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Data and Information

• Data is raw unprocessed facts
such as characters and
numbers whereas information
Information Processing is processed data.
• Information processing is using
the computer to process data
into information.

Data can be processed to become

Sources of data and information
information by
• carrying out calculations in a • People
spreadsheet
• Places
• printing a document or image
• Things
• searching a database for a
particular item of data
• sorting data into alphabetical
order

Machine readable document

• is one on which the data can be ‘read’ by an input device such as a
scanner or mark reader.
• E.g. multiple choice exams, barcodes on labels of products sold in
shops.

Document Types:

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Human readable document Source document

• is any document that needs to be read by
humans. Handwriting can be very difficult to • is one that
read. contains data that
• Sometimes a series of boxes are placed on a is going to be
form to try to force the writer to separate input into a
out the letters to make them clearer. computer system.

Turnaround document
• is a machine readable document that has some information printed
on it by a computer but has more information added to it by a
human. It is then fed back into a computer to transfer this newly
added information.
• They are used to
a. Verify the accuracy and completeness of information that
has already been entered
b. Update information already entered with additional data.
• OCR and OMR are used together in a turnaround document
• They allow cheap, fast input of information into a computer system.

Online Information
Reliability
Not all information is reliable or true, nor will all
information be suitable for your needs.

Information retrieved electronically should be

evaluated based on the following:

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Authenticity
• This is the quality of being real,
genuine, true and accurate.
• There is a lot of false information
online due to both honest mistakes
and malicious intent.
• The Internet allows anyone
anywhere to publish anything
everywhere.
Relevance
• This is the degree to
which the information
found applies to the
problem or situation and
meets the real need of
the user.
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Currency
• This is the timeliness of the
information, that is, when the
information was posted or
published.
• Depending on the topic, the
currency is important.
Bias
• This is an inclination or prejudice
for or against someone or
something.
• It is important to take note of
the tone of the writing (is it
selling you something,
informing, persuading etc.) and
whether the information is
supported by evidence that can
be verified independently of the
source.
Data Verification and Data
Validation
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• Validation and verification checks are used
to minimise or eliminate errors that occur when
inputting data into a computer system.
• It is important to understand that these checks
cannot eliminate all mistakes, they just try and
ensure that the data is as accurate as is
reasonably possible for the purpose it is being
collected for.
Data Verification
• This process ensures that the
data entered exactly matches
the original source.
• It checks for mistakes such as
transcript errors when data is
copied form one medium or
device to another.
• This process is carried out by
humans but it does not
guarantee that the entered data
is correct.
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Validation and verification are two ways to
check that the data entered into a computer
is correct.
Data entered incorrectly is of little use.
• Verification is performed by a human
whereas validation is carried out by a
computer.
Types of Errors
• Errors may occur when employees are keying in data from a
source document. Two types of errors are:
• Typographical errors – are the typing errors that we all make
when we hit the wrong key.
• E.g. I sent down the street and saw my friends playing cricket.
• Transposition errors – happen when we enter numbers or
characters in the wrong order.
• E.g. I wnet down the street and was my friends playing cricket.
• Data verification is used to reduce these types of errors.
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Data Verification Types/Checks Data Validation

• Proofreading/Visual verification – this method involves
someone checking the data entered against the original
document. It is not efficient for large amounts of data
because it is time-consuming.
• Double entry verification – is when the data is keyed in a
second time, and the first entry is checked against the
second. A warning message is displayed if the entries do not
match. The employee then has to check whether the error
was made in the first entry or the second and confirm which
is correct.
• This is the computerised checking of input data for
errors (data that may be unreasonable or incomplete)
before it is processed.
• It cannot check the accuracy of data but ensures that it
conforms to a set of validation rules.
• The method of validation used depends upon what data
is being entered.

Validation checks • Data type check – This is also

known as a character or
alphanumeric check. When a
• Range check – ensures database is created each field
that the data entered is in the database is given a type.
within a certain range. Whenever data is entered into
E.g. when you enter a a field the database will check
number corresponding to a that it is of the correct type, if it
month of the year, the range is not, then an error message
of acceptable numbers is 1 – will be displayed and the data
12. will have to be re-entered.

• Inconsistency/Consistency • Reasonableness check – this compares an input

check – This checks one value with expected reasonable values.
piece of data against another. E.g. the current reading is reasonably expected to be
E.g. the data may include greater than the previous reading. A current reading
both gender [M or F] and title that is less than or equal to the current reading will
[Mr, Mrs, Miss]. If someone result in an error.
has entered M and Mrs, then
the two data items are
inconsistent.

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• Presence check – ensures • Format check – ensures the

that a critical field cannot data is in the correct format.
be left blank, it must be
filled in. E.g. a school will E.g. A national Insurance
always want to know an number must be in the form of
emergency contact number
XX 99 99 99 X. The first two
or a wedding dress shop
might always want a record and the last characters must
of the brides wedding date. be letters. The other six
characters are numbers. Any
format entered differently to
this will be rejected.

• Length check -
checks the data isn't
too short or too long.
E.g. a password that File Organisation and Access
requires a minimum
number of 6
characters.

Types of File Access

File Organisation Direct Access Sequential Access
• Allows the computer to go • Data has to be read in
• refers to the way data is stored in a file. directly to a specific piece of sequence, from the start to the
• is very important because it determines the methods of access, data on the storage media end. It is impossible to jump
efficiency, flexibility and storage devices to use. without having to access any into the middle of the storage
other data. media to find a particular item.
• There are four methods of file organisation: serial, sequential, index-
sequential and random.
• There are two types of file access: sequential and direct.

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Methods of File Organisation
2. Sequential file organisation
• Records are stored and accessed in a particular order,
sorted using a key field (sort key).
• Retrieval requires searching sequentially through the
entire file, record by record to the end.
• That means that if you want to find a record in a
sequential file you have to start at the beginning and
work your way through until you find it.
• Type of access – sequential
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1. Serial file organisation
• This is the simplest file
organisation method.
• Records in a file are stored and
accessed in the order of their
creation.
• The data is read from the file in
the order it was written to the
file.
• Type of access – sequential and
direct
3. Index-Sequential file organisation
• uses an index file to speed up searches on a sequential file. This
makes it possible to search large sequential files very quickly.
• It cannot be used on sequential access media but can only be used
with direct access media.
• The main sequential file containing all the records could be stored
on a hard disk (which is a random access device). Each position is
given a numerical address. The index file will also be stored on the
hard disk alongside the main file of records. In the index file the
position field will hold the address of a position on the disk.
• Type of access – direct
4. Random file organisation
• uses a formula to find the position of a record on a direct access
medium. It is the most efficient way of storing extremely large files.
• Each position will have its own specific address on the disk. The
position allocated to each record is calculated by a special formula.
This formula will use some of the data in the record then convert in
into the address of a position on the disk. When someone wants to
search for a record, once again the formula will work out where it is.
• Type of access – direct
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Record –
Hey! Position –
H32
Method Storage media type Example of storage media
Sequential Sequential access Magnetic tape

Special Index-sequential Direct access Optical media, magnetic

Formula disk, flash memory
Position Record Random
A1 5
B45 GTA Serial Sequential access Magnetic tape
X20 Jake
V63 $5000
Direct access Optical media, magnetic
H32 - Hey! disk, flash memory
K79
K32 June 03, 2020

Application Areas
Archiving Serial

Payroll file Sequential

Real time system Random file organisation