki (2012) revealed overall 100 compounds and found chemical

446 markers to distinguish the spirits of different botanical source. Wiśniewska et al. (2016) used

447 electric nose plus discriminant function analysis and soft independent modelling of class

448 analogies to differentiate the botanical origins of 19 spirits from rye, triticale, wheat, and

449 maize. The methods can be efficiently used for the authentication and quality control in

450 beverage industry (Wiśniewska et al., 2016). The sensory aspects of triticale-based spirits

451 should also be studied and compared with the counterparts of other cereals.

452 3.3.Bread, tortilla, cookie, and pasta

453 Triticale flour of different genotypes varying in chemical composition was used for bread

454 production (Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014; Frás et al., 2016). Quality attributes of the

455 resulting breads much depended on the genotype. For example, the bread volume of triticale

20
456 (9 genotypes) ranged from 313 to 438 cm3, which was lower than that of wheat bread (Frás et

457 al., 2016). Specific volume of bread from substituted triticale was higher than that of

458 complete triticale. This could be mostly attributed to the high content of total polymeric

459 protein (soluble glutenin and residual un-extractable protein) and lower albumin content

460 (Navarro-Contreras et al., 2014). The volume and specific volume of triticale bread were

461 lower than those of wheat and higher than rye. The effect of baking temperature (160, 200,

462 240 oC) on quality attributes of triticale bread was studied (Sabovics et al., 2014). Increasing

463 temperature decreased moisture, water activity, pH, and stickiness of bread crumb, while

464 increasing the hardness and acidity. A total of 26 volatile compounds (Sabovics et al., 2014).

465 There appeared to be great potential to use triticale for bread production through selecting

466 suitable genotype and also formulation with other ingredients as suggested previously

467 (McGoverin et al., 2011).

468 Cookie, pasta, and tortilla were also produced from triticale (Vaca-García et al., 2011;

469 Pattison & Trethowan, 2013; Martinez et al., 2012). Cookies were made from triticale flour

470 (7 genotypes grown at two different environments) and some quality attributes affected by

471 the genotype were analysed (Pattison & Trethowan, 2013). Variations in diameter (54−56

472 mm), height (3.45−6.14 mm), weight (6.19−7.87 g), and rate of blistered/checked surface (0

473 to 95%) of the cookies were recorded (Pattison & Trethowan, 2013). Therefore, selecting

474 suitable triticale variety can positively impact on the quality of the cookies. Triticale pasta

475 had lower a* and similar L and b* as compared with wheat pasta. Formulation studies

476 showed that L and a* of pasta were affected by ash and protein contents, respectively

477 (Martinez et al., 2012). Triticale flour tended to have a higher ash content than wheat flour as

478 discussed in the section 2.5. Fine triticale flour was blended with nixtamalized maize flour up

479 to 50% for tortilla formulation (Vaca-García et al., 2011). Triticale flour addition decreased

480 the dough water absorption due to the different composition between triticale and maize flour.

21
481 Dough adhesiveness became inadequate for manual processing when the triticale ratio was

482 over 25%. Using hot water of 80 oC for flour mixing improved the dough consistency due to

483 the starch gelatinization. Overall, addition of triticale flour at 10% resulted in acceptable

484 tortillas (Vaca-García et al., 2011).

485 The nutritional properties of above-mentioned products, such as digestibility and self-life,

486 remain to be studied. The developed products should also be subjected to consumer

487 acceptance test to make the efforts in the laboratories meaningful. Selecting suitable triticale

488 genotypes and using the optimum processing/formulation could produce the products with

489 acceptable quality. Functional ingredients such as some hydrocolloids may be employed to

490 enhance the quality of the food products. Sourdough technology, which is commonly used to

491 in wheat and rye product formulations, may also be used to improve the application range of

492 triticale based bakery products.

493 3.4.Functional food ingredient

494 Triticale bran was used as an ingredient of yoghurt for prebiotic and antioxidant benefits

495 (Agil & Hosseinian, 2012). No syneresis of yoghurt was observed when the bran addition

496 level was less than 4%. Bran addition increased the number of bacteria without affecting the

497 high viable bacteria counts in yoghurt during storage up to 4 weeks. The components of the

498 bran such as carbohydrates and certain minerals may act as the nutrients for the bacteria,

499 promoting their growth. Polysaccharide extracts of the bran showed in vitro antioxidant

500 activity, possibly due to the presence of bound phenolics as described in the section 2.4.

501 Therefore, triticale bran can be a source of prebiotics and natural antioxidants for healthy

502 food formulation (Agil & Hosseinian, 2012). The sensory quality of the resulting yoghurt

503 remains to be studied. Triticale can be fractionated to obtain the various ingredients such as

504 starch, dietary fibers, and proteins, which can be further utilised for food and non-food uses.

22
505 3.5.Milling

506 A problem associated with triticale for food applications is the low milling yield (Dennett &

507 Trethowan, 2013). Effects of grain hardness and size, and tempering moisture on milling

508 yields of triticale were studied. Increasing tempering moisture decreased the milling yield and

509 ash content of flour, regardless of the triticale genotypes. Milling yields of triticale were

510 lower than those of wheat by 7.1 to 10.1% with the tempering moisture between 11 to 15%.

511 Hard grains of triticale had very low milling yield. Regardless of tempering moisture, the ash

512 content of triticale flour was higher than that of wheat. Lower tempering moisture content

513 improved the milling yields and flour protein content of triticale. The high ash content of

514 triticale flour suggested that it may be more suitable for certain types of products such as

515 cookies of which the color is not an issue (Dennett & Trethowan, 2013).

516 Apart from milling, other processing techniques, such as germination, non-thermal plasma, γ-

517 irradiation, and high pressure, can be used to treat triticale grain/flour to create a wide range

518 of functionalities.

519

520 4. Conclusions

521 World production of triticale has kept increasing during the last few years. The properties and

522 composition of starch, arabinoxylans, β-glucans, fructans, lignins, proteins (including α-

523 amylase), alkylresorcinols, vitamins, and polyphenols of triticale were updated from the

524 recent reports. Lunasin is not a natural component of triticale. Mycotoxins may be present in

525 triticale grain if they are not stored in a correct way. GM triticale is safe for human

526 consumption. The studied factors affecting triticale composition included genetics (e.g.,

527 complete vs substituted genotypes), developing kernels, environmental conditions (e.g., water

528 stress), processing (e..g, milling). For example, genetic resources for protein quality

23
529 improvement through cross-breeding and selection for bread making were studied. The wide

530 variations in the composition and properties of triticale components suggest their potential for

531 food production. Triticale protein/flour had suitable film-forming property for biodegradable

532 film formulation and antimicrobial food packaging. Various food and beverages (e.g., bread,

533 cookie, pasta, tortilla, malt, and spirit) were developed from triticale. Triticale bran may be a

534 prebiotic and antioxidant source for yogurt. Through selecting suitable genotypes and using

535 optimum formulation and processing conditions, the quality attributes of these products may

536 meet the acceptable standards for commercial applications. It becomes obvious that triticale

537 holds great potential as a complement of major cereals for various food applications.

538

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674 Wawrzyniak, J., & Waśkiewicz, A. (2014) Ochratoxin A and citrinin production by

675 Penicillium verrucosum on cereal solid substrates. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A,

676 31, 139−148.

677 Wiśniewska, P., Śliwińska, M., Dymerski, T., Wardencki, W., & Namieśnik, J. (2016).

678 Differentiation between spirits according to their botanical origin. Food Analytical Methods,

679 9, 1029–1035.

680 Zhu, F. (2017). Interactions between cell wall polysaccharides and polyphenols. Critical

681 Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1287659.

682 Zwane, E. N., van Zyl, P. J., Duodu, K. G., Rose, S. H., Rumbold, K., van Zyl, W. H., et al.

683 (2017). Enrichment of maize and triticale bran with recombinant Aspergillus tubingensis

684 ferulic acid esterase. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 54, 778–785.

685

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Figure captions

Figure 1 World production quantity of triticale from 1994 to 2014; dashed line represents the

general production trend; data may include official, semi-official, estimated or calculated data

(FAOSTAT, 2017)

Figure 2 Effect of water stress on granule morphology of triticale at 31 days of water stress; I,

control; mild water stress (55−60% of soil moisture); K, medium water stress (30−35% of

soil moisture); L, severe water stress (10−15% of soil moisture) (He et al., 2012)

(Reproduced with permission from the publisher)

Figure 3a Molecular weight distribution of arabinoxylans from triticale (8 genotypes) (grown

at Svalöv and Kölbäck, Sweden), wheat (variety Hamesk), and rye (variety Ottarp); the

analysis was by high-performance size-exclusion chromatography; the dotted lines showed

the standard variation (Rakha et al., 2011) (Reproduced with permission from the publisher)

Figure 3b Molecular weight distribution of fructans from triticale (variety SW168 grown at

Svalöv and Kölbäck, Sweden), rye (variety Ottarp grown at Kölbäck), and wheat (variety

Hamesk grown at Kölbäck, Sweden); the analysis was by high-performance anion-exchange

chromatography; dotted lines are chromatograms after fructanase hydrolysis; vertical line

divides the molecules between DP 9 and 10 (Rakha et al., 2011) (Reproduced with

permission from the publisher)

Figure 4a SEM micrographs of triticale flour films; surface of fresh (a) and aged (b) (60 days

of storage) films; cross sections of fresh (c) and aged films (d) (Borneo et al., 2016)

(Reproduced with permission from the publisher)

Figure 4b Soft cheese partially coated by triticale flour films fortified with natamycin at

different concentrations (up to 0.08 g/100 mL film formation solution); the storage was at

room temperature for 14 days (Romero et al., 2016)

31
Figure 1

32
Figure 2

33
Figure 3a

34
Figure 3b

35
Figure 4a

36
 Figure 4b

686

37
Table 1 Nutritional composition of whole grain triticale flour (1 variety)

Nutrient Unit per 100 g

Proximates

Water g 10.01

Energy kcal 338

Protein g 13.18

Total lipid (fat) g 1.81

Carbohydrate, by difference g 73.14

Fiber, total dietary g 14.6

Minerals

Calcium, Ca mg 35

Iron, Fe mg 2.59

Magnesium, Mg mg 153

Phosphorus, P mg 321

Potassium, K mg 466

Sodium, Na mg 2

Zinc, Zn mg 2.66

Vitamins

Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid mg 0

Thiamin mg 0.378

Riboflavin mg 0.132

Niacin mg 2.86

Vitamin B-6 mg 0.403

Folate, DFE µg 74

1
 Vitamin B-12 µg 0

Vitamin A, RAE µg 0

Vitamin A, IU IU 0

Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) mg 0.9

Vitamin D (D2 + D3) µg 0

Vitamin D IU 0

Lipids

Fatty acids, total saturated g 0.318

Fatty acids, total monounsaturated g 0.183

Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated g 0.794

Cholesterol mg 0

1 DFE, dietary folate equivalents; RAE, retinol activity equivalent; data is from

2 http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search; accessed on May 13th, 2017; please be noted that only 1

3 triticale variety was analysed

2
 Table 2 Food applications of triticale

Uses Form Experiment Major findings References

Film Protein Water solubility, water vapor WVP ranged from 0.10−4.22 × 10−10 g m−1 s−1 Pa−1. The ranges of tensile strength (TS) and Aguirre et al.,

permeability (WVP), percentage of elongation (%E) were 2.9−0.20 MPa and 250−110%, respectively. Increasing 2011

and mechanical properties of curing temperature decreased the WVP, %E, and total soluble matter (TSM) of the films.

triticale protein based films as More plasticised films had lower TS and higher WVP, TSM, and %E. Increasing relative

affected by thermal treatments and humidity increased WVP, TSM, and %E of the films, while decreasing TS. WVP of the

glycerol concentration were films increased with increasing measurement temperature

studied

Film Flour Film of triticale flour was Films had high lightness (~85). Storage had no effect on film permeability. Storage Borneo et al.,

prepared by casting (Fig. 4a). increased tensile strength, Young’s elastic modulus, and puncture force of the films while 2016

Microstructure and various decreasing the percentage of elongation at break. Small cracks appeared towards the end of

properties of the films were storage (up to 60 days). The functional properties of the films were acceptable for potential

studied. Influence of storage (60 food packaging up to 45 days of storage

days, 52% relative humidity, and

25 oC) on film properties were

3
 studied

Film for Flour Edible film from triticale flour The coated muffin was compared with control. Triticale coating decreased the hardness of Bartolozzo et al.,

muffin was made by spraying over muffin. Coating deceased the staling rate of muffin, while diminishing the formation of 2016

coating muffins. The changes in quality small pores in the muffin

attributes of the muffins during a

10-day storage were measured

Film Flour Biodegradable films of triticale Natamycin addition decreased solubility and water permeability, increased lightness and Romero et al.,

flour with natamycin addition blueness, while having no effect on the moisture content and puncture force of the film. 2016

were used for cheese packaging Natamycin appeared to homogeneously distribute within the films. Soft cheese was coated

(Fig. 4b) partially with films before storing for 14 days. The part of cheese not covered with the

natamycin-incorporated film developed mold, whereas the part coated with the films

showed no mold growth (Fig. 4b)

Pasta Flour Color of fresh pasta made from Triticale dough had lower color score and L (lightness), similar a* (green-redness) and b* Martinez et al.,

triticale flour was measured and (yellow-blueness) as compared with wheat dough. Triticale pasta had lower a* and similar 2012

compared with that of wheat L and b* than wheat pasta. Formulation studies showed that L and a* of pasta were affected

by ash and protein contents, respectively

4
Bread Flour Effect of baking temperature (160, Increasing baking temperature decreased moisture, water activity, pH, and stickiness of Sabovics et al.,

200, 240 oC) on quality attributes bread crumb, while increasing the hardness and acidity. Solid-phase micro-extraction 2014

of triticale bread was studied coupled with GC-MS (gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) analysis revealed a total of

26 volatile compounds

Bread Flour Substituted (rye chromosome 2R There appeared to be no difference in bread weight between substituted and complete Navarro-

substituted by the wheat triticale. Volume and specific volume of triticale bread were lower than those of wheat and Contreras et al.,

chromosome 2D) and complete higher than those of rye. Volume and specific volume of substituted triticale bread were 2014

(with all R chromosomes from higher than those of complete triticale

rye) triticale flours were used for

breadmaking, which were

compared with wheat and rye

Bread Flour Breads were made from 9 triticale Variations in the chemical composition of the breads were noted. The ranges of protein, Frás et al., 2016

genotypes. Their nutritional starch, ash, non-starch polysaccharides, lignin, and total phenolic contents were 9.5−12.9,

composition and volume were 61−69.9, 2.2−2.5, 4.2−5.4, 0.3−0.9, and 0.4−0.9%, respectively, which appeared to be

analysed similar to that of a wheat bread. The volume of triticale breads ranged from 313 to 438 cm 3,

which was lower than that of wheat bread

5
Tortilla Fine Nixtamalized maize flour was Triticale flour reduced water absorption of dough and the cooking time, extensibility, and Vaca-García et

flour partially substituted with triticale yield of tortillas. Mixing flour with water of 80 oC improved the dough consistency and al., 2011

flour for making tortillas cohesiveness. Dough adhesiveness became inadequate for manual processing of tortillas

when the triticale ratio was over 25%. 10% addition of triticale flour was suitable for

producing acceptable tortillas

Cookie Flour Triticale flour (7 genotypes grown Variations in diameter (54−56 mm), height (3.45−6.14 mm), and weight (6.19−7.87 g) of Pattison &

at two different environments) cookies were recorded. The rate of blistered/checked surface in cookies varied greatly from Trethowan, 2013

was used to make cookies 0 to 95%

Yoghurt Bran Triticale bran was used as a Addition of triticale bran up to 4% caused no syneresis of yoghurt. Bran addition increased Agil &

functional ingredient in yoghurt the number of bacteria while maintaining high viable bacteria counts in yoghurt during Hosseinian, 2012

for prebiotic and antioxidant storage up to 4 weeks. Polysaccharide extracts of the bran showed antioxidant activity (34

effects μmol trolox equivalents) measured by ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance capacity) assay

Malt Grain Influence of malting conditions on Malting parameters positively influenced most of the substances, and germination Munoz-Insa et al.,

the formation of initiators and temperature negatively influenced the contents of cysteine, methionine, and tryptophan in 2016a

inhibitors for sunstruck flavour of triticale

beer in malts of triticale were

6
 studied

Malt Grain Changes in protein profile of α-Amylase activity increased during germination from 0 to 100 Ceralpha units/kg (db). The Munoz-Insa et al.,

triticale grains during malting concentrations of free amino acids increased during malting except for aspartic acid. The 2016b

were studied molecular weights of triticale protein ranged from 4,700 to 64,000. PI (isoelectric point) of

proteins ranged from 5.1 to 6.6. Osborne fractionation showed that the molecular ranges of

albumin, globulin, gliadin and glutenin bands were 13,400−153,800, 12,700−152,300,

14,500−230,100, and 11,200−102,200, respectively

Spirit Volatile profiles of raw spirits of Overall 100 compounds were detected in the raw spirits. Chemical markers were found to Biernacka &

different cereals, including distinguish the botanical source of different spirits Wardencki, 2012

triticale, were profiled by GC-MS

Spirit Electric nose of ultra-fast gas Electric nose plus discriminant function analysis and soft independent modelling of class Wiśniewska et al.,

chromatography coupled with analogies were successfully employed to differentiate the botanical origins of 19 spirits 2016

statistical analysis was used to from rye, triticale, wheat, and maize

differentiate raw spirits based on

7
botanical origins

8
687

688 • Chemical composition and food applications of triticale updated

689 • Impact of genetics and growing conditions on triticale composition reviewed

690 • Triticale is formulated into bread, cookie, pasta, malt, spirit, yoghurt, and film

691 • Large variations in nutritional composition recorded

692 • Structure and functional properties of some individual components studied in detail

693

694

38