AD

Biology Cheatsheet PDF

Uploaded by Ahmad Mubashar

 67% (6) · 9K views · 21 pages

AI-enhanced title and description

Document Information 
This document provides information on using an …

Original Description:
Download now

Download to read ad-free
Original Title
biology cheatsheet.pdf

Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved

Available Formats THE ULTIMATE

A-LEVEL
PDF, TXT or read online fromOCR
Scribd BIOLOGY
CHEATSHEET PACK
Share this document


Facebook

Twitter


Email

Did you find this document useful?

AD Download to read ad-free.

Is this content inappropriate? Report this Document

Achieve Better Grades with Less Stress

Our intelligent platform provides high quality, personalised support that is more
effective than private tutoring available 24/7 at a fraction of the cost

Bite-size Smart Mini Revision 24/7 Tutor Personalised Predicted

Videos Quizzes Guides Support Learning Paths Exam Packs

LEARN MORE

AD Download to read ad-free.

How to Use
The aim of this pack is simple — we wanted to condense the A-level Biology course into a few super condensed
pages. Now you have a concise summary of the entire course that focuses on the most important definitions, key
terms, diagrams and concepts.
We’ve spent weeks working with top designers, academic writers and illustrators to ensure this is the best cheatsheet
out there. Our promise to you is you won’t find anything better. The cheatsheet pack has been built off the OCR
specification to ensure no important information is missed — below is a table which summarises how our cheatsheets
map to the OCR specification.

Specification Points Cheatsheet

2.1.1 Cell Structure & Water
2.1.2 Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins & Inorganic Ions
2.1.3-2.1.4 Nucleic Acids, ATP, Genetic Information, Protein Synthesis & Enzymes
2.1.5 - 2.1.6 Cell Transport & Cell Division
3.1.1 Cell Specilisation & Gas Exchange
3.1.2 - 3.1.3 Mass Transport & The Heart
4.1.1 Disease & Immunity
4.2.1 - 4.2.2 Biodiversity, Classification & Natural Selection
5.1.1 - 5.1.2 Energy, Ecosystems & Nutrient Cycles
5.1.3 - 5.1.4 Receptors, Neurones, Synapses & The Endocrine System
5.1.5 Blood Glucose, Plant Responses & The Nervous System
5.2.1 Muscles & Photosynthesis
5.2.2 Respiration & Mutations
6.1.1 Gene Regulation & The Body Plan
6.1.2 Inheritance
6.1.2 Populations, Evolution, Speciation & Sequencing
6.1.3 - 6.2.1 Gene Technology & Biotechnology
6.3.1 - 6.2.3 Ecosystems, Nutrient Cycles & Conservation

We hope you enjoy using it and wish you the best of luck in your A-levels.
SnapRevise

AD Download to read ad-free.

Tesco Finest Pasta

Tesco Express

CELL STRUCTURE & WATER

CHEAT SHEET
Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells Water
• Eukaryotes include animal, plant & fungal cells. • Prokaryotes are smaller and simpler than eukaryotes.
• Water molecul es consist of 2 hydrogen molecul es covalently to
• The following organelles are presents in eukaryotic cells: Feature Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell an oxygen molecule.
Organelle Structure Function Nucleus Present Absent
• Controls passage of entry of Linear and packaged
Circular and freely
Cell surface substance into the cell DNA into chromosomes in
floating in cytoplasm
membrane • Site of cell communication nucleus
via receptors Cell Membrane Present Present
• Stores DNA Membrane-
• Nuclear pores allow mRNA bound Present Absent
Nucleus & ribosomes to pass through organelles
Ribosomes Present (80S) Present (70S)
Sometimes (cellulose Present
• Carry out aerobic respiration Cell Wall
or chitin) (peptidoglycan)
Mitochondria to produce ATP
Chloroplasts Sometimes Absent
Flagellum Absent Sometimes
• Contains digestive enzymes Capsule Absent Sometimes • The molecules are slightly polar because the oxygen nucleus
to break down pathogens, Plasmid Absent Sometimes pulls the shared electrons away from the hydrogen nuclei.
Lysosomes
old organelles, cells & food Giving the oxygen nuclei a δ- charge, and the hydrogen nuclei
molecules • Bacteria replicate by binary fission. a δ+ charge.
• Site of protein synthesis • The polarity of water causes attraction between water
Ribosomes molecules. This force of attraction is called a hydrogen bond.

Rough • Provide a large surface area

endoplasmic for protein synthesis Property of water Why it is useful
reticulum
Smooth • Synthesise, store and Liquid medium Provides habitats for aquatic
endoplasmic transport lipids and organisms, medium for
reticulum carbohydrates. chemical reactions & used for
transport
• Mo difies proteins
Golgi • Sort, package, and transport
Important metabolite Used in hydrolysis &
Apparatus molecules around the cell
condensation reactions

High specific heat capacity Keeps aquatic & cellular

• There are additional organelles in plants, algae & fungi: Methods of Studying Cells environments stable
Present
• There are 3 main types of microscopes used to observe cells:
Organelle Structure Function in which High latent heat of Evaporation has a cooling
organism Transmission
Scanning Electron vaporisation effect on organisms
Light Microscope Electron
• Site of Plants & Microscope
Microscope
Chloroplasts photosynthesis algae Co hes io n o f m ol ec ul es Wa ter i s draw n u p t he xy lem
Medium Light Beam Electron Beam Electron Beam
Dimensions 2D 3D 2D Surface tension Allows pond-skaters to walk
So!ware
MailStore

• Maintains cell Plants

Max Magnification X1,500 X200,000 X2,000,000 on the surface
structure
Cell vacuole • Act as a tempo- Max Resolution 200 nm 20 nm 0.1 nm
Good solvent and transport Dissolves ionic and polar
rary energy store • Magnification is how much bigger the image is compared to the
medium molecules, allowing them to
• Provides Plants & original object viewed with the naked eye
easily be transported
support & algae • Magnification = (size of image)/(size of object)
mechanical • Resolution is how well a microscope distinguishes between two
Cell wall Go od re acti on me di um The cy top la sm in ce ll s i s a n
strength Fungi points that are close together.
aqueous solution where many
• Cell fractionation can be used to separate organelles .
chemical reactions happen
◦ Homogenisation - grinding cells release the organelles into
• In complex multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become solution Incompressible Can prevent plants from
• Specialised for specific functions. ◦ Filtration - separates organelles & debris wilting & act as a hydrostatic
• Specialised cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs ◦ Ultracentrifugation - using a centrifuge the organelles are skeleton for invertebrates
and organs into systems. separated out in order of mass

naprev se.co.u

AD Download to read ad-free.

So!ware
MailStore

Free PDF
Download
MailStore So!ware GmbH

Open

CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS & PROTEINS

CHEAT SHEET
Monomers & Polymers Lipids Inorganic Ions
• Inorganic ions are atoms or molecules with an electric charge,
• Monomers are individual molecules that make up a polymer. • Fatty acids can be: containing no carbon.
• Polymers are long chains that are composed of many individual ◦ Saturated – there are no C=C bonds and the molecule has as • Cations are positively charged ions
monomers that have been bonded together in a repeating pattern. many hydrogen atoms as possible. • Anions are negatively charged ions
• Condensation Reactions occurs when two ◦ Unsaturated – there is at least one C=C bond, therefore the • Inorganic ions occur in solution in the cytoplasm and body
molecules combine to form a more complex molecule contains fewer hydrogen atoms than is maximally fluids of organisms, some in high concentrations and others in
molecule with the removal of water. possible. very low concentrations
• Hydrolysis Reactions occurs when larger • A triglyceride molecule is formed by joining one molecule • Each type of ion has a specific role, depending on its properties
of glycerol to three fatty acids through three condensation
◦ Hydrogen ions determine the pH of bodily fluids. The higher
molecules are broken down into smaller
the concentration, the lower the pH
molecules with the addition of water. reactions, forming ester bonds. ◦ Sodium ions are used in the co-transport of glucose and amino
• Triglycerides have key acids across cell membranes and transmission of nervous impulses
roles in respiration and Phosphate ions are essential components of DNA, RNA,
Carbohydrates energy storage due to
◦

nucleotides & ATP

• Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of
only one sugar molecule (e.g. Glucose, Fructose &
Galactose).
• Ribose sugars (pentose) are found in many important
biological molecules such as ribonucleic acid (RNA),
ATP, NA D
• Glucose is a hexose sugar with 2 isomers
• Disaccharides are sugars that are composed
of two monosaccharides joined together in a
condensation reaction, forming a glycosidic bond.
its insolubility and high ◦ Calcium ions regulate protein channels, impulse transmission
carbon to hydrogen ratio. and harden body parts like teeth.
• Phospholipids replace one of the fatty acid chains in ◦ Potassium ions play a role in muscle contraction, nervous trans-
mission. active transport and maintaining turgidity in plant cells.
triglycerides with a phosphate molecule.
◦ Ammonium ions and Nitrate ions are part of the nitrogen
• The hydrophobic tails cycle and a source of nitrogen for biological molecules
and hydrophilic heads of ◦ Hydrogencarbonate ions are formed when carbon dioxide
phospholipids allow them to dissolves in blood. They are important in the transport of
form phospholipid bilayers. carbon dioxide in the blood and the regulation of blood pH
CO2 + H2O ⇌ HCO3– + H+

Disaccharide Constituent monosaccharides

Globular Proteins
• A globular protein is protein with a spherical shape that is
Maltose 2 × α-glucose Proteins soluble in water; they typically have metabolic roles
• Globula r proteins have a few important properties:
Sucrose α-glucose and fructose
• Amino acids are the monomer units used to make proteins. ◦ They are roughly spherical in shape, with hydrophobic R
Lactose β-glucose and galactose • The 20 naturally occurring amino acids only differ in their R groups. groups on the inside and hydrophilic R groups on the outside.
• Dipeptides are formed when two They are therefore soluble in water
• Polysaccharides are formed by many monosaccharides joined amino acids are joined together ◦ They have very specific shapes; this allows them to carry out
together. by a condensation reaction, very specific functions
◦ Amylose, amylopectin (starch) is the main polysaccharide • Haemoglobin is a conjugated globular protein, made of 4
forming a peptide bond.
energy store in plants, is composed of -glucose. polypeptide chains and 4 haem prosthetic groups which contain Fe 2+.
• A polypeptide is a polymer • Insulin is composed of two polypeptide chains, joined together
◦ In animals, the polysaccharide energy store is called made of many amino acids
glycogen, composed of -glucose. by disulphide links. The specificity of the shape allows binding
joined together by peptide to cell membrane receptors.
◦ Cellulose is a structural component of plant cell walls, bonds. • Pepsin has hydrogen bonds, disulphide link and few basic R
composed of long unbranched chains of -glucose. • A protein may contain one or more polypeptide chains. groups to keep it functional in low pH stomach acid.
• There are four structural levels:
Biochemical Tests Level Definition Bond type Fibrous Proteins
M ol ec ul e R ea ge nt P os it iv e R es ul t Primary The specific sequence of amino Peptide bonds
acids in a polypeptide chain • Fibrous proteins have some similar properties to each other:
Reducing Benedict’s reagent → Heat Red/orange ◦ They contain long polypeptide chains with repeating
sugars precipitate Secondary The curling or folding of the Hydrogen bonds sequences of amino acids
Reagent test strip Compare with polypeptide chain into α-helices ◦ The amino acids have non-polar R groups, so the proteins are
and β-pleated sheets due to the insoluble in water
calibration card
formation of hydrogen bonds ◦ The polypeptide chains are able to form fibres which make
Non- Hydrochloric acid → Heat Red/orange the proteins stronger
Tertiary The overall specific 3-D shape of Hydrogen bonds
reducing Sodium hydrogencarbonate precipitate a protein, which is determined by Ionic bonds • Collagen is used to make bones, tendons and are found in
sugars Benedict’s reagent → Heat interactions between R groups Disulphide artery walls to help resist the high pressure
Starch Iodine in potassium iodide Blue/black and the properties of R groups bridges • Keratin contains high amounts of cysteine, resulting in disulphide
solution links forming between the two polypeptide chains, which makes
Quaternary The specific 3-D shape of a Hydrogen bonds the molecule very hard and strong. It is found in fingernails,
Proteins Sodium hydroxide Purple protein that is determined by the Ionic bonds hooves and horns.
Copper (II) sulphate multiple polypeptide chains and/or Disulphide • Elastin has the ability to stretch and recoil. Elastin is stretchy
Lipids Ethanol Cloudy white prosthetic groups bonded together bridges due to coiling of the elastin molecules and cross-links that keep
Water → Shake the molecules together. It is found in the lungs, bladder and
blood vessel walls.

naprev se.co.u

AD Download to read ad-free.

Learn
more

Replay

NUCLEIC ACIDS, ATP, GENETIC INFORMATION, PROTEIN SYNTHESIS & ENZYMES

CHEAT SHEET
DNA & RNA ATP Enzymes
• DNA & RNA are both polynucleotides. • Enzymes are biological catalysts that speeds up the rate of reaction
• The structure of ATP is:
and remains unchanged and reusable at the end of the reaction.
• They lower the activation energy of the reaction.
• The basic structure of a nucleotide is:
• The lock and key model
DNA RNA ATP → ADP ADP → ATP proposed that each
Number of Strands Two antiparallel strands One strand Reaction type Hydrolysis Condensation substrate is a key that
Length Very long Relatively short
only fits a specific lock or
Enzyme involved ATP hydrolase ATP synthase
enzyme. The alternative
Pentose Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose Energy profile of
Releases energy Requires energy induced fit model has
Nitrogenous Bases Adenine, Cytosine, Adenine, Cytosine, reaction been proposed (below)
Guanine & Thymine Guanine & Uracil
• The specificity of enzymes is due to the tertiary structure of its
Function Store genetic Transfer ge netic • The hydrolysis of ATP can active site, allowing complementary binding to substrates.
information information & forms
be coupled to energy- • Enzymes catalyse both intracellular and extracellular reactions
ribosomes with proteins
requiring reaction and that determine structures and functions from cellular to whole
used to phosphorylate organism level.
DNA Double Helix & Replication compounds.
• The condensation of ADP
◦ Catalase intracellularly breaks down hydrogen peroxide into
water and oxygen
• Polynucleotides are polymers made up of many nucleotide to form ATP can occur during respiration and photosynthesis. ◦ Amylase is secreted from the salivary glands and pancreas to
monomers joined together by a series of condensation extracellularly break down starch. Requires Cl – cofactor
reactions, forming phosphodiester bonds. ◦ Trypsin is secreted from the pancreas to extracellularly break
• The DNA double helix is held together by hydrogen (H) bonds
between complementary base pairs.
Protein Synthesis down proteins
• Some enzymes are synthesised in an inactive precursor form
◦ 2 H bonds between Adenine & Thymine • Structure of tRNA & mRNA: and need to be activated e.g. another enzyme removes part of
◦ 3 H bonds between Cysteine and Guanine • Transcription is the process the molecule in trypsin, forming the correct active site shape
• Semi conservative replication is the method in which DNA of making messenger RNA • Some enzymes require a cofactor, which is a substance which
replicates, creating two molecules of DNA that consist of one from a DNA template. must be present to enable an enzyme to catalyse a reaction at
original DNA strand and one newly synthesised DNA strand. • DNA helicase breaks the
◦ DNA helicase breaks H bonds the appropriate rate.
hydrogen bonds between ◦ A prosthetic group is permanently bound e.g. Zn 2+ bound to
between the two strands the DNA helix, free RNA
◦ Free nucleotides complementary carbonic anhydrase
nucleotides base pair with
base pair to the exposed strands
the exposed DNA template strand. A coenzyme forms temporary associations and are derived
◦ DNA polymerase catalyses ◦

condensation reactions to join • In prokaryotes, transcription results directly in the production of from vitamins.
adjacent nucleotides, forming mRNA from DNA. • Factors affecting enzyme activity include:
phosphodiester bonds. • In eukaryotes, transcription results in the production of pre-
pH: Temperature Enzyme concentration
mRNA; this is then spliced to form mRNA.
• Translation is the process of making proteins by forming a
specific sequence of amino acids based on coded instructions
Genetic Information in mRNA. RNA polymerase catalyses phosphodiester bonds
• In prokaryotic cells, DNA molecules are short, circular and not between adjacent RNA nucleotides and the mRNA strand
associated with proteins. detaches, allowing the DNA helix to reform.
• In eukaryotes, the nucleus contains very long, linear DNA • mRNA attaches to a
molecules associated with proteins, called histones. Together a ribosome on the rough Substrate Competitive & non-competitive inhibitor
DNA molecule and its associated proteins form a chromosome. endoplasmic reticulum, concentration concentration
• The mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells also tRNA carries the
contain DNA which, like the DNA of prokaryotes, is short, corresponding amino acid
circular and not associated with protein.
to each codon on the
• The genome is the full set of DNA found in an organism.
mRNA one at a time, with
• The proteasome is the full range of proteins that can be
synthesised from the genome. an enzyme catalysing the
• A gene is a section of DNA that code for polypeptides and formation of a peptide
functional RNA and are located at a fixed locus on a DNA molecule. bond between amino acids
• A sequence of three DNA bases, called a codon, codes for using ATP, until a stop
a specific amino acid. The genetic code is universal, non- codon is reached and the
• The temperature coe fficient (Q10) for a specific reaction is the
overlapping and degenerate. peptide is released, folding
effect of a 10°C rise in temperature on the rate of the reaction
• In eukaryotes, sections of the nuclear DNA do not code for into its tertiary structure.
polypeptides (introns). Exons are sections of DNA that code for
amino acid sequences.

naprev se.co.u

AD Download to read ad-free.

CELL TRANSPORT & CELL DIVISION

CHEAT SHEET
Cell Membranes Mitosis Meiosis
• Cell membranes act as barriers and can control what passes into • Within multicellular organisms, not all cells retain the ability to • Meiosis produces 4 haploid daughter cells (gametes) that are
and out of cells and organelles divide genetically different from each other.
• The cell membrane is composed • Mitosis produces genetically identical daughter cells, which is
of phospholipids, proteins, useful for growth, repair and asexual reproduction
glycoproteins, glycolipids and • The eukaryotic cell cycle has three
cholesterol. main stages:
• Glycolipids and glycoproteins allow cell adherence, stability and • Interphase consists of two growth
act as recognition sites phases (G 1&G2) and a DNA synthesis
• Cholesterol has a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end & stage (S). The cell may exit the cell
regulates membrane fluidity by intercalating between the cycle at G0
phospholipids. • Mitosis is the nuclear division
• At high temperatures the phospholipid bilayer increases its • Cytokinesis is when the cell splits in
fluidity and permeability, increasing the risk of the proteins two, forming two identical daughter
becoming denatured. At low temperatures, the phospholipids cells.
• In meiosis 1, homologo us chromosomes are separated from
are compressed, making the membrane sti ff ◦ In animal cells, the plasma membrane folds inwards until the
each other, with one chromosome from each pair going into
• Organic solvents disrupt the bilayer and dissolve the membrane two dents meet to separate the two daughter cells
one of the two daughter cells. In the second meiotic division,
◦ In plant cells, cellulose starts to build up at the equator (the
the sister chromatids from each chromosome are separated
end plate). Plasma membrane forms in the middle of the end
Passive Transport plate resulting in two fully separated plant cells Stage Description
• Passive transport involves exchange of substances without Stage Description
requiring metabolic energy from the cell Prophase 1 Chromatin condenses & coils,
• Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of DNA condenses & coils, nuclear envelope breaks down,
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (down Prophase nuclear envelope breaks centrioles move to opposite poles.
their concentration gradient). down, centrioles move to Crossing over occurs between
• Facilitated diffusion is the net movement of particles down opposite poles homologous chromosomes
their concentration gradient across a partially permeable cell Spindle fibres attach
membrane via Metaphase 1 Spindle fibres attach to
Metaphase to centromeres & centromeres & chromosomes line
carrier or channel chromosomes line at the
proteins. equator at the equator
• Water potential
is a measure of Centromeres divides, Anaphase 1 Homologous chromosomes move
Anaphase chromatids move to to opposite poles
the tendency of
water molecules opposite poles
to move from one area to another area and describes the Telophase 1 and cytokinesis Chromosomes uncoil, nuclear
Chromosomes uncoil,
Telophase envelope reforms. Animal cells
pressure created by these water molecules; the more dilute a nuclear envelope reforms
solution, the higher (less negative) the water potential ( ). divide by cytokinesis
• Osmosis is the net movement of water from an area of higher • Cell cycle checkpoints ensure the cell only divide at the Prophase 2 Chromatin condenses & coils,
water potential to an area of lower water potential across a appropriate time when ready and helps detect DNA damage.
partially permeable membrane. nuclear envelope breaks down,
• The rate of diffusion can be increased by increasing the Checkpoint centrioles move to opposite poles.
Function
number of channel & carrier proteins, the surface area of the Location
Metaphase 2 Spindle fibres attach to the
cell membrane, reducing the di ffusion distance and creating a Restriction Point or Between G1 and S Decides whether cell centromeres & chromosomes lines
steeper concentration gradient. G1/S Checkpoint proceeds to S-Phase.. up at the equator
G1 Checkpoint End of G 1 Checks cell is ready for
Anaphase 2 The centromeres divide and the
Active Transport S-Phase
chromatids are pulled to opposite
• Active transport is the movement of particles from an area of G2/M Checkpoint Between G2 and Checks and repairs all poles
low concentration to an area of high concentration (against mitosis of the DNA before the
their concentration gradient) across a cell membrane, using ATP cell enters mitosis. Telophase 2 and cytokinesis Chromosomes uncoil, nuclear
and carrier proteins. envelope reforms. Cells divide to
Mitosis Checkpoint In the middle of Checks cell is ready form 4 haploid cells.
• Bulk transport transports large substances across the cell membrane
mitosis to proceed in mitosis.
• Endocytosis is the bulk transport of large molecules into a cell. The
Ensures that the cell • Variation results from independent assortment of chromosomes
membrane invaginates and encloses the material being taken up into
doesn’t proceed to the and crossing over during meiosis 1. Also, random fertilisation of
a vesicle, which pinches off.
next stage before it’s the gametes.
• Exocytosis is the bulk transport of large molecules out of a cell.
ready.
A vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, releasing its material.

naprev se.co.u

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD Download to read ad-free.

AD

Learn
more
Download

Replay