Energies 16 01579

energies
Article
BIM and BEM Interoperability–Evaluation of a Case Study in
Modular Wooden Housing
João M. P. Q. Delgado 1, * , Ana S. Guimarães 1 , João Poças Martins 1 , Diogo F. R. Parracho 1 , Sara S. Freitas 1 ,
António G. B. Lima 2 and Leonardo Rodrigues 1,3,4
1 CONSTRUCT, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande, Rua Aprígio Veloso, 882,
Campina Grande 58429900, Brazil
3 LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
4 ALiCE-Associate Laboratory for Innovation in Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
* Correspondence: jdelgado@fe.up.pt; Tel.: +351-2250-83760
Abstract: Building information modelling (BIM) is the first step towards implementing Building
4.0, where virtual reality and digital twins are key elements. The use of unmanned aircraft systems
(UAS/drones) to capture data from buildings is nowadays a very popular method, so a methodology
was developed to digitally integrate the photogrammetric surveys of a building into BIM, exclusively
with the use of drones. Currently, buildings are responsible for 40% of energy consumption in Europe;
therefore, the interconnection between BIM and building energy modelling (BEM) is essential to
digitalize the construction sector, increasing competitiveness through cost reduction. In this context,
the BlueWoodenHouse Project aims, among other activities, to characterize the solutions/systems
of building materials and monitor the temperature, relative humidity and CO2 , as well as energy
consumption, of a single-family modular wooden house located in the north of Portugal, with
190 m2 and three users. Thus, the experimental monitoring results, of this case study, were used
to validate the numerical model developed in the DesignBuilder simulator, which includes the
building envelope’s 3D geometrical data obtained by one of those aircraft, in order to demonstrate
Citation: Delgado, J.M.P.Q.;
the usefulness of drones for the optimization of solutions, from the energy point of view.
Guimarães, A.S.; Poças Martins, J.;
Parracho, D.F.R.; Freitas, S.S.; Lima,
A.G.B.; Rodrigues, L. BIM and BEM
Keywords: BIM; BEM; photogrammetric survey; sustainable construction; energy simulation; UAS;
Interoperability–Evaluation of a Case UAV; drones
Study in Modular Wooden Housing.
Energies 2023, 16, 1579. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16041579
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Heap-Yih Chong
1.1. Background
Received: 6 January 2023 In most developed countries, particularly in Europe, about 90% of the time is spent
Revised: 31 January 2023 indoors, mostly at home. This value will tend to grow with the increase in teleworking, as
Accepted: 1 February 2023 recommended by the European Union [1]. As residential buildings are increasingly places
Published: 4 February 2023
for living and working, they must have suitable indoor air quality and thermal comfort
requirements for their occupants.
The importance of indoor thermal comfort in residential buildings has been widely
studied [2,3], as can be seen from the different studies existing in national and international
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
literature, taking into account the impacts that lower thermal comfort has on health [4],
This article is an open access article
productivity [5], and energy consumption [6–8].
distributed under the terms and In Portugal, as in the rest of southern Europe, the most used construction system for
conditions of the Creative Commons residential buildings is based on the intensive use of reinforced concrete and brick masonry,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// which results in high thermal inertia [9,10]. However, in recent years, alternative and more
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ industrialized construction systems have proliferated throughout the world and started to
4.0/). gain market share in relation to more traditional solutions.
Energies 2023, 16, 1579. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041579 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 1579 2 of 21
In this context, modular buildings have attracted greater attention from potential
buyers, investors, and the construction industry itself, taking into account the numerous
advantages of this construction method over traditional alternatives, namely: they need a
smaller number of workers on site, construction processes are faster and safer, construction
processes are more ecological and environmentally friendly and with more predictable
completion times, there is less waste of resources, presenting numerous advantages in
constructions in which units built are repeated [10].
Consequently, and since the research on building energy performance has been gain-
ing more attention, it becomes useful to integrate and manage information from BIM
(building information modelling) and BEM (building energy modelling) models [11]. Thus,
it is beneficial to survey the 3D geometry of existing buildings (“as-is”) for subsequently
performing energy analysis [12–15]. The use of new technologies in the study of buildings
has increased, including drones [12,16,17] (also known as UAS, unmanned aircraft systems,
and UAV, unmanned aerial vehicles). These devices bring various advantages, such as
reduced human effort and more security, access to hard-to-reach places, reduced time of
surveying, low cost, etc. [16–19]. These can be applied at different stages of a building’s
life cycle [18–20], with different levels of adoption [19]. According to Albeaino and Gheis-
ari [18], the main emphasis is on progress monitoring and on pre-construction activities
such as site planning and site mapping.
1.2. Related Research

In their literature review about the use of UAVs for civil engineering purposes, Free-
man et al. [19] noted the emerging application of using these aircraft to assist in the creation
of digital models. Indeed, linking the potential of UASs with BIM along the construction’s
value chain has already been discussed [21], for instance, for more efficient project man-
agement and quality control [20], and for construction safety management [22]. While the
integration of these technologies has already been discussed in the literature, including
using the BIM model afterwards for virtual reality purposes, the integration of UASs, BIM,
and the IoT (internet of things) sensing technologies are not fully explored yet [23].
In order to create accurate geometric 3D models for energy studies of as-is buildings,
reverse engineering methods must be applied [12–15]. For example, Rocha et al. [14]
studied the thermal comfort of a bus station during the winter season. The study aimed to
choose the best thermal comfort retrofitting solution possible. A laser scanner was used to
acquire the geometrical data, which was used to create the BIM model before the BIM-to-
BEM process. Through the BEM model, alternative scenarios were presented and analysed,
not only in terms of the energy performance of the station but also an economical overview.
Gigliarelli et al. [24–26] used a laser scanner and terrestrial photogrammetry to es-
tablish an approach to analyse the energy performance of buildings of historical interest.
Implementing heritage BIM (HBIM) models for this purpose is considered a challenge
as it is necessary to simplify the building’s geometry to run simulations successfully on
proper software. No sensors were used in this methodology to compare the simulations
with reality, though. Nagy and Asharaf [27] went further by creating a real-time platform
to visualise the energy performance of heritage buildings using smart sensing, applied to a
case study in Egypt. Laser scanner and photogrammetric data were acquired to develop
the HBIM model. The BEM model created afterwards was calibrated using real-time data
from the sensors installed inside the building.
Despite being useful for on-site data acquisition for further BIM integration, laser scan-
ners demand significant human action, thus, drones can replace them in many cases [21].
For instance, Maiolatesi et al. [28] performed an energy analysis to assess how neighbouring
buildings influenced energy simulations by comparing two BEM models (one with and
the other without the surrounding buildings) with the actual energy consumption of the
building under study. A drone was used to acquire external geometry and a laser scanner
detected the internal geometry of the apartments. These were then imported into BIM
before following a BIM-to-BEM framework.
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 3 of 21
Gorzalka et al. [29] present an approach to automatically generate a BEM model of

an existing building from UAV photogrammetric point clouds. Python was used in this
process, creating a CityGML file to be simulated on BEM software (Modelica in this case).
The building under study was monitored for 21 days, both the interior and the exterior.
Then the simulated interior temperatures of the model were compared with those from the
monitoring campaign so that further calculations could be made after calibration.
The drone-exclusive framework proposed by Benz et al. [30] assesses the as-is build-
ing’s energy performance based on photogrammetric and thermographic data, which
is used for a BIM-to-BEM approach calibrated by sensors installed inside and outside
the building. The thermographic data allowed for the estimation of U-values, and the
BEM model was obtained by converting the IFC file from the BIM software (Graphisoft
ArchiCAD) to an IDF file, which was used for the energy simulation on TRNSYS.
1.3. Research Significance

According to KPMG International, the level of drone adoption in the construction
sector is around 26% worldwide, with 45% starting to use them [31]. This value is still far
from the Portuguese reality, for example, which is only 4% [32]. As such, this article intends
to demonstrate the usefulness of drones for optimising solutions from the energy point
of view.
The development of digital models of existing buildings, in particular of models that
are suitable for simulating energy performance, has long been a common albeit laborious
task. These models are expected to become increasingly relevant with the greater promi-
nence of digital twins in academic and industrial applications. Therefore, reducing the cost
and time required to obtain suitable as-is models of buildings is a relevant research goal.
This paper explores the use of surveying and modelling tools to obtain building
information and energy models. A detailed workflow is presented in the next section,
using drones to perform photogrammetric surveys of buildings, BIM to establish a suitable
information model, and BEM to develop energy simulations. This workflow is tested with
a case study about a building in the north of Portugal. The case study is presented in
Section 2, and the results are described in Section 3.
2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Methodology for Photogrammetric Surveys of Buildings with Drones
In recent decades, there has been an increasing interest in studying as-is buildings’
energy performance. This analysis can be improved by integrating BEM with BIM. BIM
models can include information that is then traditionally introduced manually in a BEM
model, thus, providing cost and time savings [11]. Therefore, to conduct an energy analysis
of an existing building, it is interesting to collect data on its 3D geometry prior to that
evaluation [12–15].
This work will follow a previously created methodology that digitally integrates the
data acquired by the photogrammetric survey into BIM and BEM environments solely
using a drone [33–36]. This method’s quantitative approach will then be further extended
through a case study located in the north of Portugal.
2.1.1. Reconnaissance and Preparation

It is essential to follow a methodology to initiate the photogrammetric survey process
with UASs. The first step is to consult the local legislation and plan the flight in terms of
trajectories and local conditions [37–40], in addition, if possible, to seek useful information
about the building to be surveyed, to aid the BIM modelling process [14,37,38,40,41].
Applicable Legislation
The first procedure when planning a drone survey is to ascertain if the aircraft can
or cannot fly in that area. The local airspace legislation may restrict the flight height or,
in a worst-case scenario, completely prohibit it if the operation is close to airports, for
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 4 of 21
instance. In Portugal, these areas are defined by the Portuguese Civil Aviation Authority
(ANAC) [42].
Countries under the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) jurisdiction
must follow common rules, including drone flights. The Commission Delegated Regulation
(EU) 2019/945 [43] states that the aircraft is classified depending on the UAS characteristics
(not only, but in particular, its weight and maximum speed). Then, the Commission Imple-
menting Regulation (EU) 2019/947 [44], divides them into categories and subcategories
according to the operational risks they pose, which will influence the distance the drone
can be from people and buildings. If they present a high operational risk (i.e., from the
“specific” and “certified” categories), security measures and a safety plan must be adopted
after being previously approved by the competent authorities.
The Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/947 also states that the UAS, the
remote pilot, and the drone operator (the “owner”) must all be registered on the national
aviation authority website and that only EASA-certified remote pilots can legally fly these
aircraft, as long as they pass the qualification courses and exams [44].
Assessment of Site Conditions—Obstacles and Weather Conditions

Even when it is permitted to fly a drone in a given geographic area, other issues must
be considered, including overflight restrictions from places such as schools, public parks,
hospitals, power plants, prisons, or military facilities. Applications such as Guardian by
Altitude Angel (available as a website and a mobile application) [45] can be used to assess
this information prior to the flight. Furthermore, flight planning approaches must take into
account constraints such as:
− The UAS battery and the existing airspace regulations [46];
− The existence of obstacles and the correct GPS signal for proper georeferencing [17];
− Wind speed and direction [47];
− Precipitation, which causes noise in the images due to water droplets and consequently
erroneous results [47];
− Adverse weather conditions such as storms and the presence of other manned or
unmanned aircraft in the vicinity [48] present relevant safety risks;
− Attacks from nearby birds [49];
− Proximity to electromagnetic fields, especially if it is intended to fly in the vicinity
of high voltage cables, because electromagnetic interference may disturb the correct
functioning of the equipment [40].
In addition to the equipment issues, remote pilots should consider their piloting
conditions. I’M SAFE (Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, and Emotion) [50] is a
self-assessment checklist that pilots can follow to determine their readiness to fly safely.
Flight Planning
When an obstacle-free flight is possible, it is suggested to plan the survey with ap-
plications capable of automating the operation, such as the DroneDeploy [51] or Drone
Harmony [52]. Applications such as these can set, for instance, the flight path, the desired
percentage of image overlay, and the image capture angle of the cameras.
Rakha and Gorodetsky [17] analysed the most commonly used flight heights, distances
to façades, and overlap percentages in the literature. They conclude that, empirically, a
minimum overlap percentage of 70% in grid-shaped flights and 90–95% in elliptical-shaped
flights is recommended. Besides the flight planning constraints mentioned previously,
which need to be taken into account for a safe operation, the following protocol is a
suggestion for data acquisition with a UAS:
− Flight height should be higher than the largest building in the area, and it is advisable
not to exceed this height by 1.5 times [12];
− Distance to the façade—there are several alternatives, but the suggestion is that the
remote pilot will suit this distance according to the building’s surroundings (presence
of walls or other buildings, for example);
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 5 of 21
− Flight plan can be circular, elliptical, grid-shaped [17], or Y-shaped (multiple flights
overlapping each other) [12];
− Camera angle—camera angles outside the 5◦ –60◦ range should be avoided to pre-
vent radiation reflections [47]. For photogrammetric purposes, an angle of 45◦ is
suggested [37];
− Overlap of about 90% is suggested for adjacent images [17,53].
Project Elements
As suggested by Shibasaki [40], the collection of information about the building
through documents such as design elements, construction records (such as the work diary),
photographic or video records, and as-built drawings are useful for the correct geometric
survey of the building.
These design elements are important for geometric modelling and for the correct
acquisition of the properties of the materials to be later integrated into the BIM model [41].
Indeed, the proper acquisition of these properties is an essential step for quantitative
approaches, such as the quantification of the thermal properties of the materials, i.e., the
coefficient of thermal transmission (U) and the thermal resistance (R), fundamental for the
analysis of the energy performance of a building [54,55]. It should be taken into account
that these properties affect the thermal comfort conditions of a building. Commonly, these
properties are considered constant for the same element, which is not always true because
the maintenance conditions of a building may change throughout its life cycle [55].
2.1.2. Image Collection Using Drones

In the phase after the initial study of the selected building, the equipment must
be calibrated and, if necessary, the site prepared with methods to support georeferenc-
ing [38–40,56]. After following the previous steps, the drone operation is set to begin.
Equipment Calibration
In order to start the flight and consequently collect images with the UAV, calibrations
must first be carried out for the safe and correct operation of the device. This step includes
the calibrations of the cameras of the vision systems and infrared positioning sensors, the
compass, and the inertial measurement unit (IMU)—accelerometer, gyroscope, thermome-
ter, and barometer. One must follow the aircraft’s user manual for a correct procedure.
Georeferencing Support Methods

It is possible to adopt targets as a way to visually mark on-the-ground auxiliary points
for georeferencing purposes (GCPs—ground control points) and evaluate the accuracy of
the photogrammetric reconstruction in comparison to the reality (checkpoints) on appro-
priate photogrammetric software [37,57]. These must be clearly visible from the air and
evenly distributed in the area that will be surveyed, as well as ensuring they are firmly
placed so that they cannot be easily moved [58]. These markers are commonly used when
a high degree of absolute precision is needed, such as for topographic surveys [57–61].
Drones equipped with RTK (real-time kinematic) or PPK (post-processed kinematic)
may dismiss the use of GCPs, as they will not substantially influence the absolute accuracy
of the georeferencing [57,60,62]. Even if a survey is GCP-free, it is still possible to produce
accurate 3D results [61,62]; however, issues with the orientation, scale or absolute position
of the reconstruction may occur as a consequence [62].
If no real geographical coordinate points are required (i.e., the absolute accuracy of the
project), points that appear in multiple images (known as tie points) can replace the GCPs
to improve the relative accuracy of the photogrammetric project (i.e., how close geometries
in the reconstruction compares with the reality, for example, a distance) [58,62].
A high degree of absolute accuracy will often be unnecessary for photogrammetric
models that will be incorporated into 3D BIM modelling software [61]; thus, physical
markers may be dispensable [59]. If needed, tie points of the building (e.g., the corner
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 6 of 21
of a window) can be a valid replacement to improve the quality of the photogrammetric

model [38,62]. It is recommended to use between five and ten points in the reconstruction
process and assess its precision [62,63].
Image Collection
With the preflight stages completed, the photogrammetric drone survey may begin.
One must remember that it is crucial to have all the up-to-date documents, identifications,
and insurance to fly the drone legally when performing the survey to avoid possible
wrongdoings [33,34,36].
2.1.3. Processing and Analysis of the Collected Images

After the image acquisition, the process of digitally rebuilding the building is per-
formed with photogrammetric data reconstruction software, and the generated point
cloud should be cleaned [37,38,40]. This process strongly influences the subsequent BIM
modelling [37,39,56].
Photogrammetric Model (Point Cloud and 3D Mesh Model)

At this stage of the methodology, a representation of the current state (“as-is”) of the
surveyed building will be created based on the georeferenced images collected during the
aerial survey [37,38]. Proper software based on structure-from-motion (SfM) algorithms
must be used at this stage to provide satisfactory results regarding accuracy [37]. SfM
uses the acquired images’ EXIF metadata to automatically calibrate, match, and align them
so that a sparse point cloud can be created. Subsequently, the cloud can be densified by
applying a multi-view-stereo (MVS) algorithm [37,60,64].
The creation of a 3D BIM model depends on the accuracy of the software used in this
process; therefore, the best available software must be used at this step [65]. Pix4Dmapper
and Agisoft Metashape, which have been tested in previous UAS-based point cloud recon-
struction operations [64], are among the SfM-based software suggestions.
Point Cloud Cleaning

Point clouds generated by the processes described above typically contain unwanted
points from the background or the surroundings of the objects of interest (e.g., buildings,
trees, sky, etc.), which should be removed [38,40,66]. This process of cleaning the unwanted
points which do not belong to the model is performed manually [37] through specific
cleaning tools in the software, such as crop and delete [33,67].
Due to this cleaning process, the point cloud will require less computer power, prevent-
ing software lag, as the files will be smaller. Also, as a result of this process, it will be easier
to perceive the building itself [66,67], which will ease the modelling process afterwards [66].
2.1.4. Integration and Modelling in BIM Environment

In order to incorporate the point cloud created from the photogrammetric data into
BIM environment, it is first necessary to export it from the SfM software used. Although
Autodesk Revit is one of the world’s most used BIM software [15,37], it has some partic-
ularities regarding its point cloud importation procedure; nevertheless, the subsequent
modelling process itself is similar to other BIM solutions. This manual BIM modelling stage
is performed by using the imported point cloud as a guide [14,28,37,39,66].
Import to a BIM Authoring Software

Before importing the point cloud into the BIM authoring software, one must export it
in a format that can be properly integrated for further modelling. According to Opincar [65],
the LAS (LASer) format is recommended because it is suitable for point clouds created from
photogrammetric methods and LiDAR data [65], as it can support any three-dimensional x,
y, z dataset [68]. This format can be exported from several applications, including Agisoft
Metashape and Pix4Dmapper [33]. Note that this binary file format was created and is
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 7 of 21
maintained as a public standard by the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing (ASPRS) [68].
When Autodesk Revit is used, some intermediate processes are required to convert
the point cloud data to a readable format by this software. The LAS file must be imported
into Autodesk Recap first and then exported as either an rcs or rcp file, so that Autodesk
Revit can successfully read the point cloud [37,69].
The procedure described above was validated by Martinez-Carricondo et al. [37]
during their reconstruction work using a UAV-based photogrammetric survey to create an
HBIM model of a historical building in Níjar, Almería, Spain.
BIM Modelling
After importing the point cloud into the BIM authoring application, its orientation
should be adjusted, and the building’s levels should be set [37]. The model must be oriented
correctly to obtain accurate energy simulations [70].
The point cloud can then be used to guide the modelling process for the visible building
elements, such as external walls, roofs, doors, and windows [37,71]. These elements’ correct
dimensions and locations are critical for the later energy analysis [71]. The material’s
properties in the BIM model are a key factor for this analysis; therefore, those properties
must be considered during the modelling process [41].
2.1.5. Energy Simulations on BEM Software

In order to carry out energy simulations, first it is necessary to analyse the formats
of data transfers between the BIM modelling applications and the programs where the
energy simulations will take place [72,73]. In this section, some suggestions are presented
to carry out energy simulations from a photogrammetric survey with a UAV, briefly ad-
dressing the main data transfer formats between BIM and BEM and procedures to carry
out the simulations.
The photogrammetric data acquired during the survey is fundamental, as the geo-
metrical data serves as the basis for the BEM model. The building’s physical properties
are all linked to its geometry, whereas the systems and the building’s operational data are
inserted manually and edited directly in the BEM software [66,74].
From BIM to BEM—Data Transfer Formats

Several file formats are available to transfer information between BIM and BEM
software to perform energy simulations, such as IFC (Industry Foundation Class), gbXML
(Green Building eXtensible Markup Language) [11,70–73], CityGML (City Geography
Markup Language) [29,56] and IDF (Input Data File) [11,30,74]. IFC and gbXML are
considered the most commonly used BIM-to-BEM formats [11,72,75]; nonetheless, gbXML
has been proven to have superior performance for this process, as it can correctly transfer
the (simplified) geometry, materials, and thermal zones of the model [11,75].
gbXML is a data file that stores information according to a hierarchy capable of
integrating thermal data with geometric data of a given building [70]. However, the
interoperability between BIM and BEM software is not seamless; therefore, interoperability
issues in this BIM-to-BEM process must be checked and corrected [11,66,72,73,76]. In
particular, it is recommendable to simplify the building geometry [24,26,70,75,77], to avoid
collisions between elements, since they create openings in the BEM model [70].
From BIM to BEM—Energy Simulations and Software

Before exporting to BEM software, “spaces” must be created in the BIM model covering
the entire building volume, which is a key step for energy simulations [70,72,75,77]. A
space corresponds to a closed volume that is thermally simulated and to which thermal
properties are attributed [70]. These spaces are of vital importance as they will create the
energy analytical model [72,74]; therefore, if gaps or geometric flaws exist in this space, the
model may not even be exported correctly [66,72].
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 8 of 21
“Rooms” should also be created, as useful information for energy simulations is linked
to them, such as the occupancy of the building [77,78].
There are many energy simulation software, but not all are compatible with BIM
applications [70]. DesignBuilder, for instance, is a BEM application that accepts gbXML
files from a BIM authoring software with a building’s geometry as input. The properties
needed to perform the simulation can be added in DesignBuilder to avoid information
losses in the transference process [66,78], or through a plug-in between BIM and BEM
applications [75,77].
When building a BEM model, one must ensure that the model meets the information
requirements to proceed with the energy simulations. These requirements include the
building geometry, material properties, HVAC systems, lighting features, local weather
data, and operations data (occupancy, schedules, etc.) [70,74,79].
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 1 summarizes the process described previously, applied to the case 9study of 22
presented hereafter.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. UAS-BIM-BEM
UAS-BIM-BEM procedure
procedureadopted for thefor
adopted housing under study,
the housing underfrom the programmed
study, from the pro-
aerial photogrammetric
grammed survey to the
aerial photogrammetric BIM model
survey to theandBIM posterior BEMposterior
model and model and its energy
BEM modelsimula-
and its
tions.
energy simulations.
2.2. Case
2.2. Case Study
Study
2.2.1.
2.2.1. Experimental
Experimental Monitoring
Monitoring
The
Thecase
case study
study is is aa single-family wooden house located in the north of of Portugal,
Portugal, with
with
aa covered 2
covered area
area of of 190
190 m m2, in full use, that is, inhabited by a family family ofof three people
people (two
(two
adults
adults and
and one
one child).
child). TheThe energy
energy sources associated with this house are: (i) natural natural gas
gas
for cooking; (ii) electricity for heating, cooling, ventilation, and domestic
for cooking; (ii) electricity for heating, cooling, ventilation, and domestic hot water; and hot water; and
(iii)
(iii)heat
heatpump
pumpfor for sanitary
sanitary water
water heating.
heating.
The
The monitoring plan includedmeasuring
monitoring plan included measuringatat1515min minintervals
intervalsthethe
temperature,
temperature, relative
rela-
humidity (RH),(RH),
tive humidity and CO and 2 concentration
CO2 concentration(ppm),(ppm),
using using
7 HOBO MX CO2
7 HOBO MXsensors distributed
CO2 sensors dis-
over different
tributed over rooms
different of the house
rooms (kitchen,
of the house living
(kitchen, room, social
living zone,
room, room
social 1, room
zone, room2,1,room
room3
and bathroom
2, room 3 and 3). A HOBO
bathroom 3). UX100
A HOBO sensor
UX100(which
sensor measures temperature
(which measures and RH) and
temperature was
placed on the exterior, with an acquisition every 15 min, and the
RH) was placed on the exterior, with an acquisition every 15 min, and the results of this results of this sensor
allowed the creation
sensor allowed of the weather
the creation file used
of the weather fileinused
the numerical simulations,
in the numerical based on
simulations, the
based
weather file of Esposende, where the building is located. Figure 2 shows
on the weather file of Esposende, where the building is located. Figure 2 shows the floor the floor plan of
the house as well as the monitoring positions and AC equipment.
plan of the house as well as the monitoring positions and AC equipment. The sensors The sensors were placed
outside the direct
were placed areathe
outside of influence
direct area ofof
theinfluence
AC equipment to avoid
of the AC disturbances.
equipment to avoid disturb-
ances.
Monitoring started in November 2021 and this work presents an analysis of the data
focused on the air temperature obtained between December 2021 and November 2022 (1
year of the experimental campaign).
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 9 of 21
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22
Room 3 Bathro
om3
Living room Room 2

Kitchen
Social zone Room 1
Figure
Figure2.2.Location
Locationofofthe
thedifferent
differentsensors
sensors used
used in
in the experimental campaign and
experimental campaign andHVAC
HVACequipment.
equip-
ment.
Monitoring started in November 2021 and this work presents an analysis of the data
focused
2.2.2. on the Simulation
Numerical air temperature obtained between December 2021 and November 2022
(1 year of the experimental campaign).
In this work, the numerical simulation was carried out using DesignBuilder, an en-
ergy simulation software from EnergyPlus. For this purpose, the numerical model was
2.2.2. Numerical Simulation
also divided into different thermal zones that represent an approximation of the housing
In this
divisions, work,inthe
as seen numerical
Figure 2. simulation was carried out using DesignBuilder, an en-
ergyDesignBuilder
simulation software from EnergyPlus.
was chosen for the building Forenergy
this purpose,
simulation the (BES)
numerical
becausemodel
it is was
an
also divided into different thermal zones that represent an approximation
interface for EnergyPlus, which enables the simulation to be completed within the Design- of the housing
divisions, as seen in Figure 2.
Builder interface and utilises a complex system of modules and algorithms to estimate the
DesignBuilder was chosen for the building energy simulation (BES) because it is an
energy needs for heating, cooling, ventilation, hot water production, lighting, and appli-
interface for EnergyPlus, which enables the simulation to be completed within the Design-
ance electrical needs. The surface heat balance manager, air heat balance manager, and
Builder interface and utilises a complex system of modules and algorithms to estimate
building systems simulation manager represent the main three modules interacting with
the energy needs for heating, cooling, ventilation, hot water production, lighting, and
the integrated solution manager, which simultaneously handles all module interactions.
appliance electrical needs. The surface heat balance manager, air heat balance manager,
The thermal comfort was evaluated using the adaptive model for thermal comfort
and building systems simulation manager represent the main three modules interacting
EN16798-1 [80], which offers acceptable indoor temperature limitations as a function of
with the integrated solution manager, which simultaneously handles all module interac-
the exponential weighted running mean of the outdoor temperature.
tions. The thermal comfort was evaluated using the adaptive model for thermal comfort
The walls, roof, and floor are composed of oriented strand board (OSB) plates with
EN16798-1 [80], which offers acceptable indoor temperature limitations as a function of the
thermal insulation.
exponential weightedThe running
exterior mean
walls have
of thethe following
outdoor components from the exterior to
temperature.
the interior face: slate tiles, air layer (0.02 m), vapour permeable
The walls, roof, and floor are composed of oriented strand board membrane,
(OSB)OSB (0.012
plates with
m), mineral wool (0.09 m), OSB (0.012 m), vapour barrier and, finally,
thermal insulation. The exterior walls have the following components from the exterior plasterboard as anto
internal finish.
the interior face: slate tiles, air layer (0.02 m), vapour permeable membrane, OSB (0.012 m),
mineral woolis(0.09
The floor in contact
m), OSB with the ground
(0.012 and consists
m), vapour of a finally,
barrier and, concreteplasterboard
slab (0.2 m),asfol- an
lowed by waterproofing
internal finish. and vapour barrier, OSB (0.012 m), mineral wool (0.09 m), OSB
(0.012The
m), floor
and aisfloating
in contactwoodwithfloor (0.012 m).
the ground andFinally,
consiststhe
of aroof, which
concrete slabis (0.2
sloped
m), and not
followed
accessible,
by waterproofing and vapour barrier, OSB (0.012 m), mineral wool (0.09 m), OSB (0.012m),
has slate tiles, vapour permeable membrane, air layer (0.02 m), OSB (0.012 m),
mineral wool (0.18
and a floating woodm),floor
OSB (0.012
(0.012 m).
m), vapor
Finally,barrier,
the roof,and as an is
which interior
slopedfinish
and nota suspended
accessible,
ceiling system
has slate tiles,with plasterboard.
vapour permeable membrane, air layer (0.02 m), OSB (0.012 m), mineral
wool Table
(0.181m), presents the physical
OSB (0.012 m), vapor and thermal
barrier, andproperties of the
as an interior materials
finish used in
a suspended the
ceiling
walls,
system floor,
withand ceiling. All the windows are double-glazed, with 6 mm and 4 mm glass,
plasterboard.
with aTable
low emissivity coating,
1 presents the plusand
physical a 16 mm argon
thermal layer of
properties with
thean aluminium
materials usedframe
in the with
walls,
thermal break. The thermal conductivity U is 1.1 W/mK, with a
floor, and ceiling. All the windows are double-glazed, with 6 mm and 4 mm glass, with
w solar transmittance ofa
0.83
lowand a solarcoating,
emissivity heat gain coefficient
plus a 16 mm of 0.63.layer
argon The with
shading devices areframe
an aluminium metallic
withexternal
thermal
venetian blinds.
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 10 of 21
break. The thermal conductivity Uw is 1.1 W/mK, with a solar transmittance of 0.83 and a
solar heat gain coefficient of 0.63. The shading devices are metallic external venetian blinds.
Table 1. Materials used in opaque elements and their properties.
Material Thickness [m] λ [W/m·K] ρ [kg/m3 ] Cp [J/kg·K]

Walls
OSB 0.012 0.120 600 1700
Mineral wool 0.09 0.035 80 1030
Plasterboard 0.013 0.350 750 840
Floor
Concrete 0.200 2.000 2400 940
Mineral wool 0.090 0.035 80 1030
OSB 0.012 0.120 600 1700
Floating wood floor 0.012 0.130 400 1300
Roof
OSB 0.012 0.120 600 1700
Mineral wool 0.018 0.035 80 1030
An occupancy schedule based on an approximation of the user habits was considered,

together with the number of users, the type of indoor activity, and the structure of the
typical working week, i.e., considering that the weekdays are different from weekends.
Cooling and heating set point temperatures were also defined (see Table 2). In this way, the
AC turns on and off based on indoor temperatures and the defined schedules. Heating and
cooling are activated during working hours and during unoccupied periods the system
turns on only under “extreme” circumstances, according to the setback temperatures
(see Table 2).
Table 2. Occupancy, and AC parameters for DesignBuilder simulations.
Heating Heating Cooling Cooling

Hourly Presence
Setpoint Setback Setpoint Setback
Time Rate
(◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C) (◦ C)
19:00–7:00 1.0
8:00–18:00 0.6
Weekdays 18 14 26 30
9:00–17:00 0.4
10:00–16:00 0.0
19:00–7:00 1.0
8:00–9:00 0.9
Weekends 18 14 26 30
10:00–15:00 0.5
16:00–18:00 0.6
A specific lamp power of 3 W/m2 /100 lx was assumed during the occupancy sched-
ule. The lighting levels adopted were bathroom—75 lx, bedrooms—200 lx, living room
and kitchen—300 lx, and hall—100 lx. Finally, as previously mentioned, the weather
file for Esposende, Braga was edited using the temperature and RH measured on the
outside sensor.
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 11 of 21
3. Results and Discussion

3.1.
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW From UAS to BEM 12 of 22
3.1.1. Photogrammetric Survey with a Drone
The building under study is located in Esposende, Braga, in the north of Portugal. As
a way of acquiring
as its final datacomparison
objective the from the building, the methodology
and validation presented
of the experimental in Sectionresults
monitoring 2 was
followed.
with thoseThis continuous
obtained by energyworkflow of UAS-to-BIM
simulation and BIM-to-BEM methodologies had
through DesignBuilder.
as itsFirst,
final one
objective the comparison and validation
has to verify which airspace rules are in of the experimental
force in the place monitoring
under study, results
as
with those obtained by energy simulation through DesignBuilder.
drone flight might face restrictions. That is not the case for this building as it is located
First,
outside one hasortoprohibited
restricted verify which airspace rules
geographical areasareforintheforce
flight inofthe place
these understipulated
aircraft study, as
drone flight might face restrictions. That is not the case for
by ANAC (the Portuguese Civil Aviation Authority), so the flight is authorization-freethis building as it is located
up
outside restricted or prohibited geographical areas for the flight
to 120 m in height [42,81]. However, authorization is required to capture images by AAN of these aircraft stipulated
by ANAC
(the National (the PortugueseAuthority)
Aeronautical Civil Aviation Authority),
to avoid violatingso thethe flight isdata
personal authorization-free
protection pol-
up to
icy, due 120tom in height
being able to[42,81].
captureHowever,
images with authorization
the UAS camera is required
[82,83].to capture images by
AAN (the National Aeronautical Authority) to avoid violating the personal data protection
Apart from the national rules in force, European regulations have to be followed too
policy, due to being able to capture images with the UAS camera [82,83].
[43,44]. It is worth remembering that, besides the recommendations stated in 2.1.2, the
Apart from the national rules in force, European regulations have to be followed
European drone rules also mandate that the drone, the remote pilot, and the operator (the
too [43,44]. It is worth remembering that, besides the recommendations stated in 2.1.2, the
“owner”) must all be registered on the national aviation authority website [44], in this
European drone rules also mandate that the drone, the remote pilot, and the operator (the
case, ANAC’s [42].
“owner”) must all be registered on the national aviation authority website [44], in this case,
After verifying that a drone could fly at that location, the weather conditions were
ANAC’s [42].
assessed. The building’s surroundings were checked before the survey for possible obsta-
After verifying that a drone could fly at that location, the weather conditions were
cles through the Guardian by Altitude Angel application, which identified that cables
assessed. The building’s surroundings were checked before the survey for possible obstacles
from a nearby transformer station passed above the house. Thus, Google Street View im-
through the Guardian by Altitude Angel application, which identified that cables from
ages weretransformer
a nearby analysed, and a sitepassed
station visit was made
above thebefore
house. theThus,
droneGoogle
operation to View
Street createimages
a suit-
able survey plan.
were analysed, and a site visit was made before the drone operation to create a suitable
surveyAfter this verification, the survey operation was planned in the Drone Harmony Mo-
plan.
bile application with a flight height
After this verification, of 15 operation
the survey m (for safety was reasons,
planned above
in thetheDrone
cables),Harmony
with the
triple
Mobile grid mode, 90%
application withoverlap
a flightbetween
height of images,
15 m (forandsafety
a 45° drone
reasons, camera
aboveangle.
the cables), with
The survey was carried out on 12 July 2022, around
the triple grid mode, 90% overlap between images, and a 45 drone camera 10 a.m.,
◦ with sunny angle.
weather con-
ditions
The survey was carried out on 12 July 2022, around 10 a.m., with sunny3Dweather
and no wind, taking about an hour to capture 246 photographs for the recon-
struction of the building. The operation was conducted by
conditions and no wind, taking about an hour to capture 246 photographs for the an EASA-certified drone pilot
3D
(one of the authors), as only certified pilots can fly a drone legally
reconstruction of the building. The operation was conducted by an EASA-certified drone [44].
pilotThe
(onechosen aircraft, aasDJI
of the authors), Mavic
only 2 Enterprise
certified pilots canDual, was calibrated
fly a drone legally [44]. according to its
user The
manual chosen[84]aircraft,
prior to theMavic
a DJI survey. This 899 gDual,
2 Enterprise quadcopter is equipped
was calibrated accordingwithtoaits 1/2.3″
user
CMOS sensor, 12 MP resolution, and since it also has an uncooled
manual [84] prior to the survey. This 899 g quadcopter is equipped with a 1/2.3 CMOS VOx 00
microbolometer
sensor, thermographic
12 MP resolution, information
and sincecan alsohas
it also be an
acquired,
uncooled although this was not used
VOx microbolometer for
sensor,
this study.
thermographic information can also be acquired, although this was not used for this study.
Figure 3 shows
shows the the drone
droneduring
duringthe theaerial
aerialphotogrammetric
photogrammetricsurvey survey ofof
thethe building
building as
as previously
previously scheduled.
scheduled.
Drone during
Figure 3. Drone during the
the aerial
aerial photogrammetric
photogrammetricsurvey
surveyoperation
operationas
asprogrammed
programmedin
inthe
theDrone
Drone
Harmony Mobile app.
Energies 2023, 16,
Energies 2023, 16, 1579
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21
3.1.2. 3D Reconstruction and BIM Model (UAS-to-BIM)

In this work,
work, Agisoft
AgisoftMetashape
Metashapewas wasthe
theSfM-based
SfM-basedphotogrammetric
photogrammetric software
softwarechosen
cho-
to
sengenerate a 3D apoint
to generate cloudcloud
3D point of theof
surveyed area from
the surveyed areathe multiple
from images taken.
the multiple imagesIftaken.
desired,
If
it is possible
desired, it is to create to
possible 3Dcreate
polygonal meshes from
3D polygonal meshespoint clouds
from point(called
clouds3D mesh 3D
(called models),
mesh
which
models), have a better
which haverepresentation and completeness
a better representation by comparison.
and completeness by comparison.
In Figure 4, it is possible to observe the dense
In Figure 4, it is possible to observe the dense pointpoint cloud created
cloud in the
created insoftware used
the software
(with approximately 55.66 million points) and the 3D mesh model of the north
used (with approximately 55.66 million points) and the 3D mesh model of the north façade façade (with
roughly 4.56 million
(with roughly faces and
4.56 million faces2.28
andmillion vertices).
2.28 million vertices).
Figure 4. Photogrammetric reconstruction of the building under study, north façade. On the left,
Figure 4. Photogrammetric reconstruction of the building under study, north façade. On the left, the
the point cloud, and on the right, the 3D mesh.
point cloud, and on the right, the 3D mesh.
No physical
No physical GCPs GCPs werewere used
used throughout
throughout this this operation
operation as as the
the project
project diddid not
not require
require
a high degree of absolute precision (the real coordinates on
a high degree of absolute precision (the real coordinates on the planet); however, seventhe planet); however, seven
checkpoints from the building envelope were marked in
checkpoints from the building envelope were marked in the photogrammetric software the photogrammetric software
to assess
to assess the
the relative accuracy of
relative accuracy of the
the reconstruction.
reconstruction. These points estimated
These points estimated the the following
following
errors: RMSEXY = 1.43 cm (RMSEX = 0.99 cm and RMSEY = 1.03 cm), RMSE1.09
errors: RMSE XY = 1.43 cm (RMSE X = 0.99 cm and RMSE Y = 1.03 cm), RMSE Z = cm and
Z = 1.09 cm
RMSE = 1.80 cm. These represent the distance between
and RMSETOTAL = 1.80 cm. These represent the distance between the physical position
TOTAL the physical position of the
of
points
the calculated
points calculatedby the by drone’s
the drone’s onboard
onboardGNSS GNSSreceiver (global
receiver navigation
(global satellite
navigation sys-
satellite
tem—GPS + GLONASS
system—GPS + GLONASS in this
in case) and the
this case) andreconstruction’s
the reconstruction’s estimated location
estimated for these
location for
specified points. The first represents the longitude (X) and latitude
these specified points. The first represents the longitude (X) and latitude (Y) root mean (Y) root mean square
error (RMSE),
square the second
error (RMSE), is correlated
the second with the
is correlated withaltitude (Z) and
the altitude (Z)theandlast
theindicates the total
last indicates the
total error, also known as the vector sum [37]. These RMSE values are in accordancesome
error, also known as the vector sum [37]. These RMSE values are in accordance with with
other other
some recentrecent
photogrammetric
photogrammetric studies withwith
studies UAVsUAVs which
which also
alsoused
usedAgisoft’s
Agisoft’ssoftware,
software,
such as [37,85,86].
exportingthe
Before exporting thepoint
pointcloud,
cloud,unnecessary
unnecessarypoints points forfor the
the BIMBIM model
model werewere manu-
manually
ally removed
removed (e.g.,(e.g.,
trees,trees,
otherother buildings,
buildings, the garage,
the garage, etc.) through
etc.) through Agisoft Agisoft Metashape’s
Metashape’s point
point removal
removal functions.functions. This process
This process reduced reduced the number
the number of points of to
points
roughlyto roughly 1.94 mil-
1.94 million and,
then, the project
lion and, then, the was exported
project was in LAS format.
exported in LAS format.
Autodesk Revit was the selected BIM software for this study, as it is one of the most
used BIM software in the world [15,37]. In order to import the point cloud to Autodesk
Revit, aa conversion
conversionfrom fromthe theprevious
previous format
format to to a file
a file readable
readable by this
by this software
software was
was per-
performed
formed in Autodesk ReCap, as Agisoft’s software cannot export to those formats [87].[87].
in Autodesk ReCap, as Agisoft’s software cannot export to those formats Af-
After converting
ter converting thethe
LASLAS file
file intoananrcp
into rcpfile,
file,the
thecloud
cloudwas wasimported
importedinto intoAutodesk
AutodeskRevit.Revit.
Subsequently, the rotation and orientation were adjusted. Once this process process waswas finished,
finished,
the
the BIM
BIM modelling
modelling processprocess of of the
the dwelling (namely its
dwelling (namely its envelope) started, using
envelope) started, using thethe point
point
cloud
cloud asas aa reference.
reference.
As
As mentioned
mentioned in in Section
Section 2.1.5,
2.1.5, “spaces”
“spaces” andand “rooms”
“rooms” must must be be created
created in in Autodesk
Autodesk
Revit so that energy simulations can be conducted afterwards.
Revit so that energy simulations can be conducted afterwards. After creating the After creating the energy
energy
analytical
analytical model, the gbXML file was exported for further developments in the BEMBEM
model, the gbXML file was exported for further developments in the soft-
software
ware chosen chosen to proceed
to proceed withwith
thisthis research.
research. Figure
Figure 5 shows
5 shows the finalized
the finalized BIMBIM modelmodel of
of the
the dwelling under
dwelling under study. study.
Energies 2023, 16,
Energies 2023, 16, 1579
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1413of
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21
Figure 5. BIM model of the surveyed building. On the left, the south façade, and on the right, the
Figure 5. BIM model of the surveyed building. On the (left), the south façade, and on the (right), the
north façade.
north façade.
3.1.3.
3.1.3. BEM
BEM Model
Model and
and Energy
Energy Simulations
Simulations (BIM-to-BEM)
(BIM-to-BEM)
The energy simulation
simulationsoftware
softwareused
usedwas
wasDesignBuilder,
DesignBuilder, which
which is is capable
capable of of import-
importing
ing gbXML
gbXML files files
fromfrom Autodesk
Autodesk Revit Revit with
with the the building
building geometrygeometry and,
and, later, later, of
capable capable of
inserting
inserting the necessary
the necessary propertiesproperties for the simulation,
for the simulation, avoiding avoiding interoperability
interoperability issues this
issues between be-
tween
softwarethis[66,78].
softwareThe[66,78].
modelThe model into
imported imported into DesignBuilder
DesignBuilder can be seencan inbe seen 6inand
Figure Figure
the
6materials
and the used
materials used
in this caseinstudy
this case
and study and their properties
their respective respective were
properties were
inserted, inserted,
assembling
assembling
the various the various constructions
constructions of the model. of the model.
Figure 6. Geometry imported into DesignBuilder, in gbXML format.
3.2. Experimental
3.2. Experimental Results
Results
Figure 77 shows
Figure shows the
the air
air temperature
temperature (T)(T) evolution
evolution measured
measured inside
inside the
the seven
seven thermal
thermal
zones: living room, kitchen, room 1, room 2, room 3, bathroom 3, and social
zones: living room, kitchen, room 1, room 2, room 3, bathroom 3, and social zone. It is also zone. It is
also possible to compare the indoor conditions with the respective exterior
possible to compare the indoor conditions with the respective exterior temperature fluc- temperature
fluctuation.
tuation.
The monitoring
The monitoring results
resultsshowed
showedaaclear
clearalignment
alignmentbetween
between the different
the differentindoor
indoortemper-
tem-
ature conditions throughout the monitoring period. It is also possible to observe that, in
perature conditions throughout the monitoring period. It is also possible to observe that,
general, the temperatures inside the different rooms are very close, identifying, occasionally,
in general, the temperatures inside the different rooms are very close, identifying, occa-
moments when the temperature inside the living room is higher.
sionally, moments when the temperature inside the living room is higher.
The thermal comfort assessment was carried out based on the adaptive model pro-
The thermal comfort assessment was carried out based on the adaptive model pro-
posed by the EN 16798-2 [88] standard, which defines the operating temperature limits that
posed by the EN 16798-2 [88] standard, which defines the operating temperature limits
lead to thermal comfort as a function of the exponentially weighted average temperature
that lead to thermal comfort as a function of the exponentially weighted average temper-
of the outside air. In this context, it was considered that the air temperature is a good
ature of the outside air. In this context, it was considered that the air temperature is a good
approximation of the operating temperature since the air velocity is low and there are no
approximation of the operating temperature since the air velocity is low and there are no
relevant radiative effects. Figure 8 shows the representation of temperature records and
relevant radiative effects. Figure 8 shows the representation of temperature records and
comfort limits, separately for each thermal zone and considering that the building is in
comfort
categorylimits, separately
II (normal forexpectation).
level of each thermalIn zone and
order toconsidering
facilitate thethat the buildingofisthe
interpretation in
category II (normal level of expectation). In order to facilitate the interpretation
results presented in Figure 8, the percentage of time in discomfort was calculated in each of the re-
sults presented
thermal in Figure2.1%
zone, obtaining 8, theinpercentage
room 3, 2.1%of time inbathroom,
in the discomfort3.1%was incalculated in each
room 2, 3.1% in
thermal zone, obtaining 2.1% in room 3, 2.1%
room 1, 5.2% in the living room, and 6.3% in the kitchen.in the bathroom, 3.1% in room 2, 3.1% in
room 1, 5.2% in the living room, and 6.3% in the kitchen.
Energies 2023, 16, xEnergies
FOR PEER REVIEW
2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22 15
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 14 of 21
35 35
Exterior Kitchen
Exterior Kitchen
Living room Room 3 room
Living Room 3
16, x FORRoom
Energies 2023,30 PEER 2REVIEW30 Room 1 2
Room Room 1 15 of 22
Social zone Bathroom
Social 3zone Bathroom 3
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
25 25
35
Exterior Kitchen
Living room Room 3
20 20
30 Room 2 Room 1
Social zone Bathroom 3
Temperature (ºC)
15 25 15
10 20 10
15
5 5
10
0 0
5
Monitoring Date Monitoring Date

0
Figure
Figure7.7.Temperature
Figuremeasured
Temperature measured over
overdifferent
7. Temperature different
measured zones
over(hourly
zones (hourly values).
values).
different zones (hourly values).
Monitoring Date
38 38
Figure Room
7. Temperature
3 measured3 over different zones (hourly values).
Bathroom
Room Bathroom 3
34 Room 2 Room 1 2
Room Room 1
34
38 Living room Kitchen
Living room Kitchen
Air Temperature (ºC)
Room 3 Bathroom 3
30 34 Room 2 30 Room 1
Living room Kitchen
26 30 26
26
22 22
22
18 18
18
14 14
14
0 5 10 0 15 5 20 10 25 15 30 20 35 25 40 30 35 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Outdoor running
Outdoor runningmean
mean Temperature
Outdoor (ºC) Temperature (ºC)
running(ºmean
Temperature C)
Figure
FigureFigureAssessment
8.8.Assessment
Figureof8.
of
8. Assessment thermal
thermal
of comfort
thermalcomfort
Assessment through
through
of through
comfort thermal the
theadaptive
adaptive
comfort
the model
model
through
adaptive model ofof
ofthe
EN ENEN16798-2 (summer
16798-2
adaptive
16798-2 of ENseason).
(summer
model
(summer sea- sea- (summe
16798-2
son). son). son).
3.3. Numerical Results
As an example 3.3. Numerical Results
of the application
3.3. Numerical Results
3.3. Numerical Results of the methodology described above, the numerical
As an example
results obtained for the of temperature
the applicationprofiles
of the methodology
during thedescribed
winter andabove, the numerical
summer seasons, and a
As an example
results obtained of the
As
for the application
antemperature
example of the
ofprofiles
the methodology
application
during the of thedescribed
winter methodology
and summer above, theand
numerical
described
seasons, above, the num
comparison with the experimental results of the monitoring are presented. Figures 9 and 10
results obtained
a comparison for
results the
with the temperature
obtained for the
experimental profiles during
temperature
results the winter
profiles
of the monitoring and
areduring summer
theFigures
presented. winter seasons, and season
and summer
9 and
show a comparison of the temperature profiles obtained for different thermal zones, during
a comparison with
10 show a the experimental
comparison
a comparison of with theresults
the temperature of the monitoring
profiles
experimental obtained for aremonitoring
presented. Figures
different
results of the thermal zones, 9 and Figures
are presented.
the two seasons
during the twoanalysed.
seasons
10 show a comparison
10 show a analysed.
of the temperature
comparison of theprofiles obtained
temperature for different
profiles obtained thermal zones, thermal z
for different
35
during the twoduring
seasonsthe analysed.
two seasons
35
analysed.
(a) (b)
30 30
35 35 35 35
Temperature (ºC)
(ºC) (ºC)
(a) 25 (a) 25 (b) (b)

Temperature
30 30 30 30
20 20
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
25 15 25 25
15 25
Temperature
20 10 20 10
20 20
5 Monitoring 5 Monitoring
15 15 15 15
Room 3 Numerical results Bathroom 3 Numerical results
0 0
10 21/06/2022 1011/07/2022 31/07/2022 20/08/2022 09/09/2022 29/09/2022 10
21/06/2022 11/07/2022 10
31/07/2022 20/08/2022 09/09/2022 29/09/2022
Date Date Monitoring MonitoringMonitoring Monitoring
5 5 5 5
Room 3 Room 3 Numerical results Numerical results Bathroom 3 Bathroom 3 Numerical results Numerical results
0 0 Figure 9. Cont. 0 0
21/06/2022 11/07/202221/06/2022
31/07/202211/07/2022
20/08/202231/07/2022
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35 Numerical results 35 Kitchen Numerical results
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0 (e) 0 (f)
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Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
25 Date 25 Date
20 20
Figure 9. Comparison of the temperature profiles between the experimental monitoring and nu-
15 15
merical results, for different thermal zones (summer season): (a) Room3, (b) Bathroom 3, (c) Room
10 2, (d) Room 1, (e) Living room and (f) Kitchen.
10
Living room The results,
Numericalfor the summer season,
results show a good agreement between
Kitchen the experi-
Numerical results
0 0
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31/07/2022 (monitoring)
20/08/2022 09/09/2022 and numerical21/06/2022
29/09/2022 results, where
11/07/2022 the31/07/2022
absolute20/08/2022
error between
09/09/2022 the two tem-
29/09/2022
perature
Date profiles does not exceed 6.7%, on average, i.e., approximately Date 1.5 °C.
Finally, the results, for the winter season, presented in Figure 10, also show a good
Figure 9. Comparison
Figure
agreement betweenofthe
9. Comparison ofthe
thetemperature profiles
temperature profiles
experimental (monitoring) between
between the experimental
the experimental
and numerical
monitoringmonitoring
results, where
and nu- and numer-
the ab-
merical results,
ical results, for for different
different thermal
thermal zones(summer
zones (summer season):
season): (a)(a)
Room3, (b) Bathroom
Room3, (b) 3, (c) Room
Bathroom 3,
solute error between the two temperature
2, (d) Room 1, (e) Living room and (f) Kitchen.
profiles does not exceed 9.3%, on average, i.e.,(c) Room 2,
(d) Room 1, (e) Living
approximately 2 °C.room and (f) Kitchen.
The results, for the summer season, show a good agreement between the experi-
35 35
(a) mental (monitoring) and numerical results,
(b) where the absolute error between the two tem-
30 30
perature profiles does not exceed 6.7%, on average, i.e., approximately 1.5 °C.
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
25 Finally, the results, for the winter

25 season, presented in Figure 10, also show a good
20 agreement between the experimental 20 (monitoring) and numerical results, where the ab-
15 solute error between the two temperature

15 profiles does not exceed 9.3%, on average, i.e.,
10
approximately 2 °C. 10
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Numerical results 17 of 22
Room
(a) 3 Bathroom 3
(b)
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(ºC)
(ºC)
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Temperature
Temperature
35 35
20 20
(c) (d)
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15 15
(ºC)
(ºC)
25 25
10 10
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5 5
Room 3 Numerical results Bathroom 3 Numerical results
15 15
0 0
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10 10/01/2022 30/01/2022 19/02/2022 11/03/2022 31/03/2022
Date Date
Room 2 Numerical results Room 1 Numerical results
0 0
21/12/2021 10/01/2022 30/01/2022 19/02/2022 11/03/2022 31/03/2022 21/12/2021 10/01/2022 30/01/2022 19/02/2022 11/03/2022 31/03/2022
Date Date
35 35
(e) (f)
30 30
Temperature (ºC)
Temperature (ºC)
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
Living room Numerical results Kitchen Numerical results
0 0
21/12/2021 10/01/2022 30/01/2022 19/02/2022 11/03/2022 31/03/2022 21/12/2021 10/01/2022 30/01/2022 19/02/2022 11/03/2022 31/03/2022
Date Date
Figure
Figure 10. Comparisonof
10. Comparison of the
the temperature
temperature profiles between
profiles the experimental
between monitoring
the experimental and nu-
monitoring and nu-
merical results, for different thermal zones (winter season): (a) Room3, (b) Bathroom 3, (c) Room 2,
merical results, for different thermal zones (winter season): (a) Room3, (b) Bathroom 3, (c) Room 2,
(d) Room 1, (e) Living room and (f) Kitchen.
(d) Room 1, (e) Living room and (f) Kitchen.
3.4. Discussion
This work demonstrates the usefulness of existing drone-based hardware and soft-
ware solutions to digitize the built environment geometry for BIM-to-BEM purposes
through aerial photogrammetry. These solutions are particularly convenient as they sup-
port highly automatable workflows. They are often more agile and easier to use than al-
ternative solutions, such as laser scanners [21].
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 16 of 21
The results, for the summer season, show a good agreement between the experimental
(monitoring) and numerical results, where the absolute error between the two temperature
profiles does not exceed 6.7%, on average, i.e., approximately 1.5 ◦ C.
Finally, the results, for the winter season, presented in Figure 10, also show a good
agreement between the experimental (monitoring) and numerical results, where the ab-
solute error between the two temperature profiles does not exceed 9.3%, on average,
i.e., approximately 2 ◦ C.
3.4. Discussion
This work demonstrates the usefulness of existing drone-based hardware and software
solutions to digitize the built environment geometry for BIM-to-BEM purposes through
aerial photogrammetry. These solutions are particularly convenient as they support highly
automatable workflows. They are often more agile and easier to use than alternative
solutions, such as laser scanners [21].
In the proposed workflow, the model geometry for the BEM simulations is acquired
during the survey to recreate the as-is building in a BIM environment, which is then
exported to the energy simulation software. While some simulation properties can be
manually entered and changed directly in the BEM software, the building’s geometrical
properties are obtained directly from the BIM model [66,74]. Hence, the importance of
the survey.
However, since the UAS is only used to acquire the external geometry of the building,
further adjustments must be performed to the digital models after the survey is performed.
As described in 2.2.1, the building under study has sensors in different locations. The
thermal zone created in the BIM model can be divided into the BEM software according to
the sensor locations. These new thermal zones represent an approximation of the rooms for
further analysis.
The numerical results of the building energy simulation showed a good agreement
between the monitoring results of the experimental campaign, and the numerical simulation
for the winter and summer seasons. These numerical results validate the use of the BEM
model for building energy simulations where different scenarios can be explored, in order
to improve energy efficiency, avoiding time-consuming and expensive work.
4. Conclusions
The use of drones in the construction sector has been growing, bringing with it
several useful advantages. Although drone adoption in this sector is already widespread
worldwide, in Portugal its incorporation is still far behind. As such, this article aims to
highlight the usefulness of adopting these aircraft for the optimization of solutions, from
the energy point of view, of a dwelling in the national territory.
The method used in this paper follows a continuous UAS-to-BIM and BIM-to-BEM
workflow, starting at the aerial photogrammetric survey of the building under study, and
ending with the simulations in a BEM authoring software, in this case, DesignBuilder. Prior
to these simulations, one must first create a BIM model based on the point cloud created
using SfM software through photogrammetry, as this model will then be exported to the
BEM application. Agisoft Metashape and Autodesk Revit were the selected SfM and BIM
software for this case study, respectively.
After exporting the model as a gbXML file format from Autodesk Revit to Design-
Builder, the various simulation parameters were entered, referring to the materials used,
as well as the occupation and use times of the relevant equipment for the thermal study.
Seven sensors were also placed inside the different rooms of the building and a sensor was
placed outside to measure temperature and relative humidity.
The comparative analysis between the monitoring results and the numerical simulation
for the winter and summer season show a good agreement.
In summary, this work analyses and discusses the BIM model which facilitates the
definition of the geometric and parametric model to be used in the BEM, and validates the
Energies 2023, 16, 1579 17 of 21
use of the BEM model for energy simulations where different scenarios can be explored,
avoiding time-consuming and expensive work.
As scan-to-BIM solutions based on the combined use of reality capture solutions con-
tinue to improve, it is expected that this methodology can be further automated. Solutions
based on laser scanning have been developed and tested in earlier initiatives developed
by this research team [89,90]. These tools will be applied to point clouds generated from
photogrammetric surveys in the future.
Author Contributions: All the authors contributed to the development, analysis, writing, and revi-
sion of the paper: conceptualisation, J.P.M., D.F.R.P. and L.R.; methodology, J.M.P.Q.D., A.G.B.L. and
A.S.G.; formal analysis, J.M.P.Q.D., J.P.M., D.F.R.P. and S.S.F.; investigation, J.P.M., D.F.R.P., J.M.P.Q.D.
and L.R.; writing—original draft preparation, J.P.M., D.F.R.P. and J.M.P.Q.D.; writing—review and
editing, J.P.M., D.F.R.P., A.G.B.L., A.S.G. and J.M.P.Q.D.; visualisation S.S.F., A.S.G. and J.M.P.Q.D.;
supervision, J.P.M., A.S.G. and J.M.P.Q.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is a result of the project “BlueWoodenHouse”, with the reference POCI-01-
0247-FEDER-047157, in partnership with the project “REV@CONSTRUCTION”, with the reference
POCI-01-0247-FEDER-046123, both co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)
through the Operational Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalization (COMPETE 2020),
under the Portugal 2020 Partnership Agreement. In addition, this work was financially supported by
LA/P/0045/2020 (ALiCE), Base Funding-UIDB/04708/2020 and UIDB/00511/2020, Programmatic
Funding-UIDP/04708/2020 (CONSTRUCT) and UIDP/00511/2020 (LEPABE), funded by national
funds through the FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC); and by FCT–Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
through the individual Scientific Employment Stimulus 2020.00828.CEECIND.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available upon
request from the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1.2. Related Research

Gorzalka et al. [29] present an approach to automatically generate a BEM model of

1.3. Research Significance

2. Materials and Methods

2.1.1. Reconnaissance and Preparation

Assessment of Site Conditions—Obstacles and Weather Conditions

2.1.2. Image Collection Using Drones

Georeferencing Support Methods

of a window) can be a valid replacement to improve the quality of the photogrammetric

2.1.3. Processing and Analysis of the Collected Images

Photogrammetric Model (Point Cloud and 3D Mesh Model)

Point Cloud Cleaning

2.1.4. Integration and Modelling in BIM Environment

Import to a BIM Authoring Software

2.1.5. Energy Simulations on BEM Software

From BIM to BEM—Data Transfer Formats

From BIM to BEM—Energy Simulations and Software

Living room Room 2

Social zone Room 1

Table 1. Materials used in opaque elements and their properties.

Material Thickness [m] λ [W/m·K] ρ [kg/m3 ] Cp [J/kg·K]

An occupancy schedule based on an approximation of the user habits was considered,

Table 2. Occupancy, and AC parameters for DesignBuilder simulations.

Heating Heating Cooling Cooling

3. Results and Discussion

3.1.2. 3D Reconstruction and BIM Model (UAS-to-BIM)

Figure 6. Geometry imported into DesignBuilder, in gbXML format.

Monitoring Date Monitoring Date

Air Temperature (ºC)

(a) 25 (a) 25 (b) (b)

205 Monitoring 205 Monitoring

25 Finally, the results, for the winter

15 solute error between the two temperature

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