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 MODEL TEXTBOOK OF

Based on National Curriculum of Pakistan 2022-23

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9

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Cantab Publisher
Lahore, Pakistan
 Cantab Publisher Lahore, Pakistan
All rights reserved. This volume may not be reproduced in whole
or in part in any form (abridged, photocopy, electronic, etc.)
without prior written permission from Cantab Publisher.

A Textbook of Chemistry
for Grade 9

Authors
Shahbaz Ali & Imran haider

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Maleeha Yasmin

Editorial Board
Prof. Dr. Shazia Naeem
Prof. Dr. Naeem Khalid

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Supervision
Dr. Mariam Chughtai
Director, National Curriculum Council
Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training, Islamabad

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Reviewed by Internal Review Committee
· Afifa Naeem · Nighat Shaheen
· Rubina Kousar · Dr. Sira Irshad
· Iffat Tanveer · Muhammad Naseer
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· Saima Noor · Sufia Noreen
· Imrana Akhtar · SH. Zafar Haya
· Shela Naz · Uzma Kanwal
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Reviewed by National Review Committee
· Saima Noor · Iffat Tanveer
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· Mohammad Qadeer · Ghulam Rabbani

· Atta Dastageer · Wahid Ali
· Dr. Gul Nazir Khan · Majida Parveen
Desk Officer (NCC)
Shazia Abbasi
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Management
Prof. Dr. Shazia Naeem
CEO Cantab Publisher
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First Edition - First Impression

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Note:All the pictures, paintings and sketches used in this book are only for educational and promotional purpose in public interest.
For Information about other publications of Cantab Publisher, Visit our Web site:
www.cantabpublisher.com or E-mail: info@cantabpublisher.com
To share feedback or correction, please send us an email to info@cantabpublisher.com and textbooks@snc.gov.pk
 Preface
learning experience. It features high-quality pictorial representations, real-life applications, and experimental skills.
The book includes high-order thinking exercises, skill sheets for testing understanding, group activities, and
recorded video lectures with animations and simulations. It is structured to aid teachers in creating assessment
questions based on Bloom's Taxonomy. At the end of the book, a comprehensive glossary provides quick term
references. This educational tool aim s to enrich students' knowledge and appreciation of Chemistry. Thiss Grade 9

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Chemistry textbook, aligned with the 2023 curriculum, is designed to enhance students’

What inside this QR Cord

The QR codes in the Chemistry textbook Model video lecture of relevant knowledge along with
provide easy access to video lectures for ppts simulations and 3D animations
gaining knowledge and skill sheets for

practical application. They make learning
more interactive, letting students watch
lectures and practice skills right when they
need them, making studying chemistry more
engaging and effective.
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Updated research related to knowledge
Work sheets plus Skill sheets
Slo based question bank
Answers to all numerical and self-test questions are

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accessible through the relevant QR code.
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X, J

X, J Real life examples in a Grade 9

chemistry book help us see how chemistry
Diagrams in a chemistry textbook create strong
applies to the world around us. They
mental images that stick with students,
make learning more interesting and
making it easier to remember and understand
show us how important chemistry is in
complex information quickly. These visuals
our daily lives.
serve as powerful memory aids, reinforcing
x
concepts in a way that stays in students' mind
for a long time.
x
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Test yourself
Identify the branch of chemistry
that is related to the following
information:
Starch synthesis in plants illustrates the
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anabolic reactions in organic chemistry.

The Bronsted-Lowry theory provides
a framework for acid-base reactions in
analytical chemistry.
Iron oxidation exemplifies redox
reactions studied in inorganic
chemistry.
Reaction rates are explained by
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X,
The periodic table
The periodic table is a chart of all the chemical
elements known to science. They are arranged
in order of their atomic number the number of
protons in their atoms.
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METALS
Most elements are metals. Generally, they share
similar properties they are strong, have a shiny
appearance, conduct heat and electricity, and can
be shaped without breaking.
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METALLOIDS NONMETALS
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Metalloids, which we also call semimetals, have properties of Most nonmetals are solid and share similar properties—they are dull, conduct heat
both metals and nonmetals. Some metalloids partially conduct and electricity poorly, and are brittle when solid. Some of them are very reactive,
electricity, and are used in calculators and computers have a such as fluorine (F) and oxygen (O). Eleven of the nonmetals are gases. The gases in
shiny appearance, conduct heat and electricity, and can be the group that starts with helium (He) are the least reactive of all the elements. and
shaped without breaking. nonmetals. Some metalloids partially conduct electricity, and are used in
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calculators and computers have a shiny appearance, conduct heat and electricity,
and can be haped without breaking.
 CONTENT

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 5
Nature of Science 1 Stoichiometry 96
1.1 Science, technology and 3 5.1 Chemical Formula Fundamentals 98

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engineering 5.2 Quantitative Chemistry 104
1.2 Chemistry and its domains 4 5.3 Crafting Chemical Equations 109
1.3 How science work? 9 Exercise 115
Exercise 13

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CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 6
Matter 17 Oxidation and Reduction 117
2.1 Matter and its states 19 6.1 Understanding Redox Reactions 119
2.2 Exotic states of matter 21 6.2 Oxidizing and reducing agents 123

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2.3 Allotropic forms of carbon 24 in the Lab
2.4 Types of matter based on their 26 6.3 Corrosion Prevention Techniques 124
composition Exercise 127
Exercise
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CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 7
Atomic Structure 38 Thermochemistry 131
3.1 Exploring the basic structure of an 41 7.1 Energy Exchange in Chemical 133
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atom and their sub atomic particles reactions

3.2 Exploring atomic models of an atom 47 7.2 Enthalpy Change and Activation 136
3.3 Atomic number and mass number 53 Energy in Chemical Reactions
3.4 Isotopes and atomic mass 57 7.3 The Chemistry of Respiration and 142
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3.5 Ionic formation and symbolism 61 Lipid Storage

3.6 Radioactivity and atomic identity 63 Exercise 144
Exercise 69
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CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 8
Chemical Bonding 72 Chemical Equalibrium 148
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4.1 Fundamentals of Ion Formation 75 8.1 Reversible Reaction and Dynamic 150
4.2 Understanding Ionic Bonds 78 Equilibrium
4.3 Exploring Covalent Coordinate 81 8.2 The Role of Physical Condition in 153
Covalent bond Reversible Reaction
4.4 Metallic bond 88 Exercise 159
4.5 Comparative Analysis of Ionic 89
and Covalent Bonds in Materials
Exercise 92
CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 14
Acid and Base 162 Basic of Organic Chemistry 272
9.1 Bronsted-Lowry concepts 164 14.1 Understanding Organic Molecules 275
9.2 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs 166 14.2 Distinguishing Between Saturated 281
OR Acids in aqueous solution and Unsaturated Compounds
9.3 Strength of acids and base 169 14.3 Functional Groups and 282
9.4 The Behavior of Bases 175 Homologous Series
9.5 The Chemistry of Acids 178 14.4 Interpreting General Formulae 284
14.5 Structural Isomers 286

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Exercise 182
14.6 Understanding Alkanes 288
14.7 Preparation of Alkanes 293
CHAPTER 10
14.8 Properties of Alkanes 295
Periodic Classification of Elements 185 Exercise 298
10.1 Periodic Table 187

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10.2 Configuration & Identification 190
10.3 Group Numbers & Ion Charges 193 CHAPTER 15
10.4 Periodic Trends Prediction 195
Biochemistry 300
10.5 Group Chemical Properties 202
15.1 Foundations of Nutrition 302

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10.6 Key Periodic Table Groups 205
15.2 The Role of Biomolecules in 303
10.7 Predicting Elemental Properties 207
HumanNutrition
Exercise 209
Exercise 310
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CHAPTER 11
Atomic Structure 211 CHAPTER 16
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11.1 Exploring Alkali Metals 213 Data Handling 314
11.2 Exploring Group VII Halogens 216 16.1 Unit Standardization in Chemistry 317
11.3 Analyzing Hydrogen Halides 221 16.2 Managing Accuracy in Chemical 319
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11.4 Exploring Transition Elements 223 Experiments:

11.5 Noble Gases & Metal vs 225 16.3 The Essentials of Scientific 325
Non-Metal Traits Notation
Exercise 228 Exercise 328
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CHAPTER 12
Environmental Chemistry 231 CHAPTER 17
12.1 Air Composition, Pollution 234 Chemical Analysis 330
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Sources, and Health Impacts 245 17.1 Key terms in Chemical Solutions 332
12.2 Mechanisms of Global Warming 17.2 Methods of Separation and 334
12.3 Green Strategies 249
Purification
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Exercise 253 17.3 Assessing Purity 341

17.4 Identifying Gases 343
CHAPTER 13 17.5 Understanding the Flame Test
Exercise
347
349
Water 254
13.1 Water Testing and Analysis 256
in Chemistry Glossary 351
259
13.2 Water Quality Management
13.3 Water Management in Pakistan 265
Exercise 270
 CHAPTER

1 Nature of Science

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The development of COVID-19 vaccines showcases
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the power of science and technology, as researchers
used cutting-edge techniques like mRNA to rapidly
create effective vaccines. This achievement
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underscores the importance of scientific research and

vaccines in combating public health emergencies and
infectious diseases.
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Curious why bouncy balls bounce or flames dance? Wonder how food fuels
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you? Chemistry, the science of matter and change, holds the answers! This
chapter is your first step into this exciting world. Imagine exploring tiny
atoms, shaping medicines, and designing cleaner energy! Through
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different branches of chemistry, you will unlock the secrets of our universe,
one intriguing molecule at a time. Are you ready? Let us begin!

1 Nature of Science
 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Differentiate between 'science', 'technology' and 'engineering' by making reference to examples from the physical
sciences.
Define chemistry as the study of matter, its properties, composition, and interactions with other matter and energy.
Explain with examples that chemistry has many sub-fields and interdisciplinary fields. (Some examples include:
Biochemistry, Medicinal Chemistry, Polymer Chemistry, Geochemistry, Environmental chemistry, Analytical
chemistry, Physical chemistry, Organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry, Astrochemistry.
Formulate examples of essential questions that are important for the branches of Chemistry(e.g. for Analytical

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Chemistry a question would be 'how can we accurately determine the chemical composition of a sample?’)
Explain the scientific method to solve the scientific problems.

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.

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After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge Skills
Knowledge 1.1: Science, Technology and Skill 1.1:

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Engineering
Differentiate between 'science', 'technology' and
'engineering' highlighting their specific role in
science.
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Knowledge 1.2: Chemistry and its domains
Define chemistry as a field to explores matter's
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properties and interactions across disciplines like
biochemistry and environmental chemistry,
addressing crucial questions from drug design to
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Demonstrate the ability to differentiate between
science, technology, and engineering by providing
examples from the physical sciences
Skill 1.2:
Evaluate the significance of each sub-field of
chemistry by formulating essential questions that
highlight key inquiries within each branch.
Skill 1.3:
Apply the scientific method to hypothetical

pollution control, embodying the essence of

scientific inquiry from molecular to global scales.
Knowledge 1.3: How science work?
Explain the scientific method as a systematic
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scenarios or real-world problems in chemistry,
demonstrating proficiency in designing
experiments, analyzing data, and drawing
evidence-based conclusions.

approach to solving scientific problems, involving

steps such as observation, hypothesis formulation,
experimentation, data analysis, and conclusion
drawing.
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Nature of Science 2

Student Learning Outcomes
Differentiate between science,
technology and engineering by making
reference to examples from the physical
sciences.
Update Yourself
Activities in ‘Science’
Develops theories, conducts
experiments, collects data, analyzes
results, and communicates findings
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Update Yourself
Activities in ‘Technology’
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Designs, develops, tests, and implements
tools, devices, and processes
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Update Yourself
Activities in ‘Engineering’
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Designs, analyzes, builds, tests, and
maintains systems and structures
Think of it this way
Imagine discovering a new star
(science). Then, designing a telescope to
study it further (technology). Finally,
building the telescope and using it for
observation (engineering).
3 Nature of Science
1.1 Knowledge
Science, Technology and Engineering
The world of knowledge is very vast where science, technology, and
engineering co-exist within these shared boundaries. Let us explore
their unique approaches.
Science-The explorer
Science is the systematic study of the natural world through
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observation, experimentation, and the formulation of theories to
understand and explain natural phenomena.
For example, Galileo Galilei did not simply build a telescope
(technology); he used it to observe celestial bodies, leading to
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groundbreaking discoveries about planetary motion (science). Other
examples include:
Observing the stars to understand the formation of galaxies
(Astronomy).
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Experimenting with chemicals to explain how they react
(Chemistry).
Analyzing light waves to discover their properties (Physics).
Technology- The Inventor
While science unveils the "how" and "why", technology embodies
the "what can be". It is the application of scientific knowledge to
create practical solutions and innovations. Skilled engineers
transform scientific knowledge into tangible tools and applications.
They design, develop, and test these innovations, constantly refining
them to improve our lives.
For example, based on the understanding of electromagnetism
(science), engineers developed MRI machines, revolutionizing
medical imaging technology. Other examples include:
Building telescopes to study distant galaxies based on
astronomical knowledge.
Developing new medicines based on our understanding of
chemical reactions.
Creating lasers based on the science of light behavior.
Engineering-The Problem-Solver
Engineering is the application of scientific and technological
knowledge and mathematical principles to design and build systems,
structures, devices, and processes that address specific problems or
meet desired objectives.
For Example:
Designing a spacecraft to reach Mars based on astronomical and
physical principles.
 Building bridges using scientific understanding of materials and Conclusion
forces. Science informs technology.
Developing solar panels to harness energy based on principles Technology empowers science.
of light and electricity. Engineering relies on both.
Table 1.1 Key Differences between science, technology
and engineering Skill:1.1
Aspect Science Technology Engineering Differentiation between Science,
Technology and Engineering

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Focus Science is about Technology is Engineering is Objective: to help students make
understanding. about application. about problem- informed decisions about their education
solving. and clarify their objectives.
Instructions: An activity-based
Process Science uses Technology uses Engineering uses worksheet is attached to the QR code

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observation and design and analysis and provided at the beginning of this
experimentation. development. building. knowledge section. Scan the code, read
the worksheet, and complete it.
Output Science generates Technology Engineering
knowledge. creates tools. builds solutions.

1.2 Knowledge
Chemistry and its Domains
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Scientific knowledge is incredibly diverse. In order to grasp,
organize, and effectively advance innovation, scientific knowledge is
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divided into many branches such as biology, physics, and chemistry,
each dealing with a unique aspect of the natural world.
Chemistry is all about the matter that makes up everything around
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you from your clothes and phone to the air you breathe and the food
you eat. It is the science that explores what this matter is made of Student Learning Outcomes
(atoms and molecules), how it changes (chemical reactions), and Define chemistry as the study of
why it behaves in the way it does (properties). matter, its properties, composition,
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and interactions with other matter

The chemists (persons who study chemistry) use experiments and and energy.
observations to solve mysteries like: Explain with examples that
What happens when baking soda mixes with vinegar? (Hint: it is chemistry has many sub-fields and
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not just fizzy fun!) interdisciplinary fields.

Why does iron rust? (And, how can we prevent it?)
How do plants capture sunlight to make food? (It is all about a
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cool process called photosynthesis!)

However, chemistry is not just about solving mysteries; it is also
about creating amazing things! We use our knowledge of chemistry
to develop:
Life-saving medicines that fight diseases
Sustainable energy sources like solar panels
New materials with incredible properties, like super-strong
plastics or self-cleaning fabrics
Nature of Science 4
At its core, chemistry involves the exploration of matter and its transformations. It is defined as a field of science
that is dedicated to studying matter and its properties, composition, and behaviour when interacting with other
substances and energy.
Branches of Chemistry
Chemistry acts like the glue, connecting different areas like biology, physics, and even geology! This is called its
interdisciplinary nature. It means we can use chemistry like a bridge to understand things:
Why plants turn sunlight into food (with biology!)

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How atoms stick together to make different materials (with physics!)
What makes rocks and minerals unique (with geology!)
However, with so much to learn, chemistry has different branches, like branches of a tree! These branches, like
organic chemistry or inorganic chemistry, help us focus on specific areas and tackle complex problems better.

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CHEMISTRY
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Fig. 1.1 Diverse world of chemistry through its specialised branches

5 Nature of Science
1. Physical chemistry
Physical chemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that deals
with the relationship between the composition and physical
properties of matter along with the changes in them. The properties
such as structure of atoms or formation of molecules behavior of
gases, liquids and solids and the study of the effect of temperature or
radiation on matter are studied under this branch.
Some of the key areas of study in physical chemistry include

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thermodynamics, which is the study of energy and its transformations,
quantum chemistry which is the application of quantum mechanics to
understand the behavior of electrons in atoms and molecules, In what field of chemistry is the process of
melting discussed? Which is depicted in fig.
chemical reactions, and statistical mechanics which involves the use
of statistics to explain the behavior of a collection of particles.

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2. Inorganic chemistry
Inorganic chemistry deals with the study of all elements and their

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compounds except those of compounds of carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbons) and their derivatives. It has applications in every
aspect of the chemical industry such as glass, cement, ceramics and
metallurgy (extraction of metals from ores).
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Fig. 1.2 A Spectrum of Inorganic
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3. Organic chemistry Compounds
Organic chemistry is a field of study that focuses on covalent
compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen, known as
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hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.

Key concepts within this branch include the study of hydrocarbons,
functional groups, and the diverse molecules that form the basis of
life. Real-world applications are widespread, encompassing
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pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, polymers, and the materials

essential to life, making organic chemistry foundational to fields like
medicine and materials science.
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H H H H H H H
In this figure, gasoline is shown along with
H C C C C C C C H its chemical formula. Can you explain why
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gasoline is an organic compound and how it

H H H H H H H is used as fuel in automobiles?
n heptane
4. Polymer chemistry: Building Blocks of Materials Science
Polymer chemistry is a field of study that deals with polymers,
which are large molecules made up of small repeating units called
monomers. The process of linking monomers together to form a
molecule of high molecular mass is called polymerization.

Nature of Science 6
 Update Yourself
Polymers are sometimes called
macromolecules. Can you tell the
reason?
close-up view of a
polymer molecule
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Fig. 1.3 Polythene bag is made up of polymer called polyethen. It is made up of repeatedly joined ethene molecule.
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In the picture above, there appears to be a
connection between living organisms,
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specifically plants, and some chemicals. Can
you predict which subfield of chemistry this
interaction might fall under?
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Could you make any predictions based on the
pictures above regarding the actions
performed by the pharmacists?
7 Nature of Science
There are many different types of polymer (plastics), including
polythene, PVC, perspex, teflon and polystyrene. Polymers contain
very large molecules, often with hundreds or thousands of atoms.
Within each molecule, the atoms are joined to each other by covalent
bonds. As shown in Figure 1.3.
H H H H H H H H
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C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
long polymer molecule
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5. Biochemistry
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Biochemistry is the branch of science that combines both biology
and chemistry to understand and analyze life processes. It focuses
on the chemical substances and reactions that occur within living
organisms.
It involves the synthesis and metabolism of biomolecules such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. This field emerged as a separate
discipline when scientists began investigating how living things
obtain energy from food and how fundamental biological changes
occur during a disease. Biochemistry has a wide range of
applications in various fields like medicine, food science and
agriculture.
6. Medicinal chemistry: The Art of Drug Design
Medicinal chemistry is a field where chemists design and build
molecules that act as medicines.
They modify existing molecules or create new ones to fight
diseases, improve health, and prevent illnesses.
By understanding the weak spots of viruses, like the one that caused
COVID-19, medicinal chemists design molecules that can disable
the virus, protecting our cells. Vaccines are developed this way.
Medicinal chemistry also help create medicines for other conditions
like pain relief, diabetes control, and cancer treatment.
7. Analytical chemistry
Analytical chemistry is a branch of science that deals with the
study of the composition of matter.
It primarily focuses on identifying, separating, and quantifying
chemicals present in various samples of matter. To achieve this, an
analytical chemist may use complex instruments to analyze an
unknown material and determine its various components.
Analytical chemistry plays a vital role in various fields such as

science, engineering, medicine, and industry. It helps to solve both
qualitative and quantitative problems by providing accurate and
reliable results.
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Have you recently undergone a medical check-
up, during which your doctor recommended a
blood test?
Do you to know which branch of chemistry is
responsible for dealing with such matters?

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8. Environmental xhemistry
Environmental chemistry studies the chemical and biochemical
processes in the natural environment like air, water, and soil.
It's a multi disciplinary field that combines several environmental

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sciences such as geology, biology, ecology, and physics. The goal is
to understand the sources, reactions, transport, effects, and fates of
chemical species in the environment, including pollutants and
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contaminants. Its ultimate goal is to develop strategies to prevent or
mitigate the negative impact of human activities on the environment
while preserving the natural balance of ecosystems.
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Can you guess which sub field of chemistry we
9. Geochemistry: Solving earth chemical mysteries will discuss major factory issues and how we
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can control factory smoke from entering the air?

Geochemistry is a scientific discipline that focuses on the chemical
composition of the Earth, including its rocks and beyond our
minerals. It also extends planet to encompass the entire Solar
System.
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The field uses the principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms

behind major geological systems, such as mantle convection and
planet formation. Additionally, geochemistry includes the study of
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the relative abundance, distribution, and migration of the Earth's

chemical elements and their isotopes. It is an integrated field that
combines both chemistry and geology.
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Have you ever wondered what kind of

10. Nuclear chemistry discoveries metallurgical engineer can make
during a geological survey?
Nuclear Chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with
radioactivity, nuclear processes, and properties.
The primary focus of this field is on atomic energy and its
applications in everyday life. It involves the study of chemical effects
that occur due to radiation absorption in living organisms, plants,
and other materials. Nuclear Chemistry has vast applications in

Nature of Science 8
 various fields such as medical treatment (radiotherapy), food
preservation, and generation of electrical power through nuclear
reactors, among others.
11. Astrochemistry
Astrochemistry is a branch of science that deals with the study of
molecules in space and their reactions. Astro chemists examine the
composition of celestial objects (heavenly bodies).
Such as nebulae, which are massive clouds of gas and dust in space.

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The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP) They use advanced tools like telescopes and spectrometers to analyze
has a power generating capacity of 1.1GW.
The K-3 nuclear unit was built with an
the light emitted or absorbed by these objects. By doing so, they can
investment of $2.7bn and is expected to help determine which elements and compounds are present in the nebula.
alleviate Pakistan's ongoing energy crisis. Can
you predict which field of chemistry will be

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discussed in relation to this project?

Test yourself

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Identify the branch of chemistry
that is related to the following
information:
Starch synthesis in plants illustrates
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the anabolic reactions?
The Bronsted-Lowry theory provides
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a framework for acid-base reactions?
Fig. 1.4 "The Helix Nebula is a big cloud of gas and dust in space found
Iron oxidation exemplifies redox
in the Aquarius constellation. It's glowing and made up of different kinds
reactions studied? of gas, dust, and hydrogen, and elements picture credit from NASA.”
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Reaction rates are explained by

collision theory? Skill:1.2
The molecular structure of DNA is a Formulation of questions for branches of chemistry
key study area? Objective: to help identify key problems or challenges within a particular
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The study of intermolecular forces is area of chemistry.

essential in understanding states of Instructions: An activity-based worksheet is attached to the QR code
matter? provided at the beginning of this knowledge section. Scan the code, read
the worksheet, and complete it.
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1.3 Knowledge
How science work?
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In science, it is essential to recognize that the journey of scientific

discovery is a structured process. Think back to when you were a
child, exploring your surroundings using your senses, touching and
tasting things to understand them better. As you have grown, so has
Student Learning Outcomes your curiosity, leading you to ask questions that are more complex
Explain the scientific method to solve the about the world, such as why is the sky blue, where do rainbows come
scientific problems. from, or how does lightning form? These childhood wonders are like
the stepping-stones that have paved the way for the scientific method,
9 Nature of Science
a systematic approach scientists use to unravel the secrets of the natural world.
In the field of chemistry, the scientific method is a structured process involving several key steps that guide you in
exploring and understanding chemical phenomena. These steps are observation, hypothesis, experimentation,
and drawing conclusions.

Observation: Ask a question

Does adding baking soda to vinegar actually make Make observation
it clean faster?

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Hypothesis: Propose solution
From a hypothesis
Maybe baking soda fizzes because it reacts with
vinegar, creating tiny bubbles that lift dirt away.

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Modify hypothesis and experiment
Experimentation: Test hypothesis
Mixing different amounts of baking soda and Design experiment
vinegar in separate containers. Keep everything

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else the same so you can be sure the baking soda is
the only ‘suspect’. Measure the time of reaction.

Draw conclusions: Analyse and conclude Draw conclusion

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Analyse your data (cleaning times) carefully. Do the
results support your hypothesis? If not, make Does conclusion support
hypothesis
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changes accordingly in hypothesis and
experimentation.
Yes No
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The steps in the picture are similar to the scientific

Make Law method, which comprises all the vital components in
the correct order. However, it's worth noting that
Theory science can be a bit haphazard! It involves
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(Explains law) questioning, revising ideas, and making modifications

based on new discoveries.

1. Observation
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Observation is the starting point. Remember those moments when you observed the colour of the sky changing or
noticed the different flavors when you tasted various things? In chemistry, observations involve keenly
examining the properties of substances, noting changes during reactions, and using specialized tools to gather
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data. These observations become the foundation for your scientific exploration.
2. Hypothesis
Based on your observations, what do you think will happen? This guess, called a hypothesis, is your starting
point. Maybe baking soda fizzes because it reacts with vinegar, creating tiny bubbles that lift dirt away. In
chemistry, a hypothesis is a potential explanation for an observation. It is way of proposing a solution based on
existing knowledge. For instance, if you are curious about what makes some materials magnetic, your hypothesis
might suggest a connection between certain elements and magnetic properties.

Nature of Science 10
 Challange
Identify each of the following as an
observation, a hypothesis, an
experiment, or a conclusion:
During an assessment in the
emergency room, a nurse writes that
the patient has a resting pulse of 30
beats/min.
Repeated studies show that lowering
sodium in the diet leads to a decrease
in blood pressure.
A nurse thinks that an incision from
a recent surgery that is red and
swollen is infected.
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Nurses make observations in the hospital.
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Test yourself
Identify each of the following as an
observation, a hypothesis, an
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experiment, or a conclusion:
Drinking coffee at night keeps me
awake.
I will try drinking coffee only in the
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morning.
If I stop drinking coffee in the
afternoon, I will be able to sleep at
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night.
When I drink decaffeinated coffee, I
sleep better at night.
I am going to drink only
decaffeinated coffee.
I sleep better at night because I
stopped drinking caffeinated drinks.
11 Nature of Science
3. Experimentation
Next is putting your hypothesis to the test i.e. experimentation. Just
like you might have experimented by mixing different ingredients in
the kitchen as a child, in chemistry, experiments involve combining
substances, measuring reactions, and carefully recording results.
This hands-on approach allows you to explore the behaviour of
matter in a controlled setting.
4. Analysing and Drawing conclusions
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After conducting experiments and collecting data, you analyze the
results to see if they support or challenge your hypothesis. If
experimental results indicate that the hypothesis is not valid, it is
modified or replaced.
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In essence, the scientific method is your guide in the world of
chemistry, leading you to explore, question, experiment, and draw
meaningful conclusions. As you delve into this exciting journey,
keep in mind that each step brings you closer to unlocking the secrets
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of the substances that make up our universe. Get ready to be a young
scientist, ready to tackle the mysteries that lie ahead! Your
conclusions contribute not oly to your knowledge but also to the
broader scientific community.
Further Reading Using the Scientific Method in
Everyday Life
Did you know that you use the scientific method in your everyday
life? Let's say you visit a friend's home and notice that your eyes start
to itch and you begin to sneeze. On observing your friend's new cat,
you may form the hypothesis that you are allergic to cats. To test your
hypothesis, you leave your friend's home. If your sneezing stops, your
hypothesis may be correct. You can test your hypothesis further by
visiting another friend who also has a cat. If you start to sneeze again,
then your experimental results support your hypothesis and you can
conclude that you are allergic to cats. However, if you continue to
sneeze even after leaving your friend's home, then your hypothesis is
not supported. In that case, you need to come up with a new
hypothesis, which could be that you have a cold.
 Project 1
Materials
Different types of paper towels (e.g., standard, recycled, premium), Water dropper or small bowl of water, Ruler,
Stopwatch, Notebook
Experiment Steps:
1. Cut four squares of equal size from each type of paper towel. Label them clearly.
2. Mark a line 1 cm from the edge of each square with a pencil.
3. Place a drop of water in the centre of each square, exactly between the markings.

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4. Start the stopwatch immediately. Observe how long it takes for the water to reach the marked line on each square.
Record the time in your notebook.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for two more drops of water on each square (total of 3 trials per material).
Question: Which type of paper towel absorbs water the fastest?
Hypothesis: (Choose which material you think will absorb water fastest based on your observations)

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Prediction: Explain why you think that material will absorb water the fastest.
Analyze your data by calculating the average absorption time for each material. Did your results support your hypothesis?
Explain why or why not.

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Challenges
Investigate the impact of different liquids (e.g., oil, juice) on the same materials.
Research the science behind absorption and how different materials are structured.
Design an experiment to test the reusability of different paper towels based on their absorption properties.
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Share your findings with your classmates and discuss the practical applications of your discoveries!
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Chemistry is the science of matter and change.
It explores the composition, properties, and behavior of matter.
Science systematically studies the natural world through observation, experimentation, and theory formulation.
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Technology applies scientific knowledge to create practical solutions and innovations.

Engineering uses scientific and technological knowledge to design and build systems, structures, and devices.
Structured Scientific Method involves observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and drawing conclusions.
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Different branches of chemistry help unlock the secrets of the universe.

Chemistry connects biology, physics, and geology (interdisciplinary nature).
Different branches (e.g., organic, inorganic) focus on specific areas to tackle complex problems better.
Chemistry's scientific method explores the behavior of matter in a controlled setting.
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Organic chemistry studies carbon-containing compounds.

Inorganic chemistry focuses on non-carbon compounds.
Physical chemistry applies physics principles to understand chemical systems.
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Analytical chemistry identifies and quantifies substances in various samples.

Biochemistry explores chemical processes within living organisms.

A detailed summary, chapter roadmap, multiple projects, and extensive exercises are accessible via QR code.

Nature of Science 12
 Exercise

A Encircle the most suitable option against each statement.

Note: Answer the questions 1-4 after reading the given scenario.
During a school science fair project, Aisha noticed something strange while growing crystals from different salt
solutions. She observed that crystals grown from a copper sulfate solution were a vibrant blue color, while those
from a sodium chloride solution were colorless. She decided to investigate further.

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1 Which of the following is the MOST appropriate question for Aisha to investigate?
a) Why are crystals blue? b) Do all salts form crystals?
c) How can we grow the biggest crystals? d) Does the color of the solution affect the crystal color?
2 Aisha plans to test her hypothesis by growing crystals from solutions with different concentrations of copper

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sulfate. Which variable should she KEEP CONSTANT?
a) The type of salt used b) The temperature of the solution
c) The volume of the solution d) The color of the container
3 After analyzing her results, Aisha finds that the intensity of the blue color in the crystals increases with the

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concentration of copper sulfate. What is the NEXT step in her investigation?
a) Declare her hypothesis proven and present her findings.
b) Repeat the experiment with different types of salts.
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c) Investigate the chemical properties of copper sulfate.
d) Design an experiment to explain the mechanism of color formation.
4 Aisha shares her findings with her classmates. Some suggest using different colored salts to see if the crystal color
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changes. This is an example of:
a) A valid extension of Aisha's investigation. b) A criticism of Aisha's methodology.
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c) An irrelevant observation. d) A personal opinion on the results.

Note: Answer the questions 5 and 6 after reading the given scenario.
Imagine a solar panel soaking up the sun's rays on a rooftop.
Each of these fields plays a part in its existence.
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5 Which field discovered the photovoltaic effect, the scientific

principle behind solar panels?
a) Technology b) Engineering
c) Science d) Mathematics
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6 Which field is responsible for designing the structure and

integrating solar panels into a functional system?
a) Technology b) Engineering
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c) Science d) Manufacturing
7 Polymer Chemistry focuses on the properties and uses of large molecules like plastics. An important application
of this field is:
a) Dating ancient artifacts b) Analyzing water quality
c) Developing lightweight materials d) Predicting the weather
8 Environmental Chemistry aims to minimize pollution and protect our environment. Which of the following is
NOT a relevant technique used in this field?
a) Measuring pollutants in air and water samples

13 Nature of Science
 b) Developing sustainable energy sources
c) Recycling and waste management
d) Analyzing the chemical content of stars
9 Astrochemistry studies the chemical composition of celestial objects. How does this field contribute to our
understanding of the universe?
a) By predicting future weather patterns b) By developing new medical treatments
c) By understanding the origins of life and planets
d) By improving communication technologies

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10 Imagine you discover a new material with unique properties. Which sub-field of chemistry would be most helpful
in characterizing its structure and potential uses?
a) Analytical Chemistry b) Physical Chemistry
c) Organic Chemistry d) Geochemistry
11

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In the scientific method, what is the primary purpose of conducting experiments?
a) To prove the hypothesis b) To collect data and analyze results
c) To gather anecdotal evidence d) To establish personal opinions
12 Which of the following steps in the scientific method involves formulating a clear and specific hypothesis based

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on observations and background knowledge?
a) Analysis b) Conclusion
c) Hypothesis d) Experimentation
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B Answer the following short questions.
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1 When does a Hypothesis get accepted as a theory? Give example.
2 Why is the scientific method important?
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3 Explain the difference between scientific theory and technological innovation. Use an example from the field
of renewable energy generation to illustrate your answer.
4 Differentiate between 'science', 'technology' and 'engineering' by making reference to examples from the
below given example.
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5 Define the following branches of chemistry: Physical chemistry, Polymer chemistry, organic chemistry
6 There are two branches of chemistry categorised into chemistry of life. Name these branches. Give reason for
your answer.
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7 Define nuclear chemistry. How it is different from the branches designated as 'chemistry of life'?
8 Draw a self-explanatory flowsheet diagram showing the sequence of stages of scientific method.
9 What are the qualities of a workable hypothesis?
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10 Differentiate between the fields of "organic chemistry" and "inorganic chemistry" based on the type of matter
they primarily study.
11 Compare and contrast the roles of science, technology, and engineering in addressing environmental issues.
Provide specific examples related to Environmental Chemistry.
12 You are a forensic chemist investigating a crime scene. You find a white powder at the scene and need to
determine its identity. Which branch of chemistry would you use to identify the powder? Give reason.

Nature of Science 14
C Answer the following questions briefly.
1 Explain the scientific method, emphasizing its key stages such as observation and hypothesis. Additionally,
provide a definition for the term 'law' and elucidate the circumstances under which a law is established in the field
of chemistry.
2 Here is a diagrammatic representation of a famous law in chemistry known as: Boyle's law:

Pressure
The law states that: When the temperature of a gas is held

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constant, the pressure exerted by the gas is inversely proportional Pressure
to its volume.
A students studies the law as an example of scientific method. He
has made an observation:
Gases shrank when squeezed, expanded when released. Volume Volume

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Your task is to extend his study by:
a. Deducing hypothesis
b. Designing an experiment to test the hypothesis

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3 Differentiate between 'science', 'technology' and 'engineering' by giving suitable examples.
Write a note on geochemistry and biochemistry.
4 Explain “chemistry' as a diverse field of science. Discuss the nature of the field, its relation with other discipline as
well as role to solve the problems with the help of suitable examples.
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D Assertion – Reason type questions
In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R).
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Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions given below:
a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A
b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
c) If A is correct and R is wrong
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d) If A is wrong and R is correct

1. Assertion (A): Studying the properties of light using prisms is an example of science.
Reason (R): Science focuses on understanding the natural world through observation and experiments.
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2. Assertion (A): Designing a bridge that can withstand strong winds is an example of engineering.
Reason (R): Engineering considers both scientific principles and practical constraints to create
solutions.
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3. Assertion (A): Studying the reactions between drugs and the human body belongs to medicinal chemistry.
Reason (R): Medicinal chemistry applies chemical principles to design and develop new drugs.

4. Assertion (A): Understanding the formation of stars requires knowledge of both chemistry and physics.
Reason (R): Astrochemistry is an interdisciplinary field that combines chemistry and astronomy.

5. Assertion (A): "How can we measure the trace amounts of heavy metals in food?" is an important
question for analytical chemistry.

15 Nature of Science
 Reason (R): Analytical chemistry develops methods to detect and analyze the composition of samples.

6. Assertion (A): Observing a new chemical reaction requires designing an experiment to test its
properties.
Reason (R): The scientific method relies on experimentation to confirm observations and draw
conclusions.

7. Assertion (A): A scientific theory is always accepted as absolute truth.

Reason (R): Theories are continually tested and refined as new evidence emerges in the scientific

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method.

8. Assertion (A): Communicating research findings in scientific journals is crucial for peer review and future
research.
Reason (R): Sharing results allows other scientists to validate and build upon existing knowledge.

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Sample Problem 1

Scientific Method: Thinking Like a Scientist

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Identify each activity, “a to f”, as an observation, a hypothesis, an experiment, or a conclusion. At a popular
restaurant, where Imran is the head chef, the following occurred:
a. Imran determined that sales of the house salad had dropped.
b. Imran decided that the house salad needed a new dressing.
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c. In a taste test, Imran prepared four bowls of sliced cucumber, each with a new dressing: sesame seed, olive oil and
balsamic vinegar, creamy Italian, and blue cheese.
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d. Tasters rated the sesame seed salad dressing as the favorite.
e. After two weeks, Imran noted that the orders for the house salad with the new sesame seed dressing had doubled.
f. Imran decided that the sesame seed dressing improved the sales of the house salad because the sesame seed dressing
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enhanced the taste.

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Nature of Science 16
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 CHAPTER

4 Chemical Bonding

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In this chapter, we'll explore chemical bonds that hold atoms

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together into compounds. We'll learn about ionic, covalent,

coordinate covalent, and metallic bonds and how they affect a
compound 's properties. We 'll also see how these bonds influence
melting and boiling points, conductivity, and suitability for specific
uses. Additionally, we'll recognize how some substances, like
acids, can ionize in water to conduct electricity

Chemical Bonding 72
 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Describe that noble gas electronic configuration, octet and duplet rules help predict chemical properties of
main group elements
Compare between the formation of cations and anions.
Account for the electropositive and electronegative nature of metals and non-metalsDefine ionic, covalent,
coordinate covalent and metallic bonds
Differentiate between ionic compounds and covalent compounds.
Explain the properties of compounds in terms of bonding and structure

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Compare uses and properties of materials such as strength and conductivity as determined by the type of chemical
bond present between their atoms.
Interpret the strength of forces of attraction and their impact on melting and boiling points of ionic and covalent
compounds.
Justify the availability of free charged particles (electrons or ions) for conduction of electricity in ionic compounds)

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solid and molten) covalent compounds and metallic bonds.
Recognize that some substances can ionize when dissolved in water. (e.g. acids dissolves in water and conduct
electricity).
Justify the suitability of usage of graphite, diamond and metals for industrial purposes

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Draw the structure of ionic and covalent compounds along with their formation. Some examples can include:
• ionic bonds in binary compounds such as NaBr, NaF, CaCl2 using dot-and-cross diagrams and Lewis dot
structures.
• simple molecules including H2, Cl2, O2, N2, H2O, CH4, NH3, HCI, CH3OH, C2H4, CO2, HCN, and similar
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molecules using dot-and- cross diagrams and Lewis dot structures).

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
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students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:
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Knowledge
4.1 Fundamentals of Ion Formation
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The noble gas electronic configuration, along with the octet and duplet rules, aids in predicting the chemical
properties of main group elements. These concepts facilitate understanding the formation of cations and anions, and
account for the electropositive nature of metals and the electronegative nature of non-metals.
4.2 Understanding of Ionic Bonds
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Ionic bonding involves the strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, influencing the properties,
melting and boiling points, and electrical conductivity of ionic compounds, both in solid and molten states. The
structure and formation of ionic compounds can be illustrated using dot-and-cross diagrams and Lewis's dot
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structures, as seen in examples like NaBr, NaF, and CaCl2

4.3 Exploring Covalent and Coordinate covalent bond
Covalent and coordinate covalent bond are characterized by the sharing of electrons between atoms, impacting the
physical properties and conductivity of the resulting compounds. Some covalent compounds can conduct electricity
when ionized in solution. Structures of simple molecules, like H2O and CO2, are illustrated with dot-and-cross
diagrams and Lewis structures. The use of graphite and diamond in industrial applications is attributed to their specific
properties, such as lubrication and cutting efficiency.
4.4 Metallic bond
Metallic bonds are characterized by a strong electrostatic attraction between a cloud or sea of delocalized electrons
and positively charged metal cations. These bonding types significantly influence the properties, structure, and
 electrical conductivity of compounds. Specifically, the presence of free, delocalized electrons in metallic bonds
explains the high electrical conductivity observed in metals.
4.5 Comparative Analysis of Ionic and Covalent Bonds in Materials
Explain the properties and uses of materials, including strength and conductivity, are influenced by the type of
chemical bond (ionic, covalent, or metallic) present between their atoms. Ionic and covalent bonds affect compounds'
melting and boiling points through the strength of their forces of attraction.

Skills

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Skill 4.1
Applying the noble gas electronic configuration, octet, and duplet rules to predict the chemical behavior of main group
elements, and discerning the formation processes of cations and anions based on the electropositive and
electronegative characteristics of metals and non-metals.
Skill 4.2

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Interpreting and drawing the structure and formation of ionic compounds using dot-and-cross diagrams and Lewis's
dot structures, and analyzing their physical properties and electrical conductivity based on the type of chemical bond
Skill 4.3
Analyzing the impact of bonding type on the melting and boiling points of covalent compounds.

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Understanding the conditions under which covalent compounds can conduct electricity.
Drawing and interpreting the structures of simple covalent molecules using dot-and-cross diagrams and Lewis dot
structures.
Evaluating the industrial applications of materials like graphite and diamond based on their covalent structures and
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properties.
Skill 4.4
Identifying the differences between coordinate covalent, covalent, and metallic bonds in terms of electron sharing and
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distribution.
Skill 4.5
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Analyze and compare the impact of ionic and covalent bonding on the physical properties of compounds, such as
melting and boiling points, strength, and conductivity.
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Chemical Bonding 74

Student Learning Outcomes
Describe that noble gas electronic
configuration, octet and duplet rules
help predict chemical properties of
main group elements
Compare between the formation of
cations and anions. Account for the
electropositive and electronegative
nature of metals and non-metals
He = 2
Ne = 10
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Ar = 18
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Kr = 36
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Xe = 54
Fig. 4.1 Noble gases elements, along with
their stable electronic configurations, are
shown in the figure. Some follow the duplet
rule while others follow the octet rule
75 Chemical Bonding
4.1 Knowledge
Fundamentals of Ion Formation
Noble gases possess a unique trait that sets them apart from other
elements. They have a full outermost shell consisting of eight
electrons, also known as the "octet configuration. “This promotes
stability within the atom. Helium deviates from this pattern and has a
stable "duplet configuration " with only two electrons in its single shell.
Due to their stable electron configurations, noble gases do not need to
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bond with other atoms and remain content with their current state.
noble gases along with electronic configuration shown in figure 4.1.
Why Do Other Atoms Bond?
In the world of chemistry, it is a well-known fact that everything tends
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to become more stable. Atoms achieve stability by attaining the
electronic configuration of noble gases such as Helium (He), Neon
(Ne), or Argon (Ar), which is ns np. A valence shell containing two or
eight electrons is a sign of stability. When an atom achieves two
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electrons in the valence shell, it is called the duplet rule, and when it
achieves eight electrons, it is called the octet rule. All noble gases have
their valence shells filled with two or eight electrons, which means
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their atoms have no vacant space in their valence shell to accommodate
extra electrons as shown in figure 4.1. Therefore, noble gases do not
gain, lose, or share electrons, making them non-reactive. The
importance of the noble gas electronic configuration lies in the fact that
all other atoms strive to have the same configuration. Atoms combine
through chemical bonding to achieve stability by acquiring inert gas
electron configuration. An atom can accommodate eight electrons in
its valence shell in three ways: 1. By giving valence shell electrons to
other atoms if they are less than three. 2. By gaining electrons from
other atoms if the valence shell has five or more electrons in it. 3. By
sharing valence electrons with other atoms. This means that every
atom has a natural tendency to have two or eight electrons in its valence
shell, and atoms with less than two or eight electrons in their valence
shells are unstable.
Ionic Compound
A regular structure containing a massive number of particles that
continues in all directions throughout the structure.
As shown in Figure 4.3 Ionic substances are formed from charged
particles called ions, arising due to an atom's imbalance between
protons and electrons. Typically, metals combine with non-metals to
form ionic compounds. For example, when sodium (a metal) combines
with chlorine (a non-metal), it forms sodium chloride, an ionic
substance. These compounds have a unique structure called a giant
lattice In this arrangement, positively charged ions are surrounded by
negatively charged ions in a vast, repeating grid. The strong attraction Think of it this way
between opposite charges, termed ionic bonding, holds them together, Giant lattice
making these substances solid at room temperature as shown in fig 4.2 A regular structure containing a massive
number of particles that continues in all
For more detail, we will first discuss the formation of positive and
directions throughout the structure.
negative ion.
As shown in Figure 4.2
Formation of cation
Ionic bonding occurs when atoms loss or gain electrons to attain a
more stable electron configuration. Metals have low ionization

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energies which make it easy for them to lose valence electrons and
form positively charged ions with eight valence electrons, similar to
their nearest noble gas. This property of metals is called
Electro-positive character, in upcoming chapters, we will elaborate

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on this concept further.
For example, when a sodium atom loses its only valence electron, the
+ +
remaining electrons become stable. Sodium ends up with 10
+ +- - +
negatively charged electrons instead of the initial 11. However, there +
- + +
- + -

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are still 11 positively charged protons in its nucleus. The sodium - - -
+ +
atom transforms into a positively charged sodium ion (written as + - + - + - +
Na+), which is no longer neutral. A metal ion is named after its - - + - -
element name. Therefore, Na+ is called the sodium ion. The sodium - ++ - - + -
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- + + + -
ion is smaller than the sodium atom as the ion loses its outermost - + - + - +
electron from the third energy level as shown in figure 4.3. - -
- + - + - +
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+
Ionic charge = Charge of protons + Charge of electrons = (11+) +
- + - + + -
(10-) = +1 - +
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Giant lattice of NaCl

+

Fig 4.2 The position of sodium ion and

loses 1 electron chloride ion in giant crystal lattice is called
Na +e– lattice point.
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Na

I.E = 496 Kj mol–1 Think of it this way

11p +12n 11p +12n Ionization energies
sodium atom (Na) 2, 8, 1 sodium atom (Na+) 2, 8
Ionization energy refers to the energy
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Sodium atom + Ioniation Energy Sodium ion (Na+) + electron required to separate an electron from an
atom. It's like a "breakup cost" for the
Fig. 4.3: When a sodium atom loses an electron, it becomes electron to leave its atomic family.
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positively charged

Formation of anion
Non-metal atoms have a high ionization energy, which makes it
difficult for them to lose their valence electrons. In order to achieve a Do you Know
stable electronic configuration, nonmetal atoms tend to gain one or Willingness of an element to gain
more electrons, which results in the formation of a negatively electron is called electronegativity
charged ion. For example, a chlorine atom, which has seven valence
electrons, gains one electron to form an octet. Consequently, it

Chemical Bonding 76
 LINK
transforms into a chloride ion, with a 1- ionic charge. The name of a
negatively charged ion, also known as an anion, is formed by using
M Nm
the first syllable of its element name, followed by 'ide' (chloride).
Gaining electrons instead of shedding them makes nonmetals
Transfer of electrons
electronegative. Due to the additional electron, a chloride ion is
larger than a chlorine atom since it completes its outermost energy
level as show in figure 4.4.

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Ionic charge = Charge of protons = (17+) + Charge of electrons
–
M+ Nm + (18–) = 1–

– E.A = 349 Kj mol–1

Ionic bond

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Metal loses an electron to become gain 1 electron
Cl Cl
positively charged (M+), and an atom Non +e–
metal gains an electron to become
negatively charged (N–), resulting in an
17p + 18n 17p + 18n
attraction that forms the ionic bond we

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chlorine atom chlorine atom
will discuss in upcoming topic (Cl) 2,8,7 (Cl) 2,8,8

Chlorine atom + electrons chloride ion (CI–) + energy (349 Kj mol–1

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Fig. 4.4: “Chlorine gains an electron to form a chloride ion (Cl-), achieving
a stable configuration in its 3rd energy shell"
b

Further Reading Ionic charges from group numbers

pu

Ionic compounds are formed when representative elements loss or Table 4.1: Example of mono atomic ions
gain electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration, similar to that and their nearest noble gases
of the nearest noble gas. The charges of ions for representative
elements can be determined using the group numbers in the periodic Metals lose Nonmetals
ab

valence Gain valence

table. For example, elements in Group 1A (1) lose one electron and Electrons Electrons
form ions with a 1+ charge, while elements in Group 2A (2) lose two
Noble 1A 2A 3A 5A 6A 7A
electrons and form ions with a 2+ charge. Similarly, elements in Gas (1) (2) (13) (15) (16) (17)
Group 3A (13) lose three electrons and form ions with a 3+ charge.
nt

However, the group numbers of transition elements are not used to He Li+
determine their ionic charges. On the other hand, elements in Group
7A (17) gain one electron and form ions with a 1- charge, while Ne Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ N3– O2– F–
ca

elements in Group 6A (16) gain two electrons and form ions with a 2-
charge. Elements in Group 5A (15) gain three electrons and form ions Ar K+ Ca2+ P3– S2– Cl–
with a 3- charge. Nonmetals in Group 4A (14) typically do not form
ions, but metals such as Sn and Pb in Group 4A (14) lose electrons Kr Rb+ Sr2+ Se2– Br–
and form positive ions. To summarize, Table 4.1 provides a list of the
ionic charges for some common monatomic ions of representative Xe Cs+ Ba2+ l–
elements.

77 Chemical Bonding
For more clarity, you can compare the above concept with the
periodic table below. It shows the first 20 elements and their
electronic configurations, allowing you to relate the concept of losing
and gaining electrons to attain stable electronic configuration.
Group
i viii

1 2
Period
1 H ii iii iv v vi vii He

om
1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

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3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8
19 20 proton number

he
4 Skill:4.1
electron shells Fundamentals of Ion Formation
K Ca
Objective: To understand the main group
2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2 electronic configuration elements follow the octet or duplet rule to
lis
achieve stability. Metals lose electrons to
Test your self
become cations, while non-metals gain
Compare the formation of cations and anions.? electrons to become anions, based on
b
Why do metals tend to be electropositive while non-metals tend to their electronegativity
be electronegative? Instructions: An activity-based
pu

State the number of electrons that must be lost by atoms of each of worksheet is attached to the QR code
the following to achieve a stable electron configuration: provided at the beginning of this
knowledge section. Scan the code, read
a. Li b. Ca c. Ga d. Cs e. Ba
the worksheet, and complete it.
State the number of electrons that must be gained by atoms ofeach of
ab

the following to achieve a stable electron configuration:

Student Learning Outcomes
a. Cl b. Se c. N d. I e. S Define ionic, bond
Explain the properties of compounds
4.2 Knowledge
nt

in terms of bonding and structure type

Understanding of Ionic Bonds of chemical bond present between
their atoms.
After acquiring a basic understanding of ion formation between
ca

Interpret the strength of forces of

sodium and chlorine atoms, we can now use this knowledge to delve
attraction and their impact on melting
into the concept of ionic bonding. In this process, a valence electron and boiling points of ionic compound.
from a sodium (Na) atom is transferred to a chlorine (Cl) atom, Justify the availability of free charged
resulting in a positive ion for sodium and a negative ion for chlorine. particles (ions) for conduction of
The attraction between these oppositely charged ions leads to the electricity in Ionic compounds) solid
formation of sodium chloride as show in figure (4.5). The and molten.)
electrostatic force that holds these oppositely charged particles Draw the structure of ionic
together in an ionic compound is called an ionic bond. Compounds compounds along with their
that contain ionic bonds are referred to as ionic compounds. formation.

Chemical Bonding 78
 Sodium (a metal) Oppositely charged ions are held together
loses an electron by ionic bonds, forming a crystalline lattice
+

Cation +
Na+ ion - + -
Neutral Na-
atom, 11e e- 10e - - + -
++ -
Chlorine (a nonmetal) + +
gains an electron. Anion -
-
Sodium chloride
Cl - ion, 18e - (Table salt)

om
Fig. 4.5 Sodium transfers an electron to chlorine, forming an ionic compound, sodium chloride (NaCl)

- + - + - + - + (a) Properties of ionic compounds

+ - + - + - + - + The properties of an ionic compound, like NaCl, differ greatly from

r.c
- + - + - + - + the original elements that create it. Take for instance sodium, a shiny
and malleable metal, and chlorine, a poisonous gas with a greenish
+ - + - + - + - +
hue. When combined to form positively and negatively charged ions,
- + - + - + - +
they create NaCl, which is our common table salt - a hard, white,

he
Solid NaCl crystalline substance that plays a crucial role in our diet in the crystal
-
(b) structure of NaCl positive and negative ions held together by strong
+ +
-
-
+ + - electro static force of atraction and these attractions are responsible
lis
+
+ - for the high melting and boiling points of ionic compounds, as shown
+ - -
- - - - in the table 4.2.
+ +
+
+ + + -- +
- - +
-
b
+

+ + + - Table 4.2: Melting and Boiling Point of some ionic compound

- +
-
+ -
pu

Compound Melting Point ºC Boiling Point ºC

Liquid (moltan) NaCl
+
Nal 660 1304
(c)
- KBr 734 1435
ab

-
+
- NaBr 747 1390
+ - + ++
CaCl 782 >1600
-
+
Cal2 784 1100
nt

+ -
-
+
-

For instance, the melting point of NaCl is 801 °C. Ionic compounds
ca

Aquous solution of NaCl

are typically solids at room temperature and can conduct electricity
Fig. 4.6 (a,b,c) At room temperature, when melted or dissolved in water. This is because the weakened
ionic compounds are solids; they conduct inter-ionic forces in such states allow ions to move freely, facilitating
electricity when molten or aqueous, but the passage of an electric current. Conversely, ionic compounds in
not in solid form due to fixed ion
solid form usually do not conduct electricity as their ions are fixed in
positions."
position and cannot move freely. as show in figure (4.6)
Ionic crystals are brittle as even a slight distortion brings similarly
charged ions together, causing repulsion and splitting of the crystal.

79 Chemical Bonding
 repulsion between ions with the same charge
Challange
+ - + - +
+ - + - + a) Justify that reaction between
+ + - + - + - magnesium atoms and oxygen atoms to
Force - -
form magnesium oxide.
+ - + - + + - + - + b) Justify that reaction between
- + - +
+ - + - magnesium atoms and fluorine atoms to
form magnesium fluoride.

om
c) Compare and contrast the reactions of
Fig. 4.7 When an external force is applied to ionic compounds, it causes
magnesium with oxygen and with
the lattice structure to distort. This distortion causes the similarly
fluorine.
charged ions to repel each other, resulting in the brittleness of ionic
compounds.

r.c
By utilizing the above-mentioned knowledge, we can now discuss
more examples of ionic compounds, in which elements exchange
electrons to attain stable electronic configurations similar to noble
gases Some example of formation of ionic bond is given fig (

he
4.8).(a,b,c)

Formation of sodium fluoride

The sodium electrons This electron in the
are drawn as dots. The fluorine electrons
lis
fluoride ion orginally came
are drawn as crosses. from the sodium atom

X X
b
XX XX X XX
Na X F X Na XX F X
pu

XX XX

Sodium atom Fluorine atom Sodium fluoride

Fig. 4.8 Dot and cross model of sodium flouride.
ab

+ –

Na + Cl Na + Cl [Na][Cl]
nt

This is table
(2,8,1) (2,8,7) (2,8) (2,8,8)
salt, used for
cooking and
(a) Dot and cross model of sodium chloride Showing that keeping food
ca

Sodium atoms react with chlorine atoms in the ratio 1 : 1 to fresh.

form NaCl.
1+ –
[Na][Br]
Na + Br Na + Br
This keeps pool
(2,8,1) (2,8)
(2,8,18,7) (2,8,18,8) . water clean and
safe for
(b) Dot and cross model of sodium bromide Showing that swimming
Sodium react with Bromine atoms in the ratio 1 : 1 to form NaBr

Chemical Bonding 80
 2+ 2–

Ca + O Ca + O [Ca][O]

(2,8,8,2) (2,6) (2,8,8) (2,8) This is used in

making concrete
(c) Dot and cross model of calcium oxide Showing that for buildings.
Calcium atoms react with oxygen atoms in the ratio 1 : 1 to form CaO.

Cl Cl

om
2+
(2,8,7) [Ca][Cl2]
(2,8,8)
Ca + Ca +
– This helps to
Cl Cl
melt ice on

r.c
(2,8,8,2) (2,8,8)
roads when it
is cold.
(2,8,7)
(2,8,8)
(c) Dot and cross model of calcium chloride Showing that

he
Calcium react with chlorine atoms in the ratio 2 : 1 to form CaCl2

Skill:4.2
Understanding Ionic Bonds Test yourself
lis
Objective: Interpret and draw the Why ionic substances have high melting points.
structure and formation of ionic
Why ionic substances conduct electricity?
compounds using dot-and-cross
Why ionic substances do not conduct electricity as solids.
diagrams and Lewis's dot structures, and
b
analyzing their physical properties and Which of the following substances are likely to be ionic: CO2, PH3,
electrical conductivity based on the type Fe2O3, CH4O, SiO2, MgBr2?
pu

of chemical bond
4.3 Knowledge
Student Learning Outcomes
Define covalent, bonds. Exploring Covalent and Coordinate covalent bond
ab

Define, coordinate covalent bond After discussing ionic bonds, let's move on to another way in which
Explain the properties of compounds atoms can form stable compounds by sharing electrons in their outer
in terms of bonding and structure.
shells. This type of bonding is called covalent bonding and it occurs
Interpret the strength of forces of
nt

between non-metal atoms. During the bond formation, the atoms

attraction and their impact on melting
involved gain stability by obtaining the electronic configuration of
and boiling points of covalent
compounds. noble (inert) gases. The simplest example of covalent bonding can be
ca

Justify the availability of free charged seen in the hydrogen molecule, H2 figure (4.9)
particles (ions) for conduction of
electricity in covalent compounds.
H H H—H
Recognize that some substances can
ionize when dissolved in water. H H H H
Draw the structure of covalent
compounds along with their
formation. (a) 2 hydrogen atoms (b) Hydrogen molecule (H2)

Fig 4.9 Formation of hydrogen molecule

81 Chemical Bonding
Each hydrogen atom in the molecule has one electron. To gain full
outer shells and an electronic configuration like helium, each of the
H H
hydrogen atoms must have two electrons. This is achieved by C
overlapping the outer shells of the two hydrogen atoms. The result is
H H
a molecule of hydrogen, where two hydrogen atoms share a pair of Carbon atom
4 Hydrogen atoms
electrons, forming a single covalent bond. This bond is represented
by a single line as in hydrogen. The periodic table, shown in Figure,
H H
lists the most common non-metal elements that form covalent bonds.
Most non-metal compounds are composed of molecules. For

om
C
example, water (H2O) contains hydrogen (a non-metal) and oxygen
H H
(a non-metal).
H2 He
Methane molecule (CH4)
B C N2 O 2 F2 Ne

r.c
P4 S8 Cl2 Ar
Fig. 4.10 The dot and cross diagram
Si
shows how a methane molecule (CH4) is
As Se Br2 Kr
formed through a covalent bonding
Te I2 Xe process. In this process, the four electrons

he
At2 Rn from the carbon atom's outer shell overlap
with one electron from each of the four
Other covalent compounds hydrogen atoms' outer shells. This results
Methane, also known as natural gas, is a gaseous compound in a stable electronic configuration for
lis
consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The electronic all the atoms involved.
configurations of carbon and hydrogen atoms are C 2,4 and H 1
respectively. To attain the electronic configuration of the noble gas
b
neon, carbon needs four more electrons while each hydrogen atom
needs only one electron to form the electronic configuration of
pu

helium. The sharing of electrons between these atoms helps them

achieve these electronic configurations. Note that the figure 4.9
illustrates only the outer electron shells of the atoms. Additionally, a
methane molecule model is displayed in figure (4.9).
ab

Properties of molecular substances: Melting and boiling H

C
points =H
H
= CH4
H
Molecules are not bonded to each other. The intermolecular forces
nt

(forces between molecules) are only weak and so are easy to overcome. In molecular substances such as methane
This means that molecular substances have low melting and boiling (natural gas, CH4) there are many separate
points. Many molecular substances with small molecules are gases and molecules. The molecules are not bond to
ca

liquids at room temperature. For example, methane boils at -162°C and each other.
water boils at 100°C. Generally, the bigger the molecules, the stronger
the forces between the molecules and so the higher the melting and
Think of it this way
boiling points. Molecules of glucose are quite large and it melts at
Molecules are often quite small,
146°C. When molecular substances change state, the covalent bonds do
containing just a few atoms, but some
NOT break. For example, water molecules are identical as H2O whether
substances are made of big molecules
it is steam, water or ice (Figure 4.11a). No covalent bonds are broken
(e.g. wax and many polymers) which we
when water changes state.
will discuss in Chapter 15.

Chemical Bonding 82
 Solid (Ice) Liquid (water) H
Gas (steam)
H O
H
O O O

O
O H H
H H H H
H H

H
H
O O H

H
H H O

O
H

O
O O H O
H H H

H
H H H H

om
Fig 4.11a The molecular structure of water differs in its three states: solid, liquid, and gas.

Electronegativity and Polarity

Do you Know
We have learned about two types of chemical bonds: ionic and

There are weak intermolecular forces,
known as van der Waals forces, between
molecules. The figure shows the
presence of strong covalent and weak
intermolecular forces in iodine
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covalent. Ionic bonds occur between metal and nonmetals, while
covalent bonds occur between nonmetals. However, these two types
of bonds represent the opposite ends of a bonding spectrum. A third
type of bond lies between these two extremes, known as polar

he
covalent bonds.. In polar covalent bonds, electrons are shared
Weak intermolecular bond
I between atoms, but not equally. This means that these bonds are
partially ionic and partially covalent. The comparison of the different
lis
types of bonds is shown below, where M and X are used to represent
I I two different elements.
Strong covalent When there is a substantial difference (greater than 1.8) in
b
bond electronegativity between two atoms, the bond can be classified as
I
ionic. If the difference is less than 1.8, the bond is typically covalent.
pu

To determine a bond's polarity, it's useful to organize the bonds based

on their electronegativity differences. For instance, the H-H bond is
nonpolar, while the F-H bond is significantly polar due to the large
difference in electronegativity between fluorine and hydrogen. By
ab

Update Yourself referencing the electronegativity values found in Fig.00, we can

Pure covalent bond anticipate the following variations in bond polarity (electronegativity
Neutral atoms held together by equally values are listed in parentheses next to each element).
nt

shared electrons
M:X
H–H < S–H < Cl–H < O–H < F–H
Polar covalent bond
(2.1)–(2.1) (2.5)–(2.1) (3.0)–(2.1) (3.5)–(2.1) (4.0)–(2.1)
Partially charged atoms held together by
ca

unequally shared electrons Electro negativity difference

Mδ+ Xδ– 0 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.9
Ionic bond
Covalent bond Polar covalent
Oppositely charged ions held together Polarity increases
by electrostatic attraction
M+ X– Fig 4.11b Electro negativity difference that are lower than 1.8 suggest
that covalent bonding is present

83 Chemical Bonding
 Further Reading Element in Periodic table with their E.N

H 18
2.20
He
Electronegativity refers to an atom's 1 2 13 14 15 16 17
ability to pull electrons towards itself in a Li Be B C N O F Ne
2 0.98 1.57 2.04 2.55 3.04 3.44 3.98
compound. This property determines
where electrons in a compound will spend Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
most of their time. Elements with high 3 0.93 1.31 1.61 2.19
1.90 2.58 3.16

om
electronegativity have a greater tendency
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
to attract electrons than those with low 4 0.82 1.81 2.01 2.18 2.55 2.96
1.00
electronegativity. In the given table you
can see a few elements listed along with Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
0.82 0.95 1.78 1.96 2.05 2.1 2.66
their corresponding electronegativity

r.c
values. Cr Ba Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6 0.79 0.89 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0

Polar Molecules and Their Solubility in Water

he
The behavior of molecules in water changes significantly when we
consider their polarity. Polar molecules, with their uneven charge
distribution, can dissolve in polar solvents such as water. This process
HCl
lis
often leads to the formation of ions, known as ionization, which is
crucial for the conductivity of electricity. Acids like hydrochloric acid
H3O+ Cl–
(HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and nitric acid (HNO3) are classic
b
examples of this phenomenon. When these acids dissolve in water as H3O+ Cl–
shown in figure 4.12, they ionize to release hydrogen ions (H+) and their Cl– H 3O +
pu

–
respective negative ions (Cl– for HCl, SO2–4 for H2SO4, and NO3 for
HNO3). This ionization process transforms a non-conducting molecular
substance into an ionic solution that is capable of conducting electricity. Fig. 4.12 In the above figure, it can be
observed that when Hydrochloric Acid
Drawing molecules
ab

(HCl) is dissolved in water, it dissociates

Now, we will use our knowledge of the covalent bonds that atoms into positive and negative ions.
typically form between different nonmetal elements to draw
structures of polar and nonpolar molecules. The table below shows
nt

the number of covalent bonds atoms typically form.

Group 4 atoms Group 5 atoms Group 6 atoms Group 7 atoms

Atoms H
(e.g. C, Si) (e.g. N, P) (e.g. O, S) (e.g. F, Cl, Br, I)
ca

Number of electrons in their

1 4 5 6 7
outer shell
Number of electrons needed to
1 4 3 2 1
obtain a noble gas electron structure

Number of covalent bonds formed 1 4 3 2 1

There are several ways to show how atoms join together by sharing electrons in covalent bonds to form
molecules (Table).

Chemical Bonding 84
 Dot and cross Dot and cross Dot and cross Stick Ball and Space-filling diagram
diagram showing diagram showing diagram diagram stick
all electrons and only outer shell showing only diagram
shell circles electrons and outer shell
shell circles electrons

H N H H N H H N H H N H

H H
H H

om
Each stick (or line) A good representation of a molecule
Note that the and represent electrons that came from showing how atoms merge into each other,
represents one covalent
different atoms
bond (i.e. 2 shared electrons) but the covalent bonds are not visible
When drawing stick diagrams, each atom makes the number of covalent bonds shown in Table. When drawing

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dot-cross diagrams, each single covalent bond is made up of two electrons. Atoms can make double and triple
covalent bonds (Figure 4.10). A double covalent bond contains four electrons (two from each atom), while a
triple bond contains six electrons (three from each atom). Any outer shell electrons that are not used up in making
covalent bonds are found in non-bonding electron pairs, often called lone pairs

he
H2 Cl2 O2 N2
Stick
diagram H H Cl Cl O O N N
Dot and
cross H H Cl Cl O O N N
lis
diagram

HCl H2O N H3 CH4 CO2

b
H
Stick
H Cl H O H H N H H C H O C O
diagram
pu

H H
H
Dot and
cross H Cl H O H H N H H C H O C O
Compound Type
diagram
ab

H H
Non-Polar Polar Ionic
Covalent Covalent CH3 – OH CH2 CH2 HCN
H
nt

M.P and B.P Stick H H

diagram H C OH
C=C H –C N
Low Moderate High H H H
O2, H2, H2O, NH3 NaCl, KBr,
ca

H
Dot and H
cross H H
H C O
diagram C C H C N
H H H
methanol, CH3OH
ethene, C2H4

Fig 4.13 The figure presents a comparison between stick diagrams and dot-and-cross (Lewis structure) diagrams for various
molecules, illustrating the bonding of atoms within molecules like H2, Cl2 etc.

85 Chemical Bonding
Giant covalent compound
It's worth noting that not all covalent solids are molecular, but one
thing they all have in common are covalent bonds. If you compare
their melting points, you may notice some interesting differences.

Subtance Melting point /°C. Do you Know

Ice 0 Giant covalent substances are sometimes
incorrectly called macromolecular
Phosphorus 961 substances, but they are not actually

om
molecules at all. Macromolecules are
Silver 115
polymers. which we will discuss in
th
Silicon (IV) oxide(silicon dioxide or silica) 1710 Chapter 15 and also in grade 10 .

Carbon (as diamond) 3550

r.c
The first three substances are molecular solids melt easily at low Diamond is the
hardest naturally
temperatures. However diamond and silicon ( IV) oxide are different. occurring substance.
Their melting points show that they are not molecular solids with

he
weak lattices. In fact, they exist as giant covalent structures. Giant
covalent structures are made up of many non-metal atoms arranged
in a repeating pattern called a giant lattice. Covalent bonds connect
lis
all the atoms to form very strong substances. Now, we will discuss It takes a lot of energy to
some examples of giant covalent compounds break all the covalent bonds
in diamond, so it has a very
Diamond C high melting point.
b
Diamonds are unique due to their tetrahedral bonding that creates a C C
C
strong network of covalent bonds. Their unmatched hardness makes C
pu

them a nature's ultimate tool. Diamond tools can cut through almost
anything with incredible precision. They are smooth operators that
can reduce roughness and avoid overheating as they spread heat.
Diamonds are an excellent choice for a wide range of tasks, from
ab

crafting to construction, due to their durability and efficiency.

Graphite
Graphite is a form of carbon that has a layered structure, where each
nt

layer consists of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. These layers are

held together by weak forces, which allow them to slide over each
other easily. This makes graphite a good lubricant, as it reduces
ca

friction and wear between moving parts of machines. Graphite is also

a good conductor of electricity, as it has delocalized (free) electrons
between the layers as shown in figure 4.13 that can carry an electric
current. This makes graphite a suitable material for electrodes, which
are used in various electrical applications, such as electrolysis,
batteries, and electrical discharge machining. Graphite is also stable
at high temperatures and chemically inert, which means it does not
react with other substances easily. These properties make graphite a
reliable and versatile material for industrial purposes
Fig 4.13 When carbon atoms form only
three covalent bonds within the layers,
they are left with an unbonded electron.
These electrons are called 'delocalized'
electrons, and they move freely between
the layers of graphite. It is due to these
electrons that graphite has the ability to
conduct electricity.

Chemical Bonding 86
a.
b.
Fig 4.14 a. Graphite is a versatile material that serves various purposes, from being a
'lead' in pencils to acting as a lubricant in locks and as an electrode in batteries. It is
commonly used to carry a current into a liquid for electrolysis. b. On the other hand,
diamond is an ideal choice for toothed saws used to cut marble and in dentist's drills.
Challange
Metal oxides and non-metal oxides
have different properties. Sulfur
dioxide, a non-metal oxide has a
melting point of -72°C and calcium
oxide, a metal oxide, has a melting
b
point of 2613°C.
Explain why the melting point of sulfur
pu
dioxide is low but that of calcium oxide
is high.
Test yourself
What is a covalent bond?
ab
Why molecular substances have
low melting and boiling points?
What happens to the covalent
nt
bonds in a molecular substance
when it melts and boils?
Why molecular substances do not
ca
conduct electricity.
Which of the following substances
are likely to be molecular: H2S,
Na2O, KNO3, ZnBr2, CO, N2H4,
C2H6O?
Describe the structure of a giant
covalent substance.
Why do giant covalent substances
have very high melting points?
87 Chemical Bonding
Carbon rod
(Cathode)
om
MnO2,
Zinc cup+ carbon black +
r.c
(anode) NH4Cl paste
A commercial dry cell consists of a
graphite (carbon) cathode in a zinc
container.
he
The properties of giant covalent substances
lis
Giant covalent substances have high melting and boiling points due
to the many covalent bonds that need to be broken in order to melt
them. These bonds are very strong and require a lot of energy to
break. For instance, diamond melts at a temperature of over 3500°C.
Most giant covalent substances do not conduct electricity because
they lack delocalized electrons. However, graphite is an exception as
it does contain some delocalized (free) electrons. These electrons can
move freely throughout the substance, allowing for electrical
conductivity
Dative Covalent or Coordinate Covalent Bond
A lone pair is a non-bonded electron pair that is available on an atom,
such as the one available on the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3).
When a proton (H+) comes into contact with a molecule that has a
lone pair of electrons, the lone pair is donated to the proton, and a
coordinate covalent bond is formed. For instance, the formation of
ammonium radical (NH4+). In the formation of the BF3 (boron
trifluoride) molecule, three valence electrons of the boron atom
(Z=5) pair up with three electrons, one from each of the three fluorine
atoms. Despite the sharing of electrons (covalent bond formation),
the boron atom remains short or deficient of two electrons in its
outermost shell. If a molecule with a lone pair approaches this
molecule, it can accept the lone pair from that donor and form a
coordinate covalent bond. The lone pair on the nitrogen atom of the .
ammonia molecule makes it a good donor molecule for forming a Skill:4.3
coordinate covalent bond, as shown in the figure. 4.15 and Lewis
Exploring Covalent and
base and acid discussed in ch no 9 . Coordinate covalent bond

+
H H Objective: To analyze the impact of
+ +
bonding type on the melting and boiling
+
H+ N H H ++ N H
+

points of covalent compounds. And

+ +
+
H H understand the conditions under which
adduct covalent compounds can conduct
++ ++ electricity. Draw and interpret the

om
H +F+ +
+ + H + +
+ F+ +
+ + structures of simple covalent molecules
++ ++
H+ N B + F ++ H+ N B +F ++ using dot-and-cross diagrams and Lewis
+

+ + ++
+ +
+F + + +F + dot structures. Evaluate the industrial
H + + ++ H + +
++ applications of materials like graphite
adduct and diamond based on their covalent

r.c
Fig 4.15 In the image displayed, there are two examples of dative covalent structures and properties.
bonding. This kind of bonding occurs when a nitrogen atom from an
ammonia molecule (NH3) donates its lone pair of electrons to form a bond.
In the second example, the lone pair is donated to a boron atom in boron

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trifluoride (BF3), leading to the formation of a stable compound.

4.4 Knowledge
Student Learning Outcomes
Metallic bond
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Define, metallic bonds.
Metals achieve a more stable electronic configuration through a
Metallic bond as strong electrostatic
process called metallic bonding. In this process, the electrons in the
attraction between cloud/sea of
b
outer shell of the metal atoms move freely throughout the structure, delocalized electrons and positively
creating a mobile 'sea' of electrons (as seen in Figure). When these charged cations)
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electrons are lost, the metal atoms form a lattice of positive ions. As a Explain the properties of compounds
result, metals are made up of positive ions surrounded by moving in terms of bonding and structure
electrons. The strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the Justify the availability of free charged
negatively charged electrons and positive metal ions bond them particles (electrons) for conduction of
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together as a single unit, forming the metallic bond. electricity metallic bonds.

e–
e–
e– e–
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e– e–
e– e–
– – e–
e e
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e–

Fig. 4.16 Molecules like other substances. Rather, their atoms interlock
in a lattice structure, held together by unique metallic bonds. This
bonding allows for electron mobility between the atoms. In fact, this Fig 4.17 Many metals are good at
arrangement is what contributes to the malleability and conductivity of conducting electricity because their
metals. In a diagram of metallic bonding, you'll see a cluster of electrons can move freely. Copper is
positively charged metal ions closely packed together in a sea of one of the best conductors. It's used to
delocalized electrons, indicated by the "-" signs. The "+" signs, on the make the wires that carry power around
our homes
other hand, signify the presence of cations.
Chemical Bonding 88
 Force Properties of metals
applied
here • Metals conduct electricity because of the movement of mobile
electrons within their structure. When connected in a circuit, the
electrons move towards the positive terminal, while at the same
Before time, electrons are fed into the other end of the metal from the
negative terminal.
• In addition to their conductivity, metals are also malleable and
ductile. Unlike the rigid bonds in diamond, metallic bonds are

After
Fig. 4.18 The picture shows how metal
changes shape when pushed or pulled.
Some metals can stretch without breaking,
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strong but flexible. When a force is applied to a metal, rows of ions
can slide over one another as shown in figure 4.18, repositioning
themselves to form new strong bonds. This property allows metals
to be bent or hammered into different shapes, and pulled out into
thin wires.

which is important for making things like
wires. The atoms in the metal can move
around while staying connected, letting us
shape it into sheets easily.
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• Metals are good at conducting heat, which makes them ideal for
making pans. When you touch a metal object, it conducts heat away
from your skin, which is why metals feel cold.

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• Metals are usually malleable, which means we can hammer them
Test your self into thin sheets of foil or stretch them out to make wires.
What is metallic bonding?
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Why do metals have high melting
points?
Why do metals conduct electricity?
b
Why are metals malleable and
ductile?
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Skill:4.4
Identifying the differences between
coordinate covalent, covalent, and
• Metal also tend to have high melting and boiling points, owing to
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metallic bonds in terms of electron

the strong attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile
sharing and distribution.
'sea' of electrons. Finally, metals have high densities, as their atoms
are closely packed in a regular manner. Different metals have
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different types of atom packing, resulting in unique arrangements of

ions.

4.5 Knowledge
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Student Learning Outcomes

Explain the properties of compounds
in terms of bonding and structure
Compare uses and properties of
materials such as strength and
conductivity as determined by the
type of chemical bond present
between their atoms.
Comparative Analysis of Ionic and Covalent
Bonds in Materials
The table summarizes five different types of structures. During the
earlier discussion in this chapter, we covered metallic, molecular,
covalent, ionic, and coordinate covalent bonds and their structures.
Now, we will summarize their relevant knowledge in this table.

89 Chemical Bonding
 Coordinate
Metallic Molecular Covalent Ionic Covalent
Bonds

Which Metals and alloys Many non-metal Diamond Most compounds molecules such as
+
substances have elements Most Graphite made from a NH4, where a
this structure compounds made Silicon combination of nitrogen atom
from a combination Silicon dioxide metals with donates an electron
+
of non-metals non-metals pair to a H .

Melting and High as it requires a Low as it requires Very high as High as it is There B.P and M.P

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lot of energy to little energy to It requires a lot requires a lot of are vary but are
boiling points
overcome the strong overcome the Of energy to energy to overcome generally moderate
attraction between weak forces Break lots of the strong attraction since the bonds are
the positive nucleus between Strong covalent between the positive strong, though
of the metal atoms molecules Bonds and negative ions typically not as
and delocalised strong as ionic
electrons bonds.

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Electrical Conductor as outer Non-conductor Non-conductor Solid = non- Solid coordination
shell electrons are as molecules are (except graphite) conductor as ions compounds are
conductivity
delocalised and can neutral and there as there are no cannot move typically
carry charge are no delocalised delocalised liquid/solution = non-conductive, but
through the metal electrons electrons conductor as ions can conduct

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(graphite does can move and carry electricity in
have delocalised the charge solution if they
electrons) dissociate into ions.

Made of a giant Made up of many Made of a giant Made of a giant A coordinate

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Description of
lattice of metal separate molecules. lattice of atoms lattice of positive covalent bond forms
structure
atoms with a cloud The atoms within joined to each other and negative ions. when one atom
of delocalised outer each molecule are by covalent bonds There are strong donates both shared
shell electrons. joined by covalent electrostatic forces electrons to another,
b
There are strong bonds. There are no of attraction completing octets,
forces of attraction bonds between between the commonly observed
between the positive molecules. There are positive and in Lewis acid-base
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nucleus of the metal only weak forces of negative ions interactions.

atoms and the attraction between
delocalised electrons the molecules

Challange Skill:4.5
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For each of the following substances, state the type of bonding and the Comparative Analysis of Ionic and
type of structure it is likely to have: Covalent Bonds in Materials
a) diamond (C) b) lead carbonate (PbCO3) Objective: Analyze and compare the
impact of ionic and covalent bonding on
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c) phosphorus oxide (P4O10) d) copper (Cu)

the physical properties of compounds,
Testing the electrical conductivity of ionic and molecular such as melting and boiling points,
strength, and conductivity.
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covalent substances
By passing an electric current through different materials using
graphite as an electrode, we can predict the nature of bonding of a
Student Learning Outcomes
given material. Let's perform an experiment and based on the
Interpret the strength of forces of
observations, we can predict the nature of the material.
attraction and their impact on melting
Testing the electricalconductivity of ionic and covalentsubstances and boiling points of ionic and
The apparatus was set up as shown in the diagram to investigate the covalent compounds.
electrical conductivity of a number of compounds in aqueous
solution.
Chemical Bonding 90
 6v

Cathode (+) Anode

(-)

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Graphite
electrodes

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Test
solution

Does the Does the substance in solution Does the substance in solution
Solution

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bulb light? conduct electricity? contain ionic or covalent bonding?

Glucose (C6H12O6 ) (aq) No

Potassium chloride (aq) Yes
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Calcium chloride (aq) Yes
Sodium iodide (aq) Yes
b
Ethanol (C2H5OH) (aq) No
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Copper (II) sulfate (aq) Yes

Pure water (aq) No
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) (aq) No
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Nitric Acid HNO3 (aq) Yes

Why do you think ionic compounds conduct electricity in aqueous solution, as indicated by the lit bulb in the
experiment?
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If the bulb does not light up for a substance, what does that suggest about the type of particles in its solution?
What might be the underlying cause for the non-conductivity of ethanol despite it being a liquid?
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Can you deduce why hydrochloric acid (HCl) doesn't conduct electricity as a pure substance but does so when
dissolved in water?
How would the experiment's results differ if you used a solid block of potassium chloride instead of its solution, and
why?
From the data provided, how can the electrical conductivity test help distinguish between ionic and covalent
compounds?
Write a conclusion for this experiment Using your answers to columns three and four in the results table.
Would the results be different if solid potassium chloride was used instead of potassium chloride solution?
Explain your answer. What is the reason for using graphite electrodes instead of diamond?

91 Chemical Bonding
 Noble Gas Configuration and Octet/Duplet Rules Help predict the chemical properties of elements by aiming for a
full outer shell of electrons.
Cations are formed by losing electrons, and anions are formed by gaining electrons.
Metals are electropositive (tend to lose electrons), while non-metals are electronegative (tend to gain electrons).
Ionic Bonds: Between metals and non-metals through electron transfer.
Covalent Bonds: Between non-metals through electron sharing.
Coordinate Covalent Bonds: One atom provides both electrons in a covalent bond.

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Metallic Bonds: Between metals, with delocalized electrons.
Ionic compounds have high melting/boiling points and conduct electricity when molten or in solution, while covalent
compounds have lower melting/boiling points and generally do not conduct electricity.
Chemical bonding type affects properties like strength, conductivity, and melting/boiling points.

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Ionic compounds conduct when molten or in solution.
Covalent compounds generally do not conduct, except some that ionize in water.
Metals conduct due to free-moving electrons.
Graphite, diamond, and metals are used for their unique properties like conductivity and strength.

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Cations are formed by losing electrons, and anions are formed by gaining electrons.
Metals are electropositive (tend to lose electrons), while non-metals are electronegative (tend to gain electrons).
Chemical bonding type affects properties like strength, conductivity, and melting/boiling points.
lis
Strength of Forces of Attraction: Influences melting and boiling points.
Ionic compounds conduct when molten or in solution.
Covalent compounds generally do not conduct, except some that ionize in water.
b
Metals conduct due to free-moving electrons.
Graphite, diamond, and metals are used for their unique properties like conductivity and strength.
pu

Exercise
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A Encircle the most suitable answer.

1 Which statement is NOT true about Cation/anion formation:
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a) Metals lose, non-metals gain electrons. b) Charge based on gained/lost electrons. Achapter
detailed summary,
roadmap,
c) Stability influenced by valence shell. d) Lower energy state drives the process. multiple projects,
and extensive
2 Which of the following statement highlights the electropositive nature of metals: exercises are
accessible via
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a) Form cations (ionic bonds) b) Share electrons covalently QR code.

c) Gain electrons (anions) d) Strong polar covalent forces

3 Pick out the correct relation between bonding type and properties:
a) Ionic - brittle due to strong forces b) Covalent - high m.p./b.p. due to weak forces
c) Metallic - good conductors (heat & electricity)
d) coordinate covalent-ionise in water due to strong forces
4 Choose the incorrect statement about electrical conductivity:
a) Ionic melts/solutions conduct due to ions. b) Covalent molecules poor conductors in all states.
c) Some ionic solids conduct due to mobile ions.

Chemical Bonding 92
 d) Metallic bonding allows conduction via delocalized electrons.
5 Diamond and graphite both are solids made of carbon. However, there is huge difference between their melting
and boiling points. Why? Pick up the correct reason.
a) Covalent sharing requires more energy to break.
b) Stronger electrostatic forces in NaCl.
c) Diamond's structure hinders movement, NaCl ions move freely.
d) Size difference between ions and atoms.
6 Beside consisting of similar constituent element, their properties are different. Why?

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a) Graphite - strong covalent layers, diamond - weak metallic bonds.
b) Graphite - delocalized electrons (metallic) for conductivity.
c) Diamond - strong covalent network restricts movement (hardness).
d) Graphite - weak van der Waals forces allow layers to slide (soft).
7 Why are metals good conductors of electricity?

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a) Free movement of electrons due to metallic bonding.
b) Strong ionic attractions hinder electron movement.
c) Covalent bonds restrict electron and heat mobility.
d) Weak van der Waals forces limit energy and charged particle transfer.
8 What is the main characteristic of metallic bonding?
a) Sharing of electrons between nonmetals
b) Transfer of electrons from metals to nonmetals he
lis
c) Electrostatic attraction between a sea of delocalized electrons and positively charged cations
d) Strong intermolecular forces between neutral molecules
9 Which property allows metals to be drawn into wires?
b
a) High melting point b) Low electrical conductivity
c) Ductility d) Insolubility in water
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10 What type of bond is formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons?
a) Ionic bond b) Covalent bond c) Metallic bond d) Hydrogen bond

B Answer the following question briefly.

ab

1 Use the diagrams and your knowledge of structure and bonding to answer the following questions.
(a) Explain why both diamond and graphite have high melting points. C

(b) Explain why graphite is used in pencil 'leads' for writing. C C

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C
C
(c) Explain why diamond is used on the tips of high-speed drills.
Look carefully at Figures 1and 2.
2 Use this diagram to explain the main features of metallic bonding.
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(a) Explain why metals are good conductors of electricity.

(b) Explain why, in general, metals have high melting points.
3 Nitrogen is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. It forms covalent molecules with the formula N2 Which of
the following dot-and-cross diagrams best represents a nitrogen molecule?
××
× × ×
N × N ×
N × N × N × N N × N ××
× ×
×× × ×

93 Chemical Bonding
4 The diagrams show two different structures of the Group 4 element carbon and two compounds of Group 4
elements.
(a) Which two of the diagrams represent different structures of the element carbon?
(b) The substances are carbon dioxide, diamond, graphite and silicon dioxide. Name each substance, A to D.
(c) Name the type of bonding which occurs between the atoms in all of the substances A to D.
(d) Name the type of structure for each substance A to D.
a. b. c. d.

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4 Analyze the differences in melting and boiling points between ionic and covalent compounds.
5 Sodium chloride (NaCl) readily dissolves in water, whereas diamond (C) does not. Give reason for this
observation based on the intermolecular forces and bonding present in each substance.

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6 Why ionic compounds are typically brittle?
7 Design a Lewis structure for the molecule ammonia (NH3) and polarity.
8 What are the factors that influence the mobility of charged particles and their ability to conduct electricity in solid
and molten states?
lis
C Long questions
b
1 Compare and highlight the distinctive properties that set ionic compounds apart from covalent compounds.
2 Discuss the reasons behind metals being electropositive and nonmetals being electronegative.
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3 Provide examples of giant covalent solids and explain their everyday applications.
4 Use diagrams to demonstrate how coordinate covalent bonds form between atoms.
5 Detail the unique properties of metallic bonds and how they influence the behavior of metals.
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Substance Melting point in °C Boiling point in °C Type of bonding present

N2 –210 –196
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CS2 –112 46
NH3 –78 –34
Br2 –7 59 covalent
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LiCI 605 1137

Cu 1084 2562
complete the table by determining whether the bonding in each substance is ionic, covalent, or metallic. Identify
the element that is solid at room temperature. Also, state the compound that is a liquid, and the one that is a gas at
room temperature. Lastly, indicate the element that will condense into a liquid state when cooled to room
temperature from 100°C.)

Chemical Bonding 94
D Reason-Assertion type questions
In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason ®.
Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions given below:
a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A
b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
c) If A is correct and R is wrong
d) If A is wrong and R is correct

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1. Assertion (A): Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
Reason (R): Ionic bonds involve strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

2. Assertion (A): Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity in either solid or molten state.
Reason (R): Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms.

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3. Assertion (A): Metallic bonds exhibit high thermal and electrical conductivity.
Reason (R): Metallic bonds involve a sea of delocalized electrons that can move freely.

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4. Assertion (A): Graphite is used as a lubricant in industrial applications.
Reason (R): Graphite has a layered structure with weak forces between the layers, allowing them to slide
over each other easily.
lis
5. Assertion (A): Diamonds are used in cutting tools due to their hardness.
Reason (R): Diamonds have a tightly packed crystal lattice structure made of carbon atoms bonded
covalently in a tetrahedral arrangement.
b
6. Assertion (A): Metals are commonly used for wires and sheets in various industries.
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Reason (R): Metals have high malleability and ductility due to the presence of metallic bonds.

7. Assertion (A): The strength of forces of attraction in ionic compounds leads to high melting and boiling points.
Reason (R): Ionic compounds have a lattice structure formed by the strong electrostatic attraction between
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ions.

8. Assertion (A): Covalent compounds like water (H2O) do not conduct electricity.
Reason (R): Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms, creating localized bonds rather
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than free-moving charged particles.

9. Assertion (A): Some substances, like acids, ionize when dissolved in water and can conduct electricity.
Reason (R): When dissolved in water, acids dissociate into ions, which are free to carry electric charge.
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10. Assertion (A): Dot-and-cross diagrams and Lewis dot structures are useful tools for representing the structure
and formation of both ionic and covalent compounds.
Reason (R): These diagrams help illustrate the arrangement of electrons in chemical bonds and predict
molecular geometry.

95 Chemical Bonding
 CHAPTER

5 Stoichiometry

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r.c
he
lis
It is worth noting that Stoichiometry, which refers to the ratios of
combination, plays a crucial role in the development of
medicines. The good news is that the survival rates of the ten most
b
common pediatric cancers have dramatically increased in the last
half-century, thanks to earlier detection and improved treatment
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options. St. Jude Children's Research Hospital has been at the

forefront of this progress. One of the key drugs used in such
treatments is cisplatin.
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Welcome to stoichiometry, the essence of quantitative chemistry. This

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chapter delves into the fundamental principles guiding chemical reactions,

from balancing equations to quantitative analysis. Mastering the concept
of the mole enables a seamless transition between macroscopic and
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molecular scales, essential for predicting yields and identifying limiting

reactants. Stoichiometry also unveils the art of formulating and
interpreting chemical equations, providing skills for predicting and
optimizing real-world reactions. Whether you are exploring analytical,
physical, or theoretical chemistry, stoichiometry serves as your
foundational tool, offering a profound grasp of the quantitative language of
chemistry. Join us on this enlightening journey, laying the groundwork for
advanced studies

Stoichiometry 96
 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Define molecular formula of a compound as the number and type of different atoms in one molecule.
Define empirical formula of a compound as the simplest whole number ratio of different atoms in a Molecule.
Deduce the formula and name of a binary ionic compounds from ions given relevant information
Deduce the formula of a molecular substance from the given structure of molecules.
Use the relationship amount of substance = mass / molar mass to calculate number of moles, mass, molar mass,
relative mass (atomic/molecular/formula) and number of particles.
23
Define mole as amount of substance containing Avogadro's number (6.02x10 ) of partials.
Explain the relationship between a mole and Avogadro's constant.

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Construct chemical equations and ionic equations to show reactants forming products, including state symbols.
Deduce the symbol equation with state symbols for a chemical reaction given relevant information.

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.

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After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge Skills

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5.1 Chemical Formula Fundamentals
Differentiating between the molecular and empirical
formulas of compounds, which represent the exact
number and types of atoms in a molecule and the
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simplest ratio of these atoms, respectively.
Additionally, we will explore how to deduce the
formulas and names of binary ionic compounds
b
based on given ions, as well as how to determine the
formula of a molecular substance from its molecular
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Skill 5.1
Analyse and identify the distinctions between
molecular and empirical formulas of compounds,
deduce the names and formulas of binary ionic
compounds from given ions, and determine the
molecular formula from the structure of molecular
substances.
Skill 5.2
Analyze and identify the calculations of number of

structure. moles, mass, molar mass, and number of particles

5.2 Quantitative Chemistry: using the fundamental relationships between these
How to calculate the number of moles, mass, molar quantities, and understand the mole concept through
mass, and the number of particles using the Avogadro's number within the context of chemistry
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relationship between the amount of substance, mass, Skill 5.3

and molar mass. Additionally, we will define the Construct and analyse chemical and ionic equations,
mole in terms of Avogadro's number and explore the including state symbols, to accurately represent the
significance of this relationship in chemistry. transformation of reactants into products, and
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5.3 Crafting Chemical Equations deduce symbol equations for chemical reactions
How to construct chemical and ionic equations with from given information.
state symbols to represent the transformation of
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reactants into products, and deduce symbol

equations for chemical reactions using provided
information.

97 Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry: The Numbers Game of Chemistry
Stoichiometry is a fundamental concept in chemistry that plays a
crucial role in determining the quantities of reactants required to
produce a specific amount of product. It's like cooking a new dish -
you need to know the right amount of ingredients, or it can lead to a
disaster. By mastering stoichiometry, you can predict the outcome of
chemical reactions, balance chemical equations, optimize reaction
conditions, and troubleshoot any issues that may arise. Whether
you're a student or a professional chemist, understanding

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stoichiometry is an essential skill that will help you succeed in the
field. By mastering this "numbers game," you can unlock doors to
various fields like chemical engineering, pharmacy, environmental
science, and biochemistry. Stoichiometry is the quantitative

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language of chemistry that empowers you to predict, analyze, and
control reactions. It's not just about memorizing numbers; it's about
using them to unlock the fascinating world of chemical
transformations! Before diving into stoichiometry, it's important to

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understand how elements combine with each other to form chemical
formulas for molecular and ionic compounds.

5.1 Knowledge
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Chemical Formula Fundamentals
Let's explore the art of writing chemical formulas for both molecular Student Learning Outcomes
b
and ionic compounds. With this knowledge, you'll be able to easily Define molecular formula of a
generate formulas from any given information. Are you ready to compound as the number and type of
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master this skill? Let's get started! different atoms in one molecule.
Molecules and it types Define empirical formula of a
compound as the simplest whole
As we discussed in the previous chapter, molecules are formed
number ratio of different atoms in a
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through the chemical combination of atoms and represent the smallest

molecule.
unit of a substance that can exist independently. There are various Deduce the formula and name of a
types of molecules, which depend on the number and types of atoms binary ionic compounds from ions
that combine. Here are a few examples: a molecule consisting of only given relevant information.
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one atom is a monoatomic molecule. Inert gases like helium, neon, and Deduce the formula of a molecular
argon exist independently in atomic form and are considered substance from the given structure of
monoatomic molecules. A molecule with two atoms is a diatomic molecules.
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molecule, such as hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), chlorine (Cl2), and

hydrogen chloride (HCl). If a molecule consists of three atoms, it is a
triatomic molecule, such as H2O and CO2. Molecules with many
atoms are called polyatomic, for example, methane (CH4), sulphuric
acid (H2SO4), and glucose (C6H12O6). When a molecule contains the
same type of atoms, it is called a homoatomic molecule, such as
hydrogen (H2), ozone (O3), Sulphur (S8), and phosphorus (P4). On the
other hand, when a molecule consists of different kinds of atoms, it is
referred to as a heteroatomic molecule, like CO, H2O, and NH3.
Stoichiometry 98
 Deriving Molecular Formulas from Structural Diagrams
O Chemistry is a fascinating subject that helps us understand the
composition and properties of different substances.
H H
A crucial skill for any chemist is the ability to deduce the chemical
formula of a molecular substance from its structural representation.
In the previous chapter, we discussed how to draw and represent the
structural diagram of different molecules. Now, we will learn how to
H H deduce formulas from their structures and name them. Let's explore

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some examples, let's consider water (H2O). By looking at the
H C C OH structural representation of water, which is often depicted as two
hydrogen atoms (2H) bonded to one oxygen atom (O), we can deduce
H H that the chemical formula is H2O. This formula tells us that every
water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.

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Another example is ethanol (C2H5OH), which is a common
molecular substance found in alcoholic beverages. Its structural
diagram reveals two carbon atoms (2C), six hydrogen atoms (6H),
H
and one oxygen atom (O). By analyzing this structure, we can deduce

H C H
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that the chemical formula is C2H5OH. This formula shows that each
ethanol molecule consists of two carbon atoms, five hydrogen atoms,
and one oxygen atom.
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H Methane (CH4) is a simple hydrocarbon compound that is widely
used as a fuel. Its structural diagram consists of one carbon atom
bonded to four hydrogen atoms. From this arrangement, we can
b
deduce that the chemical formula is CH4. This formula tells us that
each methane molecule contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen
O = C =O
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atoms.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is another important molecular substance that
is a product of combustion processes and a greenhouse gas. Its
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structural diagram shows one carbon atom double-bonded to two

oxygen atoms. By analyzing this structure, we can deduce that the
H N H chemical formula is CO2. This formula indicates that each carbon
dioxide molecule contains one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
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H Finally, let's consider ammonia (NH3), which is a compound

commonly used in household cleaners. Its structural diagram reveals
one nitrogen atom (N) bonded to three hydrogen atoms (3H). From
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this structure, we can deduce that the chemical formula is NH3. This
formula tells us that each ammonia molecule consists of one nitrogen
atom and three hydrogen atoms. By understanding the types and
numbers of atoms present in a substance, we can deduce its chemical
formula and gain insight into its properties and behavior. This skill is
essential for chemists and anyone interested in understanding the
composition and properties of various compounds encountered in
chemistry.

99 Stoichiometry
Writing Names of Molecular Compounds Challange
When it comes to naming a molecular compound, there are certain Name each of the following molecular
rules that you need to follow. First, you name the first nonmetal in the compounds:
formula by its element name. Second, name the second nonmetal a. SiBr4 b. Br2O c. S3N2
with the first syllable of its element name, followed by the suffix
"ide". If a subscript indicates two or more atoms of an element, then a
prefix should be used before naming the element. Prefix used in
naming molecular compounds can be found in the table below.
Molecular compounds require prefix because several different

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compounds can be formed using the same two nonmetals. For
example, carbon and oxygen can form carbon monoxide (CO) and
carbon dioxide (CO2), in which the prefix "mono" or "di" indicate the
number of atoms of oxygen in each compound. If the vowels "o" and

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"o" or "a" and "o" appear together, then the first vowel is omitted from
the name of the molecular compound. For instance, carbon monoxide
is named without the first "o". Generally, the prefix "mono" is omitted
from the name of a molecular compound, such as in the case of

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nitrogen oxide (NO2), although traditionally (CO)is still named as
carbon monoxide. The table 5.1 provided below lists the formulas
,names, and commercial uses of some molecular compounds.
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Table 5.1: Some molecular compound with their name and formula
Formula Name Commercial Uses
b
CO2 Carbon dioxide Fire extinguishers, dry ice, propellant in aerosols, Carbonation of
beverages
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CS2 Carbon disulfide Manufacture of rayon

NO Nitrogen oxide Stabilizer, biochemical messenger in cells

N2O Dinitrogen oxide Inhalation anesthetic, “laughing gas”
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SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride Electrical circuits

SO2 Sulfur dioxide Preserving fruits, vegetables; disinfectant in breweries, bleaching
textiles,
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SO3 Sulfur trioxide Manufacture of explosives

NH3 Nitrogen trioxide Major used in nitrogen fertilizer
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H2O Oxygen trioxide Large amounts of water are used mostly to produce food, paper,
chemicals and sustained a life on earth.

Writing Formulas from the Names of Molecular Sample Problem 1

Compounds
Write the Formulas for Molecular
In the name of a molecular compound, the names of two nonmetals Compounds
are given along with prefix for the number of atoms of each. To write
Try it first Write the formula for molecular
the formula from the name, we use the symbol for each element and a
compound diboron trioxide
subscript if a prefix indicates two or more atoms.
Stoichiometry 100
Solution Empirical and molecular formula
Given Need Connect After learning about the structure and molecular formulas of
Diboron Formula Subscripts compounds, as well as how to name them, we will now discuss the
trioxide form prefixes two types of chemical formulas: empirical formulas and molecular
formulas. The simplest type of formula is the empirical formula,
Step 1 : Write the symbol in the order of
the elements in the name. which represents the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a
compound. On the other hand, molecules are formed by the
Name of Element Boron Oxygen combination of atoms and are represented by molecular formulas that
show the actual number of atoms of each element present in a

Symbol of Element B O
Step 2: Write any prefixes as subscripts.
The prefix di in diboron indicates that there
are two atoms of boron, shown as a
subscript 2 in the formula. The prefix tri
om
molecule of that compound. The molecular formula is derived from
the empirical formula by the following relationship:
Molecular formula (M.F) = (Empirical formula × n)
where n is 1, 2, 3, and so on. For instance, the molecular formula of

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intrioxide indicates that there are three benzene is C6H6,which is derived from the empirical formula CH
atoms of oxygen, shown as a subscript 3 in where the value of n is 6.
the formula. B2O3
M.F = 6 × CH = (C6H6)

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Table 5.2 Empirical formula molecular formula of some molecules

Name Diagram of Molecular Formula (gives the Empirical formula (gives the
Molecule number of items of each simplest ratio of the atoms of
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element in each molecule each element in the substance)

Butane H H H H C4H10 C2H5

There are 4 C atoms and 10 H
b
H C C C C H Simplest ratio of C : H = 2 : 5
atoms in each molecule
H H H H
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Water H2O H2O

O There are 2 H atoms and 1 O atom Simplest ratio of H : O = 2 : 1
H H
in each molecule
ab

H
C6H6 CH
Benzene H C H There are 6 C atoms, 6 H atoms Simplest ratio of C : H = 1 : 1
C C
in each molecule
H C C C H
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Challange
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Write the molecular formula of glucose that have empirical formula CH2O. While the value of n= 6.
Write the formula for molecular compound Sulfur trioxide.
a. Phosphorus pentachloride
b. Phosphorus trichloride.
c. iodine pentafluoride
d. carbon disulphide
Before discussing the formula of a binary ionic compound, please read the information provided in the further
reading box below

101 Stoichiometry
 Further Reading relationship between the periodic table and the charges exhibited by elements

As we discuss in previous chapter The elements in groups 1, 2, and 3 have a tendency to lose one, two, and three electrons,
respectively, when forming ions. This is because they strive to achieve the same number of electrons as the nearest noble
gas, like Na+ and Mg2+. By shedding electrons, they attain this desired number. K+, Ca2+, and Sc3+ are similar in that they
have 18 electrons, just like the nearest noble gas, argon. The elements in group 13 follow suit and lose three electrons to
3+
form cations, like Al . In this way, they also achieve the same number of electrons as the noble gas closest to them on the
periodic table. The most common ion formed by lanthanides and actinides, formally grouped as 3, is M3+, with M
representing the metal. On the other hand, the elements in groups 17, 16, and 15 tend to gain one, two, and three electrons,
- 2- 3-
respectively, when forming ions. This leads to the formation of monatomic ions, like Cl , S , and P , which contain only

om
one atom. You can predict the charges of most monatomic ions derived from the main group elements by looking at the
periodic table. Simply count how many columns an element lies from the extreme left or right. For example, Barium (in
Group 2) forms Ba2+ to have the same number of electrons as its nearest noble gas, xenon. Oxygen (in Group 16) forms O2-
to have the same number of electrons as neon. Similarly, cesium (in Group 1) forms Cs+ to have the same number of
electrons as xenon further below you'll find a table that shows different elements grouped according to their charges.

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However, this method is ineffective for most of the transition metals, but we will delve into this topic in higher classes.
1 18
1A 8A
+ 2 13 14 15 16 17
H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A

he
+ - O2- 2-
3
Li N F
+ 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3+ -
3 -
Na Mg2+ 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Al S Cl
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Cr + Mn + Fe3+ Co3+ Ni3+ Cu3+ Zn -
lis
+ 2+
K Ca
Cr3 Mn3 Fe Co Ni Cu Br
+ 2+ + 2+ -
Rb Sr Ag Cd I
+
+ 2+ Ag3+ 2+
Hg
b
Cs Ba Ag
pu

Determining Formulas and Names of Binary Ionic Compounds

Binary ionic compounds consist of two elements a positively charged metal cation and a negatively charged non-
metal anion. These compounds are created by the transfer of electrons from the metal to the non-metal, resulting
in ions that are held together in a lattice structure by strong electrostatic forces. The overall charge of the
ab

compound is neutral, as the total positive charge of the cations is balanced by the total negative charge of the
anions. To determine the formula of a binary ionic compound, we use the charges of the metal and non-metal ions
to achieve electrical neutrality by balancing the required ion ratio. The table 5.3 below lists the common ions
along with their charges.
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Table 5.3 List of some common ions of group one , 2 ,3 ,6, 7 and other along their charge
ca

Group 1,2 ions Group 3 ions (form 3+ Group 6,7 ions

(form (1+, 2+)ions) ions and some other) (form (2–),(1–) ions) Others

Li+ lithium Al3+ Aluminium O2– Oxide Fe3+ iron (III)

Na+ sodium Ga3+ Gallium S2– Sulfide Pb2+ lead
K+ potassium In3+ Indium F– Fluoride Ag+ silver
Mg2+ Magnesium Tl3+ Thallium Cl– Chloride Zn2+ zinc
Ca2+ Calcium NH4+ Ammonium Br– Bromide CO2– Carbonate
Ba2+ Barium Cu2+ Copper(II) I– Iodide OH– Hydroxide
H+ Hydrogen NO– Nitrate

Stoichiometry 102
 In an ionic substance the total number of positive charges must equal
the total number of negative charges. This allows us to work out the
formula of ionic substances.

5.1

Sodium oxide: contains sodium ions (Na+) and oxide ions (O2–)

There must be the same number of Na

+
O
2– Formula = Na2O
positive and negative charges, so Na+

om
we need two Na+ ions (total of two
positive charges) for every one O2–
ion (two negative charges)

Solution

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Iron(III) sulfi de: contains iron(III) ions (Fe3+) and sulfide ions (S2–)
There must be the same number of Fe3+ S2– Formula = Fe2S3
positive and negative charges, so Fe3+ S2–
S2–

he
3+
we need two Fe ions (total of six
2–
positive charges) for every three S
ions (six negative charges)
lis
Some ions contain atoms of different elements. Examples include
sulfate (SO4–2), hydroxide (OH–) and nitrate (NO3–). These are
sometimes called compound ions or molecular ions. If you need to
b
Skill:5.1 write more than one of these in a formula, then these ions should be
Identification of Molecular placed in a bracket.
pu

Formula and their name

Objective: Analyse and identify the 5.2
distinctions between molecular and
empirical formulas of compounds, Magnesium hydroxide: contains magnesium ions (Mg2+) and
ab

–
deduce the names of the molecular hydroxide ions (OH )
formula from the structure of molecular Solution
substances.
Instructions: An activity based There must be the same number of Mg2+ OH– Formula
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worksheet is attached in the given QR positive and negative charges, so OH– = Mg(OH)2
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet we need one Mg2+ ion (total of two
and solve it. positive charges) for every two
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OH– ions (two negative charges)

Table 5.4 Some ionic compound with their charge and formula
Name + Ions – Ions Formula
+ –
Sodium chloride Na (1 + charge) Cl (1– charge) NaCl
–
Magnesium chloride Mg 2+
(2++charges)
(2 charge) Cl (2– charges) MgCl2
Cl–

103 Stoichiometry
 2+ 2–
Magnesium sulfide Mg (2+ charges) S (2– charges) MgS
2–
Copper(II) sulfate Cu 2+
(2+ charges) SO 4 (2– charges) CuSO4
Na+ (2+ charges) CO32– (2– charges) Na2CO3
Sodium carbonate
Na+
NH+4 (2+ charges) 2–
(2– charges) (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium sulfate SO4
NH+4
Calcium nitrate Ca2+ (2+ charges) NO–3 (2– charges) Ca(NO3)2
NO–3
2–
O

om
Al3+ (6+ charges) (6– charges) Al2O3
Aluminium oxide 3+ O2–
Al
O2–
OH–
–
Iron(III) hydroxide Fe3+ (3+ charges) OH (3– charges) Fe(OH)3
OH–

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Practice Problems

Ionic Compounds
Which of the following pairs of elements are likely to form an ionic compound?
a. lithium and chlorine
b. oxygen and bromine d. sodium and neon
he
c. potassium and oxygen e. cesium and magnesium
f. nitrogen and fluorine
Write the correct ionic formula for the compound formed between each of the following pairs of ions:
lis
3+ – 2+ 2– + 2–
a. Al and Cl b. Ca and S c. Li and S
d. Rb+ and P3– e. Cs+ and I–
b

5.2 Knowledge
pu

Quantitative Chemistry
Are you ready to expand your knowledge on chemistry? Join us as we
delve into the fascinating world of mole calculations. In this session,
ab

we will explore how to calculate the number of moles, mass, molar

mass, and particles using the relationship between the amount of
substance, mass, and molar mass.
Our journey will also take us to the definition of mole in terms of
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Student Learning Outcomes

Avogadro's number, and the pivotal role it plays in chemistry. Get
Use the relationship amount of
ready to unlock a world of possibilities with mole calculations!
substance = mass / molar mass to
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When you go to the grocery store, you usually buy items like eggs by calculate number of moles, mass
the dozen or soda by the case. Similarly, in an office supply store, Molar mass, relative mass (atomic /
pencils are typically ordered by the gross and paper by the ream. molecular / formula) and number of
These are standard terms used to count the number of items present. particles
So, when you purchase a dozen eggs, you can be sure that you will Define mole as amount of substance
receive 12 eggs in the carton. containing Avogadro’s number (6.02
× 1023) of partials
Avogadro’s Number ( NA) Explain the relationship between a
In chemistry, particles such as atoms, molecules, and ions are mole and Avogadro's constant
counted by the mole (abbreviated mol in calculations), which
Stoichiometry 104
 contains 6.022 × 1023 items. This value, known as Avogadro’s
number, is a very big number because atoms are so small that it takes
an extremely large number of atoms to provide a sufficient amount to
weigh and use in chemical reactions. Avogadro’s number is named
for Amedeo Avogadro (1776– 1856), an Italian physicist.
Avogadro’s Number
23
6.022 × 10 = 602 200 000 000 000 000 000 000 One mole of any
element always contains Avogadro’s number of atoms.

om
For example,
1 mol of carbon (C) = 6.022 ×1023 carbon atoms;
1 mol of aluminum (Al) = 6.022 × 1023 aluminum atoms;
12 eggs = 1 dozen 1 mol of sulfur (S) = 6.022 × 1023 sulfur atoms.
144 pencils 500 sheets

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= 1 gross = 1 ream 1 mol of water (H2O) = 6.022 × 1023 molecule .
23
Fig. 5.1 Collections of items include dozen, 1 mol of sodium chloride (NaCl) = 6.022 × 10 formula unit .
-
gross, ream, and mole. 1 mol of hydroxide ion (OH ) = 6.022 × 1023 ions .

Key term
Mole Measurement of the amount of a
substance.
Avogadro constant The number of
atoms, molecules or ions in one mole of a
given substance (the value of the
b
Avogadro constant is 6.02 × 1023).
pu
he
23
1 mol of an element = 6.022 × 10 atoms of that element Avogadro’s
23
number tells us that 1 mol of a compound contains 6.022 × 10 of the
particular type of particles that make up that compound. One mole of
a molecular compound contains Avogadro’s number of molecules.
lis
For example, 1 mol of CO2 contains 6.022 × 1023 molecules of CO2.
For an ionic compound, 1 mol contains Avogadro’s number of
formula units, which are the groups of ions represented by its
formula. For the ionic formula, NaCl, 1 mol contains 6.022 × 1023
formula units of NaCl (Na+, Cl-). Table (5.5) gives examples of the

number of particles in some 1-mol quantities

Table 5.5 Number of Particles in 1-Mol Quantities
Substance Number and Type of Particles
ab

1 mol of Al 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Al

1 mol of Fe 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Fe
nt

1 mol of water (H2O) 6.022 × 1023 molecules of H2O

Think of it this way 1 mol of vitamin C (C6H8O6) 6.022 × 1023 molecules of vitamin C
Atomic mass, formula unit mass, and 1 mol of NaCl 6.022 × 1023 formula units of NaCl
ca

ionic mass are collectively referred to as

molar mass for practicality in chemistry.
1 mol of K3PO4 6.022 × 1023 formula units of K3PO4

Mass-mole conversation
Molecules and atoms are too small to weigh on a balance. In order to
weigh substances in the laboratory, we need to use Avogadro's
number of particles for 1 mol of substance. Molar mass is the
quantity in grams that is equivalent to the atomic mass of any
element. For instance, carbon has an atomic mass of 12.01 on the

105 Stoichiometry
periodic table, which means that 1 mol of carbon atoms weighs 12.01
g. Therefore, to obtain 1 mol of carbon atoms, we need to weigh out
12.01 g of carbon. Essentially, the molar mass of any element is
determined by checking its atomic mass on the periodic table. By
weighing out the number of grams equal to its molar mass, we’re
counting 6.022 × 1023 atoms of that particular element.

om
r.c
he
12.01 g of C atoms 47 6 16
The molar mass of an element
is obtained from the periodic
Ag C S
107.9 12.01 32.07
table.
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1 mol of C atoms
1 mol of 1 mol of 1 mol of
silver carbon atoms sulfur
atoms has a has a mass atoms has a
mass of of 12.01 g mass of
b
23
6.022 X 10 atoms of C 107.9 g 32.07 g

Molar Mass of a Compound Sample Problem 2

pu

To find the molar mass of a compound, you need to calculate the Calculate the molar mass of
glucose (C6H12O6 )
sum of the molar masses of all the elements in the compound. To
SOLUTION
do this, you can multiply the molar mass of each
Molar mass = 12 × 6 + 1 × 12 + 16 × 6
ab

element by the number of atoms of that element in the compound,

= 180gmol-1
and then add all the results together. For example, you can refer to
Sample Problem ( 2,3) for a clear understanding of the process. In Sample Problem 3
this text, we prefer to round the molar mass of an element up to the Calculate the molar mass of
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hundredth decimal place (0.01), or use at least four Signiant figure in sugar (C12 H22O11)
all calculations for accurate results. Figure 5.2: shows some 1-mol SOLUTION
quantities of substances and molar mass of one mole of each Molar mass = 12 × 12 + 1 × 22 + 16 × 11 =
ca

subsatance expressed in grand as given below (1-Mol Quantities) 342gmol-1

S (32.07 g) Fe (55.85 g) NaCl (58.44 g) K2Cr2O7 (294.2 g) C12H22O11(342.3 g)

Fig. 5.2 Each beaker contains a 1-mol sample of an different elements or compounds.

Stoichiometry 106
Relation between mass and mole and its
calculation

Mass (g)

Mass (g) = Mr × moles

Mr
´ moles

This formula triangle may help you. Thinking of Mr Moles with a mass

om
Cover up the quantity you want to on his head may help you remember
show the equation you need to use. this triangle

Table 5.6: To understand the calculation of mole,mass and molar mass of different substance

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How many moles Mr of H2O = 2(1) + 16 = 18
in each 180g of H2O mass 180
Moles H2O = = = 10 mol
of the following? Mr 18

Mr of CH4 = 12 + 4(1) = 16
4g of CH4

he
mass 4 = 0.25 mol
Moles CH4 = =
Mr 16

Mr of Fe2O3 = 2(56) + 3(16) = 160

2 kg of Fe2O3
Mass of Fe2O3 = 2 kg = 2 × 1000 g = 2000 g
lis
mass 2000
Moles Fe2O3 = = = 12.5 mol
Mr 160

Mr of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
b
50 mg of NaOH 50
Mass of NaOH = 50 mg = = 0.050g
1000g
pu

mass 0.050
Moles NaOH = = = 0.00125 mol
Mr 40

Mr of CO2 = 12 + 2(16) = 44
What is the mass 20 moles of CO2
Mass CO2 = Mr × moles = 44 × 20 = 880 g
of each
ab

of the following? Mr of Cl2 = 2(35.5) = 71

0.025 moles of Cl2
Mass Cl2 = Mr × moles = 71 × 0.025 = 1.78 g

What is the Mr 3.6 g of a substance is found to Mr = mass = 3.6 = 180

nt

of the following? contain 0.020 mol moles 0.020

Mole-Particle Calculations
ca

In these calculations, we can calculate the number of moles of a

substance from the given number of particles.
(These particles are the atoms, molecules or formula units).

107 Stoichiometry
 On rearranging above equation we get,
Number of particles = number of moles × 6.02 × 1023
Summary of Molar Calculations:

mole × molar mass mole × NA

Mass of Substances Mole Number of Particles

om
known mass number of particles
molar mass NA

Relation between no of Particles and mass

No of Atoms

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Number of Moles
No of Molecules Given mass
Number of Particles = X NA
Atomic , Molar , Formula , Ionic
No of Formula Units mass mass mass mass

he
No of Ions

5.3
lis
There are 3.01 X 1023 molecules of CO present in a container.
Calculate the number of moles and its mass. Skill:5.2
Calculation of mol, mass, molar mass,
Solution
b
We can calculate the number of molecules of CO2 by putting the and number of particles
values in equation Objective: To Identify the calculation
of particles using the fundamental
pu

known number of molecules

relationships between these quantities,
and understand the mole concept
mol through Avogadro's number within the
context of chemistry
ab

Then by putting this value in this equation we get

Test your self

nt

How many atoms of sodium are

present in 3 moles of sodium and
5.4 what is the mass of it?
ca

How many atoms are in 1 amu and

What is a molar mass and the relative molecular mass. 1g of hydrogen (H)?
Solution How many atoms are present in 16g
the molar mass (Mr ) of ethanol, C2H5OH? (Ar: H = 1; C = 12; O = of O and 8g of S?
16). Is the mass of 1 mole of O and 1
One mole of C2H5OH contains 2 moles of carbon atoms, mole of S same?
6 moles of hydrogen atoms and 1 mole of oxygen atoms. What do you mean by 1 atom of C
Therefore: and 1 gram atom of C?
molar mass of ethanol = (2 × 12) + (6 × 1) + (1 × 16) = 46 g/mol
The relative molecular mass of ethanol is 46.

Stoichiometry 108
 Challange
• How many molecules are present in
1.75 mol of carbon dioxide?
• How many moles of carbon are present
in 1.50 mol of aspirin, C9H8O4?
• Calculate the molar mass for lithium
carbonate, Li2CO3, used to treat bipolar
disorder.
• A dentist orders 24.4 g of gold (Au) to
prepare dental crowns and fillings.
Calculate the number of moles of gold
in the order.
• Pencil lead contains graphite, which is
the element carbon. Calculate the
number of grams in 0.520 mol of
carbon.
• A salt shaker contains 73.7 g of NaCl.
How many moles of NaCl are present?
Test your self
How many atoms of sodium are
present in 3 moles of sodium and what
is the mass of it?
b
How many atoms are in 1 amu and 1g
of hydrogen (H)?
pu
How many atoms are present in 16g of
O and 8g of S?
Is the mass of 1 mole of O and 1 mole
of S same?
ab
What do you mean by 1 atom of C and
1 gram atom of C?
How many moles of water, H2O,
contain 2.60×1023 molecules of water?
nt
How many molecules are in 2.65 mol
of dinitrogen oxide, N2O, which is an
anesthetic called "laughing gas"?
ca
Naproxen is used to treat pain and
inflammation caused by arthritis.
Naproxen has a formula of C14H14O3.
a. How many moles of C are present
in 2.30 mol of naproxen?
b. How many moles of H are present
in 0.444 mol of naproxen?
c. How many moles of O are present
in 0.0765 mol of naproxen?
109 Stoichiometry
5.5
Calculate the number of moles of magnesium oxide, MgO,
(a) 80 g and (b) 10 g of the compound. (Ar: O = 16; Mg = 24)
(a) One mole of MgO contains 1 mole of magnesium atoms
and 1 mole of oxygen atoms. Therefore:
molar mass of MgO = (1 × 24) + (1 × 16) = 40 g/mol number of
moles of MgO in 80 g
Mol = Mass og MgO/molar mass of MgO
=80/40
om
= 2 mol
(b) Number of moles of MgO in 10 g
mass of MgO
= = 10
molar mass of MgO 40
r.c
= 0.25 mole
5.6
he
Calculate the number of moles of aluminium present in
(a) 108 g and (b) 13.5 g of the element. (A: Al = 27)
(a) number of moles of aluminium
lis
= mass of aluminium
molar mass of aluminium
= 108
27
= 4 moles
(b) number of moles of aluminium
= mass of aluminium
molar mass of aluminium
13.5
=
27
= 4 moles
5.7
Calculate the mass of 0.5 mol of bromine molecules. Bromine
exists as molecules. Its formula is Br2. The A r of bromine is 80, so
its Mr is 160.
So 1 mol of bromine molecules has a mass of 160 g
So 0.5 mol of bromine molecules has a mass of 0.5 × 160 g, or 80 g.
5.8
Calculate the mass of 0.5 mol of bromine atoms. The Ar of
bromine is 80, so 1 mol of bromine atoms has a mass of 80 g. So
0.5 mol of bromine atoms has a mass of 0.5 × 80 g, or 40 g.
 5.9

How many moles of oxygen molecules are in 64 g of oxygen? The

Molar mass of oxygen is 32, so 32 g of oxygen is 1 mol of oxygen
molecules. Therefore 64 g is 64 64 mol, or 2 mol of oxygen
32
molecules.

5.3 Knowledge

om
Crafting Chemical Equations
Understanding how to construct chemical and ionic equations with
state symbols is a crucial aspect of chemistry. By representing the
transformation of reactants into products, we can deduce symbol

r.c
equations for chemical reactions using the information provided.
With a solid grasp of the knowledge of mole and Avogadro's number,
we'll be well-equipped to dive into this fascinating world of chemical
Student Learning Outcomes

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transformations. Let's explore these concepts together!
Construct chemical equations and
Balancing equations
ionic equations to show reactants
Equations that depict the reactants and products in a given chemical forming products, including state
lis
reaction are known as word equations. A balanced equation, on the symbols.
other hand, provides the formula for each substance involved in the Deduce the symbol equation with
reaction, along with the number of particles required. An illustration state symbols for a chemical reaction
b
of this can be found in the table below. In a balanced equation, the given relevant information
total number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation
pu

must be equal. This is due to the fact that atoms cannot be created or
destroyed. For instance, in the equation for the nitrogen and
hydrogen reaction featured above, there are two nitrogen atoms and
six hydrogen atoms present in both the reactants and products.
ab

Word equation Balanced equation

Equation Nitrogen + Hydrogen → Ammonia N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

nt

What it tells us Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to One molecule of nitrogen (N2) reacts with
form ammonia three molecules of hydrogen (H2) to form
two molecules of ammonia (NH3)
ca

Writing a balanced equation is a common requirement that you

may encounter. To do so, we have provided a few steps to follow as
well as two examples.in given table
Step 1 Write the word equation.
Step 2 Rewrite the equation with formulae (be very careful to
ensure the formulae are correct).
Step 3 Count the number of atoms of each element on each side
of the equation. If they are the same then the equation is already

Stoichiometry 110
 balanced and nothing more needs to be done.
Step 4 If the equation is not balanced, then add in extra
molecules to try and balance it. You must never change the formulae
themselves. For example, you could not change the formula of water
from H2O to H4O in example 1 to balance the H atoms because it is
water that is formed and that has the formula H2O and not H4O.
Step 5 Write out the final balanced equation. Balanced equations
sometimes include state symbols to show the state of each substance:

om
(s) = solid (l) = liquid
(g) = gas (aq) = aqueous (dissolved in water).
For example, the equation:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

r.c
means that calcium carbonate solid reacts with an aqueous solution
of hydrochloric acid to form an aqueous solution of calcium chloride,
water liquid and carbon dioxide gas.

Example 1

Step 1 methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

he Example 2

aluminium hydroxide + nitric acid aluminium nitrate + water

lis
Step 2 CH4 + O2 ® CO2 + H2O Al(OH)3 + HNO3 ® Al(NO3)3 + H2O

Step 3 reactants products reactants products

Al = 1 Al = 1
b
C=1 C=1
O=6 O = 10
H=4 H=2
H=4 H=2
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O=2 O=3
N=1 N=3
The equation is not balanced
The equation is not balanced

Step 4 Add another H2O to the products (so there It is easiest to start with N as it is the only unbalanced
atom that is in just one substance on both sides of the equation
ab

are now 2H2O) to balance the H atoms:

Add two more HNO3 to the reactants (so there are now 3HNO3)
CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O
to balance the N atoms Al(OH)3 + 3HNO3 ® Al(NO3)3 + H2O
reactants products
reactants products
C=1 C=1
Al = 1 Al = 1
nt

H=4 H=4 O = 12 O = 10
O=2 O=4 H=6 H=2
Then add another O2 to the reactants (so N=3 N=3
there are now 2O2)to balance the O atoms: Then add two more H2O to the products (so there are now
ca

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O 3H2O) to balance the O and H atoms Al(OH)3 + 3HNO3
reactants products Al(NO3)3 + 3H2O
C=1 C=1 reactants products
H=4 H=4 Al = 1 Al = 1
O=4 O=4 O = 12 O = 12
The equation is now balanced H=6 H=6
N=3 N=3
The equation is now balanced
Step 5 CH4 + 2O2 ® CO2 + 2H2O Al(OH)3 + 3HNO3 ® Al(NO3)3 + 3H2O

111 Stoichiometry
Ionic equations
In a stable ionic compound, the positively and negatively charged
ions are strongly bonded together in a lattice structure. However,
when this compound is placed in water, the ions disperse and are
surrounded by water molecules (as shown in figure 5.3). In some
cases, when ionic compounds are dissolved in water and react,
certain ions may remain unchanged and do not participate in the
reaction. These ions are often referred to as spectator ions. To

om
represent reactions involving ions, we use ionic equations that only
show the ions involved in the reaction. Spectator ions are not
Na+
included in these equations. It's important to note that the total Na+ Cl–
electric charge of the ions in the reactants must be equal to that of the Cl– Cl–
ions in the products. This can be helpful in balancing the ionic

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equation. Na+

Reaction of acids with alkalis Cl– Cl–

Na+
When sulfuric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, it is only Na+
Cl–

he
the hydrogen ions from the sulfuric acid and the hydroxide ions from
the sodium hydroxide that react. These hydrogen ions and hydroxide Na+ Na+ Cl–

ions react to form water (Figure 5.4 ). The sulphate ions and sodium NaCl(aq)
ions remain unchanged as they do not react and are left out of the
lis
– –
Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+
ionic equation as they are spectator ions
Cl– Na+ Cl– Na+ Cl–
H
+
OH– Na+ – –
Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+
+
b
H Na
+

H
+
H
+
Na+ OH– NaCl(s)
2–
SO4 –
SO4
2– OH OH–
Fig. 5.3 Sodium chloride (NaCl) as a
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+
H Na
+

+
OH–
solid and when dissolved
H
+ Na Na+
H
+
+
Na+
SO42– OH– –
SO4
2– OH +
Na
ab

H
+
OH– = H2O
2–
SO4 –
+ Na+ Na+ OH OH
–

H +
H

H2SO4(aq) NaOH(aq)
nt

Na+

Na+
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2– +
SO4 Na
Na+ SO42–
Na+
+
Na

2–
SO4 SO42–

SO42– Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+

Fig. 5.4
Stoichiometry 112
 The ionic equation for this reaction can be written as:

H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)

from the acid from the alkali

When any acid reacts with any alkali, the ionic equation is the same.
Some examples are shown in Table 5.6:

Examples What reacts lons that do not react lonic equation

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sulfuric acid (aq) + H+ ions from H2SO4 SO2– ions from H2SO4 H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
sodium hydroxide (aq) OH–ions from NaOH Na+ lons from NaOH → H2O(l)

+ –
hydrochloric acid (aq) + +
H ions from HCI Cl– ions from HCI H (aq) + OH (aq)

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+
potassium hydroxide (aq) OH– ions from KOH K ions from KOH → H2O(l)

nitric acid (aq) + calcium H+ ions from HNO3 No– ions from HNO3 H+(aq) + OH– (aq)
hydroxide (aq) –
OH ions from Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ ions from Ca(OH)2 → H2O(l)

Further Reading

Molar ratios in equations he

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How can we apply the knowledge we've gained regarding the construction of chemical formulas, concepts of mole and
Avogadro's particle, and balancing of equations? Chemical equations can be understood in terms of moles. For nstance,
in the equation depicted in Figure, one mole of nitrogen (N2) molecules reacts with three moles of hydrogen (H2)
b
molecules, resulting in the formation of two moles of ammonia (NH3) molecules
pu
ab
nt
ca

113 Stoichiometry
 Test your self
Magnesium reacts with sulfuric acid as shown: Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
a) What does the (s) mean? b) What does the (aq) mean? c) What does the (g) mean?
Balance the following equations.
a) K + I2 → KI b) CuCO3 → CuO + CO2 c) Ca + HCl → CaCl2 + H2
Write an ionic equation (including state symbols) for each of the following reactions between acids and alkalis.
a) hydrochloric acid (aq) + sodium hydroxide (aq)? b) nitric acid (aq) + potassium hydroxide (aq)?
c) sulfuric acid (aq) + calcium hydroxide (aq)? d) phosphoric acid (aq) + sodium hydroxide (aq)?
Use these values of Ar to answer the questions below. H = 1 ; C = 12 ; N = 14 ; O = 16; Ne = 20 Na = 23 Mg = 24 S = 32 ;

om
Cl = 35.5 K = 39 ; Fe = 56 Cu = 63.5 Zn = 65
1. Calculate the number of moles in:
(a) 2 g of neon atoms (b) 4 g of magnesium atoms (c) 24 g of carbon atoms.
2. Calculate the number of atoms in 1 mole of:
(a) calcium (b) carbon dioxide (c) methane.

3. Calculate the mass of:
(a) 0.1 mol of oxygen molecules
6. Calculate the number of moles in:
(a) 9.8 g of sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
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(b) 5 mol of sulfur atoms (c) 0.25 mol of sodium atoms.
(b) 40 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

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(c) 720 g of iron(II) oxide (FeO).

Skill:5.3
Identify Chemical Symbolic Equation
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Objective: Analyse chemical and ionic equations, including state symbols, to accurately represent the transformation of
reactants into products, and deduce symbol equations for chemical reactions from given information.
b

Molecular Formula Definition: A molecular formula represents the actual number and type of atoms present in a single
pu

molecule of a compound.
Empirical Formula Definition: The empirical formula of a compound shows the simplest whole number ratio of
different atoms present in the molecule.
Deducing Binary Ionic Compounds: The formula and name of a binary ionic compound can be deduced from the
ab

given ions by combining them in a way that their charges balance out, resulting in a neutral compound.
Deducing Molecular Substance Formula: The molecular formula of a substance can be deduced from its molecular
structure by counting the number of each type of atom present in the molecule.
Calculating Moles, Mass, and Molar Mass: The relationship between the amount of substance, mass, and molar mass
nt

can be used to calculate the number of moles, mass, molar mass, relative mass (atomic, molecular, formula), and the
number of particles in a substance.
Definition of Mole: A mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains Avogadro's number (6.02 × 10²³) of
ca

particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.).

Mole and Avogadro's Constant Relationship: Avogadro's constant (6.02 × 10²³ particles/mol) is the link between the
macroscopic measurements of a substance and its number of number of particles in one mole of a substance.
Constructing Chemical and Ionic Equations: Chemical and ionic equations are constructed to show the
transformation of reactants into products, including state symbols (solid, liquid, gas, aqueous) to indicate the physical
states of the substances involved.
Deducing Symbol Equations with State Symbols: The symbol equation with state symbols for a chemical reaction
can be deduced given relevant information about the reactants and products.

Stoichiometry 114
 Exercise

A Encircle the most suitable answer.

1 What is the molecular formula of a compound containing one carbon atom, two chlorine atoms, and three oxygen
atoms?
a) CCl2O3 b) CO2Cl2 c) C2H6O d) CClO
+ 2–
2 Given the ions Na and SO , what is the formula of the resulting ionic compound?

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a) NaSO4 b) Na2SO4 c) Na3SO4 d) Na4SO4
3 What is the molecular formula of a compound?
a) The simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a molecule.
b) The number and type of different atoms in one molecule.
c) The number of moles in one molecule.

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d) The ratio of molar masses in a molecule.
4 When deducing the formula of a binary ionic compound, what information is crucial? A detailed summary, chapter
roadmap, multiple projects,
and extensive exercises are
a) Empirical formula. b) Molecular structure. accessible via QR code.

he
c) Ions and relevant information. d) Molar mass of the compound.
5 How can you deduce the formula of a molecular substance from its given molecular structure?
a) By analyzing its empirical formula. b) By examining the molar mass.
c) By identifying the type of bonding.
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d) By understanding the arrangement of atoms in the molecule.
6 Which relationship is represented by the equation amount of substance = mass / molar mass?
a) Avogadro's number. b) Ideal gas law. c) Boyle's law. d) Mole concept.
b
7 Define a mole as:
pu

a) The mass of one atom.

b) The amount of substance containing Avogadro's number of particles.
c) The number of particles in one molecule.
d) The molar mass of a compound.
ab

8 Explain the relationship between a mole and Avogadro's constant.

a) A mole is defined as Avogadro's constant multiplied by the molar mass.
b) A mole is equivalent to Avogadro's constant number of particles.
nt

c) Avogadro's constant is the sum of moles and particles.

d) Avogadro's constant represents the ratio of atoms to molecules.
9 Deduce the symbol equation with state symbols for a chemical reaction given relevant information. Which
ca

information is crucial for this deduction?

a) Empirical formula. b) Molar mass of the reactants.
c) Ions and state symbols. d) Molecular structure of products.
10 Which of the following statements is incorrect about the mole concept?
a) 1 mole of any substance contains 6.02 × 1023 particles.
b) The molar mass of a substance is expressed in g/mol.
c) The molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 mole of that substance.

115 Stoichiometry
11 d) The molar mass of a substance is the mass of 1 atom of that substance.
Consider the reaction between magnesium and oxygen to form magnesium oxide. If 0.25 moles of magnesium
react, what mass of magnesium oxide is produced?
a) 10 g b) 20 g c) 30 g d) 40 g

B Answer the following question briefly.

1 A balanced chemical equation shows the reaction between 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO. How many moles of magnesium
oxide (MgO) are produced from 0.5 moles of magnesium (Mg)?

om
2 Balance the following chemical equation: Fe + Hcl → FeCl2 + H2
Given the balanced equation 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O, what is the coefficient in front of H2O when 6 moles of hydrogen
(H2) react?
3 Explain the difference between a molecular formula and an empirical formula, and provide examples of each for

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a specific compound.
4 Describe a real-world application of stoichiometry.
5 Calculate the molar mass of H2O, and determine the number of moles in 18 grams of water.
6 Given the chemical equation: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O, calculate the number of moles of oxygen required to react

he
completely with 4 moles of hydrogen.
7 If a reaction produces 5 moles of a product with a molar mass of 20 g/mol, calculate the mass of the product
formed.
lis
8 How Avogadro's number is used to relate the number of particles to the number of moles in a given sample.
Provide an example for better understanding.
9 Calculate the molar mass of NaCl and determine the number of moles present in 58.5 grams of sodium chloride.
b
10 Given the reaction: 4NH3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O, calculate the number of moles of ammonia needed to produce 3
moles of nitric oxide.
pu

11 If the molar mass of a gas is 32 g/mol, determine the mass of 4 moles of this gas.
12 How does the periodic table help us predict the formula of an ionic compound?
13 What information is conveyed by the state symbols (s, l, g, aq) in a chemical equation?
ab

14 What is the name given to the number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions) in one mole?
15 Explain the difference between a balanced and unbalanced chemical equation.
16 If 6.02 × 1022 molecules of methane (CH4) contain 2.408 × 1022 hydrogen atoms, how many hydrogen atoms are
present in 3 molecules of methane?
nt

17 Aspirin (C9H8O4) has a molar mass of 180.14 g/mol. How many moles of aspirin are present in 500 mg of aspirin
(convert mg to g first)?
18 In the balanced equation for the combustion of propane (C3H8) with oxygen (O2), C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O,
ca

what is the number of moles of water vapor (H2O) produced when 2 moles of propane react completely?

C Long questions
1 Explain the ion formation and its trend in periodic table.
2 Relate Avogadro's number and moles to dozens and gross, explaining how chemists use moles for calculations.
Give an example where knowing moles is crucial in a chemical reaction.
3 Explain the relationship between empirical and molecular formulas. Provide scenarios when they differ and
when they are the same, with examples for each case.

Stoichiometry 116
 CHAPTER

6 Oxidation and
Reduction

om
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he
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Redox reactions, also known as oxidation-reduction reactions,
play a significant role in the process of corrosion. Corrosion is the
degradation of metals as a result of chemical reactions between
b
the metal and its environment. The most common form of
corrosion is rusting, which occurs in iron and steel when they are
pu

exposed to oxygen and moisture.

ab

Redox reactions, short for reduction-oxidation reactions, are at the heart of

nt

chemistry. They involve the simultaneous exchange of electrons,

alterations in oxidation states represented by Roman numerals, and
changes in the presence of oxygen or hydrogen. In these reactions, we'll
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identify the key players - oxidizing and reducing agents. It's crucial to
remember that the oxidation number of elements in their free state is zero,
and for monatomic ions, it aligns with their charge. In neutral compounds,
the sum of oxidation numbers is zero, while in ions, it equals the ion's
charge. Join us on this journey into the captivating world of redox
chemistry.

117 Oxidation and Reduction

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Define redox reactions as simultaneous oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen, hydrogen, electrons and
changes in oxidation state.
Use roman numerals to indicate oxidation number of an element in a compound. Identify oxidizing and reducing
agents in a redox reaction.
Recognize that the oxidation number of elements in their free state is zero. Derive the formula of ionic compounds
from ionic charges and oxidation numbers.
Identify that the oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion. Explain that the sum of
the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.

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Explain that the sum of the oxidation numbers in an ion is equal to the charge on the ion
Identify redox reactions by the color changes involved when using acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) to
(II) or aqueous potassium iodide
Define corrosion and discuss methods to prevent it.(some examples may include barrier method such as using paint,
galvanizing, electroplating; sacrificial protection such as using magnesium blocks in ships)

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All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge
he Skills
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6.1 Understanding Redox Reactions 6.1
Redox reactions involve oxidation (loss of electrons Determining oxidation numbers, and applying the
or gain of oxygen) and reduction (gain of electrons or principles of electron transfer and oxidation state
b
loss of oxygen), with changes in oxidation states changes
indicating the substances oxidized or reduced. 6.3
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Elements in their elemental form have an oxidation
number of zero, monatomic ion oxidation numbers
equal their charge, and the sum of oxidation numbers
equals zero in neutral compounds or the ion's charge
ab
Analyze the factors contributing to corrosion and
apply appropriate methods for corrosion prevention
based on the specific circumstances. This involves
understanding the principles of corrosion,

in ions recognizing different prevention techniques, and

6.2 Oxidizing and reducing agents in the Lab selecting the most effective method for a given
The ability to identify redox reactions by observing situation.
color changes when using acidified aqueous
nt

potassium manganate (VII) to (II) or aqueous

potassium iodide.
6.3 Corrosion Prevention Techniques
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Methods to prevent corrosion include barrier

methods like painting, galvanizing, and
electroplating, as well as sacrificial protection using
materials like magnesium blocks in ships.

Oxidation and Reduction 118


Student Learning Outcomes
Define redox reactions as
simultaneous oxidation and
reduction in terms of oxygen,
hydrogen, electrons and changes in
oxidation state.
Use roman numerals to indicate
oxidation number of an element in a
compound. Identify oxidizing and
reducing agents in a redox reaction.
Recognize that the oxidation number
of elements in their free state is zero.
Derive the formula of ionic
compounds from ionic charges and
oxidation numbers.
Identify that the oxidation number of
a monatomic ion is the same as the
charge on the ion. Explain that the
b
sum of the oxidation numbers in a
neutral compound is zero.
Explain that the sum of the oxidation
pu
numbers in an ion is equal to the
charge on the ion
ab
nt
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119 Oxidation and Reduction
6.1 Knowledge
Understanding Redox Reactions
In this knowledge, we will dive into the fascinating world of redox
reactions. These reactions involve the exchange of electrons and
oxygen between substances, leading to a change in their oxidation
states. By understanding these changes, we can identify which
substances are being oxidized or reduced. Did you know that
elements in their elemental form have an oxidation number of zero?
om
And that monatomic ions have oxidation numbers equal to their
charge? Additionally, the sum of oxidation numbers in neutral
compounds equals zero, while in ions, it equals the ion's charge. Let's
explore this topic further and unlock the secrets of redox reactions!
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Redox Reactions
The concept of oxidation and reduction is based on the addition or
removal of oxygen or hydrogen in a chemical reaction. According to
this concept, oxidation is defined as the addition of oxygen or
he
removal of hydrogen during a chemical reaction. Reduction, on the
other hand, is defined as the addition of hydrogen or removal of
oxygen during a chemical reaction. Both these processes occur
lis
simultaneously in a reaction, so we can say that where there is
oxidation, there is reduction. To better understand this concept, let's
consider an example of the addition and removal of oxygen.
A reaction between zinc oxide and carbon takes place by removing
oxygen (reduction) from zinc oxide and adding oxygen (oxidation) to
carbon. This is represented as
Let's take another example that involves the removal or addition of
hydrogen. In this reaction, hydrogen sulphide and chlorine react with
each other through the process of oxidation of hydrogen sulphide and
reduction of chlorine. Hydrogen is being removed from H2S and
added to chlorine. This reaction can be represented as follows:
So, a chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction processes
are involved is called oxidation- reduction reaction or redox reaction.
Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Loss or Gain of Electron
In the absence of oxygen or hydrogen, there are still numerous
chemical reactions that are classified as redox reactions. These
reactions are managed using the concept of 'loss or gain of electrons',
which is also referred to as oxidation and reduction reactions.As per
this principle, oxidation is defined as the loss of electrons by an atom

om
or ion. For example

Test your self

Reduction is gain of electrons by an atom or ion. e.g

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How can you justify that a reaction
between magnesium and oxygen is a
redox reaction, while the reaction
shows only addition of oxygen
The overall redox reaction is sum of both processes, written as

he
(oxidation)

A reaction between carbon and

Let us have another simple example to understand this concept. A oxygen involved only addition of
lis
reaction between sodium metal and chlorine takes place in three oxygen (oxidation), but, it is called
steps. a redox reaction. Comment on this.
First sodium atom losses an electron, to form sodium ion, such as: Oxidation and reduction proceed
b
simultaneously. Explain, with an
example.
pu

Identify which of the following is

Simultaneously, this electron is accepted by chlorine atom (reduction oxidation or reduction reaction
process), as chlorine atom needs one electron to complete its octet. As
a result, chlorine atom changes to chloride ion. Such as;
ab

Ultimately, both these ions attract each other to form sodium

An element M reacts with another
nt

chloride.
element X to form MX2. In terms of
Complete redox reaction is sum of the oxidation and reduction
loss or gain of electrons, identify the
reactions between sodium and chlorine atoms and it is represented as:
element which is oxidized and which
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is reduced.
How can you justify that the
following reaction is not only an
oxidation reaction but also a
complete redox reaction.

Keep in mind chlorine element exists as a molecule (CI ) not as atoms Explain the term oxidation on the
(CI).Therefore, the actual balanced chemical reaction is represented basis of electronic concept with an
example
as:

Oxidation and Reduction 120

 Further Reading
Reduced (partial gain of e–)
(E.N 2.20)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
(E.N 3.04)
Oxidized (partial loss of e–) We can summarize all these concepts as:
For the purpose of studying oxidation–
reduction reactions, the more

om
electronegative atom (nitrogen (E.N =
3.04)) is treated as if it had been reduced
by gaining electrons from the other atom.
The less electronegative atom (hydrogen
(E.N 2.20)) is treated as if it had been

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oxidized by losing electrons.

Oxidation Numbers
Conclusion In more complex oxidation–reduction reactions, the identification of
Reduced Oxidized the substances oxidized and reduced is not always obvious. To help

he
identify the atoms or ions that are oxidized or reduced, we assign
Na Oxidation: Na+ + e– values called oxidation numbers (sometimes called oxidation states)
Lose e– 2+ –
Ca Ca + 2e to the elements of the reactants and products. It is important to
lis
– –
2Br Br2 + 2e recognize that oxidation numbers do not always represent actual
Reduction:
Fe2+ Gain e– Fe3+ + 2e– charges, but they help us identify loss or gain of electrons.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers
b
Oxidation is loss if electrons; The rules for assigning oxidation numbers to the atoms or ions in the
reduction is gain electrons. reactants and products are given in table.
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1. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a molecule is zero (0), or for a polyatomic ion is equal to its charge.

2. The oxidation number of an element (monatomic or diatomic) is zero (0).

ab

3. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to its charge.

4. In compounds, the oxidation number of Group 1A (1) metals is +1, and that of Group 2A (2) metals is +2.
nt

5. In compounds, the oxidation number of fluorine is -1. Other nonmetals in Group 7A (17) are-1 except when combined
with oxygen or fluorine.
6.
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7. In compounds with nonmetals, the oxidation number of hydrogen is +1; in compounds with metals, the oxidation
number of hydrogen is -1.
8. Use Roman Numerals of transition element: Place the oxidation number in Roman numerals in parentheses right after
the name of the element. The Roman numeral indicates the positive oxidation state of the transition element. e.g; For
• Iron(II) chloride: FeCl2 Here, iron has an oxidation number of +2.
• Iron(III) chloride: FeCl3 Here, iron has an oxidation number of +3.
•Manganese(VII) oxide: MnO4 Manganese has an oxidation number of +7 in this ion.

121 Oxidation and Reduction

 Example of using rules assign oxidation numbers

Formula Oxidation Numbers Explanation

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b lis
pu
ab
nt
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Using Oxidation Numbers to Identify

Oxidation–Reduction
Oxidation numbers can be used to identify the elements that are
oxidized and the elements that are reduced in a reaction. In oxidation,
the loss of electrons increases the oxidation number so that it is higher
(more positive) in the product than in the reactant. In reduction, the
gain of electrons decreases the oxidation number so that it is lower
(more negative) in the product than in the reactant.
Oxidation and Reduction 122

Test your self
Identify each of the following as an
oxidation or a reduction reaction:
a. Al3+(aq) + 3e → Al(s)
b. Ca(s) → Ca² + (aq) + 2 e–
c. Fe3+(aq) + e– → Fe2+(aq)
Identify each of the following as an
oxidation or a reduction reaction:
a. Ni2+(aq) → Ni3+(aq) + e–
+ –
b. K (aq) + e → K(s)
c. Br2(l) + 2 e– → 2Br– (aq)
Skill:6.1
Understanding redox reactions
Determining oxidation numbers, and
b
applying the principles of electron
transfer and oxidation state changes.
pu
ab
nt
Student Learning Outcomes
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Identify redox reactions by the color
changes involved when using acidified
aqueous potassium manganate (VII) to
(II) or aqueous potassium iodide
123 Oxidation and Reduction
Reduction: oxidation number decreases
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
Oxidation: oxidation number increases
Fig. 6.1 An oxidation reaction occurs when the charge becomes
more positive. A reduction reaction occurs when the charge becomes
more negative
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Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
We have seen that an oxidation reaction must always be accompanied
by a reduction reaction. The substance that loses electrons is
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oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. For
2+
example, Zn is oxidized to Zn by losing 2 electrons and Cl2 reduced
–
to 2Cl by gaining 2 electrons.
Zn(s) + Cl2(g) → ZnCl2(s)
he
In an oxidation–reduction reaction, the substance that is oxidized is
called the reducing agent because it provides electrons for reduction.
The substance that is reduced is called the oxidizing agent because it
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accepts electrons from oxidation. Because Zn is oxidized in this
reaction, it is the reducing agent. In the same reaction Cl2 is reduced,
which makes it the oxidizing agent
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
Zn is oxidized; Zn is the reducing agent.
Cl2(g) + 2e– → 2Cl– (aq)
Cl (in Cl2) is reduced; Cl2 is the oxidizing agent.
6.2 Knowledge
Oxidizing and reducing agents in the Lab
Some substances are strong oxidizing agents, because they have a
strong drive to gain electrons. They readily oxidize other substances,
by taking electrons from them. Oxygen and chlorine are examples.
Some substances are strong reducing agents, readily giving up
electrons. For example, hydrogen, and reactive metals like sodium.
Some oxidizing and reducing agents show a color change when they
react. This makes them useful in lab tests. Let's look at two examples.
Potassium manganate (VII): an oxidizing agent:
Manganese, a transition element, can have different oxidation
numbers. Potassium manganate (VII) is a purple compound. Its
formula is KMnO4. Here, manganese has the oxidation number + VII.
But it is much more stable with the oxidation number + II. So, it has a
strong drive to reduce its oxidation number to +II, by taking electrons
from other substances. So, potassium manganate (VII) acts as a
powerful oxidizing agent, in the presence of a little acid. It is itself
reduced, with a color change:

Mn+7O4 (aq) reduction Mn2+(aq)

manganate(VII)ion manganate(II)ion
(purple) (colourless)

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Suppose you have an unknown liquid. You want to test it, to see if it
contains a reducing agent. Add some acidified potassium manganate If a reducing agent is present, the strong
(VII) solution. If a reducing agent is present, the purple color will purple colour of potassium manganate
fade. (VII) will fade, as seen in the test-tube on
the right

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Potassium iodide: a reducing agent
When potassium iodide solution is added to hydrogen peroxide, in
the presence of sulfuric acid, this redox reaction takes place:

hydrogen Potassium
peroxide iodide
iodine
he
H2O2(aq) + 2KI(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ® I2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
potassium
sulfate
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You can see that the hydrogen peroxide loses oxygen: it is reduced.
The potassium iodide acts as a reducing agent. At the same time the
b
potassium iodide is oxidized to iodine. This causes a color change:
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– oxidation
2I (aq) I2(aq)
colourless red- brown
Fig. 6.2 The test-tube shows the red-
ab

6.3 Knowledge brown color you get when potassium

iodine is oxidation by an oxidizing agent
Corrosion Prevention Techniques
What is Corrosion?
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Imagine your bicycle left out in the rain and noticing it gets rusty over
time. This process, where materials (especially metals) break down
because of chemical reactions with the environment, is called
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corrosion. It's like the metal getting sick from too much exposure to
air and water! Student Learning Outcomes
What is Rusting? Define corrosion and discuss methods to
prevent it.(some examples may include
Rusting is a specific type of corrosion that affects iron and steel.
barrier method such as using paint,
When these metals are exposed to both oxygen and water, they galvanizing, electroplating; sacrificial
undergo a chemical reaction that produces rust. This can be protection such as using magnesium
illustrated through a simple experiment involving nails in different blocks in ships)
conditions:

Oxidation and Reduction 124

 Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3

layer of oil to keep

air out
anhydrous calcium cooled boiled water water
chloride
Anhydrous calcium chloride When water us boiled all the Water and air came inti contact
absorbs any water so there is dissolved gases escape and so there with the air
Notes no water present in this is no dissolved oxygen in the water
stoppered tube in this stopered tube

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Air present
Water present
Result No Rust No Rust Nail Rusts

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Tube 1: No water present, no rust forms.
Tube 2: No air present, no rust forms.
Tube 3: Both air and water present, rust forms.

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This demonstrates that for iron to rust, both oxygen and water
must be present, indicating the reaction:
iron + water + oxygen → rust
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4Fe + 6H2O + 3O2 → 4Fe(OH)3
This equation represents the reaction where iron (Fe) reacts
with water (H2O)
b
and oxygen (O2) to form iron(III) hydroxide, commonly known
as rust (Fe(OH)3).
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(a)
Preventing Corrosion
ab

Barrier Methods
One way to prevent corrosion is by applying a protective coating to
the metal's surface. This can include:
Painting: Applying paint creates a barrier between the metal and
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corrosive elements.
Galvanizing: This involves coating steel with a layer of zinc. Even if
the zinc layer is scratched, the underlying steel is protected due to
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(b) Piece of Mg metal

Fig. 6.3 (a) Automobiles are coated with
multiple layers of paint to offer protection
against rust and corrosion caused by
environmental factors. (b) Similarly, ships
are equipped with blocks of zinc or
magnesium that are strategically positioned
to prevent corrosion caused by seawater
exposure.
125 Oxidation and Reduction
zinc's higher reactivity, which makes it corrode first, a principle
known as sacrificial protection.
Sacrificial Protection
Besides barrier methods, sacrificial protection involves attaching a
more reactive metal to the one you wish to protect. For instance:
Using Magnesium Blocks: Common in ships, magnesium, being
more reactive than steel, corrodes first, thereby protecting the ship's
hull. This is also known as sacrificial protection or corrosion.”
 Methods How it works Examples

It acts as a barrier preventing Paint (e.g. car) Grease/oil (e.g. bike chain) Plastic coating
chemicals that cause corrosion (e.g.fridge shelf) Metal coating – applied by electroplating which
Surface coming into contact with the is a form of electrolysis e.g Jewelry (e.g., gold-plated necklace)
coating metal Utensils (e.g., silver-plated spoon) Coins (e.g., nickel-plated coin)
Bathroom fixtures (e.g., chrome-plated faucet)Automotive parts
(e.g., chrome-plated car bumpers)

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The metal is joined to a more Zinc or magnesium blocks are attached to the hulls of steel ships to
Sacrificial reactive metal the more prevent the steel corroding Magnesium is attached to steel
protection reactive metal corrodes instead pipelines and railway lines to prevent corrosion

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of our main metal.

Ground level
Combination of Methods Mg stake
(sacrificial anode)

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Some prevention techniques combine both barrier and sacrificial
2Mg 2Mg2+ + 4 e-
methods for enhanced protection. Galvanizing steel with zinc is a
prime example, offering both a physical barrier and sacrificial
protection.
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Conclusion
Understanding corrosion and its prevention is essential in extending Iron (Fe) pipe
or storage tank
b
the life of metal objects. By employing methods such as barrier
4 e- + 4H+ + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
coatings and sacrificial protection, we can significantly reduce the
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rate of corrosion and protect valuable infrastructure and equipment Rusting of an iron pipe is prevented by
from premature decay attaching a piece of magnesium, which
oxidizes more easily than iron sacrifacial
Real World Application protection.
ab
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“From Ore to Rust: On the left, iron (III) oxide, or Fe2O3, is being
transformed back into metallic iron through the reduction process in a blast
furnace. On the right, we see iron's return to its oxidized state as iron (III)
oxide on the surface of an old bike, a natural cycle we know as rusting, with
the chemical formula for rust being Fe2O3·2H2O.”

Fig. 6.4 Steel fire escapes are galvanised to

prevent corrosion.

Oxidation and Reduction 126


Skill:6.3
Corrosion prevention techniques
Objective: Recognize corrosion factors
and apply tailored prevention methods
like coatings, cathodic protection, and
alloying based on specific circumstances
for optimal effectiveness.
Test your self
What is corrosion and rusting?
Write a word equation to show what happens when iron rusts.
Explain how each of the following prevents steel from rusting.
Connecting the steel to some magnesium
Painting the steel
Coating the steel with a layer of chromium by electroplating
Galvanizing the steel

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Write a word equation to show what happens when iron rusts. Describe
an experiment you could do to show that it is the oxygen
rather than the nitrogen or argon in air that is required for iron to
rust. Describe The results you would expect.
Define redox reactions and give an example.

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Explain the concept of oxidation number and how it is used in naming
compounds.
How do you identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in a redox

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reaction?
Define corrosion and discuss its effects.
Describe methods to prevent corrosion.
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Oxidation and Reduction
b
•Oxidation involves the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
•Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
pu

Oxidation State (or Number)

•This is a figure used in chemistry to indicate the degree of oxidation or reduction of an element in a chemical
compound. It is denoted using Roman numerals.
•The oxidation number of elements in their free (uncombined) state is always zero. For example, O2, N2, and other
ab

diatomic molecules have an oxidation number of 0 for their respective elements.

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
•An oxidizing agent causes oxidation by accepting electrons and itself gets reduced.
•A reducing agent causes reduction by donating electrons and itself gets oxidized.
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Formula of Ionic Compounds

•The formula of ionic compounds can be derived from the ionic charges and oxidation numbers. The total positive
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charge must balance the total negative charge.

Oxidation Number in Monatomic Ions
•The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to its charge. For example, Na⁺ has an oxidation number of +I, and
Cl2 has an oxidation number of -I.
Oxidation Numbers in Compounds:
•In a neutral compound, the sum of oxidation numbers of all the atoms must be zero.
• In an ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms is equal to the charge on the ion. For example, in the
sulfate ion (SO₄²⁻), the total of the oxidation numbers of sulfur and oxygen must equal -2.

127 Oxidation and Reduction

 Exercise

A detailed summary, chapter

A Encircle the most suitable option against each statement. roadmap, multiple projects,
and extensive exercises are
–
accessible via QR code.
1 In the reaction Fe + CuSO ® FeSO4 + Cu, which species undergoes reduction?
a) Fe b) Cu c) So–2 d) FeSO4

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2 Identify the oxidizing agent in the reaction: 2SO2 + O2 ® 2SO3
a) SO2 b) O2 c) Both So2 and O2 d) Neither SO2 nor O2
2–
3 Determine the oxidation amount of chromium in Cr2O7.
a) +6 b) +3 c) –2 d) 0

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4 Considering the reaction: Cl2 + 2Na ® 2NaCl, what is the change in oxidation number for chlorine?
a) 0 to +1 b) 0 to –1 c) +1 to 0 d) –1 to 0
2+
5 Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed between calcium (Ca ) and phosphate (PO4 ).
a) CaPO4 b) Ca2PO4 c) Ca3(PO4)2 d) Ca(PO4)2
6 Which statement about oxidation numbers is incorrect?

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a) The oxidation number of an element in its free state is zero.
b) The sum of oxidation numbers in a neutral molecule is zero.
lis
c) The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to its charge.
d) The oxidation number of oxygen in most compounds is –2.
b
7 In the balanced equation: PbO2 + 4CO ® Pb + 4CO2, what is the role of carbon monoxide (CO)?
a) Oxidizing agent b) Reducing agent
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c) Neither oxidizing nor reducing agent d) Both oxidizing and reducing agent
8 Analyze the reaction: MnO2 + 4HCl ® MnCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2. Identify the element undergoing the largest increase
in oxidation number.
a) Mn b) H c) Cl d) O
ab

9 Which of the following statements about the oxidation number of elements in their free state is correct?
a) It is always positive. b) It is always negative.
c) It is always zero. d) It varies depending on the element.
nt

10 How is the formula of an ionic compound derived from ionic charges and oxidation numbers?
a) By taking the average of the charges.
b) By multiplying the charges.
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c) By finding the common multiples of the charges.

d) By balancing the charges to achieve a neutral compound.
11 What does the oxidation number of a monatomic ion represent?
a) The number of protons. b) The number of neutrons.
c) The charge on the ion. d) The number of electrons gained.
12 Recognize that the sum of oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is:
a) Always positive. b) Always negative.
c) Zero. d) Equal to the number of atoms present.

Oxidation and Reduction 128

B Answer the following question briefly.
1 Distinguish between a redox reaction and a non-redox reaction based on the involvement of electron transfer and
changes in oxidation states.
2 Analyze the following reaction: Zn + 2H+ ® Zn2+ + H2. Based on the oxidation numbers, identify the species
oxidized and reduced.
3 Given the reaction: I2 + 2NaHCO3 ® NaI + NaIO3 + CO2 + H2O, what is the oxidation number of carbon in the
bicarbonate ion (HCO–) and the carbonate ion (CO32–) and CO2?

om
4 Identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent in the following reaction: Sn2+ + 2Cu2+ ® Sn4+ + 2Cu+.
5 Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in each compound: SO2, SO3, and H2SO4.
6 Considering the reaction: Fe2O3 + 3CO ® 2Fe + 3CO2, what is the change in oxidation number for iron (Fe)?
7 Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed between magnesium (Mg2+) and nitrate (NO–3).

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3 3
8 Analyze the following statement: "The sum of oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is always equal to the
charge on the ion." Explain why this statement is true.
9 In the balanced equation: Zn + 2HCl ® ZnCl2 + H2, what is the role of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the reaction?
10 Describe a real-world example of a redox reaction and explain its significance.

methods and sacrificial protection.

he
11 Define the term "corrosion" and provide examples of methods used to prevent corrosion, mentioning both barrier

12 Differentiate between the oxidation number of a monatomic ion and the oxidation number of an element in a
lis
compound. Provide an example to illustrate the distinction.
13 How can one recognize a redox reaction by observing color changes when using acidified aqueous potassium
manganate(VII) to potassium iodide? Explain the significance of these color changes.
b
14 What is the oxidation number of elements in their free state?
pu

15 Explain how to derive the formula of an ionic compound from ionic charges and oxidation numbers.
16 How do you recognize a redox reaction involving aqueous potassium manganate (VII)?
17 Define the oxidation number of a monatomic ion.
ab

C Long questions
1 Define redox reactions as simultaneous oxidation and reduction. Explain how oxygen, hydrogen, electrons, and
nt

changes in oxidation state are involved in redox reactions.

2 Explain oxidation-reduction reactions with suitable examples.
3 Is the oxidation number of elements in their free state is zero?
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4 Discuss the use of Roman numerals to indicate the oxidation number of an element in a compound. Identify
oxidizing and reducing agents in a redox reaction using examples.
5 Explain the concept that the oxidation number of elements in their free state is zero. Derive the formula of ionic
compounds from ionic charges and oxidation numbers.
6 Identify that the oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as the charge on the ion. Explain that the sum of
the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.
7 Discuss methods to prevent corrosion, including the barrier method, sacrificial protection, and electroplating.
Give examples of each method.

129 Oxidation and Reduction

8 Complete the concept map using the following terms: decreases, half-reactions, gain electrons, reduction, lose
electrons, redox reaction, oxidation, increases.
9 Find out the oxidation number of relevant element and fill the boxes
in front of them.
1
Data for Elements in the Redox Reaction
Zn + HNO3 Zn(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O Consists if two

Element Oxidation Number

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2
Zn called
3 4
Zn in Zn(NO3)2

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H in HNO3 in which atoms

H in H2O 5 6

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N in HNO3 and the oxidation number

N in NO2
7 8
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N in Zn(NO3)2

O in HNO3
b

O in NO2
pu

O in Zn(NO3)2

O in H2O
ab
nt
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Oxidation and Reduction 130

 CHAPTER

7 Thermochemistry

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he
lis
Doughnuts, although typically high in fat and
b
Calories, are very popular. The energy content of
food such as doughnuts is determined using the
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principles of thermochemistry.
ab

Chemical reactions involve changes in the arrangement of atoms and

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molecules. These changes are accompanied by changes in energy, which

can be transferred between the system (the reactants and products) and the
surroundings (everything else). In this lesson, we will learn about the
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concept of a chemical system and how it interacts with its surroundings in

terms of energy transfer. We will also learn how to classify chemical
reactions as exothermic or endothermic, depending on whether they
release or absorb heat. We will use the term enthalpy change to measure the
heat transfer in a chemical reaction, and we will see how it relates to the
bond energies of the reactants and products. By the end of this lesson, you
will be able to explain the factors that affect the enthalpy change of a
chemical reaction and how to calculate it using bond energies.

131 Thermochemistry
 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Explain the idea of a chemical system and its connection with its surroundings influences energy transfer during a
chemical reaction.
Differentiate between exothermic and endothermic reactions by giving examples.
State that thermal energy is called enthalpy change and recognize its sign as negative for exothermic and positive
for endothermic reactions.
Define activation energy as the minimum energy that colliding particles must have for a successful collision.
Explain that activation energy depends on reaction pathway which can be changed using catalysts or enzyme
(detailed pathways not required).

om
Draw, label and interpret reaction pathway diagram for exothermic and endothermic reaction which includes
enthalpy change, activation energy (uncatalyzed and catalyzed), reactants and products.
Recognize that bond breaking is endothermic and bond making is exothermic processes.
Explain that enthalpy change is sum of energies absorbed and released in bond breaking and bond forming.
Calculate enthalpy change of a reaction given bond energy values.

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Explain how respiration (aerobic and anaerobic), an exothermic process, provides energy for biological systems
and lipids as reserve stores of energy.

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of

he
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge
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Skills
7.1 Energy Exchange in Chemistry
Understand that, a chemical reaction interacts with Skill 7.1
its surroundings, influencing the transfer of energy. Analyze and evaluate energy transfer in chemical
b
Differentiate between exothermic and endothermic reactions.
reactions, Assess the impact of exothermic and endothermic
pu

Recognize that exothermic reactions release energy reactions on the surroundings.

to the surroundings (e.g., combustion), while Skill 7.2
endothermic reactions absorb energy from the Analyze and evaluate the energetics of chemical
surroundings like melting. reactions.
ab

7.2 Enthalpy Change and Activation Energy Assess how changes in enthalpy (ΔH) and activation
in Chemical Reactions energy influence reaction pathways, and critically
Understand enthalpy change (ΔH) and activation evaluate the impact of catalysts.
energy in chemical reactions. Skill 7.3
nt

Understand how catalysts or enzymes can alter the Evaluate the exothermic nature of respiration
reaction pathway. and the role of lipids as energy reserves.
Understand that bond breaking is endothermic, bond
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making is exothermic, and that ΔH can be calculated

using bond energy values.
7.3 The Chemistry of Respiration and Lipid
Storage”
Uunderstand that respiration, both aerobic and
anaerobic, is an exothermic process providing energy
for biological systems.
Rrecognize lipids as reserve stores of energy that can
be broken down to release energy when needed.

Thermochemistry 132
 7.1 Knowledge

Energy Exchange in Chemical

The following knowledge will cover the system surrounding and the
concepts of exothermic and endothermic reactions.
Systems, surroundings, and energy transfer
In the fields of thermochemistry and thermodynamics, the area of

Student Learning Outcomes
Explain the idea of a chemical system
and its connection with its
surroundings influences energy
transfer during a chemical reaction
om
focus is on a specific part of the universe known as the system.
Everything outside of the system is referred to as the surroundings.
While a system can vary in size from a galaxy to a living cell, the
majority of systems examined in this chapter are small enough to fit
on a laboratory bench.

r.c
Differentiate between exothermic and
Typically, we only concern ourselves with the surroundings that can
endothermic reactions by giving
examples.
exchange energy and matter with the system. When evaluating the
energy gained or lost in a chemical reaction, the system may consist
of the particles (atoms or molecules) involved in the reaction, or it
Energy can enter or
leave system as heat or
as work done on
he
may include the contents and vessel in which the reaction occurs,
such as a beaker, test tube, or other container. In most cases in
chemistry, the wall of the container is considered part of the
lis
piston.
surroundings, while the particles of chemicals are part of the system.
The figure below illustrates the three types of systems, along with
Matter cannot enter or
leave system. their descriptions.
b
pu
ab

Surroundings =
System = H2(g) cylinder wall, piston,
and O2(8) and everything beyond
(ii) Closed system (iii) Open system:
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A cup of hot soup with a lid. An open cup of hot soup

Fig. 7.1 (a) Imagine you have a hot and delicious soup that you want to keep
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(i) Isolated system
A thermos bottle containing hot soup
with the lid screwed on tightly.
warm for as long as possible. If you store it in a tightly sealed thermos bottle,
it becomes an isolated system where no vapor, matter, or energy escapes.
However, if you prefer to enjoy your soup in a cup with a lid, it becomes a
closed system where the soup transfers energy to the surroundings as it
cools, but no matter escapes or is added. On the other hand, if you leave your
soup in an open cup without a lid, it becomes an open system that transfers
both matter (steam) and energy (heat) to the surroundings as it cools. You
can even add extra matter like pepper, grated cheese, crackers, or any other
ingredient from the surroundings to enhance the flavor of your soup.

133 Thermochemistry
 x
Mass Mass
x Mass
Update Yourself
To gain a complete understanding of a
chemical reaction, it is necessary to
consider both the reactants and the
Heat Heat Heat products, which make up the system.
Furthermore, it is crucial to take into
account the surroundings, which
encompass the reaction flask as well as
the air surrounding it.

om
Isolated system Closed system Open system
Fig. 7.1 (b) Pictorial representation of open, closed and isolated system

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Energy exchange between system and surrounding
It is crucial to understand that the way a system interacts with its
surroundings determines whether energy is absorbed or released
during chemical reactions. This leads us to discuss endothermic and

he
exothermic processes. We use these terms to describe energy transfer,
and the figure (7.2) below illustrates the movement of energy in these
processes.
lis
The sweet powder known as sherbet is
Thermal energy absorbed Thermal energy released a mixture of citric acid and sodium
hydrogen carbonate. When these react
on your tongue, they absorb thermal
b
energy, causing your tongue to cool

System System
pu

Surroundings
ab

Fig. 7.2 (a) Endothermic Fig. 7.2 (b) Exothermic

changes absorb thermal changes release thermal
energy from the energy to the surroundings.
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surroundings. This causes a This causes an increase in

decrease In temperature of temperature of the
the surroundings. surroundings. An exothermic reaction
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takes place inside hand warmers

Table 7.1: Examples of endothermic changes

Chemical reaction Physical process

Thermal decomposition (e.g. heating of calcium Boiling, melting, sublimation (Figure 7.3)
carbonate forms carbon dioxide and calcium oxide). Dissolution of some ionic compounds (e.g. sodium
Electrolysis of water chloride, ammonium chloride and barium nitrate) in
Photosynthesis water.

Thermochemistry 134

(a) Water transforms from liquid
to gas as it boils.
Fig. 7.3 Endothermic physical processes
b
(a) During respiration, the body
pu
exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide
with the environment. Further details
about this process will be discussed at
the end of the chapter.
ab
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Skill:7.1
Energy Exchange in Chemistry
Objective: To Analyze and evaluate
ca
energy transfer in chemical systems
undergoing reactions. Student will be
able to assess the impact of exothermic
and endothermic reactions on the
surroundings.
135 Thermochemistry
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(b) Sublimation of dry ice (c) The melting of ice cream
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Table 7.1: Examples of exothermic changes
Chemical reaction Physical process
Neutralization (e.g. reaction Freezing
he
between hydrochloric acid and Condensation
sodium hydroxide) Dissolution of acids and alkalis
Combustion (Fig Burning of (e.g. sulfuric acid and
candles) potassium hydroxide) in water
lis
Respiration
(b) The burning of candles
Fig. 7.4 Exothermic processes
Test yourself
Define a chemical system. How it interacts with its surroundings
during a reaction?
How can you differentiate between exothermic and endothermic
reactions based on the temperature change of the surroundings?
Why combustion reactions are typically classified as exothermic
reactions.
Provide an example of an endothermic reaction occurring in
everyday life other than given in the book.
 7.2 Knowledge
Enthalpy Change and Activation Energy in
Chemical Reactions
This lesson aims to educate students on the concepts of enthalpy
change (ΔH) and activation energy in chemical reactions. It covers
the effect of catalysts or enzymes on the reaction pathway, as well as
the endothermic nature of bond breaking and exothermic nature of

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bond making. Additionally, the lesson will teach students how to Student Learning Outcomes
calculate ΔH using bond energy values. State that thermal energy is called
Reaction phases enthalpy change and recognize its
sign as negative for exothermic and
Before discussing further exothermic and endothermic reactions, it's
positive for endothermic reactions.

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important to first understand the phases of a chemical reaction. Define activation energy as the
Chemical reactions typically involve two distinct phases: bond minimum energy that colliding
breaking and bond making. The initial step in converting reactants particles must have for a successful
into products is the breaking of bonds within the reactants. This is collision.

he
then followed by forming bonds between the particles to create the Explain that activation energy
desired products. During bond-breaking, energy is absorbed, while depends on reaction pathway which
bond-making releases energy. This energy is generally in the form of can be changed using catalysts or
thermal energy. As shown in the provided figure, nitrogen (N2) and enzyme (detailed pathways not
lis
required).
oxygen (O2) undergo a chemical reaction to yield nitric oxide (NO).
Draw, label and interpret
To dive deeper into our topic, it is important for us to learn about bond
reactionpathway diagram for
energy and activation energy. So, let's get started on these concepts! exothermic and endothermic reaction
b
O which includes enthalpy change,
N N activation energy (uncatalyzed and
N N
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N catalyzed), reactants and products.

O Recognize that bond breaking is
O N endothermic and bond making is
O
O O exothermic processes.
ab

Explain that enthalpy change is sum

of energies absorbed and released in
Fig. 7.5 (a) Bond breaking Fig. 7.5 (a) Bond making releases bond breaking and bond forming.
Calculate enthalpy change of a
nt

requires energy. This energy Is energy to the surroundings. Thus,

absorbed from the surroundings. bond making is exothermic reaction given bond energy values.
Thus, bond breaking is
endothermic.
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endothermic
What is bond energy? Breaking bonds needs energy

Bond energy is the amount of energy absorbed to break one mole of a needs 436 KJ
H
chemical bond. It is also the amount of energy released when one H H
mole of that bond is formed. For example, 436 kJ of energy is needed releases 436 KJ H
to break one mole of H-H covalent bonds. Due to the law of Making bonds releases energy
exothermic
conservation of energy, 436 kJ of energy must be released when
making one mole of H-H covalent bonds as shown in figure 7.6. Fig. 7.6

Thermochemistry 136
Each chemical bond has a specific From Table 7.1, one mole of H – Cl bonds requires 431 kJ of energy to
bond energy associated with it shown break, and releases 431 kJ of energy when formed. The H – Cl bond
in Table 7.1
is stronger than the Cl – Cl bond, which has a bond energy of 244
kJ/mol.
Bond Bond Energy/kJ/mol
This explains why more energy is required to break the H – Cl bond
H – Cl 431 compared to the Cl – Cl bond. Multiple bonds are stronger than single
bonds. However, double bonds are not exactly twice as strong as
Cl – Cl 243
single bonds between the same atoms.

om
C–C 347 For example, the bond energy of C = C(611kJ /mol-1) is less than
twice the bond energy of C – C (347 kJ/mol) while the bond energy of
C=C 611
C = O(736k /mol-1) is more than twice the bond energy of C – C(360kJ /
mol).
C–O 360
Activation Energy

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C=O 736
Let's delve into the concept of activation energy after our discussion
on bond energy. During a chemical reaction, not all substances will
react immediately upon mixing. For example, methane needs to be

LINK
You will learn how a catalyst speeds up
a chemical reaction by providing an
alternative pathway of lower activation
energy in next topic.
b
A2 and B2 molecules that possess energy
pu
he
heated with oxygen to undergo combustion. This is because the
reactants require a certain level of energy to initiate the reaction. This
energy threshold is known as the activation energy, or Ea, which
represents the minimum amount of energy needed for colliding
lis
reactant particles to begin the reaction. Once these particles possess
enough energy equal to or greater than the activation energy, they can
break their bonds and form new ones, as illustrated in the figure 7.6
A-A and B-B bonds are broken. A-B bonds are formed.

greater than or equal to Ea react on collision.

AB
A2 A2B2
ab

B2 AB

Reactant molecules before collision Reactant molecules react on collision Product molecules formed.
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A2+B2 A2b2 2AB

Fig. 7.7 (a) Reactant particles with sufficient energy will react upon collision

A2 and B2 molecules that possess energy A-A and B-B bonds are not broken. No reaction occurs.
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less than Ea do not react on collision.

A2 A2B2 A2

B2 B2

reactant molecules before collision molecules do not react on collision reactant molecules remain unchanged
A2+b2 X 2AB
Fig. 7.7 (b) Reactant particles with sufficient energy will react upon collision

137 Thermochemistry
Enthalpy Change
Before diving into the enthalpy change of chemical reactions, it is important to have a complete understanding of
the concepts of bond breaking and bond making. Bond breaking is an endothermic process, while bond making is
an exothermic process. In addition, it is important to have a clear idea about activation energy. Many chemical
reactions involve both bond breaking and bond making, while others may involve only one of the two. We have
discussed all of these concepts previously. To determine whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic, we can
compare the enthalpy of the reactants and products. Enthalpy, symbolized by the letter H, refers to the total
energy content in a substance. The bond-breaking phase of a reaction has a positive enthalpy value, while the

om
bond-making phase has a negative enthalpy value. To calculate the overall enthalpy change of a reaction, we use
the following formula
Overall enthalpy change (ΔH) = total energy released during bond making in product - total energy
absorbed during bond breaking in reactant.
Whether a reaction has a positive or negative enthalpy change depends on which phase experiences a greater

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magnitude of change. If the energy absorbed during bond breaking exceeds the energy released during bond
making, the reaction is considered endothermic (ΔH > 0). If the energy released during bond making is greater
than the energy absorbed during bond breaking, the reaction is

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exothermic (ΔH < 0).
(a) Exothermic Changes
As we previously discussed, exothermic reactions involve the
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release of energy, while it requires energy to break chemical bonds,
the formation of new bonds results in the release of energy,
typically in the form of heat and light. When a reaction releases
more energy than it requires, we classify it as exothermic reaction.
b
Methane (CH4) is a gas that is commonly used for cooking food on
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
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gas stoves. When methane is ignited, it reacts with oxygen (O2) in

the air, and a combustion reaction occurs. The chemical equation Fig. 7.8 (a) Combustion reaction of methane
for this reaction shows that the atoms in methane and oxygen are with air
rearranged to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
ab

Breaking bonds
needs energy C H H H H
O O O O
making bonds
Making Energy released H gives out energy
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bonds gives O O
out energy H C H O
O O
H H H
oxygen
Energy

Energy of Methane O C O O
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activation products
energy Carbon H H
Energy of dioxide Water
reactants

Energy of products
Fig. 7.8 (b) This graph shows the energy changes during an
exothermic reaction. At the end of the reaction, the energy
in the products is lower than the energy in the reactants.
Fig. 7.8 (c) During the reaction, the bonds in
the methane and oxygen molecules break, and
new bonds form to make carbon dioxide and
water molecules. Heat is given off because the
new bonds store less energy than the bonds in
the reactants.

Thermochemistry 138
 Exothermic changes result in a negative enthalpy change (ΔH< 0).
Now, let's delve into why this is the case. To gain a better
understanding of the energy released during combustion reactions,
we invite you to explore a solved example below. This example will
provide you with details on the formula we previously discussed.
After reading it, you will gain a clearer understanding that
exothermic reactions release energy, as indicated by the negative sign
with delta as shown in the answer.

om
7.1

Find the energy change in the following reaction using the bond energies given.
Bond energies: C – H 412 kJ, O = O 496 kJ, C = O 743 kJ,

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O– H 463 kJ
H
O
H C H +2O=O O=C=O+2H H

he
H
Energy

Explain why the reaction is exothermic or HH O O

C H HO O
endothermic using bond energies.
Answer
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breaking bonds making bonds
4 C H = 4(412) 2 C O = 2(743)
Bonds broken: Bonds made: 2 O O = 2(496) 4 O H = 4(463)
total = 2640 kJ total = 3338 kJ
4C = H = 4(412) 2C = O = 2(743) H
b
O O
2O = O = 2(496) 4O H = 4(463) H C H
O O
H
Total = 2640 kJ Total = 3338 kJ
pu

O
overall energy change H H
Energy change = energy needed to break bonds = 2640 – 3338
O C O O
= –698 kJ H H
– energy released making bonds

= 2640 – 3338
ab

Progress of reaction
= – 698 kJ
This reaction is exothermic because more energy is released
making bonds than is needed to break bonds.
nt

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
Practical Activity

If you want to try a simple exothermic

ca

reaction, here's what you can do. Take

some laundry detergent powder and add The detergent
water to it to make a paste. Then, put the will get warm
as it dissolves
paste in a plastic bag and hold it in your
hand. You'll feel heat being given off as
the chemicals react with water.

139 Thermochemistry
(b) Endothermic reactions
Some chemical reactions require more energy to break existing bonds than the energy released when new bonds
are formed. Such reactions are referred to as endothermic reactions, as they absorb additional energy from the
environment. One example of an endothermic reaction is photosynthesis, which plants use to absorb energy from
sunlight and store it in sugars. The accompanying graph depicts the energy changes that occur during an
endothermic reaction, where the energy contained in the resulting products is greater than that found in the
original reactants. carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

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light
Energy of
products

oxygen

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Energy
carbon Energy of
dioxide reactants

carbohydrates Energy of
taken in
Activation

he
energy
water
PROGRESS OF REACTION
Fig. 7.8 (a) Photosynthesis Fig. 7.8 (d) Graph showing charges during an endothermic
lis
reaction i.e. photosynthesis
Summary
Chemical Energetic
Include
b

Activation energy Overall enthalpy change (ΔΗ)

pu

Minimum amount of energy that colliding reactant total energy absorbed total energy released
during bond breaking during bond makin
particles must proses for a chemical reaction to occur.
Shows
ab

Endothermic Reactions Exothermic Reactions

(ΔΗ) > 0 Net absorption of energy from surroundings (ΔΗ) < 0 Net release of energy to surroundings
Temperature of the surroundings decrease. Temperature of the surroundings increase.
Can be represented by Can be represented by
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Energy level diagram Energy level diagram

Energy products (unstable) Energy reactants (unstable)

energy release
enthalpy change
ca

(ΔΗ) = positive enthalpy change

(ΔΗ) = negative
energy absorb
products (stable)
reactants (stable)
Energy profile diagram
Energy profile diagram
products activation
reactants energy(Ea)
Energy

Energy

activation enthalpy enthalpy

reactants energy(Ea) products change
change (ΔΗ)=
positive (ΔΗ) =
negative
Progress of reaction
PROGRESS OF REACTION

Fig:7.9 Infographic of Energy changes in a chemical reactions.

Thermochemistry 140
 The presence of catalysts
Throughout our discussion thus far, we have examined the major
factors that come into play during different phases of a chemical
reaction. One additional factor that significantly impacts the rate of
reaction is the presence of a catalyst. A catalyst plays a critical role in
activation energy accelerating chemical reactions without being consumed in the
(Ea) (no catalyst) process.
activation energy
(Ea) (with catalyst) Essentially, it provides an alternate pathway for the reaction with a
Energy

om
lower activation energy (as illustrated in the accompanying figure
Rectants
7.10 (b).There are various types of catalysts used for different
Overall energy
charge reactions, such as iron for ammonia production in the Haber process,
Products
nickel for creating margarine, and platinum in catalytic converters to
reduce pollutants in car exhaust (also shown in the figure 7.10 (a)). It

progress of reaction
Fig. 7.10 (b) Graph showing effect of
catalyst on a chemical reaction taking place
in catalytic converter in a vehicle
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is important to note that the catalyst remains unaltered and present at
the end of the reaction, just as it was at the start. It's important to write
catalyst above the arrow in a chemical equation because it is not
Pt
consumed. 2NO →

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N2 + O2

N2 + O 2
Detoxified fumes
2NO are guided to the
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Exaust fumes catalytic conventer
exhaust pipe and
enter from engine out the car
here.
b
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Challange
catalyst compartments
The diagram illustrates the comparison
of reaction profile for the reaction Fig. 7.10 (a) Use of catalyst in a vehicle to clean exhaust gases detail
will be discussed in chapter 12
ab

between water and oxygen with and

without a catalyst.
Which arrow shows the activation LINK WITH BIOLOGY
energy for the reaction with a catalyst?
nt

Enzymes are molecules that act as

Which arrow represents the activation
catalysts in biological systems. For
energy for the reaction that takes place
example, amylase is an enzyme that
with or without a catalyst? “Can you
catalyzes the breakdown of starch into
ca

please explain what A, B, C and D

sugars and protease is an enzyme that
indicate?”
catalyzes the breakdown of protein
into amino acids. Enzymes are
A D produced in living organisms and are
Energy

Hydrogen
vital for most life processes, such as
B E
peroxide respiration and digestion. We can also
C make artificial use of enzymes. For
water + oxygen
instance, biological washing powders contain protease enzymes to
Reaction progress break down proteins in dirt on clothes.

141 Thermochemistry
 Test yourself
What is a catalyst? How do catalysts work?
Is each of the following reactions endothermic or exothermic?
a) the temperature started at 21°C and finished at 46°C b)the temperature started at 18°C and finished at 14°C
c) the temperature started at 19°C and finished at 25°C
Is each of the following reactions endothermic or exothermic?
a) burning alcohol b) photosynthesis c)meltingd)boiling
Look at the following reaction profiles and gives answers.
Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3

om
Energy

Energy

Energy
a) Which reaction(s) is/are exothermic?
B b) Which reaction(s) is/are endothermic?
A C E
F c) Draw an arrow to show the activation
D

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energy for the reaction and label it A.
Progress Progress Progress
of reaction of reaction of reaction
Give reason why the sign of enthalpy change is negative for exothermic reactions and positive for endothermic

he
reactions.?
How does the activation energy relate to the successful collision of reacting particles?
Describe how the activation energy can be influenced by the reaction pathway.
Explain why bond breaking is considered an endothermic process and bond making is considered exothermic.
lis
7.3 Knowledge Skill:7.2
b
The Chemistry of Respiration and Lipid Storage Energetics of chemical reactions
Objective: analyzing and evaluating the
Our bodies break down the food we eat, especially sugars like
pu

energetics of chemical reactions. They

glucose, to release energy through a process called cellular will be able to assess how changes in
respiration. This process is similar to burning fuel, but it occurs in a enthalpy (ΔH) and activation energy
controlled way. If glucose combines with oxygen to produce carbon influence reaction pathways, and
ab

dioxide and water, releasing a lot of energy, then this process is called critically evaluate the impact of
aerobic cellular respiration. catalysts

Glaucose Oxygen Carbon dioxyde water Energy

nt

+ ATP
+
ca

C6H12O6 6O2 6CO2 6H2O

Fig. 7.11 Aerobic cellular respiration reaction

Another way of cellular respiration is anaerobic respiration, which is

a type of cellular respiration that happens when oxygen is not
available. It is like a backup system that allows cells to keep
generating energy, even when oxygen, which is usually needed for
energy production, is scarce. This process is particularly important in

Thermochemistry 142

Fig. 7.12 Muscle Fatigue and Pain
environments where oxygen levels are low or during intense physical
activities when our muscles run out of oxygen. This process does not
require oxygen and produces less energy. Instead of carbon dioxide
and water, it produces lactic acid, which can cause muscle fatigue.
Both of these cellular respiration processes, which are exothermic
reactions, release energy into the biological system. The energy
released during glucose breakdown is not used directly by our cells.
Instead, it is stored in a molecule called adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which is like a rechargeable battery as shown in the figure

Resulting from Lactic Acid Production
During Anaerobic Respiration in Exercise
om
7.13. When ATP is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), it
releases energy that our cells can use for their activities. This process
is similar to spending money from a savings account.
Our body can also turn ADP back into ATP, recharging our energy

Student Learning Outcomes
• Explain how respiration (aerobic and
anaerobic), an exothermic process,
provides energy for biological
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"battery." This cycle of ATP turning into ADP and then back into ATP
helps our body to consume and store energy, ensuring a continuous
supply of energy. The diagram (7.11)shows glucose being oxidized,
which means it combines with oxygen to release energy. This energy

he
systems and lipids as reserve stores of
energy. turns ADP into ATP, which then releases energy for the cell to use.
The energy is either used immediately or stored for later, in the form
of lipids.
lis
Glaucose
Cell constituents
(C6H12O6) Cell
b

High
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Glucose free energy Cellular

oxidation development
ATP
Free energy Free energy
released by released by
ab

oxidation of ATP converts

glucose converts simple molecules
ADP to ATP. to more complex
ADP ones.
Low
nt

free energy Simpler

CO2 H2O molecules
ca

Fig 7.13 Schematic representation of free-energy changes during cell metabolism. The oxidation
of glucose to CO2and H2O produces free energy that is then used to convert ADP into the more
energetic ATP. The ATP is then used, as needed, as an energy source to drive nonspontaneous
reactions, such as the conversion of simple molecules into more complex cell constituents.

Lipids, which are fats and oils, also serve as an energy reserve in the
biological system. When we're not eating or need a lot of energy, our
body breaks down lipids to make ATP. It's like having a savings
account from which energy can be used in an energy-deficient
environment.
143 Thermochemistry
 Test yourself Skill:7.3
How does aerobic respiration differ from anaerobic respiration in terms Understanding Cellular Respiration
of energy production? Objective: to investigates how cellular
What role do energy-rich molecules like ATP play in biological respiration generates energy
systems? (exothermic) and explores the role of
Why respiration is considered an exothermic process and how this lipids as the body's fuel reserves.
benefits biological systems?
Discuss the significance of lipids as energy reserves in organisms,
especially during times of increased energy demand.

om
Chemical System and Energy Transfer
Understanding the interaction between a chemical system and its surroundings in energy transfer during reactions.
Exothermic reactions release energy (e.g., combustion reactions).

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Endothermic reactions absorb energy (e.g., photosynthesis).
Enthalpy Change in Reactions
Negative enthalpy change for exothermic, positive for endothermic reactions.
Nature of Enthalpy Change

he
Enthalpy change as the sum of energies absorbed in bond-breaking and released in bond-forming.
Activation energy is the minimum energy required for reactants to undergo a successful collision.
Activation energy varies with the reaction pathway.
lis
Catalysts or enzymes can modify the reaction pathway and lower the activation energy.
Reaction pathway diagrams:, showing enthalpy change and activation energy (both uncatalyzed and catalyzed).
b

Exercise
pu

A Encircle the most suitable answer.

1 What type of system can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings?
A detailed summary, chapter
ab

a) Closed system b) Open system roadmap, multiple projects,

and extensive exercises are
c) Isolated system d) Static system accessible via QR code.

2 What happens to the energy when bonds are broken in a chemical reaction?
a) Always absorbed b) Always released
nt

c) Either absorbed or released d) Transformed into light

3 Which energy gauges correspond to the final conditions following an energy exchange in which ∆E system
is negative?
ca

a) Empty Full b) Empty Full

Chemical system Chemical system
Empty Full Empty Full
Surroundings Surroundings

c) Empty Full d) Empty Full

Chemical system Chemical system
Empty Full Empty Full
Surroundings Surroundings

Thermochemistry 144
4 An endothermic reaction occurs in a flask. What happens to the temperature
of the flask?
a) The temperature rises. b) The temperature falls
c) The temperature remains unchanged d) None of these
5 In an exothermic reaction, the sign of the enthalpy change is:
a) Positive b) Negative
c) Neutral d) Variable
6 Which statement is true regarding the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction?

om
a) It is always positive b) It is always negative
c) It depends on the catalyst
d) It is the sum of energies released in bond breaking and absorbed in bond forming
7 During food digestion, large molecules are broken down into smaller ones. Which of the following statements is
MOST LIKELY true concerning the bond energies involved?

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Bond breaking Bond forming Resulting in

a exothermic endothermic net decrease in enthalpy

he
b exothermic endothermic net increase in enthalpy

c endothermic exothermic net decrease in enthalpy

lis
d endothermic exothermic net increase in enthalpy

8 An experiment is designed to measure the activation energy of a reaction. The researchers discover a catalyst that
lowers the activation energy. What effect will this have on the reaction rate?
b
a) The reaction rate will decrease. b) The reaction rate will not change.
c) The reaction rate will increase. d) The activation energy will become negative.
pu

9 Athletes often consume carbohydrates before competition. Why are carbohydrates a good source of cellular
energy?
a) They have high activation energy requirements for breakdown.
ab

b) They release a large amount of energy during breakdown.

c) They require catalysts for efficient breakdown. d) They store energy as positive enthalpy changes.

B Answer the following questions briefly.

nt

1 Identify each process as endothermic or exothermic and indicate the sign of ∆H.
(a) sweat evaporating from the skin (b) water freezing in a freezer
ca

(c) wood burning in a fire

2 In the reaction of 1 mol of solid carbon with 1 mol of oxygen gas, the energy of the carbon dioxide gas produced is
394 kJ lower than the energy of the reactants. b. Is the sign of ∆H positive or negative?
a. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
c. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction, including the heat of the reaction.
3 Classify each of the following as exothermic or endothermic, and give the ∆H for each:
a. C3Hg(g) + 5O2(g) ® 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g) + 2220 kJ
b. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) + 819 kJ c. PCL5(g) + 67 kJ ® PCL3(g) + Cl2(g)

145 Thermochemistry
4 State whether breaking or forming a chemical bond is endothermic or exothermic
5 Differentiate between exothermic and endothermic reactions.
6 Why are combustion reactions typically classified as exothermic reactions?
7 Given the reactants of a reaction, can you predict if it will be exothermic or endothermic? Briefly explain.
8 Provide another example, besides combustion, of an exothermic reaction encountered in everyday life.
9 How can a catalyst influence the rate of a reaction?
10 If a reaction has a high activation energy, what can you infer about the rate of the reaction without a catalyst?
11 Draw a reaction pathway diagram that includes enthalpy change and activation energy.

om
12 Briefly describe the role of respiration (aerobic and anaerobic) in providing energy for biological systems.
13 Why are lipids considered efficient reserve stores of energy for biological systems?
14 How can the enthalpy change of a reaction be calculated using bond energy values?

r.c
C Answer the following questions briefly.
1 Besides indicating heat transfer, what other kind of energy transfer can be reflected by a positive or negative
enthalpy change? Give reason as well. Consider the following bond energies:

he
C-C bond: 347 kJ/mol C-H bond: 413 kJ/mol H-H bond: 436 kJ/mol
2 During the reaction of ethane (C2H6) with oxygen (O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), the bonds
broken and formed are: Reactants: 2 C-C bonds, 6 C-H bonds, 1 O=O bond Products: 4 C=O bonds, 4 O-H bonds
lis
Calculate the enthalpy change (ΔH) for this reaction.
3 A chemical reaction has an activation energy of 80 kJ/mol without a catalyst. The presence of a catalyst lowers
the activation energy to 50 kJ/mol.
b
a. By what percentage does the catalyst decrease the activation energy?
b. How would the presence of the catalyst likely affect the reaction rate? Briefly explain.
pu

4 Write a note on the following:

Lipids as reserve store of energy Activation energy
5 The table below shows the bond energy data for a series of covalent bonds.
ab

i. Use the information given in the table to calculate the overall enthalpy change for the combustion of ethanol
producing carbon dioxide and water.
ii. Is the process is an endothermic or exothermic? C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O (l)
nt

Bond Bond energy kJ/mol

C—H 435
ca

O=O 497
C=0 803
H—O 464
C—C 347
C—O 358

Thermochemistry 146
 6 Find the energy change in the following reaction using the bond energies given.
Bond energies: H-H 436 kJ, O=0 496 kJ, O-H 463kJ

O
2H—H + O—O 2H H

Explain why the reaction is exothermic or endothermic using bond energies.

om
Explosion and flame indicate
system releases heat to

r.c
surroundings.

HINT

he
2 H2(g) + O2(g)
lis
O2 ΔΗ < 0

Enthalpy
H 2O (exothermic)
H2
b

Violent reaction to
pu

H2(g) + O2(g) form H2O(g) 2 H2O(g)

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(g)

ab

D Reason-Assertion type questions

1. Assertion (A): The energy of a system is the sum of kinetic and potential energies.
nt

Reason (R): Potential energy is energy stored in bonds.

2. Assertion (A): Catalysts speed up chemical reactions.
Reason (R): Catalysts change the pathway of the reaction.
ca

3. Assertion (A): In an endothermic reaction, the products have lower energy than the reactants.
Reason (R): Endothermic reactions absorb energy from the surroundings.
4. Assertion (A): Activation energy is required for a reaction to proceed.
Reason (R): All chemical reactions have the same activation energy.
5. Assertion (A): Exothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings.
Reason (R): Exothermic reactions have a positive DH.

147 Thermochemistry
 CHAPTER

8 Chemical Equilibrium

om
r.c
he
lis
Mountain climbers sometimes fall ill due to the
b
lower oxygen content of air at high altitudes.
Long-term exposure to an oxygen poor
pu

environment causes the production of more

hemoglobin. The additional red blood cells
facilitate the transport of oxygen to the body.
ab
nt
ca

In the realm of chemistry, reversible reactions marked by offer a dynamic

perspective. These reactions may not always reach completion, and their
outcome is influenced by altering physical conditions. We'll explore how
heat impacts hydrated compounds, such as copper(II) sulfate and cobalt(II)
chloride, and how adding water redirects reactions. Crucially, we'll
discover that equilibrium is achieved when forward and backward reaction
rates are equal in a closed system. Welcome to the world of reversible
reactions and chemical equilibrium.

Chemical Equilibrium 148

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Recognize that reversible reactions are shown by symbol and may not go to completion
Describe how changing the physical conditions of a chemical equilibrium system can redirect reversible Reactions
(Some examples can include:
a. effect of heat on hydrated compounds
b. addition of water to anhydrous substances in particular copper(II) sulfate and cobalt (II) chloride
State that reversible reactions can achieve equilibrium in a closed system when the rate of forward and backward
reactions are equal.

om
All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge

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Skills
8.1 Reversible Reaction and Dynamic
Equilibrium Skill 8.1:
Reversible reactions are characterized by a double- Analyze the importance of close system in dynamic

he
equilibrium.
headed arrow symbol (⇌) in the reaction equation,
Skill 8.2:
indicating that the reaction can proceed in both the
A sess how changes in physical conditions, such
forward and backward directions. These reactions
as temperature or the addition of substances,
may not reach completion, as the reactants can be
lis
impact the direction of reversible reactions and the
converted into products and vice versa. Equilibrium
attainment of equilibrium. This skill involves
is achieved in a reversible reaction within a closed
critically evaluating experimental data, predicting
system when the rates of the forward and backward
b
outcomes.
reactions become equal, resulting in constant
concentrations of reactants and products. This state
pu

of balance is known as dynamic equilibrium

8.2 The Role of Physical Condition in
Reversible Reaction
Changing the physical conditions of a chemical
ab

equilibrium system can redirect reversible reactions.

Examples include the effect of heat on hydrated
compounds and the addition of water to anhydrous
substances, such as copper(II) sulfate and cobalt(II)
nt

chloride.
ca

149 Chemical Equilibrium

 8.1 Knowledge
Reversible Reactions and Dynamic Equilibrium
This section will cover reversible and dynamic equilibrium, also
known as chemical equilibrium, which occurs in a closed system.
Let's explore it further
Reversible Reactions: A Two-Way Street Student Learning Outcomes
Recognize that reversible reactions
While we often envision reactions as a one-way journey from
are shown by symbol and may not go

om
reactants to products, many chemical processes are actually
to completion
reversible. This means that they can proceed in both directions, State that reversible reactions can
transforming reactants into products and vice versa. To denote this achieve equilibrium in a closed
two-way nature, chemists use a double-headed arrow (⇌) in the system when the rate of forward and
reaction equation. backward reactions are equal

r.c
Let us look at the process as an example as the reaction of H2 and I2
proceeds to equilibrium. Initially, only the reactants H2 and I2 are
present. Soon, a few molecules of HI are produced by the forward Update Yourself

he
reaction. With more time, additional HI molecules are produced. As The water in this reservoir is used to
the concentration of HI increases, more HI molecules collide and generate hydroelectric power. The water
react in the reverse direction. As HI product builds up, the rate of the level in the reservoir does not change if
the flow of water into the reservoir
reverse reaction increases, while the rate of the forward reaction
lis
equals the flow of water out of the
decreases. Eventually, the rates become equal, which means the
reservoir. It is in equilibrium.
reaction has reached equilibrium. Even though the concentrations
remain constant at equilibrium, the forward and reverse reactions
b
continue to occur. The forward and reverse reactions are usually
shown together in a single equation by using a double arrow. A
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reversible reaction is two opposing reactions that occur at the same

time (see figure 8.1 (a))
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
ab
nt

Closed System
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Fig. 8.1 (a) Reverse reaction in a closed system

Chemical Equilibrium 150
 Forward reaction
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
Reverse reaction

Time (h)

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Concentration of
8 (4+4) 6 (3+3) 4 (2+2) 2 (1+1) 2 (1+1)

he
Reactants
Concentration of
0 2 4 6 6
Products
Rates of Forward
lis
and
Reverse Reactions
Initially, the reaction The forward As the reaction At equilibrium, the The reaction
b
flask contains the reaction between H2 proceeds, there are concentrations of continues with the
reactants H2 (white) and I2 begins to fewer molecules of reactants H2 and I2 rate of the forward
and I2 (purple). produce HI. H2 and I2 and more and product HI are reaction equal to the
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molecules of HI, constant. rate of the reverse

which increase the reaction.
rate of the reverse
reaction.
ab

Fig. 8.1 (b) Changes in reactant and product concentrations

Definition
Reversible Reactions: These are
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reactions that can proceed in both

Dynamic Equilibrium: A State of Balance
forward and backward directions, Dynamic equilibrium refers to a state in which the rates of forward
indicated by a double-headed arrow (⇌) and backward reactions are the same, and the concentrations of
ca

in the reaction equation.
Dynamic Equilibrium: This is a state
in which a reversible reaction has equal
rates of forward and backward
reactions, resulting in constant
concentrations of reactants and
products. It can only be achieved in a
closed system with a constant
temperature.
reactants and products remain constant. Visualize a situation where
you are digging a hole while someone else fills it in at the same rate,
resulting in no overall change. To achieve dynamic equilibrium, the
reaction must occur in a closed system as illustrated in figure 8.1.
This means that no substances can enter or leave, and the temperature
must remain constant. In this scenario, the reversible reaction can
alternate between reactants and products without ever completing,
maintaining a delicate balance between the two reactant and product.

151 Chemical Equilibrium

 Further Reading
The concept of reversible reactions can also be applied to reactions that occur in a closed system. In a closed system,
none of the reactants or products can leave the reaction mixture. Figure 8.2 illustrates the difference between a
closed system and an open system when calcium carbonate is heated at a high temperature. In the closed system, the
carbon dioxide gas that is produced cannot escape. Over time, an equilibrium is established within the container.

a b

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CaCo3(s)
CaO(s)
CO2(g)

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CaCo3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaCO3 CaCO(s) + CO2(g)
Companson of a closed and open system for the decomposition of calcium carbonate.

Analogy

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Person walking up the escalator
To better understand dynamic equilibrium, let's take a closer look at an
analogy A good analogy of a system in dynamic equilibrium is an
athlete walking up an escalator that is moving down (Fig). The athlete
lis
on the escalator is in a state of dynamic equilibrium if she walks up the
escalator at the same rate as the escalator moves down.
b
Escalator moving down
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Update Yourself Energy changes in reversible reactions

ab

It is a well-established principle in chemistry that if a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it will be
endothermic in the opposite direction. Additionally, the amount of energy transferred will remain constant in either
direction. For instance, suppose the forward reaction is exothermic with an energy change of –92 kJ. In that case, the reverse
reaction will be endothermic with an energy change of +92 kJ. This is primarily because of the law of conservation of
nt

energy, which governs all chemical reactions.

A reversible reaction where the A reversible reaction where the
forward reaction is exothermic forward reaction is endothermic
ca

Exothermic (-92KJ) Endothermic (+58KJ)

nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia dinitrogen tetroxide nitrogen oxide

N2 + 3H2 2NH3 N 2O 4 2NO2

Endothermic (+92KJ) Exothermic (-58KJ)

In the next section, we will explore the factors that influence the position of equilibrium and how changes in
conditions can shift the balance between reactants and products.

Chemical Equilibrium 152

 Skill:8.1
To Study Reversible Reaction
Objective: Analyze the importance of
close system in dynamic equilibrium
Instructions: An activity based
worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.
Student Learning Outcomes
Describe how changing the physical
conditions of a chemical equilibrium
system can redirect reversible
Reactions (Some examples can
include:
a. effect of heat on hydrated
compounds
b. addition of water to anhydrous
substances in particular copper(ll)
sulfate and cobalt (II) chloride
b
pu
Analogy
At equilibrium, the water levels
are equal.
ab
nt
Tank A Tank B
ca
Water added to Tank A increases the
rate of flow in the forward direction.
Tank A Tank B
153 Chemical Equilibrium
Test yourself
The following reaction is reversible and reaches a state of dynamic
equilibrium in a closed system.
Hydrogen iodide ® Hydrogen + iodine
a) The forward reaction is endothermic. Will the reverse reaction be
endothermic or exothermic?
b) What is a closed system?
c) What is happening to the reactions at dynamic equilibrium?
d) Given the formulae below, write a balanced equation for this
om
reaction. (hydrogen iodide = HI, hydrogen = H2, iodine = I2)
How does the rate of forward and backward reactions relate to
achieving equilibrium in a closed system?
How can you identify a reversible reaction from its symbol?
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8.2 Knowledge
The Role of Physical Condition in Reversible
Reaction
he
Now, let's explore what happens to a system at equilibrium when
changes occur in reaction conditions, such as changes in
concentration, volume, or temperature. This concept is governed
by Le Chatelier's Principle. We have seen that when a reaction
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reaches equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal, and the concentrations remain constant. However, when we
alter any of the conditions of a system at equilibrium, the rates of the
forward and reverse reactions may no longer be equal. This is when
we say that a stress is placed on the equilibrium.
Le Chatelier's Principle tells us that when a system at equilibrium is
disturbed, the system will shift in the direction that will reduce that
stress to reestablish equilibrium. In other words, if you change the
concentration, volume, or temperature of a system at equilibrium,
the system will respond by adjusting the rates of the forward and
reverse reactions to counteract the change and return to equilibrium.
So, Le Chatelier's Principle is a crucial concept that helps us
predict how a system at equilibrium will respond to external changes
and maintain its balanced state, building upon the dynamic nature
of chemical equilibrium discussed earlier.
Le Châtelier's Principle When a stress (change in conditions) is
placed on a reaction at equilibrium, the equilibriurn will saift in the
direction that relieves the stress.
Suppose we have two water tanks connected by a pipe. When the
water levels in the tanks are equal, water flows in the forward
direction from Tank A to Tank B at the same rate as it flows in the
reverse direction from Tank B to Tank A. Suppose we add more water
to Tank A. With a higher level of water in Tank A, more water flows in
the forward direction from Tank A to Tank B than in the reverse Equilibrium is reached again when
direction from Tank B to Tank A, which is shown with a longer arrow. the water levels are equal.

Eventually, equilibrium is reached as the levels in both tanks become

equal, but higher than before. Then the rate of water flows equally
between Tank A and Tank B
Effect of concentration changes on equilibrium
We will now use the reaction of H2 and I2 to illustrate how a change in Tank A Tank B
concentration disturbs the equilibrium and how the system responds

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to that stress.
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
Suppose that more of the reactant H2 is added to the equilibrium
mixture, which increases the concentration of H2. Because Kc cannot

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change for a reaction at a given temperature, adding more H2 places a
stress on the system. Then the system relieves this stress by
increasing the rate of the forward reaction, which is indicated by the
direction of the large arrow. Thus, more product is formed until the

he
system is again at equilibrium.
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, adding more reactant causes
the system to shift in the direction of the product until equilibrium is
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reestablished.
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
b
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ab

The addition of H2 places To relieve stress, the forward A new equilibrium is established
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stress on the equilibrium reaction converts some reactants H2 when the rates of the forward and
and I2 to form more product HI. the reverse reaction become equal.

Fig. 8.2 Effect of adding reactant to a system at equilibrium

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Add H2

H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)

Suppose now that some H2 is removed from the reaction mixture at

equilibrium, which lowers the concentration of H2 and slows the
rate of the forward reaction. Using Le Châtelier’s principle, we know
that when some of the reactants are removed, the system will shift in
the direction of the reactants until equilibrium is reestablished.

Chemical Equilibrium 154

 Remove HI
H2(g) + 12(g) 2HI(g)
The concentrations of the products of an equilibrium mixture can
also increase or decrease. For example, if more HI is added, there is
an increase in the rate of the reaction in the reverse direction, which
converts some of the product to reactants. The concentration of the
products decreases and the concentration of the reactants increases
until equilibrium is reestablished. Using Le Châtelier’s principle, we

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see that the addition of a product causes the system to shift in the
direction of the reactants.
Add HI
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)

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In another example, some HI is removed from an equilibrium
mixture, which decreases the concentration of the product. Then
there is a shift in the direction of the product to reestablish
equilibrium.

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Remove HI
Update Yourself
Effect of a Catalyst on Equilibrium H2(g) + 12(g) 2HI(g)
Sometimes a catalyst is added to a
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In summary, Le Châtelier’s principle indicates that a stress caused by
reaction to speed up a reaction by adding a substance at equilibrium is relieved when the equilibrium
lowering the activation energy. As a
system shifts the reaction away from that substance. Adding more
result, the rates of both the forward and
reactant causes an increase in the forward reaction to products.
b
reverse reactions increase. The time
required to reach equilibrium is shorter, Adding more product causes an increase in the reverse reaction to
reactants. When some of a substance is removed, the equilibrium
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but the same ratios of products and

reactants are attained. Therefore, a
catalyst speeds up the forward and
reverse reactions, but it has no effect on
the equilibrium mixture.
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system shifts in the direction of that substance. These features of Le
Châtelier’s principle are summarized in Table 8.1
Table 8.1 Effect of Concentration changes on Equilibrium

H2(g) + 12(g) 2HI(g)

Stress Shift in the Direction of
Increasing [H2] Product
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Decreasing [H2] Reactants

Increasing [12] Product
Decreasing [12] Reactants
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Increasing [HI] Reactants

Decreasing [HI] Product
Effect of a Change in temperature on equilibrium
We can think of heat as a reactant or a product in a reaction. For
example, in the equation for an endothermic reaction, heat is written
on the reactant side. When the temperature of an endothermic
reaction increases, the system responds by shifting in the direction of
the products to remove heat.
155 Chemical Equilibrium
 Increase T
Challange
N2(g) + O2(g) + heat 2NO(g)
The following reaction is endothermic:
If the temperature is decreased for an endothermic reaction, there is a
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
decrease in heat. Then the system shifts in the direction of the
What is the effect of increasing the
reactants to add heat.
temperature of the reaction mixture?
Decrease T Decreasing the temperature?
N2(g) + O2(g) + heat 2NO(g)

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In the equation for an exothermic reaction, heat is written on the
product side. When the temperature of an exothermic reaction
increases, the system responds by shifting in the direction of the
reactants to remove heat.

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Increase T

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) + heat

he
If the temperature is decreased for an exothermic reaction, there is a
decrease in heat. Then the system shifts in the direction of the
products to add heat.
lis
Decrease T

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) + heat

Summarizes the ways we can use Le Châtelier's principle to
b
determine the shift in equilibrium that relieves a stress caused by the
change in a condition.
pu

Table 8.2 Effects of Condition Changes on Equilibrium

Condition Change (Stress) Shift in the Direction of
ab

Concentration Adding a reactant Products (forward reaction)

Removing a reactant Reactants (reverse reaction)
Adding a product Reactants (reverse reaction)
Removing a product Products (forward reaction)
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Temperature Endothermic Reaction

Increasing the temperature Products (forward reaction)
Decreasing the temperature Reactants (reverse reaction)
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Exothermic Reaction
Increasing the temperature Reactants (reverse reaction)
Decreasing the temperature Products (forward reaction)
Catalyst Increasing the rates equally No effect

After learning about chemical equilibrium and how to shift it left or

right, we will conduct a lab experiment to alter the direction of a
chemical reaction.

Chemical Equilibrium 156

What is a reversible reaction?

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The blue crystals above are hydrated The reaction is easy to reverse: add In fact, the anhydrous compound can
copper(II) sulfate. On heating, they water! The anhydrous copper(II) sulfate be used to test for water. If it turns blue
turn to a white powder. This is gets hot and turns into the blue when a liquid is added, the liquid must

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anhydrous copper(II) sulfate. So the hydrated compound. contain water.
reaction above is reversible.

Hydrated copper sulfate Hydrated copper sulfate + Water

CuSO4– 5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

Heat

Add water he
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Blue crystals
White powder

Heat
Fig. 8.3 Dehydration of copper sulphate
b

So, the reaction above is reversible. In a reversible reaction, you can

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change the direction of the reaction by changing the reaction

conditions, as you can see in the above equation.

Activity
ab

When hydrated cobalt (II) chloride crystals (CoCl2.6H2O) are heated,

they lose water and turn into anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride (CoCl2),
which is blue. The reverse reaction occurs when water is added to the
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anhydrous compound, which turns pink.

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CoCl2.6H2O (s) CoCl2(s).6H2O (l)

pink Blue

157 Chemical Equilibrium

 Project: A challenge for industry
Imagine that you are the owner of a factory that produces ammonia. Your goal is
to achieve the highest possible yield. However, you notice a problem: the
reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is never complete. Once the
equilibrium is reached, ammonia molecules break down while new ones form.
Therefore, you may wonder what actions you can take to increase the yield of
ammonia production.
N₂(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) DH= -92 kJ mol–1

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Test yourself
Ammonia is produced by reacting nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + 92 kJ
For each of the following changes at equilibrium, indicate whether

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the equilibrium shifts in the direction of product, reactants, or does
not change:
a. removing some N2(g)
b. decreasing the temperature

he
c. adding more NH3(g)
d. adding more H2(g)
e. increasing the volume of the container
If you want to decrease the amount of product in an exothermic
lis
reaction, would you increase or decrease the temperature?
What happens to the equilibrium of copper (II) sulfate when water is
added to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate?
b
How does the addition of water to anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride
impact the equilibrium of the system?
Hydrogen can be made by reacting methane with steam. What would
pu

happen to the amount of hydrogen formed if the carbon monoxide

was removed as it was formed?
methane + steam hydrogen + carbon monoxide
CH4(g) + H2O(g) 3H2(g)+ CO(g)
ab
nt

Reversible reactions are denoted by the symbol and do not necessarily go to completion.
The position of equilibrium in a reversible reaction can be shifted by altering physical conditions. Heating and
adding water to certain compounds are practical examples of how physical conditions can affect equilibrium.
ca

Equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, resulting in
constant concentrations of reactants and products.

Chemical Equilibrium 158

 Exercise

A Encircle the most suitable answer.

1 What symbol represents a reversible reaction?
A detailed summary, chapter
a) b) roadmap, multiple projects,
and extensive exercises are
c) d) Û accessible via QR code.

2 In a closed system at dynamic equilibrium, what happens to the rate of the forward and reverse reactions?
a) The forward reaction rate is higher b) The reverse reaction rate is higher.

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c) Both rates are equal. d) Both reactions stop
3 Le Chatelier's Principle states that a system at equilibrium will:
a) Stay unchanged when conditions are altered.
b) Shift to increase stress.

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c) Shift to reduce stress. d) Always favor the forward reaction.
4 What happens to the concentration of reactants and products at chemical equilibrium?
a) They continue changing. b) They become zero.
c) They remain constant. d) Only reactants remain..

he
5 In the context of dynamic equilibrium, what is true about the reaction rates?
a) Only the forward reaction occurs. b) Only the reverse reaction occurs.
c) Both reactions occur at different rates. d) Both reactions occur at the same rate.
6 Adding more reactant to a system at equilibrium will:
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a) Decrease product formation. b) Have no effect on the system.
c) Increase product formation. d) Stop the reaction
7 How does an increase in temperature affect an exothermic reaction at equilibrium?
b
a) Shifts towards reactants. b) Shifts towards products.
c) Stops the reaction. d) Has no effect.
pu

8 What is a characteristic feature of dynamic equilibrium in a chemical reaction?

a) Reaction occurs in one direction only. b) Concentration of reactants and products is dynamic.
c) The concentration of reactants and products is static.
d) No reactions occur.
ab

9 What happens when a product is removed from a reaction at equilibrium?

a) The forward reaction is favored. b) The reverse reaction is favored.
c) The reaction stops. d) There is no change in the reaction
10 What does the addition of a catalyst do to a system at equilibrium?
nt

a) Changes the equilibrium position. b) Favors the forward reaction.

c) Favors the reverse reaction. d) Speeds up the attainment of equilibrium.
11 A chemical reaction is represented by the equation: A + B <=> C + D. This symbol (<>) indicates that the
ca

reaction is:
a) Irreversible and goes to completion. b) Reversible and can proceed in both directions.
c) Exothermic and releases heat. d) Endothermic and absorbs heat.
12 A closed container holds a reversible reaction at equilibrium. What will happen to the rate of the forward and
reverse reactions if the pressure is increased (assuming the reaction produces more gas molecules on the
product side)?
a) The rate of the forward reaction will increase.
b) The rate of the reverse reaction will increase.
c) Both rates will decrease. d) Both rates will become equal.

159 Chemical Equilibrium

B Answer the following questions briefly.
1 List two examples of everyday processes that involve reversible reactions.
2 Briefly define the term "equilibrium" in a chemical reaction.
3 In your own words, explain the difference between a reversible and an irreversible reaction.
4 How can changing the temperature of a reversible reaction system affect the equilibrium position?
5 Describe the concept of Le Chatelier's Principle in a single sentence.
6 Copper(II) sulfate crystals turn blue when heated (lose water) and colorless when cooled (absorb water).
Explain this phenomenon using the concept of reversible reactions.

om
7 Baking soda and vinegar react to form carbon dioxide gas. How can you manipulate the pressure in the
system to create more bubbles? Give your reasoning.
.8 A reversible reaction produces heat. Predict how adding a catalyst would affect the equilibrium position.
9 What are some factors that can influence the rate of a chemical reaction?

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10 Define the terms "reactant" and "product" in a chemical reaction.
11 Differentiate between the rate and the equilibrium of a chemical reaction.
12 Differentiate between a physical and a chemical change in a substance.
13 A sealed container holds a mixture of hydrogen gas (H₂) and oxygen gas (O₂) at equilibrium. If a spark

he
ignites the mixture, how will the equilibrium be affected? Give your reasoning.
14 Sugar readily dissolves in water. Is this a reversible reaction? How can we identify the reactants and products
in this process?
lis
15 How reversible reactions may not go to completion. Provide an example to illustrate this idea.
16 How does increasing the temperature affect the position of equilibrium for an exothermic reversible
reaction?
b
17 What happens to the equilibrium position when a reactant is added to a system at equilibrium?
18 Describe the effect of pressure increase on the equilibrium of a gaseous reversible reaction involving
pu

unequal moles of gas on either side.

19 How does the addition of water affect the equilibrium of an anhydrous compound like copper(II) sulfate?
20 Why might cooling a system containing a hydrated compound shift the equilibrium?
21 In a closed system at equilibrium, what is the effect of removing one of the products from the reaction
ab

mixture?

C Answer the following questions briefly.

nt

1 Explain how dynamic equilibrium is achieved in a reversible chemical reaction.

2 Include the roles of the forward and reverse reaction rates in your explanation.
3 Discuss how Le Chatelier's Principle can be used to predict the behavior of a chemical system when its
ca

concentration, volume, or temperature is changed.

4 Describe the effects of adding more reactant or product to a system at chemical equilibrium. How does the
system respond according to Le Chatelier's Principle?
5 Explain the concept of dynamic equilibrium in the context of a closed system. Why is a closed system
necessary for establishing dynamic equilibrium?
6 Analyze the impact of temperature changes on the equilibrium of a reversible reaction. How does the
direction of the equilibrium shift in response to an increase or decrease in temperature?

Chemical Equilibrium 160

D Reason-Assertion type questions
In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason(R).
Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions given below:
a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A
b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
c) If A is correct and R is wrong
d) If A is wrong and R is correct
1. Assertion A: A reversible chemical reaction can achieve dynamic equilibrium.

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Reason R: At dynamic equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.

2. Assertion A: Adding more reactant to a system at equilibrium will shift the equilibrium towards the
products.
Reason R: This is because increasing reactant concentration decreases the product concentration.

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3. Assertion A: Le Chatelier's Principle helps to predict the behavior of a system when external
conditions change.
Reason R: This principle states that a system at equilibrium remains unaffected by external changes.

4.

he
Assertion A: In a closed system, dynamic equilibrium cannot be established.
Reason R: A closed system allows no exchange of matter but permits energy exchange.
lis
5. Assertion A: Temperature changes can shift the equilibrium position in a chemical reaction.
Reason R: Temperature changes do not affect chemical reactions at equilibrium.
b
6. Assertion A: The concentration of reactants and products remains constant at dynamic equilibrium.
Reason R: At dynamic equilibrium, reactions stop occurring.
pu

7. Assertion A: In a reversible reaction, the products can revert back to reactants.

Reason R: This reversibility is indicated by a single arrow in the chemical equation.

8. Assertion A: The addition of a product to a system at equilibrium will shift the equilibrium towards the
ab

reactants.
Reason R: This shift is due to the increase in the rate of the forward reaction.

9. Assertion A: The forward reaction rate in a reversible reaction decreases as products accumulate.
nt

Reason R: The decrease in forward reaction rate is due to the depletion of reactants.

10. Assertion A: An increase in temperature always shifts the equilibrium towards the products.
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Reason R: Temperature increase can favor either the forward or reverse reaction depending on the
reaction's nature.

161 Chemical Equilibrium

 CHAPTER

9 Acid and Base

om
r.c
he
b lis
A helicopter delivers lime to increase the pH of a
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remote lake acidified by decades of acid rain.

ab
nt
ca

Are you interested in learning about acids and bases? In this chapter, we
will discuss the basic concepts of these substances, including how they
behave in water, what makes them strong or weak, and their unique
properties. We will also cover the issue of acid rain and its environmental
impact. You will find it interesting due to its direct relation with everyday
life. So, lets start our journey.

Acid & Base 162

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Define Bronsted-Lowry acids as proton donors and Bronsted-Lowry bases as proton acceptors.
Recognize that aqueous solutions of acids contain H+ ions and aqueous solutions of alkalis contain OH–
ions.
Define a strong acid and base as an acid or base that completely dissociates in an aqueous solution and a
weak acid and base that partially dissociates in an aqueous solution. (Some examples include: student
writing symbol equations to show these for hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and ethanoic acid.
Formulate dissociation equations for an acid or base in aqueous solution.
Recognize that bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals and that alkalis are water-soluble bases.

om
Identify the characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions with acids and ammonium salts.
Describe the characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions with metals, bases, and
Carbonates.
Define acid rain.
Discuss the effects of acid rain and relate them with the properties of acids.

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All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge
Knowledge 9.1. Bronsted-Lowry concepts
The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines acids as he Skills
Skill 9.1:
lis
Apply the definition of Bronsted-Lowry Acids
proton donors and bases as proton acceptors. and Base to identify acids and bases in chemical
This concept is pivotal for understanding how equations and predicting the outcome of acid-
acids and bases interact in chemical reactions. base reactions.
b
Knowledge 9.2. Acids in aqueous solution Skill 9.2:
Acids in aqueous solutions release H+ ions, while Recognize that the presence of these ions in
pu

aqueous solutions of alkalis (bases that dissolve solutions enables the prediction of the
–
in water) release OH ions. properties and behaviors of various substances
Knowledge 9.3. Strength of acids and base when dissolved in water.
ab

Strong acids and bases dissociate completely in Skill 9.3:

aqueous solution, while weak acids and bases Identify the Symbol equations for common
only partially dissociate. acids and bases such as HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, and
Knowledge 9.4. The behavior of bases CH3COOH demonstrate their relative strengths
nt

Bases are generally oxides or hydroxides of and behaviors in solution.

metals, and alkalis are bases that are soluble in Skill 9.4:
water. Identify reactions of bases with acids and
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Knowledge 9.5. The chemistry of acids
Acids undergo reactions with metals, bases, and
carbonates, generating hydrogen gas, causing
neutralization, and releasing carbon dioxide.
Acid rain results from atmospheric sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) reacting with
water, causing environmental harm due to
increased acidity levels.
163 Acid & Base
ammonium salts to predict products and effects
of such chemical interactions.
Skill 9.5:
Predicting and writing balanced chemical
equations for acid reactions aids in their
behavior across different chemical scenarios.
Acid rain's adverse effects on ecosystems,
structures, and buildings stem from its acidic
properties, necessitating measures for
mitigation.
 9.1 Knowledge
Bronsted-Lowry Theory
Acids and bases play a vital role in various fields such as healthcare,
manufacturing, and ecology. The characteristic sour taste is the most
recognizable feature of acids. For instance, acids such as citric and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in lemons and grapefruits and acetic acid in
vinegar impart a sour taste. During workouts, our muscles produce Student Learning Outcomes
lactic acid, while bacterial acidification in yogurt and cottage cheese Define Bronsted-Lowry acids as proton

om
causes sourness. Our stomachs contain hydrochloric acid, which aids donors and Bronsted-Lowry bases as
in digestion. To neutralize excess stomach acid, we take antacids, proton acceptors.
which are bases such as sodium bicarbonate or milk of magnesia.
Some acids and bases with their source as shown in Figure 9.1.

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(b) Sodium
Carbonic acid Lactic acid Citric acid (a) Ammonia
hydaroxide

Sour
milk
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Limes, Lemons
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Tartaric acid
NaOH
b

Carbonated drinks Grapes juice

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Fig 9.1: Some acids like carbonic acid, lactic acid and citric acid and bases likes ammonia and Sodium hydroxide with
their source
Do you Know
Some keys features of acids and base
ab

Acids often have a sour taste. For example, citric acid is The word acid is derived from the Latin
term "acidus" meaning sour. In 1887,
responsible for the sour flavor of lemons and limes.
Svante Arrhenius, a scientist, classified
Acids have a pH of less than 7 in aqueous solutions.
acids as substances that generate
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Acids conduct electricity in their aqueous solutions due to the hydrogen ions (H+) upon dissolution in
presence of ions. water. Acids are electrolytes since they
They can be corrosive to metals and skin, leading to burns or create ions in water.
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irritation upon contact.

Bases typically have a bitter taste and a slippery feel, akin to soap. Fact
Bases have a pH greater than 7 in aqueous solutions. Hydrogen chloride, when dissolved in
They react with acids in a neutralization reaction, forming water water, dissociates to produce hydarogen
and salt. ions (H+) and chloride ions (Cl–).
Bases also conduct electricity in solution due to the presence of Acids taste sour due to hydrogen ions,
ions. cause blue litmus to turn red, and corrode
Strong bases can be caustic and dangerous to organic matter, certain metals.
causing decomposition or injury upon contact. HCl(g) H2O H+ + Cl–

Acid & Base 164

 Bronsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases.
In 1923, the Danish chemist J. N. Bronsted and an English chemist T.
M. Lowry independently expanded the Arrhenius acid and base
definitions. According to this concept, A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a
+
substance (molecule or ion) that is a proton (H ) donor, whereas a
Bronsted-Lowry base is a substance (molecule or ion) that is a proton
(H+) acceptor. A free hydrogen ion H+, does not actually exist in water.
Its attraction to polar water molecules is so strong that the H+ bonds to
+
a water molecule and forms a hydronium ion H3O as shown below:

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J. N. Bronsted Therefore, water (H2O) molecule acts both as an acid as well as a base
(amphoteric). When a substance can act as both a proton acceptor
(base) and a proton donor (acid), it is known as amphoteric.
Examples of such substances include aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and

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zinc oxide (ZnO).

he
lis
T. M. Lowry
Do you Know
Hydrochloric acid gas combines with
b
ammonia gas resulting in white smoke of
soIid ammonium chloride.
When hydrogen chloride is mixed with water, it forms hydrochloric
acid. In this reaction, hydrogen chloride transfers a hydrogen ion (H+)
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to water. By accepting the H+ ion, water acts as a base according to the

Bronsted–Lowry concept.
ab
nt

Fact
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Some Arrhenius hydroxide bases,

such as NaOH, are not Bronsted-
Lowry bases. It is because these
compounds are not proton acceptors
whereas, the OH– ion produced in a
In another reaction, ammonia, NH3, acts as a base by accepting H+
solution is the Bronsted-Lowry base
when it reacts with water, because, the nitrogen atom of NH3 has a
because it is the species that can accept
stronger attraction for H+ than oxygen. Therefore, water acts as an
a proton.
acid by donating H+.

165 Acid & Base

 Test yourself
What is a Bronsted-Lowry acid?
Define a Bronsted-Lowry base.
Can water act as both a Bronsted-
Lowry acid and base? Provide a reason
for your answer.
Give an example of a Bronsted-Lowry

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acid-base reaction and identify the acid
and the base in the reaction.
Why is ammonia considered a
9.2 Knowledge Bronsted-Lowry base.

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs: Acids in aqueous

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solution
According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory, a conjugate acid – base pair
consists of molecules or ions related by to loss of one H+ by an acid,

he
and the gain of one H+ by a base. Every acid-base reaction contains Skill:9.1
two conjugate acid-base pairs because a H+ is transferred in both the Introduction of acids and base
forward and reverse directions. Objective: Applying this definition
helps in identifying acids and bases in
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+
When an acid such as HF loses one H , the conjugate base F– is
+ + chemical equations and predicting the
formed. When the base H2O gains a H , its conjugate acid, H3O , is
outcome of acid-base reactions.
formed. Because the overall reaction of HF is reversible, the Instructions: An activity based
+
conjugate acid H3 O+ can donate H to the conjugate base F– and
b
worksheet is attached in the given QR
reform the acid HF and the base H2O. Using the relationship of loss code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
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and gain of one H+, we can now identify the conjugate acid-base pairs and solve it.
as HF/F - along with H3O+/H2O.
Student Learning Outcomes
Recognize that aqueous solutions of acids
ab

contain H+ ions and aqueous solutions of

alkalis contain OH– ions
nt
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HF, an acid, loses one H+

to form its conjugate base
F–. Water acts as a base by
gaining one H+ to form its
conjugate acid H3O+.

Acid & Base 166

 In a chemical reaction, NH3 reacts with H2O to form NH4+ and OH-,
+
where NH3 accepts H from H2O to become the conjugate acid NH4+,
–
and H2O loses a H+ to become the conjugate base OH . The conjugate
–
acid-base pairs, NH4+ /NH3 and H2O/OH , are linked by the gain and
loss of one H+.

Amonia, NH3, acts as a base when it

om
gains one H+ to form its conjugate acid +
NH3(g) H2O(l) NH4(aq) OH–(aq)
NH4+. Water acts as an acid by losing
one H+ to form its conjugate base OH–.

Challange

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Dentify the conjugate acid–base pairs From the above reaction, you will be able to learn about acids and
in each of the following bases.
reactions: Here are some more examples to help clear up your concepts. Acids

a. HCN(aq) + So42–(aq)® CN– (aq) + HSO4–(aq)
b. H2O(l) + S2– (aq) ® OH– (aq) + HS– (aq)
In these two examples, we see that water
+
can act as an acid when it donates H or as
+
a base when it accepts H . Substances that
can act as both acids and bases are
amphoteric or amphiprotic. For water, the
b
most common amphoteric substance, the
acidic or basic behavior depends on the
other reactant. Water donates H+ when it
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are substances that give out H+ ions, while bases give out OH- ions in
water. For example, when hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissolves in
water, it separates into hydrogen ions (H+) and chloride
ions (Cl–), and the equation for this process is:
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HCl(aq)
+ –
H (aq) + Cl (aq).
This shows that hydrochloric acid in water is a source of H+ ions. A
typical example of an alkali is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). When
sodium hydroxide dissolves in water, it separates into sodium ions
(Na+) and hydroxide ions (OH–), and the equation for this is:

reacts with a stronger base, and it accepts NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH –(aq)

H+ when it reacts with a stronger acid.
Another example of an amphoteric The pH scale
substance is bicarbonate (HCO3). With a
ab

The pH scale is a way of measuring how acidic or alkaline a

base, HCO3 acts as an acid and donates substance is. On this scale pH 7 is neutral – neither alkaline, nor acid.
+ 2–
one H to give Co3 . However, when Values below 7 are acidic, while values of 8 to 14 are alkaline. The pH
HCO3- reacts with an acid, it acts as a base
of a solution can be measured using a pH indicator (see below – these
and accepts one H+ to form H2CO3.
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change colour at different pH levels.

Do you Know
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The pH is displayed as a
A digital pH meter number, usually upto two
The pH of a substance can be measured decimal places.
electronically using an electronic probe
that Detects the number of hydrogen ions
(H+) in a solution. The more hydrogen
ions there are, the more acidic the
solution is, and the lower the pH.

167 Acid & Base

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b lis
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Skill:9.2
Test yourself
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Which ion is present in all aqueous solutions of acids? Acids in aqueous solution
Which ion do alkalis release into the water to form their aqueous Objective: Recognizing the
solutions? presence of these ions in solutions
enables the prediction of the properties
When is an aqueous solution acidic in nature?
and behaviors of various substances when
How can you determine if a solution is alkaline based on its ion dissolved in water.
content? Instructions: An activity based
What happens to the pH of a solution when H+ ions are added to it? worksheet is attached in the given QR code.
Why is ammonia considered a Bronsted-Lowry base? Scan the code, read the worksheet and
solve it.

Acid & Base 168


Student Learning Outcomes
Define a strong acid and base as an
acid or base that completely
dissociates in an aqueous solution
and a weak acid and base that
partially dissociates in an aqueous
solution. (Some examples include:
Student writing symbol equations to
show these for hydrochloric acid,
sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and
ethanoic acid.
Formulate dissociation equations for
an acid or base in aqueous solution.
b
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ab
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Fact
Dissociation in the context of acids refers
to the process in which an acid breaks
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apart into ions when it is dissolved in
water. Specifically, acids release hydrogen
ions (H+) into the aqueous solution when
they dissociate.
169 Acid & Base
9.3 Knowledge
Strength of acids and base
In the process of dissociation, when an acid or a base is dissolved
in water, it breaks down into ions. The strength of an acid or base is
determined by the number of moles of H3O+ and OH–, ions produced
for each mole of the acid or base that dissolves. Strong acids and
strong bases dissociate completely in water, which means that they
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produce a high number of corresponding ions. On the other hand,
weak acids and weak bases dissociate only slightly, leaving most of
the initial acid or base undissociated and producing fewer ions.
Strong acid: A strong acid is one that ionizes completely in an
aqueous solution and gives a higher concentration of H+ ions. A
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strong acid is a strong electrolyte. For example, Hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is a strong acid because when hydrochloric acid (HCl) is added
into water, we consider the reaction of HCl in H2O as going 100% to
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the product. Thus, one mole of a strong acid dissociates in water to
yield one mole of H3 O+ and one mole of its conjugate base. We write
the equation for a strong acid such as HCl with a single arrow.
–
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl (aq)
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Some examples of strong acids include nitric acid (HNO3 ), and
sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
Nitric acid (HNO3) is a polar molecule and hence dissociates in water.
It produces H+(aq) and NO–23 ions when it is added to water. Since it
produces H+(aq) or H3 O+ ions on dissociation, it is considered to be
acidic.
When sulfuric acid is combined with water, the dissociation occurs in
a stepwise series of reactions:
H2SO4(aq) → H+(aq) + HSO4– (aq)
HNO3 + H2O(l) → H3O+ + NO–23 .
Table 9.1 A Few strong acids
Strong Acids Chemical formula
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Nitric acid HNO3
Sulphuric aicd H2SO4
Perchloric acid HClO4
 HCl CH3COOH
1M 1M Fact
The pH scale is a measure of how acidic
or alkaline substances are, and most
substances fall within the range of 0 to 14.

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Acidic substances have lower pHs.
Alkaline substances have higher pHs. A
substance with a pH of 7 is neutral –
neither acidic nor alkaline.

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CH3COOH
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Fig:9.3 A strong acid such as HCl is completely dissociated
(≈100%),whereas a weak acid such as CH3COOH contains mostly
b
molecules and a few ions.

Weak acid: The acids which do not completely dissociate in an

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aqueous solution and lower the concentration of H+ ions are called

weak acids. Many of the household products we use on a daily basis
contain weak acids. One of the most common weak acids found in
Do you Know
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fruits and fruit juices like lemons, oranges, and grapefruit is citric
Weak acids are found in foods and household
acid. Another example is the vinegar used in salad dressings, which is products.
generally a 5% acetic acid, CH3COOH, solution. When CH3COOH is
added to water, a few molecules donate H+ ions to H2O to form H3O+
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ions and acetate ions CH3COO–. The reverse reaction also takes
+
place, leading to the conversion of H3O ions and acetate ions
CH3COO– back to reactants. It is the formation of hydronium ions
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from vinegar that gives it its sour taste.

We use a double arrow to indicate that the forward and reverse
reactions are at equilibrium when writing the equation for a weak
acid in an aqueous solution.

–
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO(aq) + H+ (aq)

Acid & Base 170

 Table 9.2 Some strong acids

Weak Acids Chemical formula

Nitrous acid HNO2

Sulphurous acid H2SO3

Fact
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Some acids like Hydrochloric acid (HCl),

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Hydrobromic acid (Hbr), Nitric acid
Phosphoric acid H2PO4
(HNO 3 ), Sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ),
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), Carbonic acid
Propanoic acid C2H5COOH
(H2CO3) etc. are known as mineral acids
and some acids like Formic acid

(HCOOH), Acetic acid (CH3COOH),
Propanoic acid (C2H5COOH) etc., are
called organic acids.
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In summary, a strong acid such as HI in water dissociates completely
to form an aqueous solution of the ions H3O+ and I–. A weak acid such
as HF dissociates only slightly in water to form an aqueous solution
that consists mostly of HF molecules and a few H3O+ and F – ions (see
Figure 9.4)

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Strong acid: HI(aq) + H2O(l)
-
H3O+(aq) + I (aq)
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Completely dissociated
-
Weak acid: HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + F (aq)
Slightly dissociated
b
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Fig: 9.4 Strong and weak acids in water

171 Acid & Base

Strong bases
The bases which completely dissociate in an aqueous solution and
give a higher the concentration of OH– ions are called strong bases.
When solid KOH dissolves in water, it dissociates completely to Do you Know
+ –
form potassium ions (K ) and hydroxide ions (OH ). This process can Drain cleaner solution containing sodium
hydroxide
be represented by the chemical equation:

KOH(s) K+(aq) + OH– (aq)

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This equation shows that one mole of solid KOH dissociates to
produce one mole of potassium ions and one mole of hydroxide ions
in aqueous solution. The resulting solution contains only these ions
and no undissociated KOH molecules. This is because KOH is a
strong base, which means that it dissociates completely in water. The

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dissociation of KOH in water is an example of a strong electrolyte, as
it produces a large number of ions in solution.
Weak bases

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The bases that do not completely dissociate in an aqueous solution
and give a lower concentration of OH– ions are called weak bases. A
common example of a weak base is ammonia, which is found in
+
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window cleaners. In water, only a few ammonia molecules take
hydrogen ions to make NH4 and OH–. Weak bases are important in
chemistry and have many uses in medicine, farming, and industry.
b
NH3(g) + H2O(e) NH+4 (aq) + OH– (aq) Update Yourself
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In soap making, fatty acids obtained

To understand the varying strength of acid and bases consider the
from strong acids react with a powerful
following table which illustrate example of both weak acid and base base like NaOH to produce soap and
along with their corresponding conjugated acid– base pair. glycerol. On the other hand, strong
bases like potassium hydroxide (KOH)
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Table 9.3 Strong bases are utilized in alkaline batteries as the

electrolyte. They interact with strong
Strong Bases Chemical formula acids in the chemical reactions that
generate electricity.
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Sodium Hydroxide NaOH

Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Lithium Hydroxide LiOH
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Table 9.4 Weak bases

Weak Bases Chemical formula

Ammonium Hydroxide NH4OH
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Aluminium Hydroxide Al(OH)3

Acid & Base 172

Table 9.5 To understand the varying strength of acids and bases consider the table

Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases

Acid Conjugate Base

Strong Acids Weak Bases

Hydroiodic acid HI I– Iodide ion

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Hydrobromic acid Hbr Br– Bromide ion

Perchloric acid HClO4 ClO4– Perchlorate ion

Hydrochloric acid HClO4 Cl– Chloride ion

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Sulfuric acid H2SO4 HSO
4– Hydrogen sulfate ion

Nitric acid HNO3 NO3– Nitrate ion

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Hydronium ion H3O + H2O Water

Weak Bases Strong Acids

HSO4-
2–
Hydrogen sulfate ion SO4 Sulfate ion
Acid Strength Increases

Base Strength Increases

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–
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 H2PO4 Dihydrogen phosphate ion

Nitrous acid HNO2 No2– Nitrite ion

b
Hydrofluoric acid HF F– Fluoride ion
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Acetic acid CH3COOH C2H3O2– Acetate ion

Carbonic acid H2CO3 HCO3- Bicarbonate ion

Hydrosulfuric acid H2S HS- Hydrogen sulfide ion

ab

-
Dihydrogen phosphate ion H2PO4 HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate ion

Ammonium ion NH4+ NH3 Ammonia

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Hydrocyanic acid HCN CN- Cyanide ion

Bicarbonate ion HCO3– CO32– Carbonate ion

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– + –
Methylammonium ion CH3 NH3 Ch3 NH2 Methylamine

Hydrogen phosphate ion HPO42- PO43- Phosphate ion

Hydrogen sulfide ion HS- S 2- Sulfide ion

Water H 2O OH - Hydroxide ion

173 Acid & Base

There is a relationship between the components in each conjugate
acid–base pair. Strong acids have weak conjugate bases that do not
readily accept H+. As the strength of the acid decreases, the strength
of its conjugate base increases. In any acid–base reaction, there are
two acids and two bases. However, one acid is stronger than the other
acid, and one base is stronger than the other base. By comparing their
relative strengths, we can determine the direction of the reaction. For
example, the strong acid H2SO4 readily gives up H+ to water. The
+
hydronium ion H3O produced is a weaker acid than H2SO4, and the

om
–
conjugate base HSO is a weaker base than water.
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HSO4–(aq)
Stronger acid Stronger base Weaker acid Weaker base
Let’s look at another reaction in which water donates one H+ to

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carbonate, CO32-, to form HCO3- and OH-. From table 9.1, we see that
HCO3- is a stronger acid than H2O. We also see that O his a stronger
2-
base than CO3 . To reach equilibrium, the stronger acid and
strongerbase react in the direction of the weaker acid and weaker base.

he
–
CO32–(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3– (aq) + OH (aq)
Weaker base Weaker acid Stronger acid Stronger base
Dissociation of acid in aqueous solution.
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-
HA + H2O H3O+ (aq) + A (aq)

In this equation, HA represents the_ acid before dissociation, H3O+ is

b
the hydrogen ion or proton, and A is the conjugate base of the acid.
Some other examples of dissociation of acids in aqueous solution are
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given below:
Dissociation of hydrochloric acid
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl – (aq)
Dissociation of Nitric acid
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+
HNO3 + H2O(l) H3O + NO3-2.
Dissociation of Sulphuric acid
H2SO4(aq) H+(aq) + HSO 4−
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(aq)
_
Graphical extent of concentrations of H+ and A in aqueous solution
compared to original concentration of HA for :
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(a) a strong acid; and

(b) a weak acid.
Dissociation of base in aqueous solution.
Bases are essential substances that play a key role in chemistry. They
are known to accept protons or release hydroxide ions (OH–) when Before After
dissociation dissociation
they dissolve in water. The general equation for the dissociation of a
base is given below Weak acid (b)
+ –
B + H2O BH + OH

Acid & Base 174


Skill:9.3
Strength of acids and base
Objective: Identify the Symbol
equations for common acids and bases
such as HCl, H2SO4, HNO3, and
CH3COOH demonstrate their relative
strengths and behaviors in solution.
Instructions: An activity based
worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.
Student Learning Outcomes
Recognize that bases are oxides or
hydroxides of metals and that alkalis
are water-soluble bases.
Identify the characteristic properties of
b
bases in terms of their reactions with
acids and ammonium salts.
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175 Acid & Base
Another example.
-
NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) + OH (aq)
The strength of an acid or base is determined by the extent to which it
dissociates in water. Strong acids and bases dissociate completely,
while weak acids and bases only partially dissociate. This difference
indissociation is represented in the equations by using a single arrow
( ) for complete dissociation and a double arrow ( ) for partial
dissociation, indicating an equilibrium between the dissociated and
undissociated forms
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9.4 Knowledge
The Behavior of Bases
Oxides of metals
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Acids and bases are important concepts in chemistry. Bases are
substances that have the ability to neutralize acids. They typically
have a bitter taste and a slippery feel. When it comes to metal oxides
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and hydroxides, the term "base" refers to their ability to react with
acids to form salt and water.
Metal oxides as bases
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Metal oxides are compounds that consist of metal ions and oxide ions
2–
(O ). These metal oxides can react with water to form metal
hydroxides, which are bases. This reaction is called "basic" because it
results in the formation of OH- ions when the hydroxides dissolve in
water. For example:
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH
Here, sodium oxide (Na2O) reacts with water (H2O) to form sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), a strong base.
Metal hydroxides as bases
Metal hydroxides are chemical compounds that consist of metal ions
bonded to hydroxide ions (OH–). These compounds can dissolve in
water and release OH–ions into the solution, which decreases the pH
level and makes the solution basic. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a
well-known example of a metal hydroxide, which completely
dissociates in water. For example
NaOH (aq) Na+ + OH–
Characteristic reaction with acids
One of the most important properties of bases, such as metal oxides
and hydroxides, is their ability to undergo a neutralization reaction
with acids. This reaction involves the H+ ions from the acid
combining with the OH– ions from the base to form water (H2O),
while the metal ion from the base and the non-metal ion from the acid
combine to form a salt.
 NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Here, sodium hydroxide (a base) reacts with hydrochloric acid (an Do you Know
acid) to form sodium chloride (a salt) and water.
Alkalis
Alkalis are a unique set of bases that can dissolve in water. In fact, the
term "alkali" is used specifically for bases that are soluble in water.
Not all bases are considered alkalis, but all alkalis are bases. When an
alkali is dissolved in water, it forms a solution with a pH greater than

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7, which is a characteristic of a basic solution.
Magnesium oxide its found in dietary
How are oxides classified? supplements that help prevent low levels
Oxides are a type of compound that consist of oxygen and another of magnesium in blood.
element. The properties of these oxides can vary depending on the

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metallicor non-metallic nature of the element. Some oxides can
exhibit acidic properties, while others can be basic in nature.
Metal oxides can be classified as basic or amphoteric. Table 9.6 Example of basic oxides
Basic oxides: Metal oxides are generally classified as basic oxides.

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Basic Oxide Formula
Table provides several examples of basic oxides. Most basic oxides
are not soluble in water, but there are a few exceptions, such as Copper (II) oxide CuO
sodium oxide and potassium oxide, which readily dissolve in water to Calcium oxide CaO
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form alkalis.
Magnesim oxide MgO
Amphoteric oxides
Amphoteric oxides are metal oxides that react with both acids and
b
bases, Examples of amphoteric oxides include; aluminium oxide
(Al2O3), zinc oxide (ZnO) and lead (II) oxide (PbO). The reaction
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between amphoteric oxides and acids or bases produces salt and

water. For example, aluminum oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid
and form aluminum chloride and water. Likewise, aluminum oxide
reacts with concentrated sodium hydroxide and forms sodium
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aluminate and water.

Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)
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Non-metal oxides can be classified as acidic or neutral

Acidic oxides: Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals. Examples of
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acidic oxides include; carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2)

and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Acidic oxides react with water to form an acidic solution. For
example, carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) Carbonated drinks contain
Acidic oxides react with bases to form salt and water. For example, carbon dioxide.
carbon dioxide with react calcium hydroxide and forms calcium
carbonate and water.

Acid & Base 176

 CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
Neutral Oxides
Neutral oxides are oxides that neither show acidic or basic properties.
They do not react with either acids or bases. Examples of neutral
oxides include; water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide
(NO).
Chemical properties of bases:
Bases have several characteristic properties, particularly evident in

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their reactions with acids and ammonium salts. These properties can
be used to identify substances as bases in a chemical context:
Reaction with Acids (Neutralization):
One of the most definitive properties of a base is its ability to

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neutralize acids. This is a type of chemical reaction where the
hydrogen ions (H+) from the acid combine with the hydroxide ions
(OH–) from the base to form water (H2O) and the remaining ions from
the acid and base form a salt. This reaction can be represented by the

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general equation:

(H+) + (OH–) Salt + Water (H2O)

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Acid Base

For example, the reaction between hydrochloric acid (HCl) and

b
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is as follows:
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HCl + NaOH NaCl+ H2O

Skill:9.4
The behavior of bases Reaction with Ammonium Salts:
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Objective: Identifying reactions of bases

Bases also react with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas
with acids and ammonium salts to predict
(Nh3), water, and a new salt. This occurs because the hydroxide ions
products and effects of such chemical
interactions.
from the base react with the ammonium ions (NH4+) in the salt. The
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Instructions: An activity based reaction is a type of acid-base reaction where the ammonium ion acts
worksheet is attached in the given QR as a weak acid, donating a hydrogen ion to the hydroxide ion, which
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet acts as a base. The general equation for this reaction is:
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and solve it. Ammonium Salt + Base New salt + Water + Ammonia
For instance, when ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) reacts with sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)4 the following reaction occurs:

NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + H2O + NH3

The ammonia gas produced can be detected by its characteristic
smell or by using moist litmus paper, which turns blue in its presence,
indicating the basic nature of ammonia.

177 Acid & Base

 Further Reading Further goin on Here are some key points about metal oxides:

Formation
Metal oxides are usually formed by the reaction of metals with oxygen, often through the process of oxidation, which can
occur naturally over time with exposure to air or more rapidly at high temperatures.
Properties
Metal oxides can exhibit a range of properties, but many of them are:
Solid at room temperature.
Insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, although there are exceptions.

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Ionic in nature, with high melting and boiling points due to the strong ionic bonds between the metal cations and
oxide anions.
Basicity
Many metal oxides are basic, meaning they can react with acids to form salts and water, a process known as

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neutralization. Some metal oxides, like those of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, are very basic and dissolve in
water to form hydroxides, which are strongly alkaline.
Variety
The term "metal oxide" covers a wide range of compounds, from simple oxides like magnesium oxide (MgO) to

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complex oxides like ferric oxide (Fe2O3). The properties of a metal oxide depend on the specific metal and its oxidation
state.
Uses
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Metal oxides have a wide variety of uses in different industries. For example, they are used as catalysts in chemical
reactions, as pigments in paints and coatings, in ceramics and glass manufacturing, and as semiconductors in electronics.
Amphoteric Oxides:
b
Some metal oxides, such as those of aluminum (Al2O3) and zinc (ZnO), can act as either acids or bases. These are known
as amphoteric oxides. They can react with both acids and bases to form salts and water.
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9.5 Knowledge
The Chemistry of Acids
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Acids and bases can react with metals, carbonates, or bicarbonates.

When an antacid tablet is dissolved in water, the bicarbonate ion and
citric acid present in the tablet react with each other, producing
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carbon dioxide bubbles, water, and a salt. A salt is an ionic compound

that does not have H+as the cation or OH- as the anion.
Acids and Metals Student Learning Outcomes
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When certain metals react with acids, they produce hydrogen gas Describe the characteristic properties
of acids in terms of their reactions
(H2) and a salt. The metals that are active enough to undergo this
with metals, bases, and carbonates.
reaction include potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium,
Define acid rain discuss the effects of
aluminum, zinc, iron, and tin. During this process, the metal ion acid rain and relate them with the
replaces the hydrogen in the acid, leading to a single replacement properties of acids.
reaction.
2HCI(aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + MgCI2(aq)
Acid Metal Hydrogen Salt

Acid & Base 178

 Think of it this way 2HNO3(aq) + Zn(s) H2(g) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)
Think of your body as a city and your Acid Metal Hydrogen Salt
digestive system as a waste management
Acids react with carbonates or bicarbonates
facility. Inside your stomach, there are
powerful "digestive workers" - acids like When a substance that has acidic properties is added to a carbonate or
hydrochloric acid (HCl) - that break bicarbonate, the resulting products are carbon dioxide gas, water, and
d o w n f o o d i n t o s m a l l e r, m o r e a salt. This happens because the acid reacts with carbonate (CO32-) or
manageable pieces. Just like how waste bicorbonate (HCO3–) to produce carbonic acid, (H2CO3). This
workers process and break down trash in carbonic acid then breaks down rapidly to form CO2 and H2O.

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a landfill, these acids help break down
2HCI(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + 2NaCI(aq)
food into nutrients that your body can use
for energy and growth. Acid Carbonate Carbon Water alt
dioxide
HBr(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaBr(aq)

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Acid Carbonate Carbon Water Salt
dioxide
Acids and Hydroxides

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Neutralization is a chemical reaction that occurs between a strong or
weak acid and a strong base, resulting in the formation of water and a
salt. The hydrogen ions (H+) from the acid and the hydroxide ions
(OH–) from the base combine to form water (H2O). Meanwhile, the
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salt is formed by the combination of the cation from the base and the
anion from the acid. For instance, the neutralization reaction between
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be
b
represented by the following equation:
Fig 9.4 Magnesium reacts rapidly with
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acid and forms H2 gas and a salt of HCI(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCI2(aq)
magnesium. Acid Base water Salt
If we write the strong acid HCl and the strong base NaOH as ions, we
see that H combines with OH to form water, leaving the ions Na and
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Cl in solution.
H+ + Cl– + Na+ + OH–
(aq) (aq) (aq) (aq) H O(l) + Na+ + Cl–
2 (aq) (aq)
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When we lmit the ions that do not change during the reaction
(spectator ions), we obtain the net ionic equation.
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH- (aq) H2O(l) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
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The net ionic equation for the neutralization of H and OH to form H2O
is
H (aq) + OH-
+
(aq) H O Net ionic equation
2 (l)

Fig 9.4 Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) Evaluating Acid Rain:

reacts with an acid (vinegar) to form carbon Acid rain is a serious form of environmental pollution that results
dioxide gas, water, and a salt. from the deposition of acidic substances in precipitation like rain,
snow, sleet, or fog. It arises from the reaction of sulfur dioxide (SO2)

179 Acid & Base

and nitrogen oxides (NOx) with atmospheric moisture, which forms Interesting information
acidic compounds such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid Chemistry Link to Health
(HNO3). The emission of these pollutants is primarily from human AntacidsAntacids are substances used to
activities like industrial processes and burning of fossil fuels. When it neutralize excess stomach acid (Hcl).
rains, these acidic compounds are carried to the Earth's surface, Some antacids are mixtures of aluminum
causing damage to the environment, buildings, and human health. hydroxide and mag-nesium hydroxide.
These hydroxides are not very soluble in
–
water, so the levels of available OH are
Pollutants mix not damaging to the intesti- nal tract.
Wet deposition with H2O O2 and Wind &
Dry deposition Photo-oxidation

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H2SO4, HNO3 other chemicals air However, aluminum hydroxide has the
(dust particles currents
and snow)
and gases) side effects of produc-ing constipation and
binding phosphate in the intestinal tract,
Plants die
Evaporation
which may cause weakness and loss of
appetite. Magnesium hydroxide has a

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laxative effect. These side effects are less
Surface likely when a combina-tion of the antacids
Adversely affects runoff
soil health is used.
3HCl(aq) + Al(OH)3(s) ® 3H2O(l) + AlCl3(aq)
Harms aquatic life

he
lis 2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) ® 2H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)

Effects of acid rain and their relation to acidic properties

Acid rain can occur naturally in areas where volcanoes erupt or plants
decompose. Both release carbon dioxide gas, which makes rainwater
b
acidic. However, the most damaging acid rain is caused by human
activity. Industrial plants such as power stations pump largeamounts
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of gases, suchas sulfur dioxide, into the atmosphere.

Antacids neutralizeexcess stomach acid.
ab

Challange
Complete and balance the equation for
each of the following reactions:
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1. Acid rain reacts with metals,rocks,
and other materials. This damages and
erodes building made of these
materials.
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2. Acid rain is poisonous to plants. ZnCO3(s) + HBr(aq) →
Acid rain damages leaves, reducing Zn(s) + HCl(aq)→
the rate of photosynthesis and HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s)→
reduces root growth, preventing the

absorbtion of nutrients. made of these
materials.
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)→
Balance each of the following
neutralization reactions:
HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) → H2O(l) + MgCl2(aq)
H3PO4(aq)+ LiOH(aq) → H2O(l) + Li3PO4(aq)

3. If lots of acid rain falls in rivers or lakes,

it raises the acidity of the water. Most
animals can’t survive in acidic conditions.

Acid & Base 180

 Test your self
Do you Know?
Short answert-based questions:
1. What is acid rain and how is it formed? Rainwater is naturally acidic because
2. List two effects of acid rain on the environment. of dissolved carbon dioxide.
3. How does acid rain affect buildings and statues? Acid rain is even more acidic because
4. Why are lakes and rivers particularly vulnerable to the effects of acid of sulfur and nitrogen dioxide.
rain? Acid rain can be natural, but is more
5. How do the properties of acids contribute to the formation and impact potent when caused by human
of acid rain? pollution.

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Further Reading
Reducing the harmful effects of acid rain can only be achieved by
controlling the emission of nitrogen and sulfur oxides. This can be
done through a number of measures, including:

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Regulating the emission of these gases from coal-based and metal-
Skill:9.5
extracting industries by filtering the exhaust before releasing it into The chemistry of acids
the environment. Objective: Predicting and writing
balanced chemical equations for acid

he
Reducing our dependence on non-renewable energy resources such
as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The EPA suggests that this can be
achieved by increasing our consumption of renewable energy
sources, such as solar, wind, and water.
lis
Using eco-friendly vehicles that run on electricity or other alternative
fuels instead of petrol or diesel-based ones. The use of catalytic
converters in these vehicles filters the exhaust gases before they are
released into the environment.
b
Planting more trees and engaging in afforestation efforts. This helps
pu
reactions aids in their behavior across
different chemical scenarios. Acid rain's
adverse effects on ecosystems, structures,
and buildings stem from its acidic
properties, necessitating measures for
mitigation.
Instructions: An activity based
worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet

to purify the atmosphere by reducing the amount of toxic gases

present. and solve it.
ab

Bronsted-Lowry Acids donate protons, bases accept protons.

Acids produce H+ ions, while alkalis (soluble bases) produce OH– ions.
Strong acids/bases fully dissociate in water; weak acids/bases do so partially.
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Acids dissociate into H+ and anions; bases dissociate into metal cations and OH-.
Bases are metal oxides/hydroxides; alkalis are those that dissolve in water.
Neutralize acids to form water and salt; react with ammonium salts to release ammonia.
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Acid reactions produce hydrogen gas with metals, neutralize bases, and decompose carbonates to CO2, water, and
salt.
Acid Rain Caused by atmospheric pollution, leads to environmental damage including aquatic harm, forest
degradation, erosion of buildings, and soil acidification.

181 Acid & Base

 Exercise
A Encircle the most suitable answer.

1 According to the Bronsted-Lowry definition, a base is a: A detailed summary, chapter

roadmap, multiple projects,
a) Proton donor b) Proton acceptor and extensive exercises are
accessible via QR code.
c) Electron donor d) Electron acceptor
2 Which of the following is a strong acid?

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a) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) b) Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
c) Carbonic acid (H2CO3) d) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
3 In an aqueous solution, alkalis produce:
a) H+ ions b) OH- ions c) Cl- ions d) Na+ ions

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4 A base reacts with ammonium salts to produce:
a) Water b) Salt c) Ammonia d) Hydrogen gas
5 Which of the following is a characteristic property of acids?

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a) They turn blue litmus paper red b) They turn red litmus paper blue
c) They are slippery to the touch d) They have a bitter taste
6 The reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate typically produces:
lis
a) Hydrogen gas b) A salt and water
c) A salt, water, and carbon dioxide d) A salt and hydrogen gas
7 Acid rain is primarily caused by the release of:
b
a) Nitrogen and sulfur oxides into the atmosphere b) Carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
c) Chlorofluorocarbons into the atmosphere d) Methane into the atmosphere
pu

8 A weak base is one that:

a) Completely dissociates in an aqueous solution b) Partially dissociates in an aqueous solution
c) Does not dissociate in an aqueous solution d) Reacts completely with acids
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9 The pH of a strong acid solution is likely to be:

a) Close to 7 b) Higher than 7 c) Lower than 7 d) Exactly 7
10 The dissociation equation for hydrochloric acid in water is:
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a) HCl ® H+ + Cl– b) HCl ® H2 + Cl2

c) HCl + H2O ® H3O+ + Cl– d) HCl + OH ® H2O + Cl-
11 Which of the following is not a characteristic property of acids?
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a) Reacting with bases to form salts and water

b) Reacting with metals to produce hydrogen gas
c) Reacting with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide
d) Reacting with ammonium salts to produce ammonia
12 Strong acids and bases are characterized by their ability to:
a) React with each other to form neutral solutions b) Completely dissociate in aqueous solutions
c) Partially dissociate in aqueous solutions d) Exist in gaseous form at room temperature

Acid & Base 182

B Answer the following questions briefly.

1 Define a Bronsted-Lowry acid.

2 What are the characteristic properties of alkalis?
3 How do strong acids differ from weak acids in terms of dissociation?
4 Write the dissociation equation for nitric acid (HNO3) in water.
5 What is the significance of the pH scale about acids and bases?
6 Describe a common reaction between an acid and a base.

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7 What are some environmental effects of acid rain?
8 Describe the reaction between an acid and a metal carbonate.
9 How can the concentration of H+ ions in a solution be measured?
10 What is the role of a base in a neutralization reaction?

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11 Explain the concept of acid rain.
12 How does acid rain affect aquatic ecosystems?
13 What is the role of hydroxide ions in alkalis?
Define a weak base and give an example.

he
14
15 How do strong bases differ from weak bases in terms of dissociation?
16 What happens when an acid reacts with a metal?
17 Describe the effect of acid rain on buildings and monuments.
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18 How can the effects of acid rain be mitigated?
19 What is the significance of the pH scale in relation to acids and bases?
b
20 How do acids react with carbonates?
21 Explain the role of a catalytic converter in reducing acid rain.
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22 What are the environmental consequences of acid rain?

23 How do bases react with acids to form salts?

C Reason-Assertion type questions

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In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R).
Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions given below:
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a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A

b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
c) If A is correct and R is wrong
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d) If A is wrong and R is correct

1. Assertion (A): Ethanoic acid is a weak acid.

Reason (R): It partially dissociates in an aqueous solution.
2. Assertion (A): Bases react with acids to form salt and water.
Reason (R): Bases are proton acceptors that neutralize the proton donors in acids.
3. Assertion (A): Alkalis are a subset of bases.
Reason (R): All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.

183 Acid & Base

4. Assertion (A): Acid rain can damage limestone buildings.
Reason (R): The acids in acid rain react with the calcium carbonate in limestone, causing it to
erode.
5. Assertion (A): The pH of a solution of a strong base is higher than 7.
Reason (R): Strong bases completely dissociate in water, producing a high concentration of
OH– ions.
6. Assertion (A): Ammonia is a base.
Reason (R): It accepts protons from water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions.

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7. Assertion (A): A solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in water contains H+ ions.
Reason (R): HCl completely dissociates in water to form H+ ions and Cl– ions.

D Answer the following long questions in detail.

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1 Explain the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, and provide examples of each.
2 Discuss the concept of strong and weak acids and bases, including examples and their behavior in aqueous
solutions.
3 Describe the characteristic properties of acids, including their reactions with metals, bases, and carbonates.
4

5
and bases.
he
Explain the methods used to identify the presence of specific gases produced in reactions involving acids

Discuss the environmental impacts of acid rain, including its effects on buildings, aquatic life, and
lis
vegetation.
6 Describe the process of neutralization and its applications in everyday life and industry.
b
Project 2
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Project: “Acid – Base in Our World

Objective: Students will explore the concepts of acids and bases in daily
life, understanding their properties and applications.
Materials:
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Household items that are acidic or basic (e.g., lemon juice, vinegar,
baking
pH test strips Safety goggles
Activity overview
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Students research common household acids and bases, focusing on

their properties.
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Conduct simple experiments to test the acidity or basicity of various

substances using pH strips.
Investigate and present how acids and bases are used in everyday
products or in industrial processes.
Students will show and discuss their findings, with emphasis on the
practical applications of acid-base chemistry.
Acidic and basic substances in
Learning Outcomes daily life
Understanding of acid-base concepts in a practical context.

Acid & Base 184

CHAPTER

10 Periodic Classification
of Elements

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r.c
he
lis
One of many cows abandoned in the evacuation region
surrounding the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power
Plant in Japan. Measurement of the levels of a Group 2
b
element in the teeth of these cattle has contributed to
our understanding of the environmental impact of the
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Fukushima disaster in 2011.

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Did you know that the Periodic Table is like a treasure map for chemists?
It's a fascinating systematic arrangement of elements that is based on their
atomic number. Each element is organized into rows called periods and
columns called groups, and understanding the Periodic Table can help us
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predict an element's characteristic properties based on its group. The table

is full of intriguing trends across groups and periods that can be observed in
properties such as atomic radius, electron affinity, electronegativity,
ionization energy, metallic character, reactivity, and density. And to make
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things even more exciting, there are specific terms like alkali metals,
alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases, transition metals, lanthanides,
and actinides that are essential in discussing the Periodic Table and
understanding the properties of different elements. Lastly, chemical
periodicity is like a puzzle that helps us deduce the identity and probable
position of unknown elements using information about their physical and
chemical properties. Don't just think of the periodic table as a chart; it's
actually a key to unraveling the secrets of the elements in our world.

185 Periodic Classification of Elements

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Define the periodic table as an arrangement of elements in periods and groups, in order of increasing proton
number/atomic number.
Identify the group or period or block of an element using its electronic configuration (only the idea of subshells related to
the blocks can be introduced).
Explain the relationship between group number and the charge of ions formed from elements in the group in terms of their
outermost shells.
Explain similarities in the chemical properties of elements in the same group in terms of their electronic configuration.
Identify trends in groups and periods, given information about the elements, including trends for atomic radius, electron

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affinity, electronegativity, ionization energy, metallic character, reactivity and density.
Use the terms alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases, transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides in
the periodic table.
Predict the characteristic properties of an element in a given group by using knowledge of chemical periodicity.
Deduce the nature, possible position in the Periodic table and the identity of unknown elementsfrom the given
information about their physical and chemical properties.

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All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge
10.1:Periodic Table
he Skills
Skill 10.1:
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It's an organized chart of elements arranged by Understanding the organization and logic of the
increasing atomic number, with periods and groups periodic table, including element arrangement by
indicating similarities in properties. atomic number.
10.2:Configuration & Identification Skill 10.2:
b
Using an element's electronic configuration, you can Using electronic configurations to identify elements'
determine its period, group, and block by looking at positions (group, period, block) on the periodic table.
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the outermost electrons and shell structure. Skill 10.3:

10.3:Group Numbers & Ion Charges Analyzing and Predicting Ionic Charges Based on
The group number often correlates with the charge of Group Number in the Periodic Table.
ions formed by elements, based on their valence Skill 10.4:
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electrons. To identify and predict trends in atomic radius, E.A,

10.4:Periodic Trends Prediction E.N, I.E, metallic character, reactivity, and density
As you move across a period or down a group, among elements in the periodic table.
predictable changes occur in atomic radius, E.A, E.N, Skill 10.5:
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I.E, metallic character, reactivity, and density. The ability to analyze the configuration of elements to
10.5:Group Chemical Properties explain the similarities in their chemical properties.
Familiarize with terms like alkali metals, alkaline earth Skill 10.6:
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metals, halogens, noble gases, transition metals,
lanthanides, and actinides.
10.6:Key Periodic Table Groups.
Familiarize with terms like alkali metals, alkaline earth
metals, halogens, noble gases, transition metals,
lanthanides, and actinides, which refer to specific
groups or blocks.
10.7:Predicting Elemental Properties
By analyzing physical and chemical properties, you can
often deduce an element's group, period, or block, and
sometimes identify it.
Using specific periodic table terminology ( alkali
metals, halogens) to understanding the characteristics
of these groups.
Skill 10.7:
Utilizing chemical periodicity to predict properties of
elements in a group and deducing unknown elements in
periodic table.
Periodic Classification of Elements 186

Student Learning Outcomes
•Define the periodic table as an
arrangement of elements in periods and
groups, in order of increasing proton
number/atomic number.
In the early 1817 Johann Dobereiner found
b
that barium, calcium and strontium had
very similar properties. He put these
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elements together in groups called a triad.
ab
nt
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John Newlands (1837-1898) An English
scientist called John Newlands put forward
his law of octaves in 1864. He arranged all
the elements known at the time into a table
in order of relative atomic mass.
187 Periodic Classification of Elements
10.1 Knowledge
Periodic Table
The Periodic Table is a vital tool in chemistry that organizes all
known elements in a logical framework by their increasing atomic
number. It simplifies the study of chemical behavior, reveals patterns
of element characteristics, and helps predict their properties and
reactions.
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Historical development of periodic table
To understand the periodic table, it's essential to learn about its
historical origin. During the nineteenth century, chemists had a
limited understanding of atoms and molecules. They were unaware
of the existence of electrons and protons. However, they had already
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made accurate measurements of the atomic masses of many
elements. Using this knowledge, they devised the periodic table. The
table arranged elements according to their atomic masses in a logical
manner. Chemists believed that chemical behavior should be related
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to atomic mass.
Dobereiner's Triads
lis
In 1829, Dobereiner identified groups of three elements called triads,
based on their similar properties. In each triad, the atomic weight of
the middle element was the average of the atomic weights of the other
two elements. For example, in the triad consisting of calcium (40),
strontium (88), and barium (137), the atomic mass of strontium was
the average of the atomic masses of calcium and barium. Another
example of a triad group is lithium (7), sodium (23), and potassium
(39), where the atomic mass of sodium is the average of the atomic
masses of lithium and potassium. You can find this information in
table 10.1
Table 10.1 Examples of Dobereiner’s triads
Element At. Weight Mean weight of first and last element
Li 7 7+39
Na 23 = 23
K 39 2
Ca 40 40+137
Sr 88 = 88.5
Ba 137 2
Newland's law of octaves
Alexander Newlands, an English chemist, attempted to classify the
elements by arranging the 56 known elements in increasing order of
their atomic weight. He noticed that every eighth element had similar
properties to the first one, and he compared this relationship to the
first octave in music, which has eight notes. He named this
2
relationship the "Newlands' law of octaves." The elements were
arranged as shown in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2 Newlands’law of octaves
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa
Li Be B C N O F Na
Na Mg Al Si P S CI Sa
K Ca

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Mendeleev's Periodic Law.
The Russian chemist Mendeleev arranged the known elements - at
that time only 63 - in a horizontal row called periods, in order of
increasing atomic mass. He noticed that elements with similar

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properties were in the same vertical columns. This arrangement of
elements was called the Periodic Table. Mendeleev put forward the
results of his work in the form of periodic law, which stated that
"properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic
masses." However, Mendeleev's periodic table had a few

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shortcomings. His failure to explain the position of isotopes and the
wrong order of the atomic masses of some elements suggested that
Mendeleev (1834-1907) was a Russian
chemist and inventor. He was the creator
lis
atomic mass cannot be the sole basis for the arrangement of elements. of first version of periodic table elements.
His periodic table was later modified after the discovery of inert gases With help of the table, he predicted the
and several other elements. The inert gases were placed in a new properties of elements yet to be discovered.
b
Group 0.
Do you Know
Periodic Law.
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Atomic number is a more fundamental

In 1913, H. Moseley discovered a new property of the elements property than atomic mass because atomic
known as atomic number. He noticed that the position of an element number of every element is fixed and it
in the periodic table should be determined by its atomic number increases regularly by 1 from element to
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instead of its atomic mass. As a result, the periodic law was amended element. No two elements can have the
to state that "properties of elements are periodic functions of their same atomic number.
atomic numbers".
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of electrons
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in a neutral atom, and it serves as the basis for determining electronic

configurations as well.
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Arrangement of Elements in the Periodic Table

The periodic table is a list of elements arranged in order of increasing
proton (atomic) numbers. The periodic table divides the elements
into periods and groups. At present there are 118 elements that appear
to complete the periodic table.
This helps us to see how elements with similar properties are related
to each other. The modern periodic table is shown below.

Periodic Classification of Elements 188

 Groups Metal Periods
• A group is a vertical column of elements. • A period is a horizontal row of elements.
• The periodic table consists of 18 groups of Non-metal • The periodic table consists of seven periods
elements, numbered 1 to 18. Metalloids of elements, numbered 1 to 7.
• The groups run from top to bottom. • The periods run from left to right

18
1 2

1 1 2 H 13 14 15 16 17 He
3 14 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

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11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

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55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

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Table 10.3 A simplified periodic table showing groups and periods

Elements and periods.

11 22.990 12 24.305 13 26.982
3 All elements in a period have the same number of electron shells. For
Na Mg Al
lis
SODIUM MAGNESIUM ALUMINIUM
example, the elements in Period 3 have 3 electron shells, as shown in
the figure.10.1
Elements and groups.
b
All the elements in a group have the same number of electrons in their
Na Mg Al outermost shell, which gives them similar properties (see figure 10.3.
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The group number indicates the number of electrons in the outer

One electron Two electrons Three electrons shell. For example, Group 1 elements have one electron in their outer
in outer shell in outer shell. in outer shell shell, while Group 4 elements have four electrons in their outer shell,
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and so on. See figure 10.2.

Fig. 10.1 Atoms of the first three elements in
Period 2
Proton Number and Electronic Configuration
We can obtain the electronic configuration of an element from its
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proton number. From this, we will be able to deduce the period

1 one shell number and group number of the element. The electronic
1 1.0079

1 H configurations of the elements of Periods 2 and 3 are shown in Table

H
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10.4. (a) Elements of Period 2 and their electronic configurations

HYDROGEN Two shell
3 6.941
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
H
2
Li Element
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
LITHIUM (Li) (Be) (B) (C) (N) (O) (F) (Ne)
11 22.990
Na Proton 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3 Na Number
SODIUM
Three shell
Electronic
Configurat
Fig 10.2Atoms of elements in Group 1 -ion
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8

189 Periodic Classification of Elements

 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Group
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
Element (Na) (Mg) (A) (Si) (P) (S) (C) (Ar)

Proton
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Number

Electronic
Configurat
-ion 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8

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Test yourself
Define period and groups.
What was Dobereiner's contribution towards the classification of Fig. 10.3. The Group 1 elements
elements? potassium, sodium and lithium all react

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How did Newlands arrange the elements? strongly with water
What is the periodic law? And Who introduced the name "Periodic
Table"? Skill:10.1
Why was an improvement made in Mendeleev's periodic table? Basics of Periodic Table

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State Mendeleev's periodic law. Objective. Understanding the
organization and logic of the periodic
Why and how are elements arranged in a period?
table, including element arrangement by
atomic number.
lis
10.2 Knowledge Instructions: An activity-based
worksheet is attached to the QR code
Element Configuration & Identification provided at the beginning of this
b
Identifying an element's group, period, or block based on its knowledge section. Scan the code, read
electronic configuration is a critical skill in chemistry. This approach the worksheet, and complete it.
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leverages the arrangement of electrons within an atom's subshells,

which are directly linked to its position on the Periodic Table. By
analyzing an element's electronic configuration, one can determine
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its location within the structured framework of the table.

Electron configurations
Chemists use a notation called the electron configuration to indicate
the placement of the electrons of an atom in order of increasing
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Student Learning Outcomes

energy. As in the orbital diagrams, an electron configuration is •Identify the group or period or block of
written with the lowest energy sub level first, followed by the next an element using its electronic
lowest energy sub level. The number of electrons in each sub level is configuration (only the idea of
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shown as a superscript. The periodic table is divided into four blocks: subshells related to the blocks can be
s, d, p, and f. These blocks indicate the sub-shells in which the introduced).
electrons are arranged. You can also identify the periods and groups
by referring to the periodic table given below.
Electron Configuration for carbon
Type of Number of electrons
orbital

2 2 2
Read as “one s ,two,
1s 2s 2p two s two, two p two”

Periodic Classification of Elements 190

 The periodic table shows the s block, p block, d block, and f block.
4
1
s block 1s H p block He
2
7 9 1 11 12 14 16 19 20
Li Be 2p B C N O F Ne
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
Na Mg 3p Al Si P S Cl Ar
11 12
d block 13 14 15 16 17 18
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63.5 65 70 73 75 79 89 84
K Ca 3d Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn 4p Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

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19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
86 88 89 91 93 96 99 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
Rb Sr 4d Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd 5p In Sn Sb Te I Xe
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209 210 210 222
Cs Ba 5d La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg 6p Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

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55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
223 226 227
Fr Ra 6d Ac f block
87 88 89
140 141 144 145 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175
4f Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

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232 231 238 237 244 243 247 247 251 254 257 256 254 260
5f Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Identify the group or period and blocks using electronic

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configuration.
Chlorine Cl
To determine the electron structure of any element, you can use the
periodic table. Start at the top left and move across Period and down
b
group. until you reach the element, you're interested in. For example,
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3 shell = 3period to find the electron configuration of phosphorus (P), you can see that
it's in Group 5 and Period 3 on the periodic table. The outer shell of
phosphorus has 5 electrons, which are in the configuration 3s2 3p3.
This means that the outer shell is only partially filled, while the first
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two shells are complete (1s2 and 2s2 2p6, respectively). The last
Bromine Br electron is present in the P orbital, which indicates that it is a p-block
element..
So: Period 1 1s2
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Period 2 2s2 2p6

4 shell = 4period Period 3 3s2 3p3
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2 2 6 2 3
Th e full electron structure of phosphours is: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
The periodic table consists of periods, each with a fixed number of
elements. The first period, called the short period, has only two
Iodine elements: hydrogen and helium. The second and third periods are
I
normal, each with eight elements. The second period includes
lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and
neon, which is a noble gas. The fourth and fifth periods are long, each
with eighteen elements. The sixth and seventh periods are very long
5 shell = 5 period and contain two series of fourteen elements each. These two series
191 Periodic Classification of Elements
are known as Lanthanides and Actinides, and they were placed
separately below the normal periodic table due to space constraints.
Update Yourself
As you have shown in the periodic table. All periods except for the
In the periodic table the number of shell
first begin with an alkali metal and end with a noble gas. The number
s is equal; to period number as you
of elements in each period is fixed because of the maximum number
show below
of electrons that can be accommodated in the valence shell of each
element. Table 10.3 shows the distribution of elements in periods.
st th
Table 10.4 Distribution of elements in 1 to 7 Periods

om
Period No. Name of the Period Number of Elements Range of Atomic Numbers
1st Short Period 2 1to 20
2nd 8 3 to 4
Normal Period
3rd 8 11 to 18

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4th 18 19 to 36
Long Period
5th 18 37 to 54
6th 32 55 to 86

he
Very Long Period
7th [32]* 87 to 118*

Group 1 is made up of hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium,

lis
rubidium, cesium, and francium. Even though the elements in a
group don't have atomic numbers that increase continuously, they
still have similar electronic configurations in their valence shells,
b
which is why they're referred to as a family.
For instance, all the group 1 elements have one electron in their
pu

valence shells, and they're called alkali metals. Groups 1 and 2, and
13 to 17, contain the normal elements. In these elements, all the inner
shells are full of electrons, and only the outermost shells are
incomplete. For instance, group 17 elements, halogens, have seven
ab

electrons in their outermost shells. Groups 3 to 12 are known as

transition elements. In these elements, the 'f' sub-shell is in the
process of completion.
nt

Table 10.5 Illustrates the distribution of elements in groups.

Valence General Electronic
Group no. Family name
electrons configuration
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1 electron 1 Alkali metals ns1

2 electrons 2 Alkaline earth metals ns1
3 electrons 13 Boron family ns2 np1
2 2
4 electrons 14 Carbon family ns np
5 electrons 15 Nitrogen family ns2 np3
6 electrons 16 Oxygen family ns2 np4
7 electrons 17 Halogen family ns2 np5
8electrons 18 Noble gases ns2 np6

Periodic Classification of Elements 192

 Update Yourself 10.1 Predict the period of iodine metal
Look at the diagram below and answer 23 2 2
Electronic configuration of 11Na= 1s ,2s ,
the following question. 6 1
2p ,3s (2, 8, 1). Sodium has 3 main shells.
H He Hence, sodium is found in period 3.

Z
X
Y 10.2 Predict thye group Number of Cl atom
W
Electronic configuration of 1735Cl = 1s2, 2s2,
2p6,3s2, 3p5 (2, 8, 7). The number of valence

om
a) Which letter(s) (W, X, Y or Z)
represent(s) the p ,d and s block of the electrons in chlorine is 7. Hence chlorine is
periodic table? found in Group VIIA.

Skill:10.2 Test yourself

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Element Configuration & How many elements are placed in 4th period?
Identification. From which element lanthanide series starts?
Objective: Using electronic From which period actinides series starts?
configurations to identify elements'

he
How many elements are in 3rd period, write their names and symbols.
positions (group, period, block) on the
periodic table. What do you mean by a group in a periodic table?
Instructions: An activity based What is the reason for arranging elements in a group?
Why the elements are called s or p block elements?
lis
worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet Write down the names of elements of group 1 with their symbols.
and solve it.
10.3 Knowledge
b

Group Numbers & Ion Charges.

pu

Understanding the relationship between an element's group number

and the charge of ions it forms is a fundamental principle in
chemistry. This concept is based on the arrangement of electrons in
ab

an element's outermost shell, which determines how it will interact

Student Learning Outcomes with other elements to achieve a stable electronic configuration. By
Explain the relationship between group analyzing an element's position within the periodic table, particularly
number and the charge of ions formed its group number, we can predict the charge of the ions it is likely to
nt

from elements in the group in terms of form. This provides a strong foundation for comprehending both
their outermost shells. simple and complex chemical processes.
Re-cap of Ions:
ca

1
1A
18
8A In the previous chapter, you learned about ions in detail. Here's just a
+ 2 13 14 15 16 17
H

Li+
2A
7B
3A 4A 5A

N3-
6A

O2-
7A

F-
recap of ions and their relation to the periodic table. When electrons
3
Na+ Mg2+ 3B
4
4B
5
5B
6
6B
2+
7
7B
8 9
8B
10 11
1B
12
2B Al
3+
P3- S2- Cl
-
are transferred between atoms, ions are formed. If an atom gains an
K+ Ca2+ Cr Mn2+ Fe2+ Co2+ Ni2+ Cu+ Zn 2+ Br
-

Rb+ Sr2+
Cr3+ Mn3+ Fe3+ Co3+ Ni3+ Cu2+

Ag+ Cd
2+ Sn2+ I-
electron, it becomes a negative ion, and if it loses an electron, it
Sn4+
Cs
+
Ba2+ Au+ Hg2
Au3+ Hg
2+

2+
Pb
2+
Bi
Pb4+ Bi
3+

5+ becomes a positive ion. Atoms form ions to achieve a full outer shell
Metals Metalloids Nonmetals of electrons, similar to noble gases. Atoms become stable and
unreactive like the inert noble gases, when they acquire a full outer
shell of electrons. Many ions are formed from single atoms when an

193 Periodic Classification of Elements

electron is transferred between only one kind of atom. For example,
+
Na is an ion formed from a single atom, sodium. Sodium loses an
electron to form this ion.
Catoin Anion

+1 -1

om
Group Number and the Charge of an Ion
The position of an element in the periodic table determines the
number of electrons present in its outermost shell. For example, a
Group 1 element has 1 electron in its outermost shell, Group 2

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elements have 2, Group 6 has 6, and Group 7 has 7. Moreover, the
group of the periodic table an element belongs to also determines the
charge of the ion it will form. All elements in a given group have the
same number of electrons in their outermost shell. This means they

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all form ions with the same charge, as they gain or lose the same
number of electrons to attain a complete outer shell.
The Table 10.6 there is a relationship between an element's group
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number and the charge of the ion it forms.

Table 10.6 The relationship between element in groups and charge of its ions
b
Number of
Group Type of lon Formed Charge Examples Explanation
Valence
pu

on lon
Electrons

1 1 +1 Na+, K+ The elements in Groups 1, 2 and 13:

are metals; and tend to lose electrons
2 2 positive ions (cations) +2 Mg2+, Ca2+ to form positive ions.
ab

13 3 +3 Al3+

14 4 CH4 The elements in Group 14 share

nt

electrons to form covalent bonds.

15 5 PCI5 The elements in Group 15 to 17:

share electrons to form covalent
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16 6 negative ions (anions) -2 bonds with non-metals; and tend to

(elements tend to form gain electrons to form negative
17 7 covalent substances) -1 F-Cl- ions when bonded to a metal.

The elements in Group 18: have

18 8 elements do not form ions full valence shells of electrons; and
do not form compounds.

Periodic Classification of Elements 194

Transition Metals (Groups 3-12):
Most transition metals will form more than one type of ion. The
elements on the middle block of the periodic table have the
particularity that they can lose a variable number of electrons from
their outermost shell to form more than one type of ion. The
exception to this is zinc and silver which only form one type of ion
each: Zn+2 and Ag+ respectively.
1 The information mentioned above is summarized in the periodic table 18

om
1A 8A
2 13 14 15 16 17
H+ 2A 5A 6A 7A
3A 4A
+
Li N
3-
O2- F
-

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3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Na+ Mg2+ 3B 4B 5B 7B 8B 2B Al
3+
P3- S
2-
Cl
-
6B 1B
2+
K+ Ca2+ Cr Mn2+ Fe2+ Co2+ Ni2+ Cu+ Zn 2+ Br
-
3+
Cr Mn3+ Fe3+ Co3+ Ni3+ Cu2+
2+
Sn

he
+
Rb Sr2+ Ag
+
Cd2+ 4+ I-
Sn
2+
Cs
+
Ba
2+ Au+ Hg2 Pb
2+
Bi3+
3+ 2+ 4+ 5+
Au Hg Pb Bi
lis
Metals Metalloids Nonmetals

Skill:10.3 Test yourself

Group Numbers & Ion Charges
b
Why do Group 1 elements form ions with a +1 charge?
Objective: Analyzing and Predicting How do Group 17 elements achieve a stable electronic configuration
Ionic Charges Based on Group Number
pu

through ion formation?

in the Periodic Table What is the charge of ions typically formed by elements in Group 2, and
Instructions: An activity based why?
worksheet is attached in the given QR
ab

code. Scan the code, read the worksheet 10.4 Knowledge

and solve it.
Periodic Trends Prediction
Periodicity
nt

In chemistry, there is a concept called periodicity that deals with the

trends in the physical and chemical properties of elements found in
the periodic table. This includes things like atomic radius,
ca

electronegativity, reactivity, and density. It is important to understand

Student Learning Outcomes
Identify trends in groups and periods,
given information about the elements,
including trends for atomic radius,
electron affinity, electronegativity,
ionization energy, metallic character,
reactivity, and density.
periodicity to comprehend the properties of elements.
Atomic Size and Atomic Radius
It is a well-known fact that atoms are extremely tiny in size and do not
have a clear boundary that defines their size. This makes it
challenging to measure the size of an atom accurately. The most
common approach to determining the size of an atom is to assume
that atoms are spherical in shape. When atoms are situated close to

195 Periodic Classification of Elements

one another, they touch, and this touching point provides an estimate 154(pm)
of their size. 2r

The atomic radius of an atom is defined as half the distance between

the nuclei of two bonded atoms. To illustrate, let's consider the
example of two carbon atoms. In their elemental form, the distance
between their nuclei is measured to be 154 pm. Therefore, the radius
of one carbon atom can be computed as half of this distance, which
equates to 77 pm. You can take a look at theaccompanying Figure 10. r
77(pm)
4 for a better understanding.

om
Fig. 10.4 atomic radius of carbon.

As we move from left to right in a period, the atomic number increases, but the size of atoms gradually decreases.
This is because the effective nuclear charge increases gradually due to the addition of more protons in the
nucleus. However, the addition of electrons takes place in the same valence shell, and the shells do not increase.

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The gradual increase in effective nuclear charge pulls down or contracts the outermost shell towards the nucleus.
For instance, the atomic size in period 2 decreases from Li (152 pm) to Ne (70 pm). On the other hand, the size of
atoms or their radii increases from top to bottom in a group. This is because a new shell of electrons is added up in
the successive period, which decreases the effective nuclear charge. However, when we consider the transition

he
elements in a period, the trend of atomic size has a slight variation. The atomic size of the elements first reduces or
contracts, and then there is an increase when we move from left to right in the 4th period.
Atomic radii (in picometers) are representative elements according to their positions in the periodic table. Note
lis
that there is no general agreement on the size of atomic radii. the trend in the periodic table is shown below.
Increasing atomic radius
b
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
H He
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37 31

Li Be B C N O F Ne
ab

152 112 85 77 75 73 72 70

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Increasing atomic radius

186 160 143 118 110 103 99

nt

K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
ca

227 197 135 123 120 117 114 112

Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te i Xe

248 215 166 140 141 143 133 131

Cs Ba Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn

265 222 171 175 155 164 142 140

Periodic Classification of Elements 196

 Shielding Effect
The electrons that are in between the nucleus and the outermost shell
of an atom reduce the nuclear charge that is felt by the electrons in the
outermost shell. This is because the inner electrons partially reduce
the attraction of outer electrons towards the nucleus. As a result, the
valence electron experiences less nuclear charge than the actual
charge which is known as the effective nuclear charge (Z).
Sodium atom Potassium atom This means that the electrons present in the inner shells screen or

om
Fig. 10.5 Shielding effect is more in
shield the force of attraction of the nucleus that is felt by the valence
potassium shell electrons. This is referred to as the shielding effect. As the
atomic number increases, the number of electrons in an atom also
increases, which increases the shielding effect.
The shielding effect becomes stronger as we move down the periodic

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table resulted potassium has a larger atomic size than sodium. As a
result, removing an electron from K (Z=19) is easier than from Na
(Z=11). On the other hand, the shielding effect becomes weaker as

he
we move from left to right in a period.
Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is the energy required to remove the least
lis
tightly bound electron from the outermost shell of an isolated
gaseous atom. The energy needed to remove subsequent electrons
increases. When there is only one electron in the outermost shell, the
b
energy required to remove it is called the first ionization energy.
For example, the first ionization energy of a sodium atom is +496
pu

kJ/mol and for a magnesium atom, it is +738 kJ/mol.

_
Na Na+ + e ∆ H = + 496kJmol_1

+ The second ionization energy is the energy needed to remove 1

ab

electron from each ion of an element in 1 mole of gaseous +1 ions to

Na Na
form 1 mole of gaseous ions with a +2 charge.
_
e As we move from left to right across a period on the periodic table,
nt

ionization energy increases due to a decrease in atomic size and a

I.E = + 496kJmol_1 stronger electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and valence
electrons. Consequently, elements on the left side exhibit lower
ca

ionization energies compared to those on the right.

2nd period 3 4
Be B 6
C
7
N 8
O 9 10
Ne
Li 5 F
elements
lonization
520 899 801 1086 1402 1314 1681 2081
energy (kJmol)

Ionization energy increasing in a period

197 Periodic Classification of Elements

As we move down a group in the periodic table, more shells lie
1st group lonization

Ionization energy decreasing in a group

between the valence shell and the nucleus of the atom. This means elements energy (kJmol¹)
that the electrostatic force felt by the electrons in the outermost shell
decreases due to the additional shells. As a result, valence shell 3
Li 520
electrons can be removed more easily, leading to a decrease in
ionization energy from top to bottom within a group. 11
Ne 496
Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity is defined as the amount of energy released when
419

om
10
an electron is added in the outermost shell of an isolated gaseous K
atom. For example, Fluorine (F) has -328 kJ mol-1 and Chlorine (Cl)
37
has -349 kJ mol-1. Rb 403
Cl(g) + e− Cl−(g) ∆ H =-349 kJ mol-1.
55

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F(g) + e− F−(g) ∆ H = -328 kJ mol-1 Cs 377
Let's explore the trend of electron affinity in the periodic table. In
each period, the electron affinity values increase from left to right.
This is because, as we move from left to right across a period, the size

he
of atoms decreases, which leads to an increase in the attraction of the
nucleus towards the incoming electron. As a result, more energy is
released when there is a stronger attraction for the electron.
lis
2nd period 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
elements
Electron
b
affinity (kJmol) 60 >0 -29 -122 0 -141 -328 0
pu

Electron affinity increasing in a period

In a group, the electron affinity values decrease from top to bottom.

ab

This happens because the size of atoms increases down the group.
The increase in the size of the atom creates a shielding effect that Electron affinity increasing in a group
results in poor attraction for the incoming electron. Consequently,
st
less energy is released. For instance, the electron affinity of iodine is 17 group Electron affinity
nt

less than that of chlorine because the size of the iodine atom is bigger. elements energy (kJmol¹)
However, there is an exception to this trend. The electron affinity of
9
fluorine is less than that of chlorine. Due to the smaller size of the F -328
ca

fluorine atom and the greater electron-electron repulsions, fluorine

will not accept an incoming electron with the same energy as 17
Cl -349
chlorine. As a result, a lesser amount of energy is released when one
electron is added into the 2p-subshell of F(g) to form F-(g) ion.
35
Br -325
Electronegativity.
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract 53
I -295
the shared pair of electrons towards itself. It is measured on several
scales, with the most commonly used scale designed by Linus

Periodic Classification of Elements 198

 Pauling. Electronegativity is a dimensionless property as it indicates
only a tendency.
It reflects the net result of the tendencies of atoms in different elements
to attract the bond-forming electron pairs. Fluorine is the most
electronegative element with a value of 4.0, while cesium is the least
electronegative with a value of 0.7. The trend of electronegativity is
similar to that of ionization energy and electron affinity.
Electronegativity increases in a period from left to right because
higher Z shortens the distance from the nucleus of the shared pair of

om
electrons, which enhances the power to attract the shared pair of
electrons. For example, the electronegativity values of group 2 are as
follows:

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nd
2 period 3 4
B 6 7 8 9
Li Be 5 C N O F
elements

Electronegativity 1.0 1.6 2.0 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.0

3
he Electronegativity increasing in a period
lis
2 The graph below shows the trend of electronegativity across period 3
in the periodic table.
1
As we move down the modern periodic table group, there is an
b
increase in the atomic number. Along with it, the nuclear charge also
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
goes up, but this effect is counterbalanced by the addition of one
pu

Electronegativity Trend - Across the shell. Consequently, the value of electronegativity decreases as we
period
move down the group. For example, in the halogen group, if we
compare fluorine with astatine, we will observe a decrease in the
ab

value of electronegativity. The table and graph below show the trend
of electronegativity moving down in the periodic table.
nt

4
Electron affinity increasing in a group

17st group Electro

elements negativity

3
ca

9
F 4.0
2
17
Cl 3.2
1
35
Br 3.0

53
I F Cl Br I At
2.7
Electronegtivity Trend - Down the Group
199 Periodic Classification of Elements
 Do you Know
Metals are excellent conductors of
electricity and heat. They possess the
ability to be flattened into thin sheets
(malleability) and stretched into wires
(ductility). Metals also have a shiny
appearance and are prone to losing
electrons during chemical reactions.
On the other hand, nonmetals exhibit a
Metallic character.
The elements in the periodic table can be classified based on their
metallic and non-metallic properties. the periodic table that divides
the metals from the non-metals. Elements that are found next to this
line are called metalloids. Metalloids have the properties of both
metals and non-metals see figure 10.5.
Metallic Properties of Elements Across a Period
Metals are grouped on the left-hand side of each period. Non-metals

om
wide range of physical characteristics,
are grouped on the right-hand side. Due to the change from metal to
with some being solids at room
non-metal across a period, there is also a change in the properties of
temperature while others exist in gaseous
states. the elements (Table 10.6).

Table 10.7 There is a decrease in metallic properties and an increase in non-metallic properties across a period.

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Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Symbol Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Name sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon

he
Properties Metallic Metalloid non-metallic
Nature of oxides Basic amphoteric Acidic

An atom displays more metallic properties when it is more likely to

lis
lose electrons than to gain electrons. As we move across a period, the
atom becomes less likely to lose electrons. This is because it requires
more energy to lose electrons (there are more protons in the nucleus).
b
Metallic Properties of Elements Down a Group
pu

Going down a group, there is an increase in metallic properties and a

decrease in non-metallic properties- This is because the size of the
atom increases going down a group. Hence, the outermost electrons
of the element will be further away from the attractive force of the
ab

nucleus. An element further down a group will thus lose its outermost
electrons more easily (Figure10.6).
Fig. 10.5 Boron and silicon are metalloids
used to make borosilicate glass.
nt

Borosilicate glass is commonly used to

make cookware as it can withstand lithium(Li)
extreme changes in temperature
ca

increase
in metallic
properties
sodium(Na)

potassium(K)

Fig. 10.6 Metallic properties increase down Group 1 elements.

Periodic Classification of Elements 200
 So overall metallic character in the periodic table given below

1A 8A
Metallic Character decreases
1 18
1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 2
1 H 2 Metal Non-metal Metalloids 13 14 15 16 17 He
Metallic Character increases

3 14 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
11 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B
12 8B 1B 2B 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar

om
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs

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Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

Table 10.8: Summary of Periodic Properties

Property
Trend Moving
Down a Column Moving Down
he
Reason for Trend Trend Moving
Across a Row
Reason for Trend
Moving Across
lis
Size of outermost occupied Effective nuclear
Atomic Radii Increasing Decreasing
orbital increases charge increases
Outermost, electrons further
b
First lonization Effective nuclear
Decreasing away from nucleus (and Increasing
Energy charge increases
therefore easier to remove)
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Decreasing Effective nuclear

Electron Affinity No definite trend
(more negative) charge increases
Iodization energy
Metallic Character Increasing Iodization energy deceases Decreasing
ab

increases

Skill:10.4 Test yourself

Periodic Trends Prediction What is the definition of atomic radius?
nt

Objective. To identify and predict Why does the size of atoms decrease in a period?
trends in atomic radius, electron affinity, What is ionization energy, and why is the second ionization energy of
electronegativity, ionization energy, an element higher than the first one? Also, what is the trend of
ca

metallic character, reactivity, and ionization energy in a group?

density among elements in the periodic
table, using their position in groups and
periods.
Why is it difficult to remove an electron from halogens?
Which element has the highest electronegativity?
What is the general trend in ionization energy as you move down a
group in the periodic table?
Compare and contrast the trends in atomic radius and ionization energy
as you move across a period and down a group in the periodic table.
Define electron affinity and explain its trend across a period in the
periodic table.

201 Periodic Classification of Elements

10.5 Knowledge
Group Chemical Properties
Elements in the same group of the periodic table share similar
chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons
in their outermost shell or valence shell. This common electronic
configuration determines how these elements react and bond with Student Learning Outcomes
other substances, leading to similarities in their chemical behavior
Explain similarities in the chemical
and reactivity.

om
properties of elements in the same group
Electronic Configuration & Reactivity. in terms of their electronic
configuration.
Elements in the same group in the periodic table exhibit similar
chemical properties. The reason behind this is that they have the same
number of outer electrons, which makes them react and bond in a

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similar way. The elements' valence electrons, or the number of
electrons in the outermost shell, are indicated by the group number on
the periodic table. However, this rule does not apply to helium,
which, despite being in group 0, has only one shell, the first and

he
innermost shell, which can hold only two electrons. The number of
valence shell electrons in an element influences how the element
reacts, and this is why elements in the same group react similarly. By
lis
observing the reaction of one element from a group, you can predict
how the other elements in that group will react.
Group 1 Elements — Alkali Metals Fig.10.7 When freshly cut, the alkali
b
The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are called alkali metals- metals show a shiny and silvery surface
The elements in the group are lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium that rapidly tarnishes in air.
pu

(K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs) and francium (Fr) (Figure

10.7).The alkali metals have similar properties since they belong to
the same group. Li
ab

Physical Properties of Alkali Metals Na

Alkalli metals:
K
•are soft and can be cut easily as shown in figure 10.8;
Rb
nt

•have low melting and boiling points; and

•have low densities. Lithium, sodium and potassium float on water. Cs

Fr
ca

Table 10.9: Physical properties of some Group 1 elements

Fig. 10.8 Position of Group 1 elements in
Element Malting Point/oC Density/g/cm3
the periodic table
lithium 180 0.53

sodium 98 0.97

potassium 63 0.86

rubidium 39 1.53

Periodic Classification of Elements 202

 Do you Know From Table 10.8, we can see that the melting points of the alkali
Going down the group, metals decrease down the group. Hence, we should expect the
• the melting points of the alkali melting point of caesium, the element below rubidium, to be below
• metals decrease; and the densities of 39 °C. In fact, it is 29 °C.
the alkali metals
Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are highly reactive. They are stored in oil to prevent
least 3
them from reacting with air and water. Each alkali metal has 1
Li
Reactive 7
valence electron. By losing this valence electron, it achieves the

om
11
electronic configuration of a noble gas.
Na
Reactivity increases
23
As we go down Group 1, the size of the atom increases, as seen In
Figure 10.9. It is easier to lose the valence electron from bigger
19
39 K atoms. Hence, the reactivity increases down the group. Table 10.9
illustrates the reactivity of alkali metals with water to form soluble

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37
Rb bases (alkalis).
85
Reactions of some alkali metals with water
55 Sodium
Cs

he
132
Reacts violently. Sodium darts around the water surface. Reaction
Most may be explosive.
87
Reactive 223 Fr
sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
lis
Fig.10.9 Going down Group 1, the alkali 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
metals become more reactive
potassium
b
Reacts very violently. Reaction is explosive.
pu

potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen

2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Order of reactivity:
ab

lithium < sodium < potassium < rubidium < caesium < francium
Figures 10.10 and 10.11 show some common uses of alkali metals.
Fig. 10.10 Sodium vapour lamps give off Worked Example 14B
nt

yellow-orange light and are used in some Which statement about m a Group 1 element, is true?
street lamps. •It reacts with oxygen to form an acidic oxide.
•It will react with cold water.
ca

•Its chloride is insoluble in water.

Fig. 10.11 Lithium is used to make
batteries that power electronic devices
like digital cameras.
203 Periodic Classification of Elements
•The formula of its nitrate is m(NO3)2.
Thought Process
All Group 1 elements, or the alkali metals, react with cold water to
form hydrogen and an alkali. The oxides of these metals are basic,
and their chlorides are soluble in water. The valency of each Group
1 element is 1. Therefore, the formula of its nitrate is mNO3.
Answer : B
Group 18 Elements — Noble Gase He
The elements in Group 18 are called the noble gases or Inert gases.
Ne
The elements in the group are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar),
krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn) and oganesson (Og). Ar
Properties of Noble Gases
Kr
The noble gases are monoatomic non-metals and they colourless
gases at room temperature. Xe

They have low melting and boiling points and insoluble in water Rn

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They are unreactive due to complete filled orbital.
Og
Noble Gases Are Unreactlve
Apart from helium, which has 2 valence electrons, noble gases have 8 Fig. 10.12 Position of Group 18 elements
valence electrons. Noble gases are unreactive as they have a fully in the periodic table.

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filled valence shell. The noble gases do not lose, gain or share
electrons. Hence, they rarely react to form compounds. As the noble
gases are unreactive, they are often used to provide an inert
atmosphere. Some common uses of noble gases are shown in figure

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10.13.
b lis
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Helium balloons are able to float in the Neon is used to make coloured In the manufacture of steel, argon is mixed
air. lamps. with oxygen and blown through molten
steel to remove excess carbon.
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Fig. 10.13 Some uses of noble gases

Test yourself
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Why do elements in the same group have similar chemical properties? Skill:10.5
How does the valence electron configuration affect an element's Group Chemical Properties
chemical behavior?
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Objective. The ability to analyze the

What role does the outermost shell play in determining an element's electronic configuration of elements to
reactivity? explain the similarities in their chemical
How do similar valence electrons lead to similar types of chemical properties.
bonds? Instructions: An activity based
In what way does electronic configuration influence the formation of worksheet is attached in the given QR
ions by elements in the same group? code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.

Periodic Classification of Elements 204


Student Learning Outcomes
Use the terms alkali metals, alkaline
earth metals, halogens, noble gases,
transition metals, lanthanides, and
10.6 Knowledge
Key Periodic Table Groups.
The periodic table is a useful tool that organizes elements based on
their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical
properties. This system groups elements into categories that reflect
their characteristics and behaviors. For example, there are several
general families in the periodic table, and each family has its unique
features and traits. Below are some of the general families in the

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actinides in the periodic table. periodic table.

H
Alkali Earth Metal Family

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Noble Gas Family
Nitrogen Family
Alkali Metal Family

Hydrogen Family
Carbon Family

Oxygen Family
Born Family
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Transition Metal Family
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Lanthanide series
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Actinide series
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We can discuss some families from the periodic table above.

Alkali Metals (Group 1, excluding Hydrogen)
These elements have a single electron in their outermost shell,
making them highly reactive, especially with water. They are soft,
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with low melting points, and include lithium (Li), sodium (Na),
potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr).
Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2)
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Sodium metal With two electrons in their outer shell, these metals are also reactive,
though less so than alkali metals. They are harder, have higher
melting points, and include beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg),
calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).
Halogens (Group 17)
These nonmetals have seven electrons in their outermost shell,
making them highly reactive, particularly with alkali and alkaline
earth metals to form salts. The name for this group, the halogens,
205 Periodic Classification of Elements
comes from the Greek words hals, meaning “salt,” and genes, for
“forming.” This group includes fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine
(Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). At room temperature fluorine (F2)
and chlorine (Cl2) are gases. Bromine (Br2) is a liquid and iodine (I2)
is a solid, but bromine and iodine vapor are clearly visible over the
liquid or solid (Figure 10. 14).
Bromine, Br2 Iodine, I2

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he
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Nonmetals
b
Fig. 10.14 The halogens, bromine and iodine.
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Noble Gases (Group 18)

The Group 8A elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and
radioactive radon are the least reactive elements. All are gases, and
none is abundant on Earth or in the Earth's atmosphere (although
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argon is the third most abundant gas in dry air at 0.9%). A common
name for this group, the noble gases, denotes their general lack of
reactivity. They are used in lighting and in inert gas environments.
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Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe, after

hydrogen.
It was first detected in the Sun in 1868 by analyzing the solar
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spectrum, but it was not discovered on Earth until 1895. Nowadays,

helium is widely used, with a worldwide demand of about 170 billion
liters per year. The largest application of helium is to cool the
magnets found in MRI machines in hospitals and nuclear magnetic
resonance spectrometers in research laboratories. These magnets Fig. 10.15 Helium, a noble gas, and MRI
units. The magnets of MRI units need to be
require cooling with liquid helium to 4 Kelvin, which enables them to
cooled to 4 K with liquid helium in order to
act as superconductors of electricity. This allows them to produce the
be able to generate the high magnetic field
high magnetic fields needed to create an image of the body. as shown required. This is the largest use of this noble
in figure 10. 15. gas

Periodic Classification of Elements 206


Fig. 10. 16 A Sample of the rare earth
element europium. It is among the rarest
of the lanthanides, but its abundance on
Earth is about the same as tin and
uranium, and it is more abundant than
arsenic.
Skill:10.6
Key Periodic Table Groups
Objective: Using specific periodic table
terminology (e.g., alkali metals,
halogens) accurately and understanding
the characteristics of these groups.
Instructions: An activity based
worksheet is attached in the given QR
b
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.
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ab
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Student Learning Outcomes
Predict the characteristic properties
of an element in a given group by
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using knowledge of chemical
Periodicity.
Deduce the nature, possible position
in the Periodic Table and the identity
of unknown elements from the given
information about their physical and
chemical properties.
207 Periodic Classification of Elements
Transition Metals (Groups 3-12)
These elements are defined by their ability to form compounds with
variable oxidation states. They are typically hard and dense, with
high melting and boiling points. They include familiar metals such as
iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and gold (Au). Virtually all of the transition
elements have commercial uses. They are used as structural materials
(iron, titanium, chromium, copper); in paints (titanium, chromium);
in the catalytic converters in automobile exhaust systems (platinum
and rhodium); in coins (copper, nickel, zinc); and in batteries
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(manganese, nickel, zinc, cadmium, mercury.
Lanthanides (Period 6, starting with lanthanum)
Often called rare earth metals, these elements are known for their
magnetic, catalytic, and phosphorescent properties. They are used in
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various high-tech applications, including electronics and specialized
optics.
These elements are all radioactive, and many are synthetic. They
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include thorium (Th), uranium (U), and plutonium (Pu), which are
key materials for nuclear energy and weaponry.
Test yourself
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What characteristics distinguish alkali metals from alkaline earth
metals in the periodic table?
How do halogens differ in reactivity compared to noble gases?
What are the common uses of transition metals due to their unique
properties?
10.7 Knowledge
Elemental Property Prediction& Identification
The Periodic Table organizes elements based on their atomic number
and chemical properties into groups and periods, based on the
concept of chemical periodicity. This systematic arrangement
predicts the characteristic properties of elements, including their
physical and chemical behaviors, based on their position in the table.
Elements within the same group generally have similar chemical
properties due to having the same number of electrons in their
outermost shell, which regulates their bonding and reactions with
other elements.
Predicting Position & Properties.
Knowing the chemical and physical properties of an element allows
us to predict its position in the Periodic Table. Likewise, if we know
the position of an element in the Periodic Table, we can make
predictions about its physical and chemical properties.
 Is the position of the element known in the periodic table?

Yes No

Predict physical and chemical Use physical and chemical Properties of the element
Properties of the element To predict its position in the Periodic table

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Fig. 10.17 The diagram shows a flowchart of how to use the position and/or properties of an
element to make predictions about its behavior.

Deduction of the position of an elements in the periodic Sample Problem 1

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table Predicting physical and chemical
To deduce the possible position in the periodic table and the identity properties of selenium
of unknown elements, students can use information about the Try it first
physical and chemical properties of the elements. Here are two case

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Selenium is in Group 16 and Period 4 of the
studies for Grade 9 students, one for a Group 1 element and one for a Periodic Table. Predict some physical and
Group 8 element: chemical properties of selenium.
Case Study 1: Deduce the possible position in the periodic Solution
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table and the identity of Unknown Element X: Step 1: Selenium is a nonmetal in Group 16
and if compared to sulfur, its structure is
The element X has the following properties.
predicted to be a simple molecular structure
It is a soft, silvery metal.
b
Step 2: Physical properties of simple
It reacts vigorously with water to produce hydrogen gas and an molecular structures are low melting points,
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alkaline solution. do not conduct electricity and are insoluble

It has a relatively low melting point. in water
It forms a compound with chlorine with the formula XCl. Step 3: Chemical properties are: Reaction
with water: simple molecules do not react
Deduction:
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with water. Reaction with oxygen: reacts

The properties of Element X are consistent with those of Group 1 with oxygen to form an oxide of SeO2 (if
elements, the alkali metals. compared with sulfur)
Its vigorous reaction with water and formation of an alkaline Reaction with chlorine: reacts with chlorine
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solution indicate it is likely a member of this group. to form simple molecule of SeCl2 which can
react with the water vapor in air to form
The low melting point and the formation of a compound with the
hydrogen chloride (if compared with sulfur)
formula XCl suggest it is a typical alkali metal.
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Identity:
Based on these properties, Element X could be identified as sodium
(Na), which is a Group 1 element with similar characteristics.
Case Study 2. Deduce the possible position in the periodic table
and the identity of Unknown Element Y:
The element Y has the following properties.
It is a colorless, odorless gas.

Periodic Classification of Elements 208

 Sample Problem 2
Determining an unknown chloride
compound
The chloride of an unknown X is a liquid at
20 °C This chloride reacts with water,
giving off white fumes and leaving an acidic
solution
Question 1: Does element X belong to
It does not react with most substances.
It emits a distinctive red glow when an electric current is passed
through it.
It has a higher density than air.
Deduction:
The properties of Element Y are consistent with those of Group 8
elements, the noble gases. Its lack of reactivity and being a colorless,
odorless gas suggest it is a member of this group. The red glow

Group 1, Group 2 or Group 15 of the
Periodic Table?
Question 2: What type of reaction takes
place between X and water?
Answer 1:Group 1 and 2 chlorides react
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emitted under an electric current is a characteristic property of neon,
a noble gas.
Identity: Based on these properties, Element Y could be identified as
neon (Ne), which is a Group 8 element with similar characteristics.

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Note that this is an example of predicting the chemical and physical
with water to form colorless solutions of pH
properties of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.
6.5-7 Group 15 chlorides on the other hand
react with water to form strong acidic
Skill:10.7
solutions. Element X therefore belongs to

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Group 15 of the Periodic Table Elemental Property Prediction& Identification
Answer 2:Group 15 chlorides gets Objective: Utilizing chemical periodicity to predict properties of
hydrolyzed in water, therefore this is a elements in a group and deducing unknown elements' characteristics
and positions on the periodic table.
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hydrolysis reaction
Instructions: An activity based worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet and solve it.
b
Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number in periods and groups.
Electronic Configuration is used Identify element's group or block through its electronic configuration.
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Group number indicates the charge of ions from elements' outermost electrons.
Elements in the same group share chemical properties due to similar electronic configurations.
Trends include atomic radius, electron affinity, electronegativity, and more across periods/groups.
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Includes alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases, and others.
Predicting Element Properties: Use chemical periodicity to predict an element's characteristics.
Deduce unknown elements' nature and position from their properties.
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Exercise
A detailed summary, chapter
roadmap, multiple projects,
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A Encircle the most suitable answer. and extensive exercises are

accessible via QR code.

1 Which of the following elements is an alkali metal?

a) Calcium b) Sodium c) Chlorine d) Neon
2 5
2 The element with the electronic configuration [Ne]3s 3p belongs to which group in the periodic table?
a) Group 1 b) Group 2 c) Group 17 d) Group 18
3 Which of the following trends generally decreases down a group in the periodic table?
a) Atomic radius b) Electron affinity c) Electronegativity d) Ionization energy
4 Which of the following elements is a transition metal?

209 Periodic Classification of Elements

 a) Boron b) Iron c) Argon d) Silicon
5 The ion formed by an element in Group 2 of the periodic table will have a charge of
a) +1 b) +2 c) -1 d) -2
6 Which of the following properties is generally true for noble gases?
a) High reactivity b) Low electron affinity
c) High electronegativity d) High ionization energy
7 The element with the electronic configuration [Ar]4s2 3d10 4p4 is in which period of the periodic table?
a) Period 3 b) Period 4 c) Period 5 d) Period 6

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8 Elements in the same group of the periodic table have similar chemical properties because they have the same:
a) Atomic number b) Number of neutrons
c) Number of electron shells d) Number of valence electrons
9 Which of the following elements is a halogen?
a) Lithium b) Beryllium c) Bromine d) Krypton

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10 The trend in atomic radius across a period in the periodic table is generally:
a) Increasing b) Decreasing c) Constant d) Irregular

B Answer the following questions briefly.

1
2
3
Define the periodic table.
How is the periodic table arranged?
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What is the significance of the atomic number in the periodic table?
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4 Discuss the concept of groups in the periodic table.
5 What are periods in the periodic table?
6 Why atomic radius decrease across a period?
b
7 What is electron affinity, and how does it vary across a period?
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8 Define ionization energy and its trend in the periodic table..

9 What is electronegativity, and how does it change across a period and down a group?
10 Write down the properties of alkali metals.
11 What are noble gases, and why are they inert?
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12 Discuss the significance of transition metals in the periodic table.

C Answer the following questions briefly.

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1 Describe the trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity in the periodic
table and explain the reasons behind these trends.
2 Discuss the similarities in chemical properties of elements within the same group in the periodic table and
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provide examples.
3 Explain how the periodic table can be used to predict the properties of unknown elements.
4 Describe the concept of periodicity and how it is reflected in the properties of elements in the periodic table.
5 Discuss the importance of the periodic table in understanding the chemical behavior of elements and their
compounds.

Periodic Classification of Elements 210

CHAPTER

11 Families of the Periodic

Table

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Families in the modern periodic table, also known as groups, are
important because they categorize elements with similar
chemical properties and valence electron configurations. This
b
organization helps predict the behavior of elements and their
compounds, facilitating the study and application of chemistry in
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various fields.
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Get ready to dive into the exciting world of Group I Alkali metals and
Group VII Halogens! These elements have some of the most unique and
fascinating chemical and physical properties that you won't want to miss.
Let's start with Group I, known for its soft texture and interesting trends
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like decreasing melting points, increasing density, and escalating

reactivity. We'll show you how to predict the properties of these elements
and explore their characteristics in detail.
But that's not all! We'll also explore the mysterious world of Group VII
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Halogens. These diatomic non-metals have some interesting trends of their

own, like increasing density and decreasing reactivity. Plus, we'll take a
closer look at their appearances at room temperature, which range from
gases like pale yellow fluorine and yellow-green chlorine to red-brown
liquid bromine and grey-black solid iodine.
Not only will we explore displacement reactions involving halogens and
their role as reducing agents, but we will also learn how to predict the
properties of different halogens based on available information.

211 Families of the periodic table

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Define Group I Alkali metals as relatively soft metals with general trends down the group limited to decreasing
melting point, increasing density, and increasing reactivity.
Predict properties of other elements in group I, given information about the elements.
Predict properties of elements in group 1 in order of reactivity given relevant information.
Define group VII halogens as diatomic non-metals with general trends limited to increasing density, and decreasing
reactivity.
Identify the appearance of halogens at RTP as fluorine as a pale yellow gas, chlorine as a yellow-green gas, bromine
as a red-brown liquid, and iodine as a grey-black solid.

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Explain the displacement reactions of halogens with other halide ions and also as reducing agents.
Predict the properties of elements in group VII, given information about the elements.
Analyze the relative thermal stabilities of the hydrogen halides and explain these in terms of bond strengths.
Describe the transition elements as metals that: have high densities, high melting points, variable oxidation
numbers, form colored compounds and act as catalysts for industrial purposes. (some examples include catalysts

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being used are the Haber process, catalytic converters, Contact- process, and manufacturing of margarine)
Compare the general physical properties of metals and non-metals. (Specifically in terms of: thermal conductivity
electrical conductivity malleability and ductility

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All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:
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Knowledge Skills
11.1: Exploring Alkali Metals Skill 11.1
Recognize alkali metals as soft, with specific trends Predicting the behavior of alkali metals in chemical
b
such as decreasing melting points, increasing reactions based on their position in the group.
density, and increasing reactivity as you move down Skill 11.2
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the group. Explaine and predict the outcomes of displacement

11.2: Exploring Group VII Halogens. reactions involving halogens and halide ions, using
Identify halogens as diatomic non-metals, with knowledge of reactivity trends.
trends of increasing density and decreasing Skill 11.3
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reactivity down the group, and recognize their
appearance at room temperature and pressure.
11.3: Analyzing Hydrogen Halides
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Analyze stability in terms of bond strengths,
allowing for predictions about reactivity and
decomposition temperatures.
Skill 11.4

Understand the relative thermal stabilities of

hydrogen halides. Apply this knowledge to understand and explain the
11.4: Exploring Transition Elements use of transition metals in industrial processes like
Describe transition elements characteristics, the Haber process and catalytic converters.
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including high densities, melting points, variable Skill 11.5

oxidation numbers, the ability to form colored Relating electronic configuration to reactivity,
compounds, and their role as catalysts. predicting the lack of chemical reactions under
normal conditions.
11.5: Noble Gases & Metal vs Non-Metal
Traits
Define noble gases as unreactive, monatomic gases,
explained by their complete valence electron shells.

Families of the periodic table 212


Student Learning Outcomes
Define Group I Alkali metals as
relatively soft metals with general
trends down the group limited to
decreasing melting point, increasing
density, and increasing reactivity.
Predict properties of other elements in
group I, given information about the
elements.
Predict properties of elements in group
1 in order of reactivity given relevant
information.
b
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Fig 11.1 Cutting sodium metal
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11.2 Sodium burning in air/oxygen
213 Families of the periodic table
11.1 Knowledge
Exploring Alkali Metals
Alkali metals, or Group I elements, are unique due to their soft
texture and specific trends as one moves down the group. These
trends include decreasing melting points, increasing density, and a
notable increase in reactivity. Understanding these properties allows
for predicting the characteristics of other elements in this group and
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gaining insight into their behavior. In this section, we explore these
fascinating trends and their implications for alkali metals' behavior.
Group I – the alkali metals
The alkali metals are a group of elements located in Group I of the
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periodic table. This group contains five metals, including
lithium(Li), sodium (Na) , potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), and cesium
(Cs), as well as the radioactive element francium. While lithium ,
sodium, and potassium are commonly available and used, they are
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highly reactive metals, so they are usually kept under oil to prevent
contact with air or water, which could lead to a chemical reaction.
These metals are silvery, soft, and have one outer shell electron. The
other elements in this group are also highly reactive and can pose a
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significant safety risk. Additionally, francium, a member of this
group, is also a radioactive element. Nonetheless, alkali metals have
unique properties that make them essential in various applications,
compared to typical metals.
Physical properties.
These three metals share the following properties: they are good
conductors of electricity and heat, soft metals, and have low
densities. Lithium is the hardest and potassium is the softest. They
have shiny surfaces when freshly cut with a knife as shown in the
Figure11.1 Additionally, they have low melting points. For example,
lithium melts at 181°C while potassium melts at 64°C. When burned
in oxygen or air, they form white solid oxides and produce
characteristic flame colors as shown in figure 11.2.
Physical trends
Apart from the chemical trends, some patterns can be observed in the
physical properties of elements. The alkali metals, for exmple, are
soft and can be easily cut, and their softness increases as you move
down the group. The first three alkali metals are less dense than water.
Additionally, they all have relatively low melting points which
decrease as you move down the group. This is due to the decreasing
attractive forces between outer electrons and positive ions.
 Table 11.1 Shows the trends and their physical properties.
Just like any other family, the alkali metals have their unique characteristics
that set them apart from one another.

Metal Density in g/cm³ Melts at /°C

Lithium 0.53 181
Sodium, Na 0.97 98 Melting
Density points
Potassium, K 0.86 increases 63
decrease

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Rubidium, Rb 1.53 39
Caesium, Cs 1.88 29

Their chemical properties

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Reaction with water
Group I elements exhibit similar reactions with water, where they
react vigorously to form an alkaline solution of metal hydroxide and

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hydrogen gas. The reactivity of Group I metals increases in the
downward direction of the group 1
Metal + water Metal hydroxide + hydrogen
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2M (s) + 2H2O (l) 2MOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Where M is Li, Na, K, Rb or Cs
Reaction with sodium
b
When sodium reacts with water, hydrogen gas is produced which
causes the ball of sodium to move around on the surface of the water.
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Fig11.3 Potassium reacts very

A white trail of sodium hydroxide is also produced, which dissolves
vigorously with cold water.
in the water, creating a highly alkaline solution.
Sodium + water Sodium hydroxide + hydrogen
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2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Out of the first three metals in Group I, potassium is the most reactive
towards the water, followed by sodium and then lithium, as shown in
Figure 11.3 We call these gradual changes trends, and they are useful
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to chemists because they allow predictions to be made about

elements that we have not yet observed in action
With halogens
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They react vigorously with halogens, such as chlorine, to form metal

halides, for example sodium chloride (Figure11.4)
Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s) Fig11.4 A very vigorous reaction takes
place when Na is react with halogen
Why do they react similarly?
All the alkali metals react similarly. Why? Because all their atoms
have 1 outer shell electron Atoms with the same number of outer shell
electrons react in a similar way, as shown below.
Families of the periodic table 214
 Li

Li Na K

Na

2,1 2,8,1 2,8,81

The alkali metals are the most reactive in the periodic table. Their

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K high reactivity is because they only need to lose one electron to
complete their outer shell. This means that they have a strong
tendency to give up electrons to other elements. As a result of these
Fig 11.5a As move down the group atom reactions, their atoms become ions, and they form ionic compounds.

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become larger and electron remove easy. For example, when sodium reacts with chlorine, it forms an ionic
compound called sodium chloride, which is a lattice of Na+ and Cl–
ions. Potassium is more reactive than lithium or sodium because it
least 3
Li
Reactive 7 requires less energy to remove the outer electron from its atom. As

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you move down the group, the atoms become larger, and the outer
11
Na
Reactivity increases

23 electron becomes further away from the nucleus, making it easier to

remove. as shown in figure 11.5a.
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19
39 K Predicting the Properties of Group I Elements
Understanding the reactions of elements located at the top of Group I
37
Rb helps in predicting the properties of other elements situated lower
b
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down the group, such as Rubidium, Caesium and Francium. As we
move down the group, the reactivity of the alkali metals increases,
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55
132 Cs which means that Rubidium, Caesium and Francium react more
vigorously with air and water compared to Lithium, Sodium and
Most 87
Fr
223 Potassium. Lithium is the least reactive metal present at the top of the
Reactive
group, whereas Francium is the most reactive at the bottom. It's worth
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noting that Francium is a rare and radioactive element, which makes

it difficult to confirm predictions.
For example, we can use this information to predict the reactions of
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these elements with water.

Element Reaction
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Explodes with sparks Rubidium

Rubidium(Rb)
hydroxide produced.

Caesium(Cs) Violent explosion due to rapid

production of Heat and hydrogen
Fig 11.5b This image suggests that cesium -caesium hydroxide produced.
underwent a violent reaction upon contact
Francium(Fr) Too reactive to predict
with water, as cesium is highly reactive to
moisture.

215 Families of the periodic table

You can also look at other properties such as boiling point, melting
point, and density of Group I elements and use them to predict
whether the other properties are likely to be larger or smaller going
down the group.
Test yourself
What characteristic trend in melting points is observed as you move Skill:11.1
down the Group I alkali metals?
Exploring Alkali Metals
How does the density of alkali metals change as you descend the
Objective: Predicting the behavior of
group?

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alkali metals in chemical reactions based
Describe how the reactivity of alkali metals varies down Group I.
on their position in the group.
Based on the general trends of alkali metals, predict the melting point
Instructions: An activity-based
of an element lower in Group I compared to one higher up. Why
worksheet is attached to the QR code
would it be different?
provided at the beginning of this
Considering the increasing reactivity trend, which alkali metal would

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knowledge section. Scan the code, read
you expect to be the most reactive and why?
the worksheet, and complete it.
How would you predict the physical properties (such as density and
softness) of a newly discovered alkali metal based on its position in
Group I?

11.2 Knowledge
Exploring Group VII Halogens. he
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A non-metal group.(Halogens)
In the periodic table, Group VII consists of non-metal elements that
are commonly referred to as halogens. This group comprises
b
chlorine, bromine, and iodine, which are commonly encountered in
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laboratory settings. However, fluorine, another element in this group,

Student Learning Outcomes
is considered too dangerous to handle. Each halogen element has a
• Define group VII halogens as
distinct color and is poisonous in nature. Additionally, halogens are
diatomic non-metals with general
known to form diatomic molecules that contain two atoms, such as
trends limited to increasing density,
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Cl2. and decreasing reactivity.

Trends in their physical properties. • Identify the appearance of halogens at
As usual, the group shows trends in physical properties. Look at the RTP as fluorine as a pale-yellow gas,
chlorine as a yellow-green gas,
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Table: 11.2
bromine as a red-brown liquid, and
At room temperature the iodine as a grey-black solid.
Halogen Boiling point /°C
element is • Explain the displacement reactions of
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halogens with other halide ions and

Flourine, F2 faintly yellow -188 also as reducing agents.
Chlorine, Cl2 a pale yellow-green gas density -35 boiling • Predict the properties of elements in
Bromine, Br2 a red-brown liquid 59 points
increases group VII, given information about
increase
Iodine, I2 a grey-black solid 184 the elements.

As you move down the halogen group, you will notice that the
melting and boiling points increase. This happens because the atoms
become larger, resulting in stronger intermolecular forces, which

Families of the periodic table 216

 require more energy to overcome. To have a better understanding of
the melting and boiling points, you can refer to the graph below. The
temperature is plotted on the x-axis, whereas the halogens are plotted
on the y-axis.

Chloride, bromine and iodineBromine is

om
liquid at room temperature, but readily
forms a vapour.

r.c
Cl

Br
he
lis
You may be aware that the physical state of halogens changes in
descending order at room temperature (20 °C). Fluorine and Chlorine
exist in a gaseous state, while Bromine is a liquid and Iodine is a
b
crumbly solid. Additionally, the colors of halogens become darker as
I we move down the group. To better understand this concept, please
pu

refer to Table 11.3 and the figure 11.6 that shows the changes in the
physical state of halogens.
As move down the group size
become larger resulting higher B.P & M.P
ab

Table 11.3 Sown the state of at room temperature and characteristics

Halogen State & Appearance at RT Charactreistics Colour in solution

nt

Fluorine Yellow gas Vary reactive, poisonous gas No

ca

Chlorine Pale yellow-green gas Reactive, Poisonous and dense gas Pale green

Bromine Red-brown liquid Dense red-brown volatile liquid Orange

Shimmery, crystalline solid, sublimes

lodine Purple-black solid Dark brown
to from a purple vapour

217 Families of the periodic table

 om
Fig. 11.6 This diagram shows the physical states and colors of chlorine, bromine, and iodine at room temperature.
Chlorine is represented by a pale yellow color, indicating its gaseous state with dispersed molecules. Bromine is
depicted by a red-brown color, indicating its liquid state with closer spacing between molecules. Iodine is shown as
purple-black, symbolizing its solid state with closely packed molecules

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Reactivity
The reactivity of Group VII non-metals increases as you move up the Cl

he
group, which is the opposite trend to that of Group I. Each outer shell
of these elements contains seven electrons and when they react, they
require one more outer electron to achieve a full outer shell of
electrons. As we move up the Periodic Table in Group VII, the
lis
number of shells of electrons decreases, which reduces the period
number. As a result, the outer electrons get closer to the nucleus,
creating stronger electrostatic forces of attraction. These forces help
b
to attract the extra electron required for the atom to achieve a full
Br
outer shell. This allows for easier attraction of an electron, making
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the higher elements in Group VII more reactive. Figure 11.6 displays
the electron configurations of the halogens chlorine, bromine, and
iodine. Each of these elements has seven electrons in its outermost
ab

shell. Specifically, chlorine has two inner electrons and seven

valence electrons; bromine has two, eight, and eighteen inner
electrons and seven valence electrons; iodine has two, eight,
eighteen, and eighteen inner electrons and seven valence electrons.
nt

As they are one electron short of a full valence shell, they are highly
reactive and tend to form negative ions. The increasing number of
electron shells indicates their positions down the Group VII of the
ca

I
periodic table.

Challange
Identify which of the following element is most reactive and also give
reason for their reactivity:
a. Iodine b. Flourine c. Bromine Fig. 11.7 Diagram showing the electronic
d. Helium e. Chlorine d. Oxygen configuration of the first three elements in
Group VII

Families of the periodic table 218

 Predicting Group VII Properties.
lowest 9
M.P & .B.P 19 F It is possible that you will receive information about certain elements
and be asked to predict the properties of other elements within the

M.P & B.P increases

17
35 Cl same group. This information may include details about
melting/boiling points or physical state/density, so it is helpful to
35
Br understand the trends in properties as you move down the group.
80

Melting and boiling points

53 The melting and boiling points of halogens tend to increase as you
I

om
126
descend the group. Fluorine, located at the top of Group VII, will
have the lowest melting and boiling points. Astatine, located at the
85
Highest At
M.P & .B.P
209 bottom of Group VII, will have the highest melting and boiling
points.
Physical states

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As you move down the group, the halogens tend to become denser.
Fluorine, located at the top of Group VII, is a gas. Astatine, located at
the bottom of Group VII, is a solid.

he
Colour:
The colour of halogens becomes darker as you descend the group.
Fluorine, located at the top of Group VII, will have a lighter colour,
lis
appearing yellow. Astatine, located at the bottom of Group VII, will
Fig. 11.8. Iodine being displaced from have a darker colour, appearing black.
potassium iodide solution as chlorine is Displacement reactions
b
bubbled through
When chlorine is added to a solution containing potassium iodide, a
reaction takes place in which the more reactive chlorine replaces the
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less reactive iodine, producing potassium chloride and iodine. This

reaction can be observed in figure 11.8. The chemical equation for
this reaction is as follows:
Cl + e_
ab

2KI(aq) + Cl2 (g) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)

The observed order of reactivity of the halogens, confirmed by
similar displacement reactions, is:
Decreasing reactivity
nt

F > Cl > Br > I >

When these elements react, they acquire one electron per atom to
ca

achieve the stable electronic configuration of a noble gas. In the next

× section, you will learn more about the stable nature of these gases.
Cl For example, when chlorine reacts, it acquires a single electron and
forms a negative ion as shown in the figure 11.9.
Chlorine is more reactive than bromine because the incoming
electron is gained more easily by the smaller chlorine atom than in the
larger bromine atom. It is gained more easily because there is a
Fig. 11.9 A chlorine atom gains an electron stronger attraction between the negative charge of the incoming
electron and the positive charge of the nucleus. In the larger bromine

219 Families of the periodic table

atom, there are more occupied electron shells surrounding the
nucleus, which lessen the attraction of the nucleus and the electrons
in these shells repel the incoming electron. This makes it harder for
the bromine atom to gain the extra electron it needs to gain a stable
electronic configuration. This is the reason the reactivity of the
halogens decreases going down the group. The halogens and their
compounds are used in many different ways. as shown in figure
In the reaction of chlorine with potassium iodide, both Cl atoms in Cl2
–
gain an electron from an iodide ion, I , thus forming two chloride

om
ions, Cl–. The iodine atoms formed by the loss of an electron combine
to give
– –
Oxidation: 2I (aq) + Cl2(g) → 2Cl (aq) + I2(aq)
Number: –1 0 –1 0

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Colour: colourless green colourless orange brown.
The iodide ion has been oxidised because it has lost electrons. The
oxidation number has increased. Chlorine has been reduced because Figure The halogens have many varied uses

he
it has gained electrons. The oxidation number has decreased. – fluoride in toothpaste to help reduce dental
decay,

Summary table of displacement reactions.

lis
Chlorine (Cl2) Bromine (Br2) lodine (12)

Potassium chloride (KCL) X No reaction No reaction

b
Potassium bromide (Kbr) Chlorine displaces the bromide X No reaction
ions. Yellow - orange colour of
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bromine is seen

Chlorine displaces the iodide Bromine displaces the iodide

Potassium iodide (KI) ions. Brown colour of iodine ions: Brown colour of iodine X
is seen is seen
ab

Test yourself
How are group VII halogens defined in terms of their molecular Skill:11.2
nt

structure and general chemical trends?

Exploring Group VII Halogens
Discuss the appearance of each halogen (fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
Objective. Explaining and predicting the
and iodine) at room temperature and pressure (RTP).
outcomes of displacement reactions
ca

What general trend in density and reactivity is observed among the

involving halogens and halide ions, using
halogens as you move down Group VII?
knowledge of reactivity trends.
How outcome of a displacement reaction involving halogens and
other halide ions.
How do halogens act as reducing agents in chemical reactions?

Families of the periodic table 220


Student Learning Outcomes
Analyze the relative thermal stabilities of
the hydrogen halides and explain these in
11.3 Knowledge
Analyzing Hydrogen Halides
Reaction with Hydrogen
When halogens react with hydrogen gas, they form hydrogen halides.
As we move down the group of halogens, their reactivity decreases,
causing the reactions with hydrogen gas to become less intense. In
the table 11.4 below, you can find a summary of the reaction between
halogen and hydrogen.

om
terms of bond strengths.
Table 11.4 show the formation hydrogen halid.

Equation for Reaction Description of Reaction

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H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g) Reacts explosively even in cool, dark
conditions

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) Reacts explosively in sunlight

he
H2(g) + Br2(g)→ 2HBr(g) Reacts slowly on heating
HF Strongest HX Bond
H2(g) + 12(g) → 2HI(g) Forms an equilibrium mixture on heating
lis
HCl

Thermal Stability of the Hydrogen Halides.

HBr
Thermal stability refers to a substance's ability to resist breaking
b
down when exposed to heat. In other words, a thermally stable
HI lowest HX Bond
substance can withstand high temperatures without breakindown.
pu

When halogen and hydrogen gas react, they form hydrogen halides,
the thermal stability of which decreases as we move down the group.
This trend can be attributed to the bond energies of the hydrogen-
ab

halogen bond. As we move down the group, the atomic radius of the
Fig. 11.10 The thermal stability of the
hydrogen halide decreases going down the
halogens increases. This increase in size leads to a longer bond length
group as their bonds become weaker due when the outer shell of halogens overlaps with a hydrogen atom. The
to the increased atomic radius of the longer the bond, the weaker it becomes, requiring less energy to
nt

halogens break it.

As a result, hydrogen halides become less stable to heat as we move
down the group because weaker bonds are easier to break. as shown
ca

in figure 11.10.
Halide Ions: Reducing Agents.
Halide ions can also act as reducing agents and donate electrons
to another atom
The halide ions themselves get oxidised and lose electrons
The reducing power of the halide ions increases going down the
group.

221 Families of the periodic table

 This trend can be explained by looking at the ionic radii of the
halides' ions as sown in figure 11.11.

F- Cl- Br- I-

om
Flouride ion
Chloride ion

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Bromide ion
Iode ion
Fig. 11.11 The diagram shows that going down the group the ionic radii of the halogens increase.

happens because the outermost electrons move away from the

he
As we move down the group, the size of halide ions increases. This

nucleus and experience more shielding by the inner electrons.

F-
lis
Consequently, the outermost electrons are not held as tightly by the
positively charged nucleus. As a result, halide ions tend to lose
electrons more easily, leading to an increase in their reducing power
Cl-
b
as we move down the group as shown in figure 11.12.
pu

Test yourself
How does the thermal stability of hydrogen halides change across
the series from HF to HI, and what chemical principle explains this
trend?
ab

Compare the bond strengths of hydrogen halides. How do these Br-

strengths correlate with their thermal stabilities?
Why does HF exhibit a different level of thermal stability compared
to other hydrogen halides like HCl, HBr, and HI?
nt

Based on bond strength, predict which hydrogen halide would be

the least thermally stable and explain why.
ca

Skill:11.3a
Analyzing Hydrogen Halides I-
Objective. Analyze stability in terms of bond strengths, allowing for
predictions about reactivity and decomposition temperatures.

Fig. 11.12 The reducing power of the

halide ions increases going down the
group

Families of the periodic table 222


Student Learning Outcomes
Describe the transition elements as
metals that: have high densities, high
melting points, variable oxidation
numbers, form colored compounds
and act as catalysts for industrial
purposes. (some examples include
catalysts being used are the Haber
process, catalytic converters,
Contact- process, and manufacturing
of margarine)
b
pu
ab
nt
ca
223 Families of the periodic table
11.4 Knowledge
Exploring Transition Elements
Transition elements are unique in the periodic table for their high
densities, elevated melting points, and variable oxidation states.
They form colored compounds and play important roles as catalysts
in various industrial processes such as ammonia production,
emission control, sulfuric acid production, and margarine
om
manufacturing.
General properties of the transition element
The transition elements, also known as transition metals, are a group
of metallic elements that occupy the central part of the Periodic
r.c
Table. These elements have unique properties such as high melting
and boiling points, good electrical conductivity, and ductility.
They are also known for their ability to form complex ions and
colorful compounds that are frequently used in industrial processes.
he
Iron, copper, zinc, nickel, and silver are among the most commonly
used transition metals in our daily lives. They are robust metals that
have excellent thermal and electrical conductivity, high melting
lis
points, and high density. For instance, titanium has a melting point of
1,688ºC, while potassium in Group I melts at only 63.5ºC, slightly
warmer than the average cup of hot chocolate! The transition
elements often have more than one oxidation state and form colored
2+
compounds. Iron, for example, easily forms compounds of both Fe
and Fe3+.
These colored compounds are responsible for the pigments in many
paints and the colors of gemstones and rocks. In addition, transition
elements, either as elements or in compounds, are frequently used as
catalysts to enhance the reaction rate in industrial processes.
Platinum or rhodium transition element catalysts are also utilized in
car exhausts in the 'catalytic converter' to decrease the levels of
nitrous oxides and carbon monoxide produced.
Physical properties.
The transition elements have some typical characteristics, including
high density, with iron being over 8 times heavier than sodium. They
also have high melting points, except for mercury, which is a liquid at
room temperature. Transition elements are hard and strong, unlike
the soft Group I metals. Additionally, they are good conductors of
heat and electricity, with silver being the best conductor of electricity
among all metals, followed by copper. A table showing transition
metals data is presented along with a comparison to sodium.
 Element Symbol Density in g/cm³ Melting point/°C
iron Fe 7.9 1535
copper Cu 8.9 1083
nickal Ni 8.9 1455
sodium Na 0.97 98

Transition Elements Oxidation Numbers.

The transition elements can have more than one oxidation number, as

om
the number of electrons they lose depends on the chemical
environment they are in. For instance, iron can either lose two
electrons to form Fe2+, giving it an oxidation number of +2, or lose
three electrons to form Fe3+, giving it an oxidation number of +3.
Compounds containing transition elements in different oxidation

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states will exhibit distinct properties and colors.
Titanium Cobalt Copper
Ti Co Cu

3+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 2+ 3+ 6+ he
2+ 3+ 2+ 3+ 2+ 2+ 2+
b lis
Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Nickel
V Cr Mn Fe Ni
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Fig. 11.13. Ions of the same element can have different oxidation numbers forming different colours
Let's explore some interesting examples of how transition
elements are utilized as catalysts.
ab

The Haber Process:

Nitrogen and hydrogen are combined in a process called the Haber
process to produce ammonia, which is an essential element in
nt

fertilizers that promote plant growth. Iron is used as a catalyst in this

process to facilitate the reaction between the gases and increase the
efficienc of ammonia production. The reaction is represented by the
ca

equation
N2(g) + H2(g) NH3(g),
and solid iron is used as a catalyst in this process.
The resulting ammonia is a crucial ingredient in fertilizers that help
plants grow.
Catalytic Converters: These are devices in cars that reduce harmful
emissions. Platinum and palladium, both transition elements, are
used here. They speed up reactions that turn harmful gases from the

Families of the periodic table 224


Fig. 11.14: The catalytic Converter in
haber process
b
Skill:11.4
pu
Exploring Transition Elements
Objective: Applying this knowledge to
understand and explain the use of
transition metals in industrial processes
ab
like the Haber process and catalytic
converters.
nt
ca
Student Learning Outcomes
Compare the general physical
properties of metals and non-metals.
(Specifically in terms of: thermal
conductivity electrical conductivity
malleability and ductility
225 Families of the periodic table
car's exhaust into less harmful substances like nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and water vapor. So, they help keep the air cleaner. as shown
in the figure.11.14
The Contact Process:
This process is used to create sulfuric acid, a vital ingredient in the
production of a wide range of products, from fertilizers to batteries.
The catalyst used to speed up the reaction between sulfur dioxide and
oxygen to produce sulfur trioxide is vanadium(V) oxide, which is
another transition element. Once sulfur trioxide is created, it is then
om
converted into sulfuric acid. Vanadium (V) oxide has an oxidation
state of +5. During the reaction, it is reduced to an oxidation state of
+4 in V2O4as shown in the equation below:
V2O5+ SO2 V2O4+ SO3
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After this step, the V2O4 is oxidized back to V2O5 with the help of
oxygen:
he
V2O4+ 1/2 O2 V2 O5
This reaction re-forms the catalyst, which can then be used again.
Manufacturing of Margarine: To make vegetable oils more solid and
lis
spreadable (like butter), hydrogen gas is added to them in a process
called hydrogenation. Nickel, a transition element, is used as the
catalyst to help add hydrogen to the oil, turning it into margarine.
Test yourself
Why do transition elements have high melting points and densities?
Discuss what is meant by variable oxidation numbers in transition
metals.
How do transition metals form colored compounds?
Discuss how transition elements act as catalysts in industrial
processes.
Give an example of a transition metal used in the Haber process and
explain its role.
Why is nickel important in the manufacturing of margarine?
11.5 Knowledge
Noble Gases & Metal vs Non-Metal Traits
Group VIII – the noble gases
The noble gases are a group of non-metals which include helium,
neon, argon, krypton, xenon and the radioactive element radon. They
were discovered between 1894 and 1900 by the British scientists Sir
William Ramsay and Lord John William Strutt Rayleigh.
These gases are colourless and exist as individual atoms, which
means they are monatomic gases. They are also highly unreactive
due to their stable electronic configurations, as shown in table 11.5
He
making it difficult for other elements to change them during chemical
reactions. Helium, neon and argon have no known compounds.
However, xenon and krypton have been found to form compounds
with fluorine and oxygen, such as XeF6.

Table 11.5: Electronic configuration of helium, neon and argon

Ne

om
Electronic
Element Symbol Proton number configuration

Helium He 2 2

Neon Ne 10 2,8

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Argon Ar 18 2,8,8

Due to their stable electronic configuration, helium, neon, and argon Ar

he
are unreactive gases that have many uses. For instance, argon is
commonly used to fill light bulbs to prevent the tungsten filament
from reacting with air. Neon, on the other hand, is extensively
lis
utilized in advertising signs and lasers.
Electronic configuration of
Physical Properties of Metals & Non-Metals Noble Gases
The Periodic Table includes more than 100 different elements that
b
can be broadly categorized into two types: metals and non-metals.
While most of the elements are metals, a few elements exhibit
pu

properties of both types and are called metalloids or semimetals. The

metallic character of the elements can be seen in the periodic table
provided below. 18
1 2
ab

1 2 H 13 14 15 16 17 He
3 14 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Metal Metalloids Non-metal B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
nt

Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
ca

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Families of the periodic table 226


It illustrates the ability of certain materials
to be elongated without fracturing, which
is a crucial aspect in various industries
such as wire manufacturing known as
ductility. The atoms within the material
can move around while still maintaining
their connections, enabling the material to
be molded into flat sheets known as
malleability.
b
pu
ab
Property
nt
Lustre (metallic shine)
Hardness
ca
Malleability (property due to
which a substance can be beaten
into sheets)
Ductility (property by which a
substance can be drawn into wire)
Conductivity
227 Families of the periodic table
Properties of metals
• Conduct heat and electricity
• Are malleable (can be hammered and made into different shapes)
and ductile (can be drawn into wires)
• Tend to be lustrous (shiny)
• Have high density and usually have high melting points
• Form positive ions through electron loss
• Form basic oxides
om
Properties of non-metal elements
• Do not conduct heat and electricity
• Are brittle when solid and easily break up
• Tend to be dull and nonreflective
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• Have low density and low melting points (many are gases at room
temperature)
• Form negative ions through electron gain (except for hydrogen)
he
• Form acidic oxides
Conclusion.
melting and boiling points are important properties of metals and
lis
non-metals. Metals generally have high melting and boiling points,
which means they exist as solids at room temperature, except for
mercury, which is a liquid. Non-metals, on the other hand, have lower
melting and boiling points compared to metals, and some non-metals
are gases at room temperature. For example, iron, which is a metal,
has a high melting point of 1538°C and exists as a solid at room
temperature. Oxygen, which is a non-metal, has a low boiling point
of -183°C and exists as a gas at room temperature. Summary of these
properties is given below.
Metals NonMetals
Have no lustre (except lodine and
All metals have lustre
Graphite)
Very hard (except sodium Not hard
and potassium) (except Diamond-hardest substance)
Highly malleable (except
Non malleable
Zinc, Antimony and Arsenic)
Ductile (except Zinc,
Non ductile (except Carbon fiber)
Arsenic and Antimony)
Good conductor of heat and Bad conductor of heat and
electricity (except Bismuth electricity. (except Graphite and
and Tungsten) gas carbon)
 Solid
State Solid, liquid or gas
(except Mercury and Gallium)
High density
Density Low density (except diamond)
(except sodium and potassium)

Test yourself
Skill:11.5
What makes Group 18 noble gases unreactive, and how does their
electronic configuration contribute to this? Noble Gases and Metal vs. Non-metal
Describe the difference in thermal conductivity between metals and Traits

om
non-metals. Objective: To understand the unreactive
How does electrical conductivity vary between metals and non- nature of noble gases, compare their
metals? electronic configurations with those of
Explain the concept of malleability and how it differs between metals metals and non-metals, and analyze the
and non-metals. physical properties of the latter in terms

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Why are metals generally more ductile compared to non-metals? of thermal/electrical conductivity,
Given the properties of noble gases, why are they not used as malleability, and ductility.
conductors of electricity or heat?

he
Group I Alkali Metals are defined by softness, decreasing melting points, increasing density, and reactivity down the
lis
group.
Properties of Group I elements can be predicted with given information.
Diatomic non-metals with increasing density and decreasing reactivity down the group.
b
Halogens at RTP are Appearance ranges from pale yellow gas (fluorine) to grey-black solid (iodine).
Halogens displace less reactive halide ions; act as reducing agents.
pu

Properties of Group VII elements can be predicted with given information.

Relative thermal stabilities explained by bond strengths.
Characterized by high densities, melting points, variable oxidation states, colored compounds, and catalytic
properties.
ab

Unreactive, monatomic gases explained by their electronic configurations.

Metals vs. Non-Metals: Compared in terms of thermal/electrical conductivity, and malleability/ductility.
nt

Exercise
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A Encircle the most suitable option against each statement.

1 Which of the following is a characteristic property of alkali metals?
A detailed summary, chapter
a) High melting points b) Low density roadmap, multiple projects,
and extensive exercises are
c) Poor electrical conductivity d) High reactivity accessible via QR code.
2 As you move down Group VII (halogens), the reactivity of the elements
a) Increases b) Decreases
c) Remains constant d) First increases, then decreases

Families of the periodic table 228

3 Which of the following transition metals is used as a catalyst in the Haber process?
a) Iron b) Copper
c) Silver d) Zinc
4 The appearance of iodine at room temperature and pressure (RTP) is:
a) A pale yellow gas b) A yellow-green gas
c) A red-brown liquid d) A grey-black solid
5 Which of the following is NOT a property of noble gases?
a) High reactivity b) Unreactive nature

om
c) Monatomic gases d) Stable electronic configuration
6 The thermal conductivity of metals is generally:
a) High b) Low
c) Variable d) Non-existent
7 Alkali metals are known for their:

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a) Low density b) High melting points
c) Poor electrical conductivity d) Ductility
8 The halogen that is a red-brown liquid at RTP is:

he
a) Fluorine b) Chlorine
c) Bromine d) Iodine
9 A characteristic property of transition elements is their:
a) Low density b) Variable oxidation numbers
lis
c) Lack of color in compounds d) Inability to act as catalysts
10 Which of the following is a property of non-metals?
a) High electrical conductivity b) Malleability
b
c) High thermal conductivity d) Poor thermal conductivity
pu

B Answer the following questions briefly.

1 Define Group I alkali metals.
2 What is the trend in reactivity down Group I?
ab

3 Describe the appearance of halogens at RTP.

4 Write down the displacement reactions of halogens.
5 What are the general properties of transition elements?
nt

6 How do noble gases differ from other elements in terms of reactivity?

7 Compare the thermal conductivity of metals and non-metals.
8 What is the trend in melting points of alkali metals down the group?
ca

9 Explain the significance of the Haber process in industrial chemistry.

10 How does the density of halogens change down the group?
11 What are the characteristics of a good catalyst?
12 How do the physical properties of metals differ from those of non-metals?
13 How do alkali metals react with water?
14 Explain the concept of ductility in metals.
15 What is the importance of thermal stability in hydrogen halides?
16 Why do transition elements form colored compounds?

229 Families of the periodic table

C Long questions
1 Element Y belongs to Group I and is a soft metal that reacts slowly with water. Predict two other properties of
element Y based on the trends within the group.
2 Which of the following properties (density, melting point, electrical conductivity) is the most useful indicator for
differentiating between metals and non-metals? Justify your answer.
3 Why elements within the same group exhibit similar chemical properties. Your answer should relate to their
electronic configurations.
Design a simple experiment to investigate the factors affecting the electrical conductivity of a metal solution.

om
4
Briefly describe the variables you would control and measure.

D Reason-Assertion type questions

In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R).

r.c
Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions given below:
a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A
b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
c) If A is correct and R is wrong
d) If A is wrong and R is correct

he
1. Assertion (A): Lithium (Li) has a higher melting point than Cesium (Cs).
Reason (R): Melting point generally increases down the group for Group I elements.
lis
2. Assertion (A): Chlorine is a yellow-green gas at RTP.
Reason (R): It has a diatomic molecular structure with a relatively low boiling point.
b
3. Assertion (A): Noble gases are unreactive.
Reason (R): They have a complete octet in their outermost shell, making them stable.
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4. Assertion (A): Transition metals are good catalysts because they form colored compounds.
Reason (R): Colored compounds indicate the presence of unpaired electrons, which can participate in
reactions.
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5. Assertion (A): The reactivity of halogens decreases down Group VII.

Reason (R): The atomic size increases, making it harder to attract an electron to fill the outer shell.
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6. Assertion (A): Metals are good conductors of electricity.

Reason (R): They have free electrons that can move easily through the metal lattice.
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Families of the periodic table 230

CHAPTER

12 Environmental
Chemistry

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It is a major threat to global health and prosperity.

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Air pollution, in all forms, is responsible for more
than 6.5 million deaths each year globally, a number
that has increased over the past two decades.

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In this chapter, we will be exploring the fascinating world of the air around
us. Our focus will be on understanding what constitutes clean, dry air, and
how it can become polluted, affecting our health and the environment. We
will learn that the air we breathe is mostly made up of nitrogen and oxygen,
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with a small percentage of other gases like carbon dioxide and noble gases.
However, human activities can add harmful pollutants to the air, such as
carbon dioxide from burning fuels, methane from decomposing waste, and
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various other pollutants from cars and factories. We will delve into the
consequences of air pollution, including global warming, acid rain, and
health risks such as respiratory problems and cancer. To understand these
impacts better, we will examine how greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide
and methane trap heat in our atmosphere, and how sulfur and nitrogen
oxides contribute to acid rain. Importantly, we will explore strategies to
reduce air pollution and its effects, from planting trees to using renewable
energy sources. Finally, we will look at ways to protect ourselves from air
pollution, including using masks and monitoring air quality. By the end of
this chapter, we will have a deeper understanding of the air we breathe and
how we can work towards a cleaner and healthier environment.

Environmental chemistry 231

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
State that composition of clean, dry air is approximately 78% nitrogen, N2, 21% oxygen, O2, and the
remainder as a mixture of noble gasses and carbon dioxide, Co2
State the major sources of air pollutants .Some examples include:
carbon dioxide from the complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels
carbon monoxide and particulates from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels
methane from the decomposition of vegetation and waste gasses from digestion in animals
oxides of nitrogen from car engines

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sulfur dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur compounds
ground level ozone from reactions of oxides of nitrogen, from car engines, and volatile
organic compounds, in presence of light.
State the adverse effects of air pollutants (Some examples include:
carbon dioxide: higher levels of carbon dioxide leading to increased global warming, which leads to

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climate change
carbon monoxide: toxic gas
particulates: increased risk of respiratory problems and cancer
methane: higher levels of methane leading to increased global warming, which leads to climate

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change
oxides of nitrogen: acid rain, photochemical smog and respiratory problems
sulfur dioxide: acid rain and haze)
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Explain how the greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide and methane cause global warming,
(Some examples include:
the absorption, reflection and emission of thermal energy
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reducing thermal energy loss to space)
Describe the role of sulfur in the formation of acid rain and its impact on the environment.
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Describe the strategies to reduce the effects of major environmental issues .Some examples include:
climate change: planting trees, reduction in livestock farming, decreasing use of fossil fuels,
increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind, solar
acid rain: use of catalytic converters in vehicles, reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide by
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using low sulfur fuels and flue gas desulfurization with calcium oxide)
Describe the role of NO and NO^ subscript) in the formation of acid rain, both directly and through their
catalytic role in the oxidation of atmospheric sulfur dioxide.
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Explain how oxides of nitrogen form in car engines and describe their removal by catalytic converters, e.g.
CO +2NO ® 2CO+ N2
Define photosynthesis as the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen in
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the presence of chlorophyll and using energy from light.

Analyze how to use tools to reduce personal exposure to harmful pollutants (some examples include the
usage of masks, air quality indices and CO detectors)
Identify high risk situations in life including those where long-term exposure to these pollutants can
lead to respiratory issues and reduction in quality and longevity of life.

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Environmental chemistry 232

 Knowledge
12.1 : Understanding Air: Composition,
Pollution Sources, and Health Impacts
In this knowledge we will discuss about Clean, dry
air mainly consists of nitrogen and oxygen, with
pollutants arising from various sources such as
combustion processes, decomposition, and
chemical reactions. Photosynthesis, crucial for
life, transforms carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen, using sunlight. Oxides of
nitrogen, generated in car engines, can be
mitigated by catalytic converters. Prolonged
exposure to air pollutants poses significant risks to
respiratory health and overall well-being.
12.2: Mechanisms of Global Warming: The
Role of Carbon Dioxide and Methane
In this knowledge we will discuss about Carbon
dioxide and methane contribute to global warming
by absorbing, reflecting, and emitting thermal
energy, thereby reducing the amount of thermal
energy lost to space and increasing Earth's
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temperatureTo mitigate major environmental
issues
12.3 : Green Strategies: From Renewable
b
Energy to Reducing Exposure to Harm
In this knowledge we will discuss about Climate
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change, strategies include planting trees, reducing
livestock farming, decreasing fossil fuel usage, and
embracing renewable energy sources like wind and
solar. Additionally, employing protective tools can
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effectively reduce personal exposure to harmful
elements
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Environmental chemistry 233
Skills
Skill 12.1
Analyzing Air Composition and Pollution
Sources. Understanding the composition of
clean air, identifying major sources of air
pollution, and recognizing their origins and
effects on health and the environment.
Comprehend the environmental impacts of
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various pollutants, including the role of
greenhouse gases in global warming and sulfur
in acid rain, and implementing strategies to
mitigate these effects.
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Skill 12.2
Chemical Processes and Environmental
Solutions Grasp key chemical processes like
photosynthesis and the formation of nitrogen
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oxides in car engines, along with strategies to
reduce emissions and combat environmental
issues.
Skill 12.3
Reducing Exposure to Harmful Pollutants
Develop strategies to minimize personal
exposure to air pollutants through the use of
protective tools, understanding air quality
indices, and recognizing high-risk situations.
Critical Analyze and Practical Application
Analyzing the role of pollutants and their
removal processes, such as the use of catalytic
converters, and applying knowledge to address
and reduce the effects of major environmental
issues.
12.1 Knowledge
Understanding Air: Composition, Pollution
Sources, and Health Impacts
he gases in the air are held around the Earth by its gravity. The
atmosphere is approximately 100 km thick (Figure12.1 (b)), and
about 75% of the mass of the atmosphere is found in the layer nearest
the Earth called the troposphere (Figure12.1(a)). Beyond this layer,
the atmosphere reaches into space and becomes extremely thin.

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Nearly all atmospheric water vapors (or moisture) is found in the
troposphere, which also contains the liquid water in the oceans, rivers
and lakes

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Fig 12.1(a) The Earth's atmosphere

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The composition of the atmosphere

If a sample of dry, unpolluted air was taken from any location in the
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atmosphere close to the Earth and analyzed, the composition by

volume of the sample would be similar to that shown in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Composition of the atmosphere
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Component %
Nitrogen 78.08

Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93

Carbon dioxide Fig 12.1(b) The lighter blue layer shows

0.04
the extent of the atmosphere around the
Neon 0.002 Earth – approximately 100 km.

Environmental chemistry 234


The atmosphere is a layer of gases
surrounding the Earth, composed
primarily of 78% nitrogen and 21%
oxygen and trace amount of noble gases,
such as argon and helium, along with
carbon dioxide and trace amounts of other
gases. Their composition of there gases is
given in table 12.1
Do you Know
Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum,
and natural gas are all carbon-based.
Natural gas is primarily composed of
methane, CH4. Coal and petroleum are
a mixture of various compounds,
mainly hydrocarbons containing only
carbon and hydrogen. However, some
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contain other elements like sulfur. We
use fossil fuels for generating
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electricity, transportation and heating
purposes. However, burning them
leads to significant problems.
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Coal Gass
Oil
Fig 12.2 Fossil Fuels
Environmental chemistry 235
Helium 0.000 5
Krypton 0.000 1
Xenon plus tiny amounts of other gases 0.000 01
ne of the most crucial gases in our atmosphere is oxygen, which is
used in of breathing. A question that arises is how oxygen is produced
in the atmosphere. The answer lies in plants, which produce oxygen
through the process of photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, plants
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absorb carbon dioxide through their leaves, and water through their
roots, which they use to synthesize glucose. In this process, oxygen is
also created. Only green leaves, which contain chlorophyll (the green
pigment that catalyzes the process), can carry out photosynthesis,
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and it occurs only in sunlight.
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Note that air contained approximately 0.03% by volume of carbon
dioxide for many years. This value has remained almost constant for
a long period of time. However, scientists have recently detected an
increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to
approximately 0.04%.
The Earth's climate is affected by the levels of carbon dioxide (and
water vapors) in the atmosphere. If the amount of carbon dioxide, in
particular, builds up in the air, it is thought that the average
temperature of the Earth will rise causing global warming. This
effect is thought by scientists to be caused by the greenhouse effect.
This important topic will be discussed later in this chapter.
Common Air Pollutants
Air pollution refers to the presence of unwanted and harmful
substances in the Earth's atmosphere. These substances, known as air
pollutants, can have serious negative impacts on human health and
the environment. Air pollution can arise from both natural and human
activities. Natural sources of air pollution include events such as
lightning strikes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions, while human
activities that contribute to air pollution include industrial emissions,
combustion engine emissions, and man-made fires. The impacts of
air pollution can be severe and wide-ranging. Some of the most
common air pollutants and their impacts are listed in the Table 12.2
 Air Pollutant Harmful Effects Sources
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) ⚫ combustion of fossil fuels
⚫ Sulfur dioxide causes breathing
⚫ a colourless gas difficulties in humans and animals. ⚫ volcanic eruptions
with a pungent odour
⚫ Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides react with oxygen in the air
to form acidic compounds which
Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water, forming
(NO and NO2) solutions of strong acids. This is

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NO is colourless. called acid rain. Acid rain kills ⚫ vehicle combustion engines
and odourless plants and aquatic life. It also ⚫ lightning
corrodes buildings and structures
⚫ NO, is red-brown
made from limestone, marble and
and has a pungent
metals.

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smell

Carbon monoxide ⚫ Carbon monoxide binds ⚫ incomplete combustion of

(CO) irreversibly with the haemoglobin carbon -based fuels

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⚫ a colourless and in our red blood cells. This lowers
odourless gas that the ability of the haemoglobin to
is very toxic transport oxygen to the rest of our
body. This can result in the loss of
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consciousness and even death.

Methane (CH4) ⚫ anaerobic (in the absence of oxygen)

⚫ Methane is a major greenhouse
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bacterial of organic substance
⚫ a colourless and gas that leads to global warming.
odourless gas that ⚫ waste gases from cattle
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is highly flammable
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Unburnt ⚫ Unburnt hydrocarbons can cause

hydrocarbons (CXHY) eye and respiratory tract irritation. ⚫ vehicle combusion engines
⚫ colourless gases ⚫ Unburnt hydrocarbons react with
that are naturally nitrogen oxides in the presence of
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odourless, but sunlight to form photochemical smog.

may be pungent which appears as a brown haze. The
due to fuel formation of smog also produces
additives ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
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dioxide, which are other pollutants

listed in this table
Ozone (03) ⚫ Ozone can cause eye and respiratory ⚫ lightning
⚫ a pale blue gas tract irritation. Ieading to breathing ⚫ from reactions between oxygen
with a pungent difficulties molecules and sunlight in the upper
odour ⚫ When inhaled, it also causes chest atmosphere
pains and headaches. ⚫ from reactions between unburnt
⚫ Ozone slows down photosynthesis hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
in plants, which can damage crops. in the presence of sunlight in the
lower atmosphere

Environmental chemistry 236


Do you Know
"Is acid rain still a problem?"
Nowadays, acid rain is not as
much of a problem in many
countries, where emissions are
strictly regulated. However, it
remains a significant issue in
countries with weak regulations
to control emissions. The acidic
gases from these countries can
travel across borders through
the wind, impacting the
environment of neighboring
nations.”
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gases from engine iin
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In A, oxides of nitrogen are removed
by reduction.
For example:
2NO (g) → N2 (g) + O2 (g)
NO (g) + 2CO (g) → N2 (g) + 2CO2 (g)
Note that the second reaction removes
carbon monoxide too. The gases then
flow into B.
Fig 12.3 Mechanism of catalytic convertor
Environmental chemistry 237
The table above displays a comprehensive list of pollutants resulting
from the combustion of fossil fuels, detailing their formation and the
associated harm. Let us now delve into effective methods for
removing these harmful emissions. One such solution is the catalytic
converter, which is widely installed in modern motor vehicles to
convert toxic gases into less harmful variants.
Catalytic converters
Many countries have 'clean air' laws that all new petrol (gasoline)
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cars have to be fitted with catalytic converters as part of their
exhaust system (Figure 12.3). Car exhaust fumes contain pollutant
gases, such as carbon monoxide (CO), formed from the incomplete
combustion of hydrocarbons (CXHY) in the fuel, and oxides of
nitrogen (NOX) formed by the reaction at very high temperature of
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nitrogen gas and oxygen gas from the air. Nitrogen oxides in vehicle
exhausts include nitrogen (II) oxide (NO) and nitrogen (IV) oxide
(NO2). The following reaction happens naturally inside a car exhaust
but is very slow under the conditions inside an exhaust. The catalyst
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in the catalytic converter speeds up the reaction by lowering the
activation energy.
catalytic converter
gases from engine out
catalyst compartments
In B, the remaining carbon monoxide, and
unburnt hydrocarbons, are removed by oxidation.
This uses the oxygen from A:
2CO (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g)
hydrocarbons (g) + O2 (g) → xCO2 (g) + YH2O (g)
The gases flow out the exhaust pipe and into the
air. Now only the carbon dioxide is harmful!
A further method of regulating pollutant gases from vehicles is to
remove petrol-burning engines and replace them with an efficient
electric motor. The research and development of these motors is
moving forward at a tremendous pace.
"Why is a CO detector necessary?
Carbon monoxide, or CO for short, is a dangerous gas that can pose a
significant threat to humans. It is produced when something is burned
in areas where there is not enough oxygen, such as in enclosed spaces

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with limited airflow. Since carbon monoxide is both colorless and Fig 12.4 Testing for invisible danger with
odorless, it cannot be detected by humans, making it particularly a carbon monoxide detector in a home at
risk of fire"
hazardous. When CO enters our lungs, it attaches to the hemoglobin
in our blood, which is responsible for carrying oxygen throughout
our body. This displacement of oxygen can lead to feelings of

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suffocation, as our body is not receiving the necessary oxygen it
requires. If an individual is exposed to carbon monoxide for an
extended period of time, it can be fatal. To ensure people's safety, we
utilize carbon monoxide detectors. These specialized devices can

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detect the presence of carbon monoxide in the air, even though it is
invisible and odorless. It is essential to have these detectors in homes,
particularly in areas where heating or cooking involves burning, to
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alert us if the carbon monoxide level is dangerously high.
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Sings and symptoms

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Fig 12.5 Hazards of CO gass

Environmental chemistry 238
 Update yourself
These particulates have been
associated with a variety of breathing
problems, including asthma, in both
adults and children. It has been found,
however, that adding oxygenates,
such as ethanol, to fuels reduces the
amount of particulates produced by
vehicles. The oxygenates provide
extra oxygen to the burning process in
the engine and so reduce the amount
of incomplete combustion taking
place.
b lis
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Fig 12.6 The haze is caused by a photochemical smog (in lahore), which is
due to pollution caused mainly by cars without catalytic exhaust systems
Environmental chemistry 239
Understanding Photochemical Smog:
hotochemical smog, also known as summer smog, is a natural
occurrence resulting from the interaction of specific air pollutants
with sunlight. The primary components of this type of smog include
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), and
organic compounds with aldehyde groups. Unburned hydrocarbons
from vehicle exhausts, oxygen, and nitrogen oxides (mostly from
vehicle exhausts) react in the presence of strong sunlight to create
om
PAN, which can be both toxic and irritating. Even at low
concentrations, it can cause discomfort to the eyes and respiratory
tract, posing a significant risk to asthma sufferers. At higher
concentrations, it can also lead to crop damage. Photochemical smog
can result in reduced visibility due to a yellow-brown haze and
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various health issues, such as respiratory ailments. It is essential to
understand the causes and effects of photochemical smog to
safeguard ourselves and our environment. More detailed chemical
reactions will be discussed in advanced classes.
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Particulates
There is currently a widespread global concern regarding the rise of
particulate matter in the air (as shown in Figure 12.7). The term
'particulate matter' refers to tiny particles found in the atmosphere,
including smoke from diesel engines and various types of dust. These
particles are produced through incomplete combustion of fuels like
wood or coal, as well as from vehicle exhaust emissions.Breathing in
dust or tiny particles can affect our health in different ways. The
size, amount, and time of exposure to the particles are all factors.
Bigger particles can irritate our eyes, nose, and throat, and lead to
coughing and sneezing.
Smaller particles can get deep into our lungs and bloodstream, and

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cause more serious health issues like asthma, bronchitis, and heart Fig 12.7 Particulates produced by
disease. People who are more vulnerable to the effects of these diesel engines area real health problem
particles include kids, elderly people, and those with respiratory or worldwide
heart conditions. The World Health Organization (WHO) has

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created guidelines for air quality levels based on scientific
evidence of the health effects of particulate matter. According to Fact
The "PM" stands for particulate matter,
them, the yearly average of PM 10 shouldn't exceed 20 and "2.5" refers to the size in
micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3), and the yearly average of

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micrometers.
PM 2.5 shouldn't exceed 10 µg/m3. Unfortunately, many places in
the world have much higher levels of particle pollution, especially
in urban areas with lots of traffic or industry. That's why it's
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important to monitor the air quality where we live and take steps to Do you Know
reduce the amount of particles we're exposed to. Some of these Pollutants (some examples include the
steps include using clean and efficient energy sources, improving usage of masks, air quality indices and
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CO detectors)
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Alert
These particulates have been associated
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with a variety of breathing problems,

including asthma, in both adults and
children. It has been found, however,
that adding oxygenates, such as ethanol,
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to fuels reduces the amount of

particulates produced by vehicles.

Fig 12.8 Breathing smart: embracing masks and air quality index apps
for healthier living in urban landscapes"

Environmental chemistry 240

 public transportation and cycling infrastructure, implementing
emission standards and regulations, and wearing masks or staying
indoors when the air quality is poor. By doing so, we can protect
our own health and the environment from the harmful effects of
particle pollution
Acid rain
Acid rain is a term that describes precipitation that has a lower pH
than normal due to the presence of acidic substances. One of the main

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causes of acid rain is the emission of nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2)
and sulfur dioxide (SO2) from human activities, mostly the
combustion of fossil fuels, industrial processes, and vehicle
exhausts. These gases react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals
in the atmosphere to form acids that fall to the earth as rain, snow, fog,

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or dust. In this content, we will focus on the role of NO and NO2 in
acid rain, both directly and indirectly.
NO and NO2 have a direct role in acid rain by reacting with water in

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the air to form nitric acid (HNO3), which is a strong acid that can
lower the pH of rainwater. The pH is a measure of how acidic or basic
Fig 12.9 This forest has been devastated a solution is, and it ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral, a pH
by acid rain below 7 is acidic, and a pH above 7 is basic. The normal pH of
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rainwater is about 5.6, which is slightly acidic due to the natural
presence of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air. However, when NO and
NO2 are added to the air, they can make the rainwater more acidic,
b
sometimes reaching a pH of 4 or lower. The chemical equations for
the formation of nitric acid from NO and NO2 are:
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NO(g)+O2(g)→NO2(g)
NO2(g)+H2O(l)→HNO3(aq)+NO(g)
As you can see, NO is both a reactant and a product in these reactions,
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which means that it is recycled and can continue to produce more

NO2 and HNO3. This makes NO a catalyst, which is a substance that
speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed.
Nitric acid in rainwater can have negative effects on the environment
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and living organisms. For example, it can damage the leaves and
roots of plants, reducing their growth and productivity. It can also
leach nutrients and minerals from the soil, making it less fertile and
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more prone to erosion. It can harm aquatic animals and plants by

changing the pH and chemistry of the water, affecting their survival
and reproduction. It can corrode metals, stones, and concrete,
causing deterioration of buildings, bridges, statues, and monuments
as shown in fig() It can also affect human health by irritating the eyes,
skin, and respiratory system.
NO and NO2 also have an indirect role in acid rain by acting as
catalysts for the oxidation of SO2 to SO3, which then reacts with water

Environmental chemistry 241

to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4), another major component of acid rain.
SO2 is also emitted from fossil fuel combustion and other sources,
and it can react with oxygen in the air to form SO3. However, this
reaction is very slow and requires high temperatures. NO and NO2
can speed up this reaction by transferring oxygen atoms to SO2, as
reaction by transferring oxygen atoms to SO2, as shown in the
following equations:
NO(g) + O2(g) → NO2(g)

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NO2(g) + SO2(g) → NO(g)+SO3(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
As you can see, NO and NO2 are also recycled in these reactions,
which means that they can catalyze the production of more SO3 and

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H2SO4. Sulfuric acid is a stronger acid than nitric acid, and it can
lower the pH of rainwater even more. It also has similar effects on the
environment and living organisms as nitric acid, but more severe and Sulfur dioxide is a major pollutant
produced by industry.
widespread.

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Combustion of fossil fuels releases industrial smoke which, when mixed with rainwater, forms acid rain and leads to
serious environmental damage

Fig 12.10 Illustration of acid rain

Environmental chemistry 242

 Eroded statue
When acid rain fails on statues made
of limestone, it reacts with calcium Some parts of the statue
carbonate in the rock and erodes it. have not been affected by
acid rain

Limestone corrodes

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and stains when
exposed to acid rain

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1. Acid rain reacts with metals, 2. Acid rain is poisonous to 3.If lots of acid rain falls in rivers or
rocks, and other materials. plants. Acid rain damages lakes, it raises the acidity of the water.
This damages and erodes leaves, reducing the rate of Most animals can't survive in acidic
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buildings made of these photosynthesis and reduces conditions

materials. root growth, preventing the
absorption of nutrients.
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catalytic converter removes nitrogen oxides from the hot gases

coming from the engine and so helps reduce acid rain as we discuss
earlier. Recently, units called flue gas desulfurization (FGD) units
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have been fitted to some fossil fuel power stations throughout the
world to prevent the emission of sulfur dioxide gas. Here, the sulfur
dioxide gas is removed from the waste gases by passing them through
a mixture of calcium oxide suspended in water. This not only
removes the sulfur dioxide but also creates calcium sulfite, which
then oxidizes to sulfate, which can be sold to produce plasterboard
(Figure 12.11). The FGD units are very expensive and therefore the
Fig 12.11 This plasterboard is made using
sale of the calcium sulfate is an important economic part of the calcium sulfate from an FGD plant
process.
Environmental chemistry 243
 Further Reading

Flue Gas Desulfurization Fossil fuels can have a significant sulfur content The sulfur comes from biological
molecules in the organisms that gave rise to the fossil fuels, and from sulfur compounds in the rocks
surrounding the fossil fuel. Many countries have limits on how much sulfur fuels can contain. However,
power plants that burn fuels such as coal and fuel oil, as well as waste incinerators can still produce high
amounts of sulfur dioxide in their exhaust, also known as flue gas Flue gas desulfurization can remove a
significant proportion of the sulfur dioxide from the flue gas before it is released into the atmosphere. The
most widely used method of flue gas desulfurization is wet scrubbing using a calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

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slurry (Figure 12.12). The slurry is formed when calcium carbonate, in the form of limestone, is mixed with
water.

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clean gas
(mainly carbon
dioxide and air)

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calcium carbonate
and water
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purification
chamber
b
calcium
flue gas
carbonate
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(sulfur dioxide)
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calcium sulfite cbimnoy

Fig 12.12 Flue gas desulfurisation

Test yourself
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What percentage of the air is made up of nitrogen?

Can you name two gases that make up less than 1% of the air but are still very important?
How does carbon dioxide contribute to climate change?
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Why is carbon monoxide considered a toxic gas?

What household and outdoor activities lead to the release of methane into the atmosphere?
From where do oxides of nitrogen, which can cause acid rain, commonly originate?
What is the main cause of increased levels of sulfur dioxide in the air?
How does the presence of particulates in the air affect our health?
Why are catalytic converters important in vehicles?
How do oxides of nitrogen contribute to the formation of acid rain?
Describe how oxides of nitrogen can be removed from car exhaust.

Environmental chemistry 244

 Test yourself
Skill:12.1
What is the chemical reaction that defines photosynthesis?
Understanding Air: Composition,
How does long-term exposure to air pollutants affect respiratory health?
Pollution Sources, and Health
In what ways can reducing emissions from vehicles improve air quality?
Impacts
Objective: Analyzing Air What steps can industries take to minimize the release of sulfur dioxide?
Composition and Pollution Sources.
12.2 Knowledge
Understanding the composition of
clean air, identifying major sources Mechanisms of Global Warming:

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of air pollution, and recognizing The Role of Carbon Dioxide and Methane
their origins and effects on health
Scientists know that certain gases in the atmosphere trap the Sun's
and the environment. Comprehend
heat in our atmosphere and this makes the Earth warmer. These gases
the environmental impacts of
are known as greenhouse gases and cause the greenhouse effect. This
various pollutants, including the

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increase in the Earth's temperature is known as global warming.
role of greenhouse gases in global
It is well known by scientists that, for example, higher levels of
warming and sulfur in acid rain,
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere lead to increased global warming,
and implementing strategies to
which leads to climate change.
mitigate these effects.

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How does the greenhouse effect affect the average temperature of
the Earth?
Some energy from the Sun is absorbed by the Earth and its
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atmosphere. The remainder is reflected back into space. The energy
that is absorbed helps to heat up the Earth. The Earth radiates some
some thermal energy back into space but the 'greenhouse gases',
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including carbon dioxide water vapors and methane gas, prevent it
from escaping. This effect is similar to that observed in a greenhouse
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(glasshouse) where sunlight (visible/ ultraviolet radiation) enters

through the glass panes but heat (infrared radiation) has difficulty
escaping through the glass (Figure 12.13).
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Do you Know
What is the Greenhouse Effect?
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A greenhouse is a house made of glass

that can be used to grow plants. The sun's
radiations warm the plants and the air
inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped
inside can't escape out and warms the
greenhouse which is essential for the
growth of the plants. Same is the case in
the earth's atmosphere.
Fig 12.13 Vegetable are growing in side green house

Environmental chemistry 245

Keeping warm
Earth's atmosphere acts like a
greenhouse, keeping its surface warm.

Som
bac e hea
k in t is
to s refl
Sun pac ecte
e. d

ared
infr d off

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2. Infrared radiation is h e
of t ecte

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reflected back off ome is refl es back

me int
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Earth's surface. gas

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radi nhouse ace.

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1. Infrared

ea rfa
s h su
radiation transfers

ate h's
heat energy from the

di rt
ra . Ea
Sun through Earth's atmosphere.

4
The atmosphere Earth he 5. Heat absorbed by greenhouse
gases radiates back to Earth's
surface.
b lis
Negative activities Rising demand for meat means more domestic animals
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Human activities that contributes to high levels of releasing methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
greenhouse gases include burning fossil fuels, landfill
sites, deforestation, and a rising number of farm animals.
Deforestation reduces
the number of trees in
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Electrical power stations burn an area that would

fossil fuels to produce electricity, absorb carbon dioxide
which releases carbon dioxide. during photosynthesis.
Waste in landfill sites that isn't
disposed of is burnt, which emits
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greenhouse gases..
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Human activity in the seas causes

ocean acidification, which prevents Cows produce methane
the ocean from naturally absorbing gas when they digest their food.
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Environmental chemistry 246

 Major deforestation is taking place in several countries around the
world. Trees are like the lungs of the planet, as they can absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen through photosynthesis. Unfortunately,
after deforestation, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
increases, which leads to global warming
Large increase in the amounts of carbon dioxide released by the
continued burning of large quantities of fossil fuels by industry and
transport. The long-term effect of the higher temperatures of the
greenhouse effect and the subsequent global warming will be the

Fig 12.14 Cattle emit a significant amount
of methane during digestion. With an
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continued gradual melting of ice caps and consequent flooding in
low-lying areas of the Earth. There will also be further changes in the
weather patterns which will further affect agriculture worldwide.
Climate Change and Its Consequences

estimated one billion cattle on Earth and
eight billion humans, this has important
implications for greenhouse gas emissions.
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The term 'climate' refers to the weather conditions in an area over a
period of time. Climate is influenced by factors such as ocean
temperature, wind speed and direction, and humidity. As the world's

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temperature increases, these factors are disturbed, leading to climate
change.

Problems and effects Illustration

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Change in Rainfall Patterns
Climate change can cause wind patterns to shift, leading to changes in
rainfall patterns. Areas that were once lush and fertile may begin to
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receive too little rain, turning into deserts, while other areas may
receive too much rain, leading to frequent flooding. This can result in
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fertile land becoming barren, potentially causing food shortages.

Heat Waves
Heat waves, periods of excessively hot weather, would become more
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common due to climate change. Some parts of the world could become
too hot for human habitation. Higher global temperatures also
increase the likelihood of destructive wildfires, which can destroy
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entire ecosystems. For example, the heatwaves in Pakistan and India

have led to the deaths of thousands of people, especially when
temperatures rise beyond 40°C.
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Tropical Storms
Tropical storms, known as typhoons, hurricanes, or cyclones, are giant
storms that form over warm water and move westwards. They bring
strong winds, heavy rain, and an ultra-high tide called the storm surge.
These storms can be very destructive, endangering lives, destroying
property, and damaging farmland due to the increase in salt content
brought by the saltwater. In Pakistan, such storms occurring in the
Arabian Sea are typically referred to as cyclones.

Environmental chemistry 247

Cyclones in Pakistan
Although Pakistan is not frequently hit by cyclones, it has experienced
significant events like Cyclone Yemyin in 2007, which caused
extensive damage in Balochistan and Sindh provinces. Pakistan is also
prone to floods, with the devastating 2010 floods affecting almost 20
million people and causing an estimated US$10 billion in damage.
The increase in frequency and intensity of these weather events is
linked to global climate change.

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Glacial Retreat and Melting of Polar Ice Caps
About 70% of the world's freshwater is stored in the polar ice caps.
With global temperatures rising, glaciers and polar ice caps are melting
and shrinking. Communities that rely on meltwater from glaciers for

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drinking and irrigation will be greatly affected if the glaciers deplete
faster than they can be replenished. It has been estimated that if the ice
caps completely melted, sea levels around the world would rise by
more than 60 meters. This would have significant implications for

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Pakistan, especially for coastal cities like Karachi, as rising sea levels
could lead to the permanent flooding of low-lying areas.
b lis
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ab
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Fig 12.15 A coastal area is where the land meets the ocean, often marked by distinctive ecosystems like beaches,
dunes, and salt marshes, and is vital for industries like tourism and fishing. These regions are rich in biodiversity but
face environmental challenges such as erosion and sea level rise.
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Greenhouse Gas Major Sources

carbon dioxide (CO2) • combustion of fossil fuels in power plants, industries and vehicles
• deforestation

• waste gases from cattle

methane (CH4)
• leakage from methane reservoirs under the arctic tundra and from oceanic methane ice

Environmental chemistry 248

 Do you Know
Since 1960, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen sharply
due to increased demand for energy and burning of fossil fuels

0.039
0.038
0.037

Percentage of CO2 in the

Carbon dioxide levels are
0.036
expected to continue rising.
0.035

atmosphere

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0.034
0.033
0.032
0.031 Carbon dioxide levels started
0.030 to rise in the 1960s
0.029

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0.028

1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050

Year

12.3 Knowledge
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Green Strategies: From Renewable Energy to
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Reducing Exposure to Harm
There are a number of ways we can reduce the harmful impact of
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global warming. The two main greenhouse gases that we humans add
to the air are carbon dioxide and methane. Therefore, our goal is to
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lower the levels of both. Here are some ways to achieve this.
By using non-carbon fuels
The two primary purposes for fossil fuels are producing electricity in
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power stations, with coal and gas being the main fuels, and powering
various modes of transportation, including cars, trucks, planes, and
ships. To reduce carbon dioxide emissions, we need to transition to
non-carbon alternatives for generating electricity and powering
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transport. Let's explore some examples.

For non-carbon electricity, we can turn to wind, waves, tides, and
fast-flowing rivers, all of which can spin turbines. Electricity
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generated through rivers is known as hydroelectricity. Nuclear power

Solar panels beside a pond collecting
sunlight to power a rural village,
blending modern energy solutions with
natural surroundings."
is another option, utilizing unstable isotopes such as uranium-235 to
generate an enormous amount of energy. This energy is used to heat
water and create steam, which spins the turbine blades in nuclear
power stations. Finally, solar power allows us to convert energy from
sunlight into electrical energy using photovoltaic cells, or PV cells.
This energy can be stored in batteries.

Environmental chemistry 249

 Fig 12.16 "Embracing the Future: Electric Vehicles (EVs) Charging

om
Ahead for a Sustainable Journey”

By planting trees "harvesting the wind: a field of wind

Did you know that more than 2000 trees are being destroyed every turbines stands tall above the crops,
capturing renewable energy under a clear
minute worldwide? This alarming rate of deforestation is happening

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blue sky"
in many countries across the globe. Trees play a vital role in our
ecosystem by acting as the lungs of the planet. Through
photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen,
which is essential for our survival.
By reducing methane emissions
To significantly reduce the amount of methane released into the
atmosphere, we must decrease livestock farming. This can be he
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achieved by rearing fewer animals and changing our eating habits.
Eating less meat and dairy products from these animals can help
reduce methane. Instead, we can opt for fish and chicken or, even
b
better, increase the proportion of plant-based foods in our diets.
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Further Reading Renewable VS Non-renewable energy sources

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Gass Coal
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Oil
Fig 12.17 The world is moving towards using more renewable energy sources like wind turbines and solar panels. The
reason for this is that they are much better for the environment than traditional energy sources like oil, gas and coal. These
traditional sources have been used for a long time, but they cause problems like pollution and greenhouse gas emissions,
which are bad for the planet. Renewable energy sources, on the other hand, are unlimited and don't cause these problems.
That's why it's important to start using more renewable energy sources – it's better for the planet and will help future
generations.

Environmental chemistry 250


A white air purifier is present in a cozy
bedroom to filter and clean PM2.5, dust,
HEPA and virus particles for fresh air
and a healthy life. The concept of health
care air pollution.
b
Awareness
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Practical Exercises: Have students
download an AQI app and track the
air quality for a week, writing down
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observations. Conduct a mask
demonstration to show which masks
are effective against pollution. Plant
some indoor plants in the classroom
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and have students care for them as
they learn about their air-purifying
qualities. Assessment: Quiz students
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on what they have learned about air
pollution, AQI, and protective
measures. Ask them to prepare a
plan on how they would protect
themselves from air pollution on a
particularly smoggy day.
Environmental chemistry 251
Reducing Harmful Exposure: Protective Strategies
Now we will discuss how to protect ourselves from environmental
harm by adopting different precautions. Here are some precautions
we will discuss.
Air Quality Index (AQI) Apps: For students to keep track of
pollution levels, AQI apps can be a great tool. These apps provide
real-time data on air quality, which can help you decide whether it's
safe to go outside or better to stay indoors. For instance, if the app
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shows high levels of pollution, it might be wise to postpone your
cricket game to another day.
Wearing Masks: Masks are like your personal shield against air
pollution. There are different kinds, from cloth masks that are
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washable and reusable to N95 respirators that are super effective at
filtering tiny particles from the air you breathe. On days when the air
quality is poor, wearing the right mask can protect your lungs from
harmful pollutants.
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Indoor Air Purifiers: Think of air purifiers as vacuum cleaners for
the air; they suck in dirty air, trap the bad particles in a filter, and blow
out cleaner air. Purifiers with HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air
lis
filter.) filters are especially good at capturing the tiny particles that
can harm your health. Having one at home can be especially helpful if
you live in an area with lots of pollution.
Ventilation: Keeping the air moving in your home or classroom can
help get rid of stale and polluted indoor air. When the air outside is
clean, open the windows to let in the fresh air. If it's not, using fans
can help move the air around and filter out pollutants. Remember,
good air flow helps keep the air clean.
Houseplants: Plants are nature's air purifiers. While they can't replace
an air purifier, they can help improve the quality of indoor air to some
extent. Plus, they make your space look nice and can even boost your
mood! Just remember, they're part of a bigger strategy to keep the air
clean.
Community Involvement: You can make a difference in your
community's air quality! By getting involved in activities like
planting trees or participating in clean-ups, you help reduce
pollution. Plus, these activities can be fun, a way to make new
friends, and a chance to make your neighborhood a better place to
live.
 Test yourself
Define global warming. a. What do most scientists believe is causing global warming?
What is a greenhouse gas? a. We need greenhouse gases. Why? b. Why are greenhouse gases now a problem?
c. Name the two main greenhouse gases we add to the air through our activities. d. Give the main source for each gas
you named in global warming.
Explain why greenhouse gases are able to make Earth warmer.
One impact of global warming could be rising sea levels. a. Give two reasons why global warming would cause sea
levels to rise. b. Why are rising sea levels a problem? c. Rising sea levels could increase coastal erosion. What is

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coastal erosion? d. Why might global warming cause water stress?
In what ways could global warming affect: a. global climate? b. food production? c. wildlife?
Give two reasons why climate change is likely to affect: a. food supplies b. water supplies in many countries.
Name the brown haze that forms over some cities in sunlight, and the pollutants which give rise to it. a. Which
pollutants come from petrol burned in car engines? b. Which pollutants come from the air itself? How do these

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form? c. Which pollutants result in acid rain?
Natural gas (methane) is a fossil fuel. a. Give the word equation for the reaction that occurs when it burns in plenty of
air. b. If methane burns in a poor supply of air, carbon monoxide will form. Explain why this gas is harmful.
Write a word equation for the reaction that takes place during flue gas desulfurization.
a. Outline two other ways to help prevent acid rain.

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In the catalytic converters in modern cars, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen from the engine are converted to
other substances. a. Why is carbon monoxide removed? b. Give one harmful effect of nitrogen dioxide. c. Give the
lis
equation for a reaction that turns nitrogen monoxide (NO) from the car engine into a harmless gas.
Define renewable energy. a. Name two other forms of renewable energy used to generate electricity. Explain why
each is renewable.
b
Discuss the generation of electricity in power stations and renewable methods. a. What spins the turbine blades: i. in
wind farms? ii. for hydroelectricity? b. Which method of non-carbon electricity generation mentioned does not need
pu

a turbine?
Explain why planting millions of trees can help to reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the air. a. Write the chemical
equation for photosynthesis. b. Why does this help to limit the rise in greenhouse gases?
Discuss the statement: "I can do nothing about climate change." a. Consider individual actions such as choosing to
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buy a battery-powered car or choosing to eat fish or chicken instead of meat from grazing animals.

Skill:12.2-12.3
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Mechanisms of Global Warming: The Role of Carbon Dioxide and Methane

Green Strategies: From Renewable Energy to Reducing Exposure to Harm
Objective: Chemical Processes and Environmental Solutions Grasp key chemical processes like
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photosynthesis and the formation of nitrogen oxides in car engines, along with strategies to reduce emissions
and combat environmental issues.
Reducing Exposure to Harmful Pollutants Develop strategies to minimize personal exposure to air pollutants
through the use of protective tools, understanding air quality indices, and recognizing high-risk situations.
Critical Analyze and Practical Application Analyzing the role of pollutants and their removal processes, such
as the use of catalytic converters, and applying knowledge to address and reduce the effects of major
environmental issues.

Environmental chemistry 252

 Exercise

A Encircle the most suitable answer.

1 What is the approximate percentage of nitrogen in clean, dry air?
a) 78% b) 21% c) 1% d) 10%
2 Which gas is responsible for the greenhouse effect and global warming?
a) Oxygen b) Nitrogen c) Carbon dioxide d) Methane

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3 What role does sulfur play in the formation of acid rain?
a) It acts as a catalyst. · b) It combines with water to form sulfuric acid.
c) It neutralizes the acid. d) It absorbs UV radiation.
4 How do catalytic converters reduce the impact of car emissions?

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a) By increasing fuel efficiency b) By converting harmful gases into less harmful ones
c) By filtering particulates d) By reducing noise pollution
5 Which of the following strategies is NOT effective in reducing the effects of climate change?
a) Planting trees b) Increasing the use of fossil fuels

6
c) Using renewable energy sources

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d) Reducing livestock farming
How do oxides of nitrogen contribute to the formation of acid rain?
a) By directly combining with rainwater b) By catalyzing the oxidation of sulfur dioxide
lis
c) By absorbing UV radiation d) By reflecting sunlight
7 What is the primary function of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?
a) To produce glucose b) To absorb light energy
b
c) To release oxygen d) To combine carbon dioxide and water
8 Which of the following is a source of methane?
pu

a) Complete combustion of fuels b) Decomposition of vegetation

c) Car engines d) Combustion of sulfur compounds
9 What is the main adverse effect of carbon monoxide?
ab

a) Global warming b) Acid rain c) Toxicity d) Haze

10 Which gas is used as an indicator in air quality indices?
a) Carbon dioxide b) Sulfur dioxide c) Methane d) Nitrogen
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D Answer the following questions briefly.

1 Discuss the major sources of air pollutants and their adverse effects on the environment and human health.
2 Explain how greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane contribute to global warming and climate
ca

change.
3 Describe the strategies that can be employed to reduce the impact of major environmental issues such as climate
change and acid rain.
4 Explain the role of oxides of nitrogen in the formation of acid rain and how catalytic converters in vehicles help
mitigate this issue.
5 Analyze the importance of photosynthesis in the carbon cycle and how it helps reduce the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and also through some light on the role of CO2 and other greenhouse gases on global
warming.

Environmental chemistry 253

CHAPTER

13 Water

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he
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Seawater covers most of Earth’s
surface, but the salt in seawater
b
makes it unsuitable for drinking.
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ab
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In this series, we'll explore the fascinating world of water chemistry.

We'll cover the basics of testing water purity and the differences
between distilled and tap water. We'll also delve into the
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composition of water from natural sources, and the importance of

treating domestic water supply to ensure safe and clean water.
Additionally, we'll discuss the impact of water-borne diseases and
pollutants on human life, ways to mitigate them, and the role of
fertilizers in enhancing plant growth. Join us on this exciting
adventure to discover the wonders of water chemistry!

Water 254
 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Investigate chemical tests for the presence of water using anhydrous copper(ll) sulfate
Explain how to test the purity of water using melting point and boiling point
Distinguish between Distilled water and tap water with their applications in practical chemistry.
State that water from natural sources may contain useful and harmful substances. (Some examples
include:
dissolved oxygen metal compounds plastics sewage
harmful microbes nitrates from fertilizers phosphates from fertilizers and detergents)

om
Recognize that some naturally occurring substances in water are beneficial (some examples include:
dissolved oxygen for aquatic life some metal compounds provide essential minerals for life)
Recognize that some naturally occurring substances in water are potentially harmful (some examples
include:
some metal compounds that are toxic some plastics that harm aquatic life

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sewage that contains harmful microbes which cause disease nitrates and phosphates that lead to
deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic life Details of the eutrophication process are not required)
Explain the treatment of the domestic water supply (some examples of this includes:
sedimentation and filtration to remove solids use of carbon to remove tastes and odors

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chlorination to kill microbes)
Describe various water-borne diseases and the steps that can be taken to avoid them
Identify the negative effects of water pollutants on life and the ways to avoid them
lis
Explain water scarcity as an important issue faced by Pakistan and the ways in which it can be resolved
fertilizers
State that urea, ammonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilizers
b
Explain the use of NPK fertilizers to provide the elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for
improved plant growth
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All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:
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Knowledge
13.1 Water Testing and Analysis in Chemistry
Students will learn to conduct chemical tests for water using anhydrous copper (II) sulfate, understand the
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significance of melting and boiling points in determining water purity, and differentiate between distilled
water and tap water, along with their respective applications in practical chemistry.
13.2 Water Quality Management: Safeguarding Health and Ecosystems
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Water from natural sources contains substances that can be beneficial, like dissolved oxygen, or harmful,
such as toxic metals and sewage. Treatment of domestic water, including sedimentation, filtration, and
chlorination, is crucial for removing impurities and preventing water-borne diseases. It's important to
understand the impacts of water pollutants on life and take steps to mitigate their effects
13.3 Water Management in Pakistan: Addressing Scarcity, Diseases, and Pollution
Water scarcity in Pakistan is a pressing issue that requires sustainable management practices and
conservation efforts to ensure adequate supply for all, while also addressing waterborne diseases through
improved sanitation and clean water access, and mitigating the negative impacts of water pollutants on
health and ecosystems through effective pollution control measures
255 Water
 Skills
Skill 13.1 Ability to perform and interpret chemical tests and measurements to assess the quality and purity
of water in a laboratory setting and assessing the purity of water.
Skill 13.2 Evaluating the quality of water sources, understanding the treatment processes, and assessing the
impact of pollutants on health and the environment.
Skill 13.3 Analyze and Evaluate the Impact of Water Scarcity and Pollution on Public Health and the
Environment in Pakistan:

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13.1 Knowledge
Water Testing and Analysis in Chemistry
In this section, students will be taught the techniques for conducting

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chemical tests for water by utilizing anhydrous copper (II) sulfate.
They will also learn about the importance of melting and boiling
points in determining water purity, and the differences between
distilled water and tap water, including their respective applications

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in practical chemistry. However, before delving into these topics,
water in general will be introduced. Student Learning Outcomes
Water: Investigate chemical tests for the
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Water is the most abundant compound on our planet. More than 70% presence of water using anhydrous
of the Earth's surface is covered by the sea, and rivers and lakes are copper (II) sulfate.
scattered throughout the land masses (as shown in Figure 13.1). It is Explain how to test the purity of
b
crucial for our survival because it is one of the primary components in water using melting point and
all living organisms. For instance, our bones contain 72% water, our boiling point.
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kidneys are approximately 82% water, and our blood is around 90% Distinguish between distilled
water. Apart from sustaining life, water serves many other important water and tap water with their
purposes. These include: applications in practical chemistry.
ab

In the home: cooking cleaning drinking.

In industry: as a solvent as a coolant for cleaning
as a chemical reactant.
nt

If you want to determine whether a colorless liquid contains water or

not, you can use two simple tests. The first test is to add the unknown
liquid to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate. If the copper sulfate changes
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from white to blue, then the liquid contains water. Another test is to
dip blue cobalt (II) chloride paper into the liquid. If the paper turns
pink, then the liquid contains water.
Pure water is a neutral, colorless liquid that boils at 100°C and freezes
at 0°C under standard pressure conditions. However, the boiling Fig 13.1 Millions of tonnes of
water pass over this waterfall every day
point of tap water may vary due to the presence of impurities that it
dissolves. Therefore, distilled water is commonly used in laboratory
experiments as it is very pure and lacks many of these impurities
which may affect the outcome of experiments.

Water 256
 om
Figure 13.2 Liquid water boils at 100°C and freezes to form ice at 0°

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he
b lis
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(a) CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(g) CoCl2.6H2O(s) (b) CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2O

from droper White powder from droper
Fig 13.3 (a)Similarly, when water is dropped on cobalt (II) chloride paper, a chemical reaction takes place that leads to
a change in color from blue to pink. This occurs because the water molecules displace the chloride ions in the cobalt
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(II) chloride, leading to the formation of a new complex ion, known as cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate, which is pink
in color.
Fig 13.3 (b) When water is added to anhydrous copper (II) sulfate, it undergoes a chemical reaction that results in a
change in color from white to blue. This happens because the water molecules coordinate with the copper ions and
form a new complex ion, known as copper sulfate pentahydrate, which is blue in color. As we discuss in as we disscuss
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in chapter 8.

The unique properties of water

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Water is a unique substance. Not only is it an excellent solvent for

many ionic substances, such as sodium chloride, but it also has some
unusual properties. For example:
It has an unusually high boiling point for a molecule of its
relatively low molecular mass.
It has a greater specific heat capacity than almost any other
Fig 13.4 When water freezes, its density liquid.
falls; this is why icebergs float It decreases in density when it freezes (Figure 13.4).

257 Water
 Further Reading Melting and boiling points of pure substances and mixtures

Pure substances have specific temperatures at which they melt and boil. For instance, water has a melting point of 0°C
and a boiling point of 100°C. During the state change, the temperature of a pure substance remains constant at these
specific values. For example, when pure water is boiling, the temperature stays at 100°C, and when it's freezing, the
temperature remains at 0°C. However, mixtures change their state over a range of temperatures. To illustrate, some
everyday examples of this phenomenon are shown in Figure 13.4 (b).
Saltwater freezes at temperatures ranging
from -5°C to -10°C depending on the amount The car radiator contains a mixture of antifreeze
and water so that the mixture freezes below 0°C.

om
of salt dissolved in it. This property is utilized
to prevent the formation of ice on roads
during winters. Grit, which is a mixture of
salt and sand, is spread on roads to prevent
the water from freezing when the

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temperature drops below 0°C. On the other
hand, saltwater boils at temperatures above
100°C and the boiling point depends on the
amount of salt dissolved in it. It can boil
between 101°C to 103°C.
Antifreeze is added to water in car radiators
to prevent water from freezing in cold
conditions. Antifreeze has a melting point of
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-13°C while water has a melting point of 0°C.
Salt is put on roads to create a
The mixture of antifreeze and water typically mixture with water that freezes
has a melting point range of -30°C to -40°C, below O°C.
depending on the amount of antifreeze used.
b
Fig 13.4 (b) Petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons that boil over a range of
temperatures from about 60 to 100°C.
Petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons that boils over a temperature range of approximately 60°C to 100°C. Although each
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individual substance in petrol has its own specific boiling point, the mixture as a whole boil over a range of temperatures.
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Test yourself Skill:13.1

How does anhydrous copper (II) sulfate act as a desiccant and
Water Testing and Analysis in
indicator for the presence of water? Describe the color changes
Chemistry
observed during the test.?
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Objective: The core skill developed

Why are melting point and boiling point considered physical will be the ability to perform and
properties suitable for testing the purity of water? How do impurities interpret chemical tests and
affect these properties? measurements to assess the quality and
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What are the key differences between distilled water and tap water, purity of water in a laboratory setting.
and how do these differences impact their use in practical chemistry Instructions: An activity based
experiments? worksheet is attached in the given QR
Describe a simple experiment to distinguish between distilled water code. Scan the code, read the
and tap water based on their properties. How can these differences be worksheet and solve it.
useful in chemistry applications?

Water 258

Student Learning Outcomes
State that water from natural sources
may contain useful and harmful
substances (e.g., dissolved oxygen,
metal compounds, plastics, sewage,
harmful microbes, nitrates from
fertilizers, phosphates from fertilizers
and detergents).
Recognize that some naturally
occurring substances in water are
beneficial (e.g., dissolved oxygen for
aquatic life, some metal compounds
provide essential minerals for life).
Recognize that some naturally
occurring substances in water are
potentially harmful (e.g., some metal
compounds that are toxic, some
plastics that harm aquatic life, sewage
that contains harmful microbes which
cause disease, nitrates and phosphates
b
that lead to
Deoxygenation of water and damage
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to aquatic life).
Explain the treatment of the domestic
water supply (e.g., sedimentation and
filtration to remove solids, use of
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carbon to remove tastes and odors,
chlorination to kill microbes).
State that urea, ammonium salts, and
nitrates are used as fertilizers.
nt
Explain the use of NPK fertilizers to
provide the elements nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium for
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improved plant growth.
Do you Know
Pollution is a modification that takes
place to the environment, water or air,
caused by human influence such as
releasing substances into our water or air.
259 Water
13.2 Knowledge
Water Quality Management: Safeguarding
Health and Ecosystems
In this section, we will discuss water and its properties. Natural
sources of water can contain various substances, some of which can
be beneficial, such as dissolved oxygen, while others can be harmful,
such as toxic metals and sewage. It is essential to treat domestic water
through processes such as sedimentation, filtration, and chlorination
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to remove impurities and prevent water-borne diseases.
Understanding the impacts of water pollutants on life is crucial, and
taking steps to minimize their effects is necessary.
Water pollution
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An adequate supply of fresh and safe water is essential to the
health and well-being of the world's population. Across the planet,
biological and chemical pollutants are affecting the quality of our
water. Lack of availability of fresh water leads to waterborne
he
diseases, such as cholera and typhoid, and to diarrhea, which is one of
the biggest killers across the world.
Agriculture needs a water supply in order to irrigate crops,
especially in areas of the world with hot climates. The production of
lis
more and more crops for the ever-increasing population is essential.
Water is very good at dissolving substances and so it is very unusual
to find really pure water on this planet. As water falls through the
atmosphere, on to and then through the surface of the Earth, it
dissolves a tremendous variety of substances including:
A variety of gases from the air such as carbon dioxide and
oxygen. However, oxygen is beneficial to aquatic life and allows it to
thrive in our rivers and oceans. Carbon dioxide creates a low-level
natural acidity in the water, but this acidity is increasing, due to the
increase in the amount of carbon dioxide released into the
atmosphere by vehicles and industry.
in the water, but this acidity is increasing, due to the increase in the
amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by vehicles
and industry.
Nitrates and phosphates from agricultural waste and detergents.
Chemical fertilizers, washed off surrounding land, add nitrate ions
(NO3-) and phosphate ions (PO43-) to the water. This is due to the use
of artificial fertilizers, such as ammonium nitrate and ammonium
phosphate (see below), as well as some pesticides. Detergents used in
the home and in industry contain phosphates. The nitrates and
phosphates encourage the growth of algae which eventually die and
decay, removing oxygen from the water (deoxygenation). Deficiency
of oxygen can lead to the death of numerous marine organisms. See
further reading box
 Further Reading Melting and boiling points of pure substances and mixtures

Time

1. Nutrient load up: Sunlight

excessive nutrients like nitrate
ions (NO3-) and phosphate ions
5. Death of the ecosystem:
(Po43-) from fertilisers are flushed
oxygen levels reach a point
from the land into rivers or lakes

om
where no life is possible.
by rainwater
Fish and other organisms die

algae layer
3. Algae blooms, oxygen is depleted:

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algae blooms, preventing sunlight reaching
other plants. The plants die and oxygen in the
water is depleted.
decomposer

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nutrient
material

2. Plants flourish:
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4. Decomposition further depletes oxygen:
these pollutants cause aquatic
dead plants are broken down by bacteria
plant growth of algae,
decomposers), using up even more oxygen in
duckweed and other plants
the water.
b

Metal compounds from industrial waste water may contain harmful chemicals, such as cadmium and
pu

mercury, which are toxic. It should be noted however, that not all metal compounds are toxic. Some metal
compounds that are present are also beneficial as they provide essential minerals. This is especially true of
calcium-containing compounds. The calcium present in water is necessary for healthy growth of bones and teeth.
Human waste from sewage. Sewage contains harmful microbes which cause disease.
ab
nt
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Fig 13.5 A badly polluted river

Water 260

Fig 13.6 This lake is used as a source of
drinking
Important Terms
Screens: are used in water treatment to
remove large solid particles from the
water. They are physical barriers that can
be made of metal, plastic, or other
materials with varying sized openings to
filter out debris.
Coarse sand: is a type of sand with larger
grains, which is used in filtration to trap
and remove larger particles from the
water. It acts as a physical barrier,
allowing water to pass through while
b
retaining solid impurities.
A sedimentation tank: is a large tank
pu
used in water treatment where the water is
allowed to stand still so that heavier
particles can settle to the bottom.
Carbon slurry filters: use activated
ab
carbon to remove contaminants from
water. The carbon adsorbs impurities,
such as chemicals and odors, improving
the taste and quality of the water if
nt
needed.
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activated carbon
261 Water
Insoluble impurities such as oil and plastic waste (Figure13.5).
Plastic waste is polluting our streams and rivers as well as oceans.
It is detrimental to all aquatic life as well as human life on this
planet. This issue will be discussed in more detail in grade 10
All these artificial and natural impurities must be removed from the
water before it can be used. Recent regulations in many countries
have imposed strict guidelines on the amounts of various substances
allowed in drinking water
om
A lot of drinking water is obtained from lakes and rivers where the
pollution levels are low (Figure 13.6).
Water treatment process
Water treatment is a process that involves several steps to ensure that
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the water we use in our daily lives is safe and clean.
Step 1: The first step is to pass the impure water through screens to
filter out floating debris. This is done to remove large particles such as
leaves, twigs, and other debris that may be present in the water
he
Step 2: The next step involves adding aluminum sulfate to the water
to coagulate small particles of clay. This causes the particles to form
larger clumps, which settle more rapidly.
lis
• Step 3: The water is then filtered through coarse sand, which traps
larger, insoluble particles. The sand also contains specially grown
microbes that remove some of the bacteria present in the water.
• Step 4: After filtration through coarse sand, the water is then
directed into a sedimentation tank where chemicals known as
flocculants, such as aluminum sulfate, are added. These chemicals
make the smaller particles, which remain in the water as colloidal
clay, stick together and sink to the bottom of the tank. This process is
called sedimentation, and it helps to remove even more impurities
from the water.
Step 5: The water is then filtered again through fine sand to remove
any remaining particles. Carbon slurry filters are also used to remove
unwanted tastes and odors. To adjust the acidity, a lime slurry is
added to the water.
Step 6: Finally, a small amount of chlorine gas is added to the water
to sterilize it and kill any remaining bacteria. Excess chlorine can be
removed by adding sulfur dioxide gas. Sodium hydroxide solution is
added to the water to adjust the acidity, as the addition of chlorine gas
makes the water more acidic.
In some cases, fluoride is added to the water if there is insufficient
fluoride occurring naturally. This is done to help prevent tooth decay.
Overall, the water treatment process is a complex and multi-step procedure that ensures that the water we drink
and use in our daily lives is safe, clean, and free of harmful contaminants.

1 water passed through screen

Covered Storage
Water 2 Aluminum sulfate added Tank
in
× Sulfur
Pump dioxide

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added
Screen
3 Coarse To
sand filter homes
× and
pump
4 factories

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5 sodium
Sedimen- 6
Find sand hydroxide
tation tank Chloride
filter added
added

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Fig 13.7 An Illustration of the Water Purification Process: From Source to Tap

Artificial fertilizers Think of it this way

lis
The Haber process produces ammonia gas, which can be further Fertilizer is a chemical put onto soil to
reacted with nitric acid to produce ammonium nitrate. This reaction replace lost mineral salts and so make
is commonly used in the production of artificial fertilizers. plants grow more healthily. These include
b
ammonium salts, such as ammonium
ammonia + nitric acid ® ammonium nitrate
nitrate, which is one of the most
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NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) ® NH4NO3(aq) commonly used fertilizers.

Ammonium nitrate is probably the most widely used nitrogenous
fertilizer. The use of artificial fertilizers is essential if farmers are to
produce sufficient crops to feed the ever-increasing world
ab

population. Crops remove nutrients from the soil as they grow; these
include nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Artificial fertilizers are
added to the soil to replace these nutrients and others, such as
nt

calcium, magnesium, sodium, sulfur, copper and iron. Examples of

nitrogenous fertilizers (those which contain nitrogen) are shown in
Table 13.1
Fig 13.8 Fertilizers have been used to
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help create
Fertilser Formula
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3

Ammonium phosphate [NH4]3 PO4

Ammonium sulfate [NH4]2 SO4

Urea CO(NH2)2

Water 262

Fig 13.9 Different fertilizers contain
Artificial fertilizers can also create fertile land from areas unable to
support crop growth. The fertilizers which add the three main
nutrients (N, P and K) are called NPK fertilizers. They contain
ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), ammonium phosphate ((NH4)3PO4)
and potassium chloride (KCl) in varying proportions (Figure 13.9 ).
Problems with fertilizers
If artificial fertilizers are not used correctly, problems can arise. If too
much fertilizer is applied to the land, rain washes the fertilizer off the

differing amounts of the element's
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
om
land and into rivers and streams. This is known as leaching. This
leaching leads to eutrophication, which occurs when fertilizer is
leached, causing algae to multiply rapidly and causing the water to
turn green. As the algae die and decay, oxygen is removed from the
water, leaving insufficient amounts for fish and other organisms to

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survive, as discussed earlier (Figure 13.11). In extreme cases, no
normal aquatic life can survive. There are also worries about the
effect of agricultural fertilizers, especially nitrates such as
Green
N ammonium nitrate, on the public water supply.

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foliage lis
Strong
Roots
P
b
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K
Healthy
Growth
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Figure 13.11 Over-use of fertilizers has led to eutrophication

Fig 13.10 The different NPK elements are
responsible for the healthy growth of
plants in different ways.
nt
in this river
Effects of Dissolved Substances in Water
As we discussed previously, substances that are dissolved in water

can bring about both positive and negative effects. To provide a more
detailed understanding of this matter, a table has been prepared to
highlight the advantages and disadvantages of such dissolved
ca

substances in water.
Advantages Disadvantages
Toxic Metals Harmful to Health: Exposure to
Oxygen for Aquatic Life: Aquatic organisms, dissolved substances like lead, arsenic, and mercury
including fish, depend on the dissolved oxygen in water can result in severe health issues. Lead can lead to brain
to breathe. As water passes over their gills, oxygen is damage; arsenic has been linked to an increased risk of
absorbed directly into their bloodstream, which is cancer and heart disease; mercury can cause
essential for their survival neurological disorders.

263 Water
Essential Minerals for Human Health: Humans Plastic Pollution: Plastics that end up in waterways can
require various minerals that are found dissolved in be mistaken for food by wildlife. Unable to digest these
water, such as calcium for strong bones and teeth, materials, animals can suffer from digestive
magnesium and calcium to help protect against heart blockages, leading to malnutrition or starvation.
disease, and others like sodium, potassium, iron,
copper, zinc, and fluorine. River water can be a natural
source of these minerals, depending on the geology of
the river basin.

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Disease-Causing Microbes from Untreated Sewage:
Untreated or poorly treated sewage can carry pathogens
like bacteria and viruses, which can cause life-
threatening diseases including cholera, typhoid, and

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hepatitis. These microbes are a significant health hazard
when present in water sources.

Eutrophication from Nitrates and Phosphates:

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Nutrients like nitrates and phosphates can promote
excessive growth of algae, leading to eutrophication.
This process depletes the oxygen in the water, causing
the death of fish and other aerobic aquatic organisms.
b lis
Scale on shower heads and in kettles is a
strong sign that your water contains
pu

calcium and magnesium carbonates. They

form a scale because their solubility
decreases with temperature
ab

Test yourself
Skill:13.2
What is a fertiliser?
Water Quality Management:
nt

Why are fertilisers used?

Safeguarding Health and
An NPK fertiliser contains three elements that plants need, a.
Ecosystems
Name the three elements.
Objective: Ability to perform and
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Suggest two salts (an ammonium salt and a nitrate) which will interpret chemical tests and
form an NPK fertiliser when mixed together. measurements to assess the quality and
Fertilisers can harm aquatic life. Explain how. purity of water in a laboratory setting.
Tap water is not used to make aqueous solutions in the lab. a.
Why is tap water not used? b. What is used instead?
You have a liquid, and some blue cobalt(II) chloride paper, a.
How could you prove that the liquid contains water? b. How
will you prove that it is not pure water?

Water 264

Student Learning Outcomes
Explain water scarcity as an important
issue faced by Pakistan and the ways in
which it can be resolved.
Describe various water-borne diseases
and the steps that can be taken to avoid
them.
Identify the negative effects of water
pollutants on life and the ways to avoid
them.
b
pu
ab
Fig 13.12 Microbes in drop of dirty water
nt
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Fig 13.13 Vibrio cholerae bacteria in small
intestine, 3D illustration. Bacterium which
causes cholera disease and is transmitted by
contaminated water
265 Water
13.3 Knowledge
Water Management in Pakistan: Addressing
Scarcity, Diseases, and Pollution
Water scarcity is a significant problem in Pakistan that requires
sustainable management practices and conservation efforts. The goal
is to ensure adequate water supply for all while also addressing
om
waterborne diseases through improved sanitation and clean water
access. It is essential to mitigate the negative impacts of water
pollutants on health and ecosystems through effective pollution
control measures. Further discussion will shed more light on the issue
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Water-borne diseases
Water-borne diseases are caused by microorganisms present in
contaminated water. Some common water-borne diseases are
cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis A, giardiasis, dysentery, and
he
cryptosporidiosis. To prevent these diseases, it is important to take
certain measures:
Cholera
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Cholera is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae (figure 13.13) and
results in severe diarrhea and dehydration. To prevent it, ensure safe
drinking water, proper sanitation, and hand hygiene. Boil water or
use chlorine treatment for drinking water in areas where cholera is
prevalent.
Typhoid fever
Typhoid fever, characterized by fever, weakness, stomach pains,
headache, and loss of appetite, is caused by Salmonella Typhi
bacteria. To prevent it, drink only boiled or treated water, eat well-
cooked food, and maintain good sanitation and hygiene practices.
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A is a viral disease affecting the liver. Symptoms include
jaundice, fatigue, and abdominal pain. To prevent it, get vaccinated,
use clean water, and ensure proper sanitation and food hygiene.
Giardiasis
Giardiasis is caused by the parasite Giardia intestinalis, leading to
diarrhea, cramps, nausea, and dehydration. To prevent it, drink
filtered or boiled water, avoid consuming water from lakes or
streams, and practice good hygiene.
Dysentery
Dysentery is usually caused by Shigella bacteria or Entamoeba
histolytica parasite, leading to severe diarrhea with blood. To prevent
it, consume clean and treated water, maintain good personal hygiene,
and eat food that is cooked and served hot.
Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis is caused by Cryptosporidium parasites, which
cause diarrhea, stomach cramps, and fever. To prevent it, use and

om
drink properly treated water, wash hands regularly, and avoid water
that might be contaminated.

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he
lis
(a) (b) (c)
b
Fig 13.14 (a) depicts a man potentially experiencing the intense
pu

gastrointestinal symptoms associated with cholera. Figure

(b) is a micrograph of Salmonella bacteria, the causative agent of typhoid
fever. Figure
(c) shows a person holding their abdomen in pain, a common symptom
ab

of hepatitis affecting the liver

nt
ca

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 13.15 (a) depicts Giardia intestinalis, a protozoan that causes giardiasis, leading to severe digestive problems. In
(b) Cryptosporidium, another protozoan, can cause cryptosporidiosis, with similar gastrointestinal symptoms. Figure
(c) shows a child who is experiencing discomfort due to dysentery, which is linked to infection by Entamoeba histolytica.

Water 266
 General preventive measures
To ensure good health and safety, it is essential to adopt preventive
measures that help to avoid water pollution. One of the most
fundamental measures is to boil or treat water before drinking,
especially in areas with poor sanitation. Additionally, it is crucial to
wash hands thoroughly with soap, especially before eating or preparing
food, and avoid consuming raw or undercooked food when traveling.

om
Using bottled or purified water for drinking and brushing teeth is also
recommended. Maintaining cleanliness and proper sanitation in living
and eating areas is also vital. Vaccination

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Boiled water

he Use clean water

lis
Preventine
measures
b
Figure Vaccination Wash hand
pu
ab

Maintain Use dustbin to

cleanliness throw trsh

Figure 13.16 Preentive measures from water- borne

nt

against diseases such as Hepatitis A and Typhoid can be helpful when

appropriate. To prevent water pollution, it is essential to dispose of
ca

household waste, chemicals, and medications responsibly. Recycling

and reusing materials can also help reduce water pollution. Limiting
pesticide and fertilizer use in gardens and agriculture and opting for
organic alternatives can help reduce chemical usage. Using non-toxic
cleaning products is also important. Ensuring proper sewage
treatment and wastewater management is crucial, planting trees and
maintaining vegetative cover can also prevent soil erosion. Raising
awareness about water pollution and encouraging responsible
behavior, such as not littering near water bodies, can also help

267 Water
safeguard our water resources.
It is essential to take collective action to protect our precious water
resources for a healthy planet and the well-being of all living beings.
By adopting these measures, we can ensure that our water sources
remain safe and secure for future generations to come.
Water Scarcity in Pakistan
Pakistan is currently facing a major water scarcity crisis, with over
80% of its population experiencing severe water shortages for at least

om
one month each year. This means that there is not enough clean water
for people to drink, grow crops, and run businesses. If things don't
change soon, the country may experience an even worse situation
where there is not enough water for anything at all by 2025.
There are a few reasons why this crisis is happening. One is that

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Pakistan relies too much on just one river system for its water, and a
lot of its water comes from outside the country, which makes it
vulnerable to things like droughts and conflicts with other countries.

he
Another reason is that people in Pakistan use a lot of water for
farming, which means that there's not enough left for other things like
drinking. Plus, the water that people do use is often not clean and can
make them sick.
lis
To solve this problem, the United Nations and the government of
Pakistan are working together to come up with ways to conserve
water and make sure that everyone has enough. They are trying
b
things like recycling water, building more dams and reservoirs, and
pu

using smart technology to make sure farmers use water more

efficiently. They are also teaching people how to use water more
wisely and making sure that everyone has access to clean water.
This is a very serious problem, but there are things that can be done to
ab

fix it. Everyone needs to work together and make sure that we use
water in a way that is sustainable and fair for everyone.
nt
ca

Water 268
 om
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he
b lis
Figure 13.17 Embracing Smart Agriculture: Farmers Utilize Advanced Irrigation Systems and Data Analytics to
Conserve Water and Enhance Crop Yield"
pu

Further Reading Diamer-Bhasha Dam

The Diamer-Bhasha Dam,

located on the Indus River in
ab

Pakistan, is a major
infrastructure project aimed at
addressing the country's water
nt

scarcity and energy generation

issues. It is set to become one of
the world's tallest roller-
compacted concrete dams. This
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multipurpose project is expected

to greatly enhance water storage
capacity, control floods, and
provide substantial
hydroelectricity, contributing to
Pakistan's agricultural and
energy sustainability. For comprehensive information on the Diamer-Bhasha Dam Project, exploring resources such
as the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) of Pakistan would be beneficial

269 Water
 Test yourself
What percentage of Pakistan's population faces severe water
Skill:13.3
shortages annually? Water Management in Pakistan:
Name the primary river system Pakistan relies on for its water supply. Addressing Scarcity, Diseases, and
By what year could Pakistan potentially have a severe water crisis if Pollution
current trends continue? Objective: Analyze and Evaluate the
What are two major causes of water scarcity in Pakistan?
Impact of Water Scarcity and Pollution
How can recycling water help mitigate Pakistan's water scarcity
on Public Health and the Environment
issue?
Why is it important for farmers in Pakistan to use water more in Pakistan:

om
efficiently?
What is one common water-borne disease mentioned that causes
severe diarrhea and dehydration? 8.
How can boiling water help prevent cholera?
Name the bacteria responsible for causing typhoid fever.

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What is the main preventive measure against hepatitis A?

Exercise

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A detailed summary, chapter
roadmap, multiple projects,
A Encircle the most suitable answer. and extensive exercises are
accessible via QR code.
1.
1 The purity of water can be tested by measuring its:
lis
a) Color b) Melting point and boiling point
c) Taste d) Odor
2.
2 Distilled water differs from tap water mainly in that it:
b
a) Has a higher boiling point b) Contains no dissolved minerals
c) Is more acidic d) Has a higher density
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3.
3 Which of the following is a benefit of some naturally occurring substances in water?
a) They cause water-borne diseases. b) They can make water hard.
c) They provide essential minerals. d) They increase water pollution.
ab

4.
4 The treatment of domestic water supply typically includes:
a) Addition of fertilizers b) Removal of beneficial minerals
c) Filtration and disinfection d) Increase in water hardness
5.
5 One of the steps to avoid water-borne diseases is to:
nt

a) Store water in open containers b) Use untreated water for drinking

c) Boil or filter water before drinking d) Ignore hygiene practices
6 Water scarcity in Pakistan can be resolved by:
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a) Increasing water pollution b) Ignoring water conservation measures

c) Implementing water management practices d) Reducing agricultural water usage
7 Urea is used as a fertilizer because it provides:
a) Nitrogen b) Phosphorus
c) Potassium d) Calcium
8 NPK fertilizers are used to provide plants with:
a) Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Krypton b) Nitrogen, Potassium, and Calcium
c) Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium d) Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Iron

Water 270
9 Tap water is typically used for:
a) Laboratory experiments requiring pure water · b) Drinking and household purposes
c) Making distilled water d) Testing the purity of substances
10 Water pollutants can have negative effects on:
a) Only aquatic life b) Only human health
c) Both aquatic life and human health· d) Neither aquatic life nor human health

B Answer the following questions briefly.

om
1 How can the boiling point be used to test the purity of water?
2 What are the main differences between distilled water and tap water?
3 Why are some naturally occurring substances in water considered beneficial?
4 Describe the process of domestic water treatment.
5 What are some common water-borne diseases?

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6 How can water pollution affect human health?
7 What are some measures to prevent water-borne diseases?
8 Explain the importance of water management in addressing water scarcity.

he
9 How does urea contribute to plant growth?
10 What are the components of NPK fertilizers and their roles in plant growth?
11 Why is distilled water preferred in laboratory experiments?
12 How can boiling water help prevent water-borne diseases?
lis
13 What are some harmful substances that can be found in natural water sources?
14 How can water scarcity be mitigated in arid regions?
15 Why is it important to treat domestic water supplies?
b
16 What are the environmental impacts of water pollutants?
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17 How do ammonium salts act as fertilizers?

18 What are some ways to conserve water in agriculture?

C Answer the following questions briefly.

ab

1 Discuss the importance of water purity and the methods used to test it, including the role of melting and
boiling points.
2 Write a note on water born diseases and also mention its prevention?
3 Draw the diagram of water filtration plant also write down its steps from raw water to tap water?
nt
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271 Water
CHAPTER

14 Basics of Organic
Chemistry

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Organic chemistry has numerous
applications, including the
development of pharmaceuticals

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for treating various diseases, the
creation of polymers and plastics
used in a wide range of products,
and the production of fuels and

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chemicals for energy and
industrial processes.
b lis
pu

Are you excited to learn about organic chemistry? This chapter will explore
the fundamental principles of this fascinating field. We will study the
structure, reactivity, and synthesis of organic molecules, and discover the
ab

different types of organic molecules, such as straight-chained, branched, or

cyclic molecules. You will learn about the importance of using structural
formulas to explain molecular arrangements, and we will distinguish
nt

between saturated and unsaturated compounds based on the types of

carbon-carbon bonds present. But that's not all! We will also take a closer
look at functional groups, which are crucial determinants of chemical
behavior in different homologous series. And let's not forget about
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structural isomerism, which refers to molecules with the same formula but
different structures. We will explore this concept and discover how it
impacts the properties and reactions of organic compounds, such as
alkanes. Speaking of alkanes, we will examine their reactions with chlorine
and combustion, and explore examples of their synthesis from cracking,
reduction, and hydrogenation. By the end of this chapter, you will have a
deep understanding of the foundational concepts of organic chemistry and
be ready to take on even more complex topics in this exciting field. Let's get
started!

Basics of Organic Chemistry 272

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Describe organic molecules as either straight-chained, branched, or cyclic.
State that a structural formula is an unambiguous description of the way the atoms in a molecule
are arranged, including CH2 = CH2, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOCH3.
Identify and draw structural formulae for molecules.
State that a saturated compound has molecules in which all carbon-carbon bonds are single bondsState that an
unsaturated compound has molecules in which one or more carbon-carbon bonds arenot a single bond.
Identify a functional group as an atom or group of atoms that determine the chemical properties ofa homologous

om
series including that for alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, carboxylic acids,amine, esters, and amide
Describe the general characteristics of a homologous series (These can include:(a) having the samefunctional group
(b) having the same general formula (c) differing from one member to the next
by a –CH2– unit (d) displaying a trend in physical properties (e) sharing similar chemical properties)
Interpret general formulae of compounds in the same homologous series including alkanes,

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alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, and carboxylic acids
Define structural isomers as compounds with the same molecular formula, but different
Structural formulae, including C4H10 as CH3CH2CH2CH3 and CH3CH(CH3)CH3 and C4H8 as CH3CH2CH = CH2 and
CH3CH = CHCH3.

he
State that the bonding in alkanes is single covalent and that alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
Describe the properties of alkanes as being generally unreactive, except in terms of combustion and
substitution by chlorine
lis
State that in a substitution reaction one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group
of atom.
Describe the substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine as a photochemical reaction, and draw
b
the structural or displayed formulae of the products, limited to mono substitution.
pu

Describe using symbol equations, the preparation of alkanes from the cracking of larger
hydrocarbons,hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes, and reduction of alkyl halides.

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
ab

students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:
nt

Knowledge Skills
14.1 Understanding Organic Molecules 14.1
Identifying and drawing structural formulae for
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Students should learn that organic molecules can be

straight-chained, branched, or cyclic, which affects
their physical and chemical properties.
14.2 Distinguishing Between Saturated and
Unsaturated Compounds
Understand the difference between saturated
compounds, which have all single bonds between
carbon atoms, and unsaturated compounds, which
contain one or more double or triple bonds.
various organic molecules, such as ethene (CH2=CH2),
ethanol (CH3CH2OH), and acetate (CH3COOCH3).
14.2
Differentiating between these compounds through
their structural formulae.

273 Basics of Organic Chemistry

 Knowledge
14.3 Functional Groups and Homologous Series
Students need to know what a functional group is and
how it defines the chemical properties of molecules
within a homologous series, including common
ones like alcohols, aldehydes, and carboxylic
acids.
14.4 Interpreting General Formulae
Skills
14.3
Identifying functional groups in molecules and
relating them to their respective homologous series,
noting the characteristics of homologous series such as
the same functional group, general formula, gradual
change in physical properties, and similar chemical
properties.

om
14.4
Grasping the concept of general formulae for
Applying this knowledge to interpret and write
different homologous series, such as alkanes
the general formulae for compounds within these
(CnH2n+2), alkenes (CnH2n), and alcohols
series.
(CnH2n+1OH).

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14.5
14.5 Structural Isomers
Drawing and recognizing different isomers of a
Understanding that structural isomers are
given molecular formula, such as the isomers of
compounds with the same molecular formula but
butane (C4H10) and butene (C4H8).

he
different structural rangements.
14.6
14.6 Understanding Alkanes
Recognize and identify the single covalent
Alkanes are a type of hydrocarbon that is
bonding pattern in alkanes through the analysis of
saturated, meaning they contain only single
lis
molecular formulas and structural
covalent bonds between carbon atoms. They are
representations.
the simplest type of organic compound.
14.7
14.7 Preparation of Alkanes
b
Describe the typical reactivity of alkanes,
Alkanes can be synthesized through several
particularly focusing on their behavior during
pu

methods, including the cracking of larger

combustion and their reactivity towards chlorine
hydrocarbons (breaking down large molecules
in substitution reactions.
into smaller ones), hydrogenation of alkenes and
14.8
alkynes, and reduction of alkyl halides (replacing
ab

a halide group with hydrogen). Illustrate the mechanism of a substitution reaction

between an alkane and chlorine, using structural
14.8 Properties of Alkanes
or displayed formulas to show mono-substitution
Alkanes are usually unreactive, but they can
products.
nt

undergo combustion and substitution reactions.

Substitution reactions involve replacing one
atom or group with another.
ca

Basics of Organic Chemistry 274


Student Learning Outcomes
Describe organic molecules as either
straight-chained, branched, or cyclic.
State that a structural formula is an
unambiguous description of the way
the atoms in a molecule are arranged,
including CH2= CH2, CH3CH2OH,
CH3COOCH3.
Identify and draw structural formulae
for molecules.
b
pu
ab
nt
ca
Fig 14.1 Living things contain organic
compounds.
275 Basics of Organic Chemistry
14.1 Knowledge
Understanding Organic Molecules
The field of organic chemistry gained momentum after the Vitalism
theory, which stated that organic compounds could only originate
from living organisms, was debunked. This theory also held that only
living beings could create organic compounds through the
intervention of a vital force. Inorganic compounds, on the other hand,
om
were believed to come from non-living sources. However, in 1828, a
German chemist named Friedrich Wohler discovered that an organic
compound called urea - a constituent of urine - could be synthesized
in a laboratory by evaporating an aqueous solution of the inorganic
r.c
compound ammonium cyanate. This discovery marked the
beginning of the evolution of organic chemistry as a scientific
discipline. Since then, chemists have developed a sophisticated
ability to design and synthesize new organic compounds in the
he
laboratory, including medicines, dyes, polymers, and a host of other
substances that are helpful to society.
O
lis
NH4 CNO(aq) H2N C NH2
Ammonium Cyanate Urea
Millions of compounds have been prepared in the laboratory, and
every day a large number of compounds are being synthesized in the
laboratories. These compounds range from simple to complex.
Today, hundreds of compounds are synthesized in laboratories such
as drugs, medicines, flavors, fragrances, fertilizers, plastics, paints,
synthetic fibers, cosmetics, detergents, etc. All these things have
changed our lives.
Organic compounds
There is a separate branch of chemistry called organic chemistry,
which deals with the study of carbon-containing compounds,
excluding oxides of carbon (carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide),
carbonates, bicarbonates, and some metal carbides. A lot of the
compounds that are present in living things are compounds
containing carbon (Figure 14.1). These are known as organic
compounds. Organic compounds are mainly hydrocarbons and their
derivatives. They are so numerous that even though carbon is an
element, millions of its compounds have been discovered.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that only contain hydrogen
and carbon. Organic compounds may also contain other elements
such as nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and chlorine. Today, there are
millions of identified organic compounds, and thousands more are
produced every year.
Unambiguous description of organic compounds
A structural formula provides an unambiguous description of how
H H H H
× ×
atoms in a molecule are arranged. This includes not only the types of C C C C
× ×
atoms present but also how they are bonded together, giving insight H H H H
into the molecule's geometry and structure. For example,
Fig 14.2 The bonding in ethene, the
CH2=CH2 This represents ethene (or ethylene), where two carbon simplest alkene
atoms are double-bonded to each other, and each carbon atom is also
bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The double bond indicates a planar

om
arrangement of atoms. The structural formula of ethene is shown in
Figure 14.2.
CH3CH2OH This is the structural formula for ethanol. It consists of a
chain of two carbon atoms, with the first carbon bonded to three
hydrogen atoms and the second carbon bonded to two hydrogen

r.c
atoms and one hydroxyl group (OH–). This structure illustrates how H H H
the atoms are connected linearly, with the hydroxyl group indicating
the molecule's alcohol functionality, as shown in Figure 14.3
H C C O

he
CH3COOCH3 This represents acetate or acetic acid methyl ester,
commonly known as methyl acetate. It shows two carbon groups: a
methyl group (CH3) and an acetyl group (CH3CO–). The oxygen atom H H
is bonded to the carbon of the methyl group and the carbonyl carbon
lis
of the acetyl group, forming an ester linkage. Fig 14.3 The bonding in ethanol.
Each organic compound can be represented by its molecular,
structural, condensed, or dot and cross formula.
b
Molecular formula
O H
pu

The molecular formula is a formula that represents the actual number

of atoms present in one molecule of an organic compound. For H
instance, the molecular formula of propane is (C3H8), and the H C C
molecular formula of butane is (C4H10). These formulas indicate that C O H
H
ab

propane is composed of three carbon atoms and eight hydrogen

atoms, while butane is made up of four carbon atoms and ten H
hydrogen atoms.
Structural formula Fig 14.4 Methyl acetate
nt

The structural formula of a compound is a representation of the

arrangement of different atoms of various elements around the
ca

carbon atoms present in a molecule of a compound. It shows the

number and types of atoms present in a molecule, as well as the
bonding arrangement between the atoms. In a structural formula, all
bonds are shown with their exact number. A single bond is
represented by a single line (–), a double bond by double lines (=),
and a triple bond by three lines (≡) between the bonded atoms. For
instance, the structural formulae of propane (C3H8) and butane
(C4H10) are shown below.

Basics of Organic Chemistry 276

 H H H H H H H

H C C C H H C C C C H

H H H H H H H

om
Propane n-Butane

Condensed formula
The condensed formula of a molecule is the formula where the

r.c
groups of atoms are shown in order as they appear in the structural
formula with no bonds or dashes.
H
× A true condensed formula can be written on a single line without any

he
branching above or below it. For example, Hexane has six carbon and
H× C × H fourteen hydrogen atoms with a molecular formula of C6H14. The
× condensed formula of hexane is CH3(CH2)4CH3 and the condensed
H formula of heptane is CH3(CH2)5CH3.
lis
Dot and Cross Formula
A structural formula in which electrons are shown as dots and cross
H H H between various atoms in one molecule of a compound are called dot
b
× × × and cross formula or electronic formula. The shared pair of electron
H× C C C ×H
pu

between two atoms represents a covalent bond. For example, in

× × × methane molecule, the four electrons of the carbon are represented by
dots (·) and cross (×) is used to represent the electrons of four
H H H hydrogen atoms. See the dot and cross formula of methane and
ab

propane are given .

Table 14.1 Below is a list of the first ten hydrocarbons with their names, molecular formula, condensed
formula, and structural formula.
nt

Name Molecular Condensed

Structural Formula
Formula Formula
ca

H
Methane CH4 CH4
H C H

H H

Ethane C2H6 H3CCH3 H C C H

H H

277 Basics of Organic Chemistry

 H H H
Propane C3H8 H3CCH2CH3 H C C C H

H H H

H H H H

Butane C4H10 H3C(CH2)2CH3 H C C C C H

om
H H H H

H H H H H

r.c
Pentane C5H12 H3C(CH2)3CH3 H C C C C C H

H H H H H

Hexane C6H14 H3C(CH2)4CH3

he H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
C H
lis
H H H H H H

H H H H H H H
b

Heptane C7H16 H3C(CH2)5CH3 H C C C C C C C H

pu

H H H H H H H

H H H H H H H H
ab

Octane C8H18 H3C(CH2)6CH3 H C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H
nt

H H H H H H H H H
ca

Nonane C9H20 H3C(CH2)7CH3 H C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H

H H H H H H H H H H

Decane C10H22 H3C(CH2)8CH3 H C C C C C C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H H H

Basics of Organic Chemistry 278


Challange
What is the general formula for
alkanes, and how does it differ from
that of alkenes?
Can a hydrocarbon be both aromatic
and aliphatic at the same time?
Explain.
How does the presence of a double
bond in alkenes affect their reactivity
compared to alkanes?
What is the significance of the term
“unsaturated” in the context of
hydrocarbons?
b
pu
ab
Do you Know
The classification of organic compounds
is based on their structural features,
nt
functional groups, and the types of atoms
or groups of atoms present in their
molecules. Here are some important
ca
points for the classification of organic
compounds: for example Hydrocarbons:
These are the simplest organic
compounds, consisting entirely of carbon
and hydrogen.
279 Basics of Organic Chemistry
Basics of Organic Chemistry
Classification of Organic Compounds:
There are two main types of organic compounds based on their
carbon skeleton: open-chain or acyclic organic compounds, and
close-chain or cyclic organic compounds.
Open chain or Acyclic organic compounds
Organic compounds with carbon atoms in open-chain structures may
form long chains. They are further classified as straight-chain or
branched-chain compounds.
om
In straight-chain organic compounds, carbon atoms form linear
chains without any branches. Examples include, n-butane, and n-
pentane etc.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
r.c
n – Butane n – Pentane
The Prefix “n” stands for normal and is used for straight chain organic
compounds.
he
Branched Chain Organic Compounds are a type of alkane where
the carbon atoms are not present in a linear sequence. At least one
carbon atom is linked with more than two other carbon atoms in their
lis
molecules. These compounds are typically named using the prefix
"iso-" with the corresponding alkane name. For example, Isobutane
and Isopentane are two common examples of branched-chain
alkanes.
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH3
Isobutane Isopentane
Close Chain or Cyclic Organic Compounds
Organic compounds can be classified as either open chain or cyclic
based on the arrangement of carbon atoms. In cyclic organic
compounds, carbon atoms form a closed chain or ring structure.
There are two main types of cyclic organic compounds: homocyclic
or carbocyclic organic compounds and heterocyclic organic
compounds.
Organic compounds that have a closed chain or ring structure are
called homocyclic compounds. The ring is composed entirely of
carbon atoms. These compounds are divided into two types: alicyclic
and aromatic organic compounds.
a. Ali-cyclic Organic Compound
These are the organic compounds which are in close chain structure
forming a ring. The ring is composed of only carbon atoms.
These organic compounds resemble in properties to the open chain
organic compounds but differ in their structures and formulae. These
organic compounds differ from open chain organic compounds by CH2 H2C CH2
H2. For example,
b. Aromatic Organic Compound H2C CH2 H2C CH2
The cyclic organic compounds having alternate single and double
Cyclopropane Cyclobutane
bonds in its structure/ carbon ring are known as aromatic organic
compounds The important member of this class is benzene and other
compounds that are derived from benzene. These compounds are

om
called the derivatives of benzene. For example, Naphthalene,
Anthracene etc.

r.c
C
H H
C C

C C
H C H

he
H
Benzene Naphthalene Anthracene
lis
Heterocyclic organic compounds are a type of organic compound
that contains one or more atoms other than carbon, such as sulfur,
oxygen, or nitrogen, in the ring or cycle. Examples of heterocyclic
organic compounds include furan, thiophene, and pyridine, among
b
others.
pu

Skill:14.1
Understanding Organic Molecules
Objective. Identifying and drawing
structural formulae for various organic
ab

molecules, such as ethene (CH2=CH2),

ethanol (CH 3 CH 2 OH), and acetate
S N (CH3COOCH3).
Instructions: An activity-based
nt

Furane Thiophene Pyridine

worksheet is attached to the QR code
Test yourself provided at the beginning of this
What distinguishes a cyclic organic molecule from a straight-chained knowledge section. Scan the code, read
ca

one? the worksheet, and complete it.

How does a structural formula provide a clear representation of a
molecule's composition?
Draw the structural formula for ethanol (CH3CH2OH).
Identify whether CH3COOCH3 represents a straight-chained, branched,
or cyclic molecule.
What type of bond is present in ethene (CH2=CH2)?
Explain the significance of branched molecules in organic chemistry.
Given the formula CH3(CH2)2CH3, name the organic compound.

Basics of Organic Chemistry 280

 14.2 Knowledge
Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds.
Saturated compounds are those in which all the carbon-carbon
bonds are single bonds. In other words, each carbon atom in a
saturated compound is connected to its neighboring carbon atoms by
a single covalent bond. Examples of saturated compounds include
alkanes such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8).
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that follow the general formula

om
+2
Student Learning Outcomes CnH2n.
State that a saturated compound has
molecules in which all carbon- H H H H H H
carbon bonds are single bonds
H C H H C C H H C C C H
State that an unsaturated compound

r.c
has molecules in which one or more H H H H H H
carbon-carbon bonds arenot a single
Methane Ethane Propane
bond.
Unsaturated compounds are molecules that have one or more carbon-

he
carbon bonds that are not single bonds. Instead, they have carbon-
carbon double bonds (C = C). Alkenes are a type of unsaturated
hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n. Because of the
lis
presence of the double bond, C = C, alkenes can make more bonds
with other atoms by breaking the C = C bond and allowing incoming
atoms to form another single bond with each carbon atom of the
b
functional group. This means that each of these carbon atoms now
forms four single bonds instead of one double and two single bonds.
pu

H H H H H
H H H H H H
C=C C=C C C=C C C
H H H H H H H
ab

Ethene Propene But-1-Ene

nt

Test your self

Skill:14.2 What defines a saturated compound's molecular structure?
Distinguishing Between Saturated How are the carbon-carbon bonds characterized in saturated
ca

and Unsaturated Compounds compounds?

Objective. Differentiating between these
compounds through their structural
formulae.
Instructions: An activity based
worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.
Define an unsaturated compound's molecular structure.
What distinguishes an unsaturated compound from a saturated one?
In unsaturated compounds, what may vary in terms of carbon-carbon
bonds?
Explain the difference between saturated and unsaturated compounds
in terms of carbon-carbon bonds.

281 Basics of Organic Chemistry

14.3 Knowledge
Functional Groups and Homologous Series.
A functional group is a group of atoms or a single atom that is
attached with R and is responsible for the specific properties of an
organic compound. In simple terms, we can say that the reactive part
of the molecule that contains other elements is called the functional
group. The bonds within functional groups are usually the site of

om
chemical reactions. Once the functional group of an organic
compound is identified, most of the properties and preparation
methods of that compound can be easily understood. All compounds Student Learning Outcomes
that contain the same functional group have similar properties and Identify a functional group as an
can be classified together in the same homologous series. The atom or group of atoms that

r.c
remaining part of the molecule determines physical properties such determine the chemical properties
as melting point, boiling point, density, etc. ofa homologous series including that
Organic compounds consist of two parts: the hydrocarbon part, for alcohols, aldehydes, ketones,
which is the alkyl group (R), and the functional group part as shown phenols, carboxylic acids,amine,

he
below. esters, and amide.

CH3 OH
lis
Alkyl group. R Functional group
b
pu

Here is a table that shows different functional groups and examples of

each.
ab

Table 14.2 Functional Groups and Example of their Compounds

Functional General Name of the Name of the

Example
Group Formula class compound
nt

-OH R-OH Alcohol CH3-OH Methanol

ca

-CHO R-CHO Aldehyde CH3-CHO Ethanal

-CO- R-CO-R Ketone CH3-CO-CH3 Propanone

-COOH R-COOH Carboxylic acid CH3-COOH Ethanoic acid

-NH2 R-NH2 Amines CH3-NH2 Methyl amine

-X R-X Alkyl halides CH3-CI Methylchloride

Basics of Organic Chemistry 282


Do you Know
There are seven homologous series of the
organic compounds. These are
Functional Groups Containing Carbon, Hydrogen, and
Oxygen.
The functional group of alcohol is ―OH. The general formula of
alcohol is 'R―OH', where the letter 'R' represents the alkyl group in
the organic compounds and 'OH' is the functional group of alcohol‫۔‬
Alkyl group 'R’ Alcohol Name

om
CH3 CH3 OH Methyl alcohol
hydrocarbons, alcohols, carboxylic acids,
carbonyl compounds, alkyl halides, C2H5 C2H5— OH or CH3— CH2— OH Ethyl alcohol
amines and esters.
The functional group of ether is '―O―'. The general formula of ether
is R―O―R, were the letters 'R' represent the alkyl groups in the

r.c
organic compounds and '―O―' is the functional group of ether.

General formulae Ether Name

he
R— O—R H3C—O—CH3 Dimethyl ether

R— O—R C2H5—O—CH3 Ethyl methyl ether

lis
A carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom
double bonded to an oxygen atom, CO. A compound containing a
carbonyl group is often referred to as a carbonyl compound. These
b
compounds given below.
Aldehyde: The functional group for these organic compounds is the
pu

carbonyl carbon. In these organic compounds the functional group is

bonded with hydrogen on one side and Carbon on the other side. For
O example‫۔‬
O
ab

Ketone: The functional group for these organic compounds is the

H C H H3 C C H carbonyl carbon. In these organic compounds the functional group is
bonded with carbon atoms on both sides. For example‫؛‬
Formaldehyde Acetaldehyde
The functional group for carboxylic acids is carboxyl carbon
nt

(COOH), and their general formula is given below.

O
ca

R C OH
where ‘R’ stands for alky group For example,

O O
H C OH H3C C OH
Formic acid Acetic acid

283 Basics of Organic Chemistry

Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen as H3C NH2
functional groups are called amines. The functional group for these
Methylamine
organic compounds is NH group. The general formula is 'R―NH '
where 'R' stands for alky group. R X H3C Cl
Organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and halogens as Alkyl Halide Methylchloride
functional group are called alkyl halides. Their functional group is
halogen, represented by 'X'. Their general formula is 'R―X', where
O
letter 'R' is an alkyl group and 'X' may be F, Cl, Br, or I. For example, OH
The functional group attached to an amide is R-CONH2. The R NH2

om
structure of an amide consists of the C atom of the acyl group
attached to an amino group.
Phenol
The functional group of phenol is a type of aromatic compound that

r.c
contains a hydroxyl group bonded to a benzene ring.
Test your self
What defines the chemical properties of a homologous series?

he
Name one functional group in alcohols.
Skill:14.3
Which functional group is found in both aldehydes and ketones? Functional Groups and Homologous
What functional group characterizes phenols? Series
lis
Identify the functional group present in carboxylic acids. Objective. Identifying functional groups
in molecules and relating them to their
14.4 Knowledge respective homologous series, noting the
b
characteristics of homologous series such
Homologous series as the same functional group, general
formula, gradual change in physical
pu

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon can

form strong covalent bonds with itself, which allows it to form long properties, and similar chemical
chains of carbon atoms, branched chains, or cycles, resulting in an properties.
almost infinite variety of carbon compounds.
ab

Carbon always forms four covalent bonds, which can be single,

double, or triple bonds. A functional group is a specific atom or group
of atoms that impart certain physical and chemical properties to the
molecule. Organic molecules are classified based on the dominant
nt

Student Learning Outcomes

functional group on the molecule. Organic compounds with the same
functional group, but with each successive member differing by Describe the general characteristics of a
homologous series (These can include:
CH2, are referred to as a homologous series. Therefore, some
ca

(a) having the samethe functional group

characteristics of a homologous series are
Each member differs from the previous one by a methylene
(– CH2 –) group.
They have similar chemical properties because they have the
same functional group.
They have similar methods of preparation. Below you're
going to see a whole load of different homologous series,
starting with the most basic of them — alkanes.
(b) having the same general formula (c)
differing from one member to the next by
a –CH2– unit (d) displaying a trend in
physical properties (e) sharing similar
chemical properties) Interpret general
formulae of compounds in the same
homologous series including alkanes,
alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, and carboxylic
acids.

Basics of Organic Chemistry 284

 Alkanes
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2. Their names all end in -
ane, and the stem of the name depends on how many carbon atoms
there are in the chain
Naming alkanes is covered in the next chapter. They've only got
carbon and hydrogen atoms, so they're hydrocarbons. Every carbon
atom in an alkane has four single bonds with other atoms.
Carbon can't make more than four bonds, so alkanes are saturated.

om
Some examples of this series is given below.

H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H

r.c
H H H H H H
Methane Ethane Propane

Alkene

he
An alkene is a hydrocarbon with a carbon-carbon double bond. They
H H
H H H H have the general formula CnH2n. The carbons on either end of the
C=C C=C C double bond are only bonded to three atoms each, rather than the
H H
lis
H H maximum of four. This means that they could form another bond, so
Ethane Propane they are unsaturated. This makes alkenes fairly reactive. Some
examples of this series is given below.
b
Alkyne
An alkyne is a hydrocarbon that contains a carbon-carbon triple
pu

bond. Its general formula is CnH2n-2. The carbons on either end of

the triple bond are only bonded to three atoms each instead of the
maximum of four. As a result, they have the potential to form another
bond and are thus unsaturated. This also means that alkynes are less
ab

reactive than alkenes. some examples of this series is given below.

H
nt

H C C H H C C C H

H
ca

Ethyne Propyne

H H H H H Alcohols
H H H
C OH C=C C C Alcohols are organic molecules that contain the –OH, or hydroxyl,
H H H OH H
functional group. They have the suffix -ol, and the general formula
CnH2n+1OH. Alcohols can be reacted to give alkenes, and vice
Methanol Butan-2-ol
versa.

285 Basics of Organic Chemistry

Carboxylic.
O
Carboxylic acids all contain the carboxyl functional group: Its suffix
H C OH
is -oic acid. The general formula is written R–COOH, where R is an
alkyl group Methanoic acid
General formulas can be used to determine the formula of a
compound from various homologous series if the number of carbon
atoms present is known. Here is a table of some common H H O
homologous series formulas. H C C C OH

om
H CH3
Homologous Series General Formula 2-methylpropanoic acid
Alkanes CnH2n+2

CnH2n

r.c
Alkenes

Alcohols CnH2n+1OH

Carboxylic Acid CnH2n+1COOH

Skill:14.4
Test your self

he
What defines the chemical reactivity of compounds within a
homologous series?
Interpreting General Formulae
Objective. Identifying functional groups
in molecules and relating them to their
lis
respective homologous series, noting the
How can the general formula of a homologous series be used to predict
characteristics of homologous series such
the molecular formula of its members?
as the same functional group, general
What incremental structural unit differentiates successive members of
b
formula, gradual change in physical
a homologous series? properties, and similar chemical
properties.
pu

How do physical properties change as one moves through a

homologous series? Instructions: An activity based
Why do all members of a homologous series exhibit similar chemical worksheet is attached in the given QR
properties? code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.
ab

14.5 Knowledge
Structural Isomers.
nt

Isomerism is a property of two or more compounds with the same

molecular formula but different structural formulae due to different
arrangements of atoms.
ca

Structural isomers of C4H10 Student Learning Outcomes

Structural isomers have the same molecular formula, but a different Define structural isomers as compounds
structural formula (i.e. the atoms are connected in different ways). with the same molecular formula, but
There are three types of structural isomers — chain isomers, position different Structural formulae, including
C4H10 as CH3CH2CH2CH3 and
isomers, and functional group isomers.
CH3CH(CH3)CH3 and C4H8 as
For instance, there exist two compounds having the molecular CH3CH2CH=CH2 and CH3CH=CHCH3.
formula C4H10. The two isomer shows their names, physical
characteristics, and structural and displayed formulas.

Basics of Organic Chemistry 286

 H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H Melting point
CH3CH(CH3)CH3 – 138oC
Boiling point
a Butane –1oC

H H H

om
H C C C H
H H

r.c
H C H Melting point
– 159oC
H

he
Boiling point
– 12 oC
CH3CH(CH3)CH3
b 2 - Methylpropane
lis
Isomers are substances that have the same molecular formula but
different structural and displayed formulae. The compounds shown
above are known as structural isomers since they have the same
b
molecular formula, C4H10, but different structural and displayed
formulae. For instance, Butane has the structural formula
pu

CH3CH2CH2CH3, whereas 2-methylpropane has the structural

formula CH3CH(CH3)CH3. The brackets show the formula of the
branch. It is important to note that the different structures of the
compounds have different melting and boiling points. Molecule b,
ab

which contains a branched chain, has a lower melting point than

molecule a, which has no branched chain. All alkane molecules with
four or more carbon atoms have isomers.
nt

Structural isomers of C4H8.

H H he formula C4H8 represents hydrocarbons that can exhibit different
structural isomers due to the arrangement of their carbon atoms.
ca

C C Structural isomers have the same molecular formula but differ in the
placement of their atoms and/or the arrangement of their bonds.

H H2 C C H3 In 1-butene, the double bond is between the first and second carbon
atoms. The structural formula can be represented as CH2=CH-CH2-
CH3.

287 Basics of Organic Chemistry

Physical Properties: 1-butene is a colorless gas at room temperature
and pressure. It has a relatively low boiling point and is less dense
than water. Its boiling point is around -6.3°C (20.7°F). The end
position of the double bond affects its reactivity and physical
properties, making it slightly different in chemical behavior from its
isomers.
2-Butene has a double bond between the second and third carbon
atoms. There are two geometric (cis and trans) forms due to the
restricted rotation around the double bond. The structural formula for
trans-2-butene is CH3-CH=CH-CH3, and for cis-2-butene, the two
CH3 groups are on the same side of the double bond.
Physical Properties: 2-butene also exists as a colorless gas. Its
boiling point is slightly higher than that of 1-butene, at about 0.9°C
(33.6°F) for the trans isomer and 3.7°C (38.7°F) for the cis isomer.
The differences in boiling points between the cis and trans isomers
are due to the different spatial arrangements of the methyl groups
relative to the double bond.
Test your self
What are structural isomers?
he
lis
How do butane and isobutane exemplify structural isomerism?
What differentiates 1-butene from 2-butene?
Why do structural isomers have different chemical and physical
b
properties?
Can the position of a double bond in a molecule change its identity?
pu
Provide examples from C4H8 isomers.
What is the significance of the molecular formula in determining
isomerism?
ab
14.6 Knowledge
Understanding Alkanes.
Hydrocarbons are the simplest type of organic compounds.
nt
Hydrocarbons are composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms
and are widely used as fuels. Diesel, Gasoline, natural gas, and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) are common examples of
ca
hydrocarbons. As they contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms,
therefore hydrocarbons are non-polar covalently bonded
compounds. Scientists classify hydrocarbons as saturated
hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Saturated
hydrocarbons are called alkanes and unsaturated hydrocarbons are
alkenes and alkynes. In this unit, you will study the names, structures
and types of organic reactions of hydrocarbon.
Do you Know?
Cis Isomer: Imagine you have a pair of
shoes on the floor. If both shoes (let's say
they are identical slippers) are on the
same side of an imaginary line (or facing
the same direction), they represent the
"cis" isomer. In chemistry, "cis" means
"on the same side." So, in a cis isomer,
important parts of the molecule (like two
om
hydrogen atoms) are on the same side of
the double bond.
·Trans Isomer: Using the same pair of
shoes, if one shoe is on one side of the line
and the other shoe is on the opposite side,
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they represent the "trans" isomer. "Trans"
means "across" or "on the opposite side."
So, in a trans isomer, those important
parts of the molecule are on opposite
sides of the double bond.
Skill:14.5
Structural Isomers
Objective: Drawing and recognizing
different isomers of a given molecular
formula, such as the isomers of butane
(C4H10) and butene (C4H8).
Instructions: An activity based
worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.
Student Learning Outcomes
State that the bonding in alkanes is single
covalent and that alkanes are saturated
hydrocarbons.
Basics of Organic Chemistry 288

Fig 14.3 Hydrocarbon used as fuel.
Alkanes
An alkane is a hydrocarbon that has only single bonds, also known
as saturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes that do not contain rings have
the general formula CnH2n+ 2, where “n” is the number of carbon
atoms.
Therefore, they are saturated hydrocarbons. These compounds are
less reactive and also called paraffins (para means little and affins
means affinity).

om
Alkanes form a series of compounds, known as homologous
series. Some of their group members and their structures of first
Do you Know?
five alkanes are shown in the table.
If you have traveled in a bus or car, you
have used hydrocarbons. The diesel and
Table 14.3 Molecular and condensed, formula of first five

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gasoline that are used in buses, trucks,
Alkanes
and cars as fuels are hydrocarbons.
Besides this, the gas, which you use in
your homes for cooking is also a Molecular Condensed
Name

he
hydrocarbon. formula formula

Methanol CH4 CH4

lis
Ethanal C2H6 CH3 CH3

Propane C2H8 CH3 CH2 CH3

b
Butane C2H10 CH3 CH2)2CH3
pu

Pentane C2H12 CH3 CH2)3CH3

ab

Structural formula of Alkanes up to Five Carbons

H H H H H H
nt

H C H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
ca

Methane Ethane Propane

H H H H H H H H H
H C C C C H H C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H
Butane Pentane

289 Basics of Organic Chemistry

 Electron Cross and Dot Structures of Alkanes up to Five Carbons
H H H H H H
× × × × × ×
H× C × H H× C C ×H H× C C C ×H
× × × × × ×
H H H H H H
Methane Ethane Propane

om
H H H H H H H H H
× × × × × × × × ×
H× C C C C ×H H× C C C C C ×H
× × × × × × × × ×

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H H H H H H H H H
Butane Pentane

Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

he
The naming of organic compounds before 1947 was based on the
common system. As organic chemistry grew and developed, the
scientists formed a committee called the International Union of
lis
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) to establish an international
standard of naming compounds to facilitate communication. The
function of this committee is to suggest a systematic method of
b
naming organic compounds. IUPAC system of nomenclature is of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) to establish an international
pu

standard of naming compounds to facilitate communication. The

function of this committee is to suggest a systematic method of
naming organic compounds. IUPAC's system of nomenclature is
based on the principle. “Each different compound should have a
ab

different name”. This committee formed some rules. These rules for
naming alkanes are given below.

Rules for naming alkane

nt

1. Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms, having the

maximum branches (substituents). This chain is called parent chain.
ca

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CH3 –– CH2 –– CH2 –– CH2 –– CH2 ––CH2 –– CH3

2. Number the carbons of the parent chain from the end that gives the
substituents the lowest numbers.
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 –– CH –– CH2 –– CH2 –– CH3

CH3

Basics of Organic Chemistry 290

 CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 –– CH2 –– CH –– CH –– CH2 –– CH3

CH3
3. The parent name of alkane is derived from the common system, to
the selected chain.
1 2 3 4 5
CH3 –– CH2 –– CH2 –– CH2 –– CH3

om
Pentane
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CH3 –– CH2 –– CH2 –– CH2 –– CH2 ––CH2 –– CH3
Heptane

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4. The parent name is placed last and the substituent (branch) is
preceded by the number showing its location on the chain.
1 2 3 4
CH3 CH CH2 CH3

he
Branch (Substituent) CH3
2-methylbutane
6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH CH3
lis
CH3
2-methylhexane Branch
Challange
b
(Substituent)
CH3 CH CH3
1. Provide the IUPAC name for the 3 2 1
CH
pu

following compound:
a. CH3CH2C(CH3)2CH(CH3)CH2CH3.
b. CH3CH2CH2C(CH3)2CH(CH3)CH2CH3.
c. CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH3.
ab
2-methylpropane
5. When two or more branches (substituents) are present, give each
substituent a number corresponding to its location on the longest

2. Provide the IUPAC name for the chain. 1 2 3 4 5 6

following compound: CH CH CH2 CH CH2 CH3
a. C12H26 b. C10H24 CH3 CH3
nt

2,4-dimethylhexane
c. C13H28 d. C14H30
6 5 4 3 2 1
3. Draw and name alkane that has a total of
CH3 CH CH2 CH CH CH3
4 carbon atom and 7 carbon atom.
ca

CH3 CH3 CH3

2,3,5-trimethylhexane
6. When two branches (substituents) are present on the same carbon
atom, use the number of that carbon twice.
CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 C CH2 CH2 CH CH3
CH3 CH3
2,2,5-trimethylhexane
291 Basics of Organic Chemistry
 CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 C CH2 CH CH2 CH3
CH3 CH3
2,2,4-trimethylhexane
7. If the same substituent occurs more than once, the location of each
point on which substituent occurs is given. In addition, the number of
times the substituent group occurs is indicated by prefix (di, tri, tetra,

om
etc.). A comma is used to separate position numbers.

CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 C CH2 CH2 CH CH3
CH3 Test your self

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2,2-dimethylhexane What type of bonding is found in
alkanes?
CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6 Are alkanes considered saturated or
CH3 C CH2 CH CH 2 CH3

he
unsaturated hydrocarbons?
CH 3 CH3 Why alkanes are called saturated
2,2,4-trimethylhexane hydrocarbons?
How does the single covalent bonding
lis
8. When two or more branches (substituents) are not identical then
in alkanes affect their chemical
they are arranged alphabetically. Such as ethyl before methyl etc. reactivity?
CH3
b
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH2 CH3
pu

CH2
CH3
3-ethyl-4-methylhexane
ab

CH2 CH3
CH3 CH CH CH2 CH2 CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 Skill:14.6
nt

3-ethyl-2-methylhexane Understanding Alkanes

Objective. Recognize and identify the
9. When there are two chains of equal length (same number of
single covalent bonding pattern in
carbons), choose the one with the greater number of branches
ca

alkanes through the analysis of molecular

(substituents) as the parent. formulas and structural representations.
CH3 CH3 Instructions: An activity based
8 7 6 5 4 3 worksheet is attached in the given QR
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH CH CH CH2 CH3 code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
2 CH CH3 and solve it.
1 CH3
3-ethyl-2,4,5-trimethyloctane

Basics of Organic Chemistry 292

 14.7 Knowledge
Preparation of Alkanes.
Alkanes and cycloalkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Their
methods of preparation and chemical properties are similar. These
can be prepared by addition reaction from alkenes and alkynes and by
reduction reaction from alkyl halides.
Addition reaction
The reaction in which an atom or group of atoms are added to a

Student Learning Outcomes
Describe, using symbol equations, the
preparation of alkanes from the
cracking of larger hydrocarbons,
om
compound that has a double or triple bond is called an addition
reaction. Unsaturated compounds (alkenes or alkynes) are associated
with addition reactions.
1. Hydrogenation of Alkenes and Alkynes

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hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes,
Hydrogenation means the addition of hydrogen to alkene or alkyne.
and reduction of alkyl halides.
In a hydrogenation reaction, the unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkene
or alkynes) are converted into saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes).
This reaction takes place in the presence of nickel as a catalyst at

he
250–300°C temperature or in the presence of platinum (Pt) as a
catalyst at room temperature.
Hydrogenation of Alkenes
lis
Alkenes are hydrogenated to alkanes in the presence of nickel (Ni)
catalyst at 250–300°C temperature.
Challange
b

1. Prepare n-propane from propene and Ni

H2 C CH2 + H H H3 C CH3
pu

also give symbolic equation. 250 – 300 °C

2. Write down the application of Ethene Ethane
hydrogenation of alkenes.
3. How will you convert ethyne into Hydrogenation of Alkynes
ab

ethane and propyne into propane.

4. Write down the condition of
hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes.
nt
Alkynes are hydrogenated to alkenes in the presence of nickel (Ni) as
a catalyst at 250–300°C temperature in first step and in second step,
alkene is further hydrogenated and converted into alkanes.

i.

Ni
HC CH + H H H2C CH2
ca

250 – 300°C
Ethene
Ethyne

ii.
Ni
H2 C CH2 + H H H3 C CH3
250 – 300°C
Ethene
Ethane

293 Basics of Organic Chemistry

Reduction of alkyl halides
Update Yourself
Reduction of alkyl halides Reduction means addition of (nascent)
Nascent Hydrogen
hydrogen. It is the removal of halogen such as (F2,Cl2, Br2, or I2) with
Nascent means 'Newly born'. The
the addition of hydrogen. This reaction occurs in the presence of zinc
hydrogen at the time of its generation is
(Zn) dust and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Methyl iodide gives methane called nascent hydrogen. In other words,
and hydrogen iodide (HI) on reduction. we can say that the atomic hydrogen,
Zn/HCl which is more reactive than the ordinary
R – X + 2[H] Cl – CH2 – Cl + Cl Hydrogen at the time of ts preparation is
called the nascent hydrogen. Nascent

om
CH3 – I + 2[H] Zn/HCl Cl – CH2 – Cl + Cl Hydrogen.
Methyl iodine Methyl iodine

Similarly, ethyl bromine on reduction gives ethane and

hydrogen bromine (Hbr)

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CH3 –CH2 – Br + 2[H] Zn/HCl CH3 – CH2 – H + H – Br
Ethyl bromine Ethane

he
From cracking.
the preparation of alkanes through the process of cracking larger
hydrocarbons involves breaking down larger hydrocarbon molecules
lis
into smaller, more useful molecules, including alkanes. This process
is generally achieved through thermal cracking.
Thermal Cracking:
b
This process involves the breaking of large hydrocarbon molecules
into smaller ones by heating them at high temperatures, typically
pu

between 450°C and 750°C, without the presence of a catalyst. The

general equation for thermal cracking can be represented as follows:
Large Hydrocarbon→Smaller Alkane+Smaller Alkene `For
example, if we consider the cracking of decane (a larger
ab

hydrocarbon), the equation might look like this:

C10H22 C8H18 C 2H 4
nt

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C C C C H H C C C C C C C C H C C
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
ca

longer alkanes shorter alkanes alkenes

(used as fuels) (used to make
many useful
Physical Properties of Alkanes substances
including polymers)
The first four alkane members i.e. methane, ethane, propane, and
butane are gases. The next thirteen members are colorless liquids
while the highermembers of the series are solids.
They are non-polar, so they are insoluble in water but soluble in
non-polar organic solvents like benzene, ether, acetone, etc.

Basics of Organic Chemistry 294


Skill:14.7
Preparation of Alkanes
Objective: Formulate symbol equations
to represent the chemical processes
involved in the preparation of alkanes
from larger hydrocarbons, alkenes,
alkynes, and alkyl halides.
Instructions: An activity based
worksheet is attached in the given QR
code. Scan the code, read the worksheet
and solve it.
b
pu
Student Learning Outcomes
ab
Describe the properties of alkanes as
being generally unreactive, except in
terms of combustion and substitution
by chlorine
nt
State that in a substitution reaction
one atom or group of atoms is
replaced by another atom or group of
ca
atoms.
Describe the substitution reaction of
alkanes with chlorine as a
photochemical reaction, and draw the
structural or displayed formulae of
the products, limited to mono
substitution.
295 Basics of Organic Chemistry
They have low melting and boiling points. The melting and
boiling points of alkanes increase regularly in the series with an
increase in molecular sizes.
The density of alkanes increases regularly in the series with an
increase in molecular mass.
Alkanes become more viscous as their molecular sizes increase.
Alkanes are flammable. As the sizes of the alkane molecules
increase, the percentage of carbon in the alkane molecules also
om
increases. As a result, alkanes become less flammable.
Test your self
What is the process called that breaks larger hydrocarbon molecules into
smaller ones, including alkanes?
r.c
How does hydrogenation change alkenes or alkynes into alkanes?
Can you write a simple symbol equation showing the reduction of an
alkyl halide to form an alkane?
What role does hydrogen play in the conversion of alkenes and alkynes
he
into alkanes?
14.8 Knowledge
lis
Reactivity of Alkanes.
Relative Stability and Reactivity
The carbon atoms in alkanes are fully saturated due to which
alkanes are quite inert. Moreover, due to comparable
electronegativities of carbon and hydrogen the electrons in the
bonds are practically shared equally between them, and the bond is
almost nonpolar. Consequently, polar reagents do not react with
alkanes under normal conditions. Furthermore, the and bonds are
strong bonds and hence alkanes are relatively stable to common
reagents such as acids, alkalies and oxidizing agents at room
temperature. That is why they are also called paraffins (latin
Parum = Little, affine = affinity or reactivity.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, consisting of only
carbon–carbon single (C–C) bonds and carbon–hydrogen (C–H)
bonds. These bonds are strong and are difficult to break. Thus,
alkanes are generally unreactive. Important reactions of alkanes
are the following;
1. Halogenation
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, so they mostly undergo
substitution reactions. The substitution of hydrogen by halogen
such as chlorine and bromine in alkanes is called halogenation.
Alkanes react with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet(UV)
light and produce alkyl halide and hydrogen halide. For example,
methane reacts with chlorine in diffused sunlight and produces
methyl chloride.

UV light Do you Know?

H3C – H + Cl – Cl H3C – Cl + H – Cl
Substitution Reaction
Methane Methyl chloride A substitution reaction is a reaction in
(Chloromethane) which, an atom (hydrogen atom) or a
functional group (X, OH etc) is replaced
In excess of chlorine, this reaction does not stop at this stage. In a

om
by a different functional group.
series of reactions, in each step one hydrogen atom is replaced by
chlorine atom, so that all the three hydrogen atoms are replaced by
chlorine atoms one by one, to give di, tri and tetra-chloromethane
respectively.

Cl – CH2 – H + Cl – Cl
Methyl chloride
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UV light
Cl – CH2 – Cl + Cl
Methylene chloride
(Dichloromethane)

Cl – CH – H + Cl – Cl UV light
he
Cl – CH – Cl + Cl
–

lis –

Cl Cl
Methylene chloride Methyl chloride
b
(Trichloromethane)

Cl
pu

Cl
–

Cl – CH – H + Cl – Cl sunlight
Cl – CH – Cl + HCl
–

–
ab

Cl Cl
Trichloromethane Methyl chloride
(Tetrachloromethane)
Activity
nt

Combustion reaction is a class of chemical reactions, which is Making models of first five alkanes and
commonly referred as burning. Alkanes burn completely in the alkenes
presence of excess air (oxygen) to produce a lot of heat, carbon For making models of alkanes and alkenes
ca

dioxide (CO), and water (H2O) only. This reaction is highly
exothermic and due to2this, alkanes are used as fuel.
complete combustion
CH4 + 2O2 CH2 + 2H2O + heat
In a limited supply of oxygen, incomplete combustion of alkanes
takes place, which produces poisonous gas carbon monoxide (CO),
water, and unburnt carbon. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas,
which creates suffocation and causes death.
use low cost things such as Styrofoam
(packing
material) or plastic beads or small plastic
balls. Use different colours to represent
carbon and hydrogen. Present your model in
the class by showing the single bond
between carbon atoms and double bond
between carbon atoms.

Basics of Organic Chemistry 296

 incomplete combustion
3CH4 + 4O2 2CH + 6H2O + C

Skill:14.8
Test your self
Properties of Alkanes
What does it mean when we say alkanes are generally unreactive?
Objective: Illustrate the mechanism of
a substitution reaction between an Can you list two types of reactions where alkanes do react?
alkane and chlorine, using structural or What happens in a substitution reaction?
displayed formulas to show mono-

om
What is meant by 'photochemical reaction' in the context of alkanes
substitution products. reacting with chlorine.
Why do alkanes only undergo mono-substitution in the reaction with
chlorine under photochemical conditions?
Why are alkanes considered to be relatively unreactive compared to

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other hydrocarbons?
Describe a condition under which alkanes can undergo combustion
reactions.
How does the presence of halogens influence the reactivity of alkanes in

he
halogenation reactions?
Explain the significance of the C-H bond strength in determining the
reactivity of alkanes.
lis
What role does radical initiation play in the mechanism of alkane
halogenation?
b

Classified as straight-chained, branched, or cyclic.

pu

Unambiguous description of atom arrangement in molecules, e.g., CH2= CH2, CH3CH2OH,

Skill in identifying and drawing structural formulae for molecules.
Saturated compounds have all single bonds; unsaturated compounds have one or more non-single bonds.
ab

Atoms or groups of atoms defining the chemical properties of a homologous series (e.g., alcohols, aldehydes).
Same functional group, general formula, differing by –CH2– units, showing trends in physical and similar chemical
properties.
For homologous series like alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids.
nt

Same molecular formula, different structural formulae, e.g., isomers of C4H10 and C4H8.
Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons with single covalent bonds, generally unreactive except for combustion and
substitution reactions.
ca

One atom/group replaced by another, exemplified by alkanes reacting with chlorine in a photochemical reaction.
Describe substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine, limited to mono substitution.
Through cracking of larger hydrocarbons, hydrogenation of alkenes/alkynes, and reduction of alkyl halides.

297 Basics of Organic Chemistry

 Exercise

A Encircle the most suitable answer.

1 Which of the following is an example of a straight-chained hydrocarbon?
A detailed summary, chapter
a) Cyclohexane b) 2-methylpropane roadmap, multiple projects,
and extensive exercises are
c) Butane d) Benzene accessible via QR code.

2 The structural formula CH3CH2OH represents which type of organic compound?

a) Alkane b) Alkene c) Alcohol d) Aldehyde

om
3 Saturated hydrocarbon is characterized by:
a) Single covalent bonds between carbon atoms b) Double covalent bonds between carbon atoms
c) Triple covalent bonds between carbon atoms d) A ring structure
4 Which functional group is present in carboxylic acids?

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a) -OH b) -CHO c) -COOH d) -NH2
5 The general formula for alkanes is:
a) CnH2n+2 b) CnH2n c) CnH2n-2 d) CnHn
6 Structural isomers have:

he
a) The same molecular formula and different structural formulae
b) Different molecular formulas and the same structural formulae
c) The same molecular and structural formulae
lis
d) Different molecular and structural formulae
7 Alkanes are generally:
a) Reactive b) Unreactive c) Acidic d) Basic
b
8 In a substitution reaction involving alkanes and chlorine, the product of monosubstitution is:
a) An alkene b) An alkyl chloride c) An alcohol d) An aldehyde
pu

9 The preparation of alkanes from alkenes involves:

a) Oxidation b) Dehydration c) Hydrogenation d) Halogenation
ab

B Answer the following question briefly.

1 Define a homologous series in organic chemistry.
2 What is the structural formula of ethene (ethylene)?
nt

3 How do alkenes differ from alkanes in terms of bonding?

4 What is the significance of functional groups in organic compounds?
5 How can structural isomers be distinguished from each other?
ca

6 What is the role of light in the substitution reaction of alkanes with chlorine?
7 Describe the process of hydrogenation of alkenes.
8 How does the physical state of alkanes change with increasing molecular weight?
9 What is the general formula for alkynes?
10 What are the products of the complete combustion of alkanes?
11 Explain the concept of a photochemical reaction with an example.
12 Discuss the importance of cracking in the petroleum industry.

Basics of Organic Chemistry 298

C Long questions
1 Describe the structure and properties of organic molecules, including straight-chained, branched, and cyclic
forms.
2 Explain the concept of structural isomers and provide examples of isomers for a given molecular formula.
3 Discuss the properties and reactions of alkanes, including their reactivity and the substitution reaction with
chlorine.
4 Describe the preparation of alkanes using methods such as the cracking of larger hydrocarbons, hydrogenation

om
of alkenes and alkynes, and reduction of alkyl halides.
5 Explain the significance of functional groups in determining the chemical properties of organic compounds and
provide examples of common functional groups.
6 Describe the characteristics of a homologous series and explain how the members of a series are related to each

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other.
7 Discuss the importance of structural formulae in organic chemistry and how they provide information about the
arrangement of atoms in a molecule.

D Reason-Assertion type questions

he
In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R).
Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions given below:
lis
a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A
b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
c) If A is correct and R is wrong
b
d) If A is wrong and R is correct
1. Assertion (A): Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is an alcohol.
pu

Reason (R): It contains a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group.

2. Assertion (A): Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Reason (R): They contain at least one double bond between carbon atoms.
ab

3. Assertion (A): The homologous series of alcohols has the general formula CnH2n+1OH. Reason
Reason (R): Each alcohol in the series differs from the next by a -CH2- unit.
4. Assertion (A): Cyclohexane is a cyclic hydrocarbon.
Reason (R): It has a ring structure composed of six carbon atoms.
nt

5. Assertion (A): The reaction of alkanes with chlorine in the presence of light is a substitution reaction.
Reason (R): One hydrogen atom in the alkane is replaced by a chlorine atom.
ca

6. Assertion (A): The cracking of larger hydrocarbons produces smaller hydrocarbons.

Reason (R): It breaks the carbon-carbon bonds in the larger hydrocarbon molecules.

299 Basics of Organic Chemistry

CHAPTER

15 Biochemistry

om
r.c
he
lis
Biochemistry is essential in modern medicine for
understanding disease mechanisms, developing
b
targeted therapies, and creating diagnostic tools. It
also aids in drug discovery and the advancement of
pu

genetic engineering for treating genetic disorders.

ab
nt

Imagine your body as a car. Just as a car needs fuel to run, our bodies need
food to function. However, it is not just about any food but the right kind of
ca

food. That is where nutrition comes in. Nutrition focuses on how organisms
obtain and utilize nutrientsfrom their environment. The nutrients
consumed, whether carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, or minerals,
undergo various biochemical reactions to provide energy, maintain cellular
structures, and facilitate growth and repair. Making good food choices
helps our bodies perform at their best and keeps us healthy and strong. As
we continue to learn more about nutrition, we will discover how each food
choice can shape our health and well-being.

Biochemistry 300
 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Explain the importance and basics of nutrition and healthy eating
Recognize the main biomolecules; carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. their sources, along
with the required daily intake for young adults.
Identify carbohydrates as a source of energy

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.

om
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:

Knowledge Skills

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15.1: Foundations of Nutrition: Pathways to 15.1
a Healthier Life Conduct basic nutritional assessments, including
Understand the essential nutrients required by the evaluating dietary intake and identifying potential
human body, including macronutrients deficiencies or excesses.

(carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
15.2: The Role of Biomolecules in Human
Nutrition
lis
It is important to have knowledge about the four
main biomolecules, which are carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids (fats), and nucleic acids. One should
b
be aware of their sources in the diet.
It is necessary to know the recommended daily
pu
he
15.2
Recognize and categorize carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids based on their chemical
structures and dietary sources.
Ability to calculate and apply recommended daily
intake values for carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids to create balanced dietary plans for
young adults.

intake or dietary guidelines for young adults in

terms of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic
acids.
Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy in the
ab

human diet. One should understand their role in

providing fuel for bodily functions and physical
activities.
nt
ca

301 Biochemistry
15.1 Knowledge
Foundations of Nutrition: Pathways to a
Healthier Life
The main nutrients that our body needs are carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates provide energy
and are present in foods like grains, fruits, vegetables, and dairy
products. Proteins, found in meat, eggs, beans, nuts, and seeds, help Student Learning Outcomes
in growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues, organs, and muscles. Explain the importance and basicsof

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Fats are a source of energy and aid in vitamin and hormone nutrition and healthy eating
absorption, present in oils, butter, cheese, nuts, and seeds. Vitamins,
available in fruits, vegetables, and dairy products, regulate various
functions like immunity, metabolism, and vision. Minerals, such as

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those found in meat, fish, dairy products, and salt, help in maintaining
the structure and function of our bones, teeth, nerves, and muscles.
Water, present in fruits, vegetables, and beverages, is essential for
life, helping in nutrient and waste transportation, body temperature

he
regulation, and hydration. Healthy eating habits involve choosing
nutrient-dense foods like fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains,
lean meats, and low-fat dairy products.
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Balancing the amount and variety of foods we eat, following
recommended servings and portions for each food group, is also
important. Limiting added sugars, saturated fats, and salt intake can Do you Know
b
prevent negative health effects such as weight gain, high blood What is nutrition and why is it
pressure, and high cholesterol. Drinking enough water is necessary to important?
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prevent dehydration, headaches, and fatigue. Nutrition is the science of how food
affects our body and health.
Healthy eating habits are influenced by our age, activity level,
Nutrition is important because it provides
allergies, preferences, and cultural backgrounds. To learn more about the energy and nutrients we need to grow,
nutrition and healthy eating, we can read reliable sources of
ab

develop, and perform various functions.

information based on scientific evidence and expert advice. We can Good nutrition can also prevent or reduce
also talk to parents, teachers, doctors, or dietitians for personalized the risk of many diseases, such as obesity,
guidance and support. Trying new foods, recipes, and cuisines can diabetes, heart disease, and some cancers.
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broaden our knowledge and taste buds. Participating in cooking,

gardening, or sports activities can enhance our skills and enjoyment Skill:15.1
of food and physical activity. Foundations of Nutrition: Pathways
to a Healthier Life
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Test yourself Objective: Conducting basic nutritional

Why is nutrition important for maintaining a healthy lifestyle? assessments, including evaluating
What are the four main biomolecules essential for human health? dietary intake and identifying potential
deficiencies or excesses.
Where can we find proteins and lipids in our diet?
Instructions: An activity-based
How much carbohydrates should a young adult consume daily?
worksheet is attached to the QR code
Why are carbohydrates considered a primary source of energy? provided at the beginning of this
What role do nucleic acids play in our body, and can they be found knowledge section. Scan the code, read
in our diet? the worksheet, and complete it.

Biochemistry 302

Student Learning Outcomes
Recognize the main biomolecules;
15.2 Knowledge
The Role of Biomolecules in Human Nutrition
Biomolecules are organic compounds that are crucial for sustaining
life. They are composed of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
nucleic acids, each having a distinct role and structure in the human
body. In this material, we will delve into the main biomolecules, their
sources, and the recommended daily intake for young adults.

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
nucleic acids. their sources, along
with the required daily intake for
young adults.
Identify carbohydrates as a source of
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are crucial nutrients that provide energy to the body.
They are fast-acting and quickly turn into energy as soon as they are
consumed. The body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose,
which is the primary energy source for the brain and muscles.

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energy.
There are three types of carbohydrates:
• monosaccharides disaccharides
Aldehyde • polysaccharides

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H O CH2 OH Monosaccharides
C Simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides. A monosaccharide
Ketone C O
cannot be split into smaller carbohydrates. A monosaccharide has a
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H C OH chain of three to seven carbon atoms, one in a carbonyl group and all
H C OH
the others are attached to hydroxyl groups (-OH). In an aldose, the
H C OH
carbonyl group is on the first carbon ( -CHO); a ketose contains the
CH2 OH
b
carbonyl group on the second carbon atom as a ketone.
CH2 OH Erythrulose,
Monosaccharides are also classified by the number of carbon atoms.
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a ketose
Erythrose,
A monosaccharide with three carbon atoms is a triose, one with four
an aldose
carbon atoms is a tetrose; a pentose has five carbons, and a hexose
Fig 15.1 Open change structure contains six carbons. We can use both classification systems to
of glucose
indicate the aldehyde or ketone group and the (C = 0) number of
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carbon atoms. An aldopentose is a five-carbon monosaccharide that

Challange is an aldehyde; a ketohexose is a six-carbon monosaccharide that is a
Why is ribulose classified as a ketopentose ketone.
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and glucose as an aldohexose? CH2 OH

H O
H O
C C C O
H O
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CH2 OH H OH OH H
H C OH C C C
H O
C O OH H OH H H OH H OH
C C C C C
H OH
C
H C OH
H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH
H C OH
H C OH
CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH
CH2 OH CH2 OH Glyceraldehyde Threose Ribose Fructose
(aldotriose) (aldotetrose) (aldopentose) (ketohexose)
Ribulose Glucose
Fig 15.2

303 Biochemistry
Glucose a s energy source
Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most important simple carbohydrate in
metabolism. In a series of reactions called photosynthesis, energy
from the Sun is used to combine the carbon atoms from carbon
dioxide (CO2) and the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of water (H2O) to
form glucose.
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
Respiration
Glucose

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Glucose is converted into energy through a process called respiration
that occurs in the body. During this process, carbon dioxide and water
are produced and released back into the atmosphere. The
combination of photosynthesis and respiration is known as the

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carbon cycle. In this cycle, energy from the Sun is stored in plants
through photosynthesis and is eventually available to us through the
carbohydrates in our diets. During photosynthesis, energy from the
Do you Know Sun combines CO2 and H2O to form

he
Haworth Structures of Monosaccharides glucose (C 6 H 1 2 O 6 ) and O 2 . During
Up until now, we have drawn the structures for monosaccharides such as respiration in the body, carbohydrates are
glucose as open chains. However, the most stable form of hexoses is a six- oxidized to CO2 and H2O, while energy is
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atom ring, known as a Haworth structure. We can draw the Haworth released.
structure for glucose as shown in figure.
CH2 OH CH2 OH
b Form
b
O O
H H H OH
H H
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OH H OH H
HO OH HO H
a Form
H OH H OH
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a - -Glucose b- -Glucose

Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

A disaccharide is a molecule composed of two monosaccharides,
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which takes on a ring-like structure. As we previously mentioned,

they are bonded together by a glycosidic bond, as shown in the figure.
Maltose, lactose, and sucrose are the three most prevalent types of
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disaccharides. Maltose consists of two glucose molecules, lactose

consists of galactose and glucose, and sucrose consists of fructose
and glucose. For now, we'll concentrate on lactose, which is found in
milk, and milk is an essential component of our diet. In more
advanced courses, you'll learn about other examples.
Lactose, a type of sugar, is found in milk and its products. It is a
disaccharide that makes up around 6 to 8% of human milk and
approximately 4 to 5% of cow's milk.

Biochemistry 304
 Do you Know
Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk and milk products.
Sometimes, certain individuals do not
produce sufficient amounts of the enzyme
required for breaking down lactose. This
leads to the undigested sugar being
fermented, which results in the formation
of gas. This, in turn, can cause abdominal
cramps and diarrhea, a condition known
as lactose intolerance. To address this

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issue, some commercial milk products
have lactase, an enzyme that breaks
down lactose, added to them. CH2 OH CH2 OH
O O
HO OH H H
H H

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1 + 4
OH H OH H
H H HO OH

H OH H OH
b a

he CH2OH
H
CH2 OH
O
H
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O
HO 4 H + H2 O
O OH H
H
1 OH
OH H a Form
H H H OH
b
H OH b (1-4)-Glycosidic bond
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a-Lactose, a disaccharide
Polysaccharides are polymers of many monosaccharides joined
together. The four biologically important polysaccharides are
amylose, amylopectin, glycogen, and cellulose. Starch is composed
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of amylose and amylopectin as shown in figure. Glycogen is stored in

the liver and muscle of animals and is used to maintain the blood level
of glucose. Cellulose is the major structural material of plants shown
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in figure 15.4.
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Amylose
(20%)

Glucose monomers

Amylopectin, glycogen
(80%) Fig 15.3 Carbohydrates in potatoes
305 Biochemistry
 O O
O O
O O

O O

Structure of cellulose O O

O O
O O

O Fig 15.4 Carbohydrates in cotton

om
The main sources of carbohydrates are grains, fruits, vegetables,
and dairy products. Some examples of carbohydrate-rich foods are
bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, bananas, apples, milk, and yogurt.
It is recommended that young adult’s intake 45 to 65 percent of

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their total calories through carbohydrates, which equates to about
225 to 325 grams for a 2,000-calorie diet. However, it is also
important to consider the quality of carbohydrates, as not all

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carbohydrates are equally beneficial. It is advisable to choose
complex carbohydrates, such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables,
over simple carbohydrates, such as refined sugars, candies, and soft
drinks, as they provide more fiber, vitamins, minerals, and
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antioxidants
Amino Acids and Proteins
R group
Proteins are essential components of the human body, serving
b
various vital functions. They contribute to forming the structural Carboxylate
group
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framework of tissues, such as muscles, cartilage, hair, nails, and

even animal products like wool, silk, feathers, and horns.
H CH3
Additionally, some proteins act as catalysts, regulating biological O
processes like digestion and cellular metabolism. Hemoglobin and
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H N+ C C
myoglobin, for instance, are proteins that facilitate the
transportation of oxygen in the blood and muscles. Amino acids are -
O
the building blocks of proteins, linked together by peptide bonds. H H
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Each amino acid contains a central alpha carbon atom bonded to an Ammonium group a Carbon
ammonium group (-NH+3), a carboxylate group (-COO), a hydrogen Ionized form of
atom, and an R group, as illustrated in the figure. The unique alanine
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characteristics of the R groups account for the variations in the 20 a-

amino acids found in human proteins.
N-terminus Peptide bond C-terminus

H H O H CH3 O H H O CH3 O

H N+ C C O- + H N+ C C O- H N+ C C N C C O- + H2 O

H H H H H H H H
Glycine (Gly, G) Alanine (Ala, A) Glycylalanine (Gly–Ala, GA)

Fig 15.5 A peptide bond between the ionized structures of glycine and alanine forms the dipeptide glycylalanine.
Biochemistry 306

Complete proteins such as eggs, milk,
Essential Amino Acids and Complete Proteins
Out of the 20 amino acids that are commonly used to build proteins
in the body, only 11 can be produced by the body. The remaining 9
amino acids, which are listed in a table, are known as essential amino
acids and must be obtained from protein-rich foods. Complete
proteins, which contain all of the essential amino acids, are
commonly found in animal products like eggs, milk, meat, fish, and
poultry. However, some plant proteins like grains, beans, and nuts
are incomplete proteins because they lack one or more of the

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meat, and fish contain all of the essential essential amino acids.
amino acids. Incomplete proteins from
plants such as grains, beans, and nuts are
Essential Amino Acids
deficient in one or more essential amino
acids. Histidine (His, H) Phenylalanine (Phe, F)

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Isoleucine (Ile, I) Threonine (Thr, T)

Leucine (Leu, L) Tryptophan (Trp, W)

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Lysine (Lys, K) Valine (Val, V)

Methionine (Met, M)
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The amount of protein that one should consume daily varies based
on their body weight and lifestyle as shown in figure 15.6. The
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) suggests that the
b
minimum amount of protein required to prevent deficiencies is
around 0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight or 0.36 grams per
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pound. For example, a sedentary adult weighing 140 pounds would

require approximately 53 grams of protein per day. During
pregnancy, experts recommend an increase in protein intake to
support fetal tissue development, with a suggested daily intake of 75
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to 100 grams. For active adults, consuming higher amounts of protein

may help to maintain muscle mass and strength. It's more effective to
space out protein consumption throughout the day rather than
consuming it all at once. The focus should be on healthier protein-
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rich foods rather than specific percentages.

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Sedentary children are inactive Active children are physically Sedentary males are inactive Active males are physically
and spend little time moving or active kids. men who sit for extended active men.
exercising. periods with little physical
activity.

Fig 15.6 Comparison between active and sedntary

307 Biochemistry
Lipids Glycerol 3 fatty acids
O
Lipids are an essential group of biomolecules found in all living
H HO—C—R1
organisms. They consist mainly of long chains of fatty acids bonded O
to glycerol, which make up cell membranes and are vital for various H—C—OH
HO—C—R2
biological functions. This section will explain the structure, types, H—C—OH O
functions, sources, and recommended daily intake of lipids, with a +
H—C—O H H O —C—R3
focus on their role in the diet of young adults.
Structure of Lipids H

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Lipids, commonly known as fats and oils, are made up of one H2O is released

glycerol molecule and three fatty acid chains, which form

triglycerides. Triglycerides are the most common type of lipids used
for energy storage. Fatty acids are long chains of carbon atoms Triglycerides
bonded to hydrogen atoms, featuring an acid group (COOH) at one H

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O
end, while glycerol is an alcohol with three hydroxyl (OH) groups.
Lipids can be classified into two main types based on the nature of H— C — O— C —R1
O
their fatty acids: - Saturated Lipids: These lipids have no double
H— C — O— C —R2

he
bonds between carbon atoms and are typically solid at room O
+ 3H2O
temperature. They are found in animal fats and some plant oils.
Unsaturated Lipids: These lipids are characterized by one or more H— C — O— C—R3

double bonds between carbon atoms and are usually liquid at room
lis
temperature. They are found in vegetable oils and fish oils. H

Double bonds Single bonds

b
O O

CH2 O C (CH2)7 CH CH (CH2)7 CH3 CH2 O C (CH2)7 CH2 CH2 (CH2 )7 CH3
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O O
Ni
CH O C (CH2)7 CH CH (CH2)7 CH3 + 3H 2 CH O C (CH 2) 7 CH2 CH2 (CH2 )7 CH3
O O
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CH2 O C (CH2 )7 CH CH (CH2 )7 CH3 CH2 O C (CH2)7 CH2 CH2 (CH2 )7 CH3

Unsaturated lipid (oil) Saturated lipid (fat)

Functions of Lipids
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Lipids serve several crucial roles in organisms. They act as an

efficient long-term energy storage system by converting excess
energy from food into lipids and storing them in adipose tissue for
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future use. Lipids are also a crucial component of cell membranes,

acting as a barrier. They play a vital role in regulating body
temperature by providing thermal insulation. Additionally, lipid-
derived hormones, such as sex hormones, are essential for the proper
functioning of the body.
Fig 15.7 A few sources of lipids

Biochemistry 308
 Sources of Lipids
Lipids can be found in a variety of foods, including: - Nuts and nut
butters (e.g., peanut butter, almond butter) Olive oil and other
vegetable oils - Coconut oil - Dark chocolate - Avocados - Olives -
Fatty fish (e.g., salmon, mackerel) - Dairy products - Egg yolks -Meat
These sources provide a mix of saturated and unsaturated fats, which
are essential for a balanced diet. Recommended Daily Intake For
young adults, lipids should make up about 20-35% of their total
daily calorie intake, with an emphasis on unsaturated fats over

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saturated fats. This recommendation helps balance energy intake
with the body's nutritional needs while minimizing the risk of chronic
diseases.
Nucleic Acids

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Nucleic acids are large molecules that are found in the nuclei of cells.
These molecules are responsible for storing information and
directing activities for cellular growth and reproduction. There are

The general structure of a nucleotide
includes a nitrogen-containing base, a
sugar, and a phosphate group.
b
pu
he
two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material in the nucleus of
a cell and contains all the information needed for the development of
a complete living organism. RNA, on the other hand, interprets the
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genetic information in DNA for the synthesis of protein. Both DNA
and RNA are unbranched chains that consist of repeating monomer
units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide comprises a base that
contains nitrogen, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group (see
FIGURE). A DNA molecule can contain several million nucleotides

as shown in fig, while smaller RNA molecules may contain up to

several thousand nucleotides. More over Additionally, DNA is
double-stranded, whereas RNA is single-stranded .
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LINK WITH BIOLOGY

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The nitrogen-containing bases in nucleic acids are derivatives of

pyrimidine or purine. A pyrimidine has a single ring with two nitrogen
atoms, and a purine has two rings each with two nitrogen atoms. In
DNA, the pyrimidine bases with single rings are cytosine (C) and
ca

thymine (T), and the purine bases with double rings are adenine (A)
and guanine (G). RNA contains the same bases, except thymine is
replaced by uracil (U) .

309 Biochemistry
 Test yourself Skill:15.2
What functional groups are found in all monosaccharides? The Role of Biomolecules in Human
What is the difference between an aldose and a ketose? Nutrition
What are the functional groups and number of carbons in a Objective: recognizing and
ketopentose? categorizing carbohydrates, proteins,
What are the functional groups and number of carbons in an lipids, and nucleic acids based on their
aldohexose? chemical structures and dietary sources.
What type of glycosidic bond links galactose and glucose in lactose? Ability to calculate and apply
What monosaccharides form sucrose? recommended daily intake values for

om
Why is butter a solid at room temperature, whereas canola oil is a carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and
liquid? nucleic acids to create balanced dietary
Draw the peptide bond between two amino acids? plans for young adults.
Write down the sources of amino acid?
What are two differences in the nucleotides of RNA and DNA?

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Basics of Nutrition: Emphasizes the importance of a balanced diet containing essential nutrients like
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals.

he
Biomolecules: Discusses carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, including their structures, sources, and
daily intakez requirements.
Carbohydrates: Describes carbohydrates as primary energy sources, their classifications, and their role in
lis
metabolism.
Proteins: Explains proteins as crucial for body structure, function, and regulation, detailing amino acids and their
assembly into proteins.
b
Lipids: Discusses lipids' roles in energy storage, cell membrane composition, and insulation, differentiating
between saturated and unsaturated fats.
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Nucleic Acids: Covers nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, their structures, and their functions in genetic
information storage and protein synthesis.
ab

Exercise

A Encircle the most suitable answer.

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A detailed summary, chapter

roadmap, multiple projects,
1 What is the primary function of carbohydrates in the body? and extensive exercises are
accessible via QR code.
a) Storage of genetic information b) Source of energy
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c) Structural support for cells d) Catalysts for metabolic reactions

2 Identify a food source rich in nucleic acids:
a) Olive oil b) Salmon
c) Avocado d) Quinoa
3 Which biomolecule is crucial for the structural support of cells and tissues?
a) Carbohydrates b) Proteins
c) Nucleic acids d) Lipids
4 How do carbohydrates contribute to energy production in the body?
a) By storing genetic information b) By forming structural components

Biochemistry 310
 c) By breaking down into glucose d) By assisting in oxygen transport
5 Why is it crucial to be aware of the required daily intake of biomolecules for young adults?
a) To boost caffeine consumption b) To plan a balanced diet
c) To reduce protein intake d) To minimize physical activity
6 You are planning a balanced meal for a young adult. Which of the following options would best contribute to
their daily carbohydrate intake?
a) Fried chicken and cheese fries b) Whole-wheat bread with grilled vegetables
c) A large bowl of sugary cereal d) A protein shake with artificial sweeteners

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6 A friend claims that eating only protein and avoiding other food groups is a healthy way to lose weight. Why
is this statement incorrect?
a) Proteins are the only source of energy for the body.
b) All other food groups lack essential nutrients needed for good health.
c) Consuming excess protein can put strain on the kidneys.

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d) Avoiding carbohydrates makes it impossible to lose weight.
7 You are planning a group study session and want to provide healthy snacks for your friends. Which option
would be the best source of sustained energy and focus?

he
a) A bag of chips and soda b) Fresh fruit and nuts
c) Candy bars and cookies d) Energy drinks and sugary pastries
8 Beyond providing energy, carbohydrates play other vital roles in the body. Which of the following is not a
function of carbohydrates?
lis
a) Building and repairing tissues b) Regulating blood sugar levels
c) Aiding in digestion d) Forming the building blocks of proteins
9 A young adult frequently experiences digestive issues after consuming dairy products. This could be an
b
indication of:
a) Protein deficiency b) Lactose intolerance
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c) Excessive carbohydrate intake d) Vitamin and mineral deficiencies

10 When planning a healthy diet, it is essential to consider not only the types of biomolecules but also their
proportions. What is the recommended ratio of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats for a healthy adult diet?
ab

a) 40% carbohydrates, 30% protein, 30% fat b) 50% carbohydrates, 20% protein, 30% fat
c) 60% carbohydrates, 15% protein, 25% fat
d) There is no universally recommended ratio, as it depends on individual needs and goals.
11 Beyond their primary functions, each biomolecule plays additional roles within the body. Which of the
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following statements accurately describes the roles of lipids?

a) Lipids only provide energy and are stored in adipose tissue.
b) Lipids primarily build and repair tissues and are not involved in energy storage.
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c) Lipids serve as insulation, form cell membranes, and contribute to hormone production.
d) Lipids solely transport other molecules in the blood and have no independent functions.

B Answer the following questions briefly.

1 Provide an example of a meal that includes all three main biomolecules and explain the nutritional benefits of
each component.
2 Discuss how environmental factors, such as climate or location, can influence the dietary needs of individuals.

311 Biochemistry
3 Describe a scenario where understanding the basics of nutrition is crucial for an individual with specific health
conditions, such as diabetes.
4 Analyze the nutritional content of a popular fast-food meal and suggest modifications to make it healthier.
5 Discuss the role of carbohydrates in sustaining energy levels during different physical activities, considering the
intensity and duration of exercise.
6 Provide examples of protein-rich vegetarian sources and explain how they can meet the protein requirements for
individuals following a plant-based diet.
7 Describe a situation where a person's lifestyle necessitates a personalized dietary plan and provide

om
recommendations based on their specific needs.
8 Define glycemic index and its relevance in managing blood sugar levels, especially for individuals with diabetes.
9 What are the potential risks associated with consuming excess protein in the diet.
10 You are planning a snack for your friends after a workout. What factors would you consider when choosing

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healthy and energizing options?
11 Differentiate between simple and complex carbohydrates?
12 Describe the role of fiber in a healthy diet and suggest some good sources of fiber-rich foods.
13 What is lactose intolerance?

he
14 You are helping a friend create a meal plan. How would you guide them in choosing foods that provide a balanced
intake of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats?
15 Discuss the importance of healthy fats in the diet and provide examples of good sources of healthy fats.
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16 State the role of vitamins and minerals in human health.
17 What is the role of water in maintaining good health?

C Long questions
b

1 Discuss the importance of carbohydrates in the diet and how they contribute to energy production in the body.
pu

2 Explain the role of proteins in maintaining muscle mass and repairing tissues, and how they can be incorporated
into a balanced diet for young adults.
3 Describe the functions of lipids in the body, including their role in energy storage, insulation, and cell
ab

membrane structure.
4 Discuss the significance of nucleic acids in the body and how they relate to nutrition, even though they do not
directly provide energy or nutrients.
Analyze the key components of a balanced diet for young adults and the importance of each component in
nt

5
maintaining overall health and well-being.

Project
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Biomolecule Sources
Objective: Students research and present the natural sources of different classes of biomolecules (carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids).
Activity Overview:
Divide the class into groups, each assigned a specific class of biomolecules.
Each group researches various natural sources of their biomolecule, focusing on common foods and biological
sources.
Students will present their findings showcasing the sources and their importance in a balanced diet.

Biochemistry 312
D Assertion – Reason type questions
In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason ®.
Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions given below:
a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A
b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
c) If A is correct and R is wrong
d) If A is wrong and R is correct
1. Assertion (A): Carbohydrates are important for providing energy to the body.

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Reason (R): Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is a primary energy source for cells.
2. Assertion (A): Proteins are essential for building and repairing tissues.
Reason (R): Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are the building blocks of tissues.
3. Assertion (A): Lipids are important for storing energy in the body.

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Reason (R): Lipids are stored in adipose tissue and can be broken down into fatty acids for energy.
4. Assertion (A): Nucleic acids are not directly involved in providing energy for the body.
Reason (R): Nucleic acids are involved in storing and transmitting genetic information, not in energy
metabolism.

he
5. Assertion (A): A balanced diet is crucial for maintaining health.
Reason (R): A balanced diet provides the necessary nutrients for the body to function properly and
prevents malnutrition.
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6. Assertion (A): Balanced diet is essential for maintaining overall health and well-being.
Reason (R): It provides the body with the necessary nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and nucleic acids, which are crucial for energy production, growth, and cellular
b
repair.
7. Assertion (A): Carbohydrates are considered the primary source of energy in the diet.
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Reason (R): They are easily broken down by the body into glucose, which is used by cells to
produce ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
8. Assertion (A): Young adults require a daily intake of approximately 45-65% of their total calories from
ab

carbohydrates.
Reason (R): This ensures that they have enough energy to support their metabolism and physical
activity levels.
9. Assertion (A): Proteins are vital for the growth and repair of body tissues.
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Reason (R): They are made up of amino acids, which are the building blocks of muscle, skin,
enzymes, and hormones.
10. Assertion (A): Lipids, including fats and oils, are important for maintaining healthy cell membranes
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and hormone synthesis.

Reason (R): They also provide a concentrated source of energy and help in the absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).

313 Biochemistry
CHAPTER

16 Data Handling

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r.c
he
lis
Data handling techniques are essential in today’s
world for analyzing and interpreting large datasets.
b
They are used in business, healthcare, finance, and
technology to make informed decisions, predict
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trends, and drive innovation.

ab

Welcome to the exciting world of chemistry! In this chapter, we'll dive into
the essential topics of measurement and scientific notation. You'll discover
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everything you need to know about standardized units, including SI and

practical units, as well as the significance of scientific notation. We'll also
explore a variety of devices used for measuring time, temperature, mass,
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and volume. Plus, we'll provide you with useful tips on how to manage
accuracy and precision in your measurements, so you can conduct
experiments, analyze data, and collaborate effectively with your peers. Get
ready to unleash your inner scientist and learn all about the fundamentals of
measurement in chemistry!

Data Handling 314

 Students’ Learning Outcomes

Explain that units are standardized for better communication and collaboration. (Some examples may include: - In
the field of chemistry, the International System of Units (SI) is used to measure physical quantities such as mass,
volume, and temperature. This standardized system ensures that chemists worldwide can use the same units to
measure and communicate their results, facilitating communication and collaboration in the field. - Without
standardized units, it would be difficult for chemists to compare their results with one another, and it would be
challenging to develop consistent and accurate scientific models. For example, imagine if one chemist measured the
mass of a substance in grams, while another used ounces. The two measurements would be difficult to compare and
combine, potentially leading to inaccurate or inconsistent results.)

om
Identify SI units for abstract and physical quantities (some examples include mass, time and amount of matter
Apply the concept that units can be combined with terms for magnitude, especially kilo, Deci, and milli.
Justify why chemists use cm3, g and s as more practical units when working with small amounts in lab
Explain with examples how different tools and techniques can be used to manage accuracy and precision for inherent

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errors that arise during measurement
Scientific Notation/Standard Form Use the standard form A x I On where n is a positive or negative integer, and 1 <A
< 10
Convert quantitative values into and out of the scientific notation form. Calculate with values in standard form.

he
Identify appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including:
a. stopwatches b. thermometers
c. balances d. burettes
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e. volumetric pipettes f. measuring cylinders
g. gas syringes
Suggest advantages and disadvantages of experimental methods and apparatus
b

All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
pu

students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:
ab
nt
ca

315 Data Handling

 Knowledge Skills
16.1 “Unit Standardization in Chemistry: The Skill 16.1:
Role of SI Units and Practical Measurements Evaluate how S.I units facilitate accurate
in the Lab” measurement and comparison of results,
The standardization of units, such as the International demonstrating an understanding of the importance of
System of Units (SI), is crucial for effective standardized units in scientific communication and
communication and collaboration in chemistry, collaboration
enabling consistent and accurate measurement and Skill 16.2:

om
comparison of results Analyze the suitability of different apparatus for
16.2 Managing Accuracy in Chemical specific measurements in a given experimental setup,
Experiments: A Guide to Choosing and Using considering factors like accuracy, precision, and the
Measurement Apparatus nature of the substance being measured.

The appropriate apparatus for measuring time,
temperature, mass, and volume in chemistry includes
stopwatches, thermometers, balances, burettes,
volumetric pipettes, measuring cylinders, and gas
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Skill 16.3:
Evaluate the effectiveness of using scientific notation
in simplifying calculations and representing very large
or very small numbers in different scientific contexts.

he
syringes. Each apparatus has its advantages and
disadvantages in experimental methods, and various
tools and techniques can be used to manage accuracy
and precision in measurements to minimize inherent
lis
errors.
16.3 The Essentials of Scientific Notation:
Understanding and Applying Standard Form.
b
Understand and use scientific notation (standard
form) in the format A × 10n, where n is a positive or
pu

negative integer, and 1 ≤ A < 10, to convert

quantitative values into and out of scientific notation
and perform calculations with values in standard
form."
ab
nt
ca

Data Handling 316


Student Learning Outcomes
Explain that units are standardized for
better communication and
collaboration. (Some examples may
include: - In the field of chemistry, the
International System of Units (SI) is
used to measure physical quantities
such as mass, volume, and
temperature. This standardized system
ensures that chemists worldwide can
use the same units to measure and
communicate their results, facilitating
communication and collaboration in
the field. - Without standardized units,
it would be difficult for chemists to
compare their results with one another,
and it would be challenging to develop
consistent and accurate scientific
models. For example, imagine if one
chemist measured the mass of a
b
substance in grams, while another used
ounce. The two measurements would
pu
be difficult to compare and combine,
potentially leading to inaccurate or
inconsistent results.)
Identify SI units for abstract and physical
quantities (some examples include mass,
ab
time and amount of matter.
nt
ca
317 Data Handling
16.1 Knowledge
“Unit Standardization in Chemistry: The Role of SI Units
and Practical Measurements in the Lab"
In this section, we will learn about the importance of standardization
of units in chemistry. Specifically, we will discuss the use of the
International System of Units (SI) and how it facilitates effective
communication and collaboration by enabling consistent and
om
accurate measurement and comparison of results.
Introduction to Standard Units and the Importance of
Standardization
In the field of science, precise measurement is very important. It
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helps us understand natural phenomena, make informed decisions,
and develop theories. But, how do scientists ensure that their
measurements are accurate and understood by everyone? The answer
is standardized units.
he
Standardized units help scientists all over the world to speak the same
language, making collaboration easier and producing consistent and
comparable results. The International System of Units (SI) is the
lis
standard used in scientific measurement. It is used to measure
essential quantities like mass, volume, and temperature. For
example, the kilogram is used to measure mass, the cubic meter is
used for volume, and Celsius is used for temperature. This consistent
system allows scientists to report their findings accurately, making it
possible for others to replicate their experiments. If scientists didn't
use standardized units, it would be difficult for them to communicate
and collaborate. They would struggle to develop consistent models or
compare results from different studies. For example, two scientists
named Dr. Ahmed and Dr. Chen are working together to create a new
chemical compound. Dr. Ahmed is based in Pakistan, while Dr. Chen
is in Europe. As part of their experiment, it is important for them to
share and compare their findings to ensure accuracy and consistency.
However, the problem arises when Dr. Ahmed uses ounces to
measure the mass of a reactant while Dr. Chen uses grams. This
creates confusion and misunderstanding between the two scientists.
For instance, when Dr. Ahmed reports that he used 2 ounces of the
reactant, Dr. Chen finds it difficult to understand the exact quantity
used because she is used to measuring mass in grams. To ensure
accurate comparison of their results, Dr. Chen has to convert the
measurement from ounces to grams, which is an additional step that
can introduce errors.
This scenario emphasizes the importance of using standardized units
in scientific collaboration. If both scientists had agreed to use the
International System of Units (SI) from the beginning, with mass
measured in grams, there would have been no confusion or need for
conversion.
In summary, standardized units are the foundation of scientific
communication, allowing scientists to work together towards a
common goal of discovering new knowledge. After learning about
the importance of standardizing units, we will now discuss some
important physical quantities in chemistry, along with their
corresponding SI units.

om
Physical and abstract Quantities in Chemistry
Chemistry relies heavily on measurements that help us understand a
substance's behavior over time and under specific conditions. In
order to observe chemical reactions or physical processes, we need to

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measure physical quantities. Table 16.1 displays some of the most
common physical quantities used in experiments. To record
measurements, we use the International System of Units (SI units),
which serves as a universal standard.

What It Measures
he
Table 16.1 Common physical and abstract quantities and their units
Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol Other Common Unit(s)
lis
how long it takes for something
Time second s minute (min), hour (h)
to happen
Temperature how hot or cold something is kelvin K degree Celsius (°C)
b
Length the distance between two points metre m centimetre (cm), decimetre (dm)
pu

Mass how much matter is present kilogram kg gram (g), tonne (t)
in a substance
the amount of space something cubic centimetre (cm³),
Volume occupies cubic metre m3 cubic decimetre (dm³)
ab

How abstract quantities are different from physical quantities?

Physical quantities are properties of objects that can be directly measured using physical tools. They are typically
associated with the material world and have dimensions, such as length, mass, volume. These dimensions
nt

describe measurable properties of objects, such as mass or length. On the other hand, abstract quantities represent
conceptual properties that are often intangible. They may not have physical dimensions and describe conditions
or states, such as temperature or time.
ca

Aspect Physical Quantities Abstract Quantities

Tangible and can be directly measured using
Tangibility Intangible and represent conceptual properties.
physical tools.
Have dimensions (length, mass, time) and are
Dimensionality May not have physical dimensions.
associated with the material world.
Describe measurable properties of objects
Nature Describe conditions or states (temperature, time).
(mass, length, volume ).

Data Handling 318


Skill:16.1
Unit Standardization in Chemistry:
The Role of SI Units and Practical
Measurements in the Lab
Objective. Evaluate how S.I units
facilitate accurate measurement and
comparison of results, demonstrating an
understanding of the importance of
standardized units in scientific
b
communication and collaboration
Instructions: An activity-based
pu
worksheet is attached to the QR code
provided at the beginning of this
knowledge section. Scan the code, read
the worksheet, and complete it.
ab
nt
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Student Learning Outcomes
Apply the concept that units can be
combined with terms for magnitude,
especially kilo, Deci, and milli.
Justify why chemists use cm3, g and s
as more practical units when working
with small amounts in lab
319 Data Handling
"Why is it important to measure physical and abstract
quantities accurately?
In the 1960 Olympic Games, there was a controversy over the timing
of two swimmers, Lance Larson and John Devitt. The timekeepers
declared Larson to be the faster swimmer, but the finish judges
claimed that Devitt touched the finish line first. This disagreement led
to the installation of electronic touch pads on pool walls to accurately
measure the timing of each swimmer. Measuring and quantifying
om
physical quantities, such as time, is crucial for studying and
analyzing data in the field of chemistry. Therefore, in next knowledge
section, we will discuss how to accurately measure physical
quantities in a laboratory by using different scientific instruments.
r.c
he
lis
Fig 16.2 Touch pads in swimming pools are used to decide the winners
in competitive swimming
Test your self
What is the SI unit for time, and what is a common non-SI unit used in
everyday life?
Explain why it is important to use standardized units in scientific
research, especially when sharing results with the international
community?
Differentiate between abstract and physical quantities?
16.2 Knowledge
Managing Accuracy in Chemical Experiments: A Guide to
Choosing and Using Measurement Apparatus
This section of knowledge discusses the appropriate apparatus for
measuring time, temperature, mass, and volume in chemistry. The
necessary instruments include stopwatches, thermometers, balances,
burettes, volumetric pipettes, measuring cylinders, and gas syringes.
Each apparatus has its advantages and disadvantages in experimental
methods, and various tools and techniques can be used to manage
accuracy and precision in measurements to minimize inherent errors.
Further exploration of these tools and techniques can help in gaining
a better understanding of their importance in conducting experiments
in chemistry.
Note: Before reading further, please ensure you cover the topics Student Learning Outcomes
of precision, accuracy, and least count as discussed in Cantab Identify appropriate apparatus for the
Grade 9th Physics Chapter 2 measurement of time, temperature,
Measurement of Time mass and volume, including:
a. stopwatches b. thermometers
Time is measured using a unit called second (s). Some experiments
c. balances d. burettes
need a lot of time to complete. To measure that, we also use minute e. volumetric pipettes
(min) and hour (h). One minute is equal to sixty seconds and one hour f. measuring cylinders
is equal to sixty minutes or 3600 seconds g. gas syringes

om
1 min = 60 s 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s Suggest advantages and
disadvantages of experimental
In laboratories, time is often measured using digital stopwatches, as
methods and apparatus
depicted in the accompanying figure 16.3. While mechanical or
Explain with examples how different
analogue stopwatches are also an option, they may not provide the tools and techniques can be used to
same level of precision.

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manage accuracy and precision for
inherent errors that arise during
measurement
The smaller
dial shows

he
time in
minutes

Apparatus Accuracy
12 seconds and
72 hundredths
lis
The larger ±0.01 s
of a second is dial shows digital
shown on this (a hundredth
time in stopwatch
stopwatch. seconds.
of a second)
Digital Analogue
b
stopwatch stopwatch analogue ±0.1 s (a tenth
Fig. 16.3 Types of stopwatches stopwatch of a second)
pu

Measurement of Temperature
The unit used to measure temperature is the kelvin (K), although it is
also frequently measured in degrees Celsius (°C). To convert
between the two, simply add 273 to the temperature in Celsius.
ab

Temperature in K = Temperature in °C +273

Have you ever taken your temperature with a digital thermometer? In
laboratory settings, analog thermometers such as alcohol and mercury
nt

are commonly used, but digital thermometers are becoming

increasingly popular due to their wider temperature range.
Additionally, temperature sensors and probes can be connected to data
ca

loggers for automatic temperature measurement and data collection.

digital ther-
mometer

temperature alcohol
sensor thread
bulb
Oral digital Digital laboratory temperature sensor Data Alcohol thermometer
thermometer thermometer logger
Fig. 16.4 Apparatus for measuring temperature
Data Handling 320
Thermometer Type Advantages Disadvantages Accuracy

Alcohol Inexpensive, easy to read, no power Fragile, less accurate compared to

required, suitable for general use in digital, not suitable for precise ±1°C
Thermometer labs and schools measurements

Digital Laboratory High accuracy, fast response time, Requires batteries or external power
± 0.1°C to
ability to store and recall source, more expensive, less robust
Thermometer ± 0.5°C
measurements than alcohol thermometers
Specifically designed for measuring Not suitable for non-biological
Oral Digital
body temperature, easy to use, quick temperatures, can be more expensive ±0.1°C
Thermometer readings

om
than basic thermometers
Capable of recording temperature ±0.01°C (for
Data Logger with More expensive, requires setup and
over time, highly accurate, allows high-quality
Sensor software, can be complex to use
for detailed data analysis models)

Each type of thermometer has its own set of advantages and

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disadvantages, making it suitable for different applications. The
accuracy of each thermometer type varies, with digital and data
logger thermometers generally offering higher precision than alcohol
thermometers.

1 kg = 1000 g = 1 000 000 mg

1 t = 1000 kg = 1 000 000 g
he
Measurement of Mass
The kilogram (kg) is the standard unit for measuring mass according to
the International System of Units (SI). However, for smaller quantities,
lis
1 kt = 1000 t = 1 000 000 kg grams (g) and milligrams (mg) are commonly used. On the other hand,
chemical factories and refineries usually deal with larger quantities and
may use tonnes (t) or kilotonnes (kt) to measure mass. In the past, beam
b
balances were used to measure mass in laboratories, but today,
electronic balances with digital displays are the usual practice.
pu

Counter
weights
ab
nt
ca

Beam Balances Electronic Balance

Calibration
Marks
Fig. 16.5 Apparatus for measuring mass

321 Data Handling

 Instrument Advantages Disadvantages Accuracy
Slower measurements, requires skill
Beam Balance Independent of power, visual teaching for precise calibration and use, less
tool for balancing principles, robust ±0.1 g
practical for rapid multiple
construction. measurements.
Fast and direct reading, high Dependent on electricity or batteries,
precision, can have functionalities can be affected by environmental ±0.01 g
Electronic Balance
like tare, multiple units, and data factors, typically more expensive or better
transfer. than manual scales.

om
Measurement of Volume Do you Know
In laboratories, there are various apparatus available to measure the 1 m³ = 1000 dm³ = 1 000 000 cm³
volume of liquids and gases. Figure (16.7) displays some of these
apparatus, which are used for measuring the volume of liquids. The

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selection of the appropriate apparatus largely depends on the volume to
be measured and the level of accuracy required. When preparing a
specific concentration of an acid, or any other experiments that require a c
precise and fixed volume of a chemical, pipettes and volumetric flasks a b

he
are used. However, when measuring the amount of liquid that needs to
be added to dissolve a solid, apparatus like measuring cylinders or d
burettes are more suitable, as they provide a range of volumes to be read. Fig. 16.6 Cross-section diagrams
The table below shows the accuracy of different liquid measuring of a (a) pipette, (b) volumetric flask,
lis
(c) measuring cylinder and (d)burette
apparatus, and the figure 16.6 illustrates how to draw these apparatus
using diagrams
b
pu

measuring cylinder
ab

volumetric flask
nt

Common laboratory glassware for

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measuring the volume of liquids

burette
Alcohol thermometer Digital laboratory thermometer Oral digital thermometer

Fig. 16.7 Apparatus for measuring temperature and volume

Data Handling 322

 Measuring the Volume of a Gas
To measure the volume of a gas, a gas syringe is used. Typical gas
syringes in the laboratory measure volumes up to 100 cm3.

Gas

om
Barrel Plunger

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he
Fig. 16.8 Apparatus for measuring volume of gase

Further Reading How we can avoid from parallax error

When reading the volume of a liquid, we should position our eyes at the meniscus, which is the curve formed at the
lis
surface of the liquid in a container, to avoid parallax error (see figure).
b
17

16.30cm3
pu

×
3
Alignment of the eye with the
16.40cm P meniscus when reading from
the measuring cylinder.
16.50cm3 ×
16
ab

concave convex
(upward curving (downward curving)

Most liquids, like water, have a meniscus which curves up at the edges, but some liquids like mercury have downward
nt

curving meniscus. Figure shows how your eye should be lined up alongside the meniscus when taking your readings.
ca

Volume Measuring Advantages Disadvantages Accuracy

Instrument
Easy to use, provides a visual Subject to parallax error, less precise
Graduated
indication of volume, suitable for for very small volumes, can be ±0.1 mL (100 mL)
Cylinder
general measurements. fragile.

High precision, suitable for small Requires skill and practice to use
Pipette volumes, available in various sizes accurately, can be time-consuming ±0.01 mL (10 mL)
for different volume ranges. for large volumes.

323 Data Handling

 Requires careful reading of the
Allows for controlled dispensing
meniscus, prone to parallax error,
Burette and precise measurement, ±0.05 mL (50 mL)
needs additional equipment (stand
commonly used in titrations.
and clamp).

Provides an accurate volume for a Limited to a single volume

volumetric Flask
Volumetric specific liquid, often used for measurement, requires careful ±0.05 mL (100 mL)
preparing precise solutions. handling and cleaning.

Requires proper sealing to prevent

Measures gas volumes, suitable for gas leaks, limited to gas

om
Gas Syringe ±0.1 mL (100 mL)
gas-producing reactions measurements, can be affected by
temperature and pressure changes

Practical Units for Laboratory Measurements: cm³, g, and s"

In the world of chemistry, getting accurate results is very important. Skill:16.2

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To make sure that they get precise measurements, chemists use Managing Accuracy in Chemical
practical units. These units help them measure small amounts of Experiments: A Guide to Choosing
things in the lab. One of the units they use is centimeters cubed (cm³). and Using Measurement Apparatus
This unit is used to measure the volume of liquids in beakers, test Objective. Analyze the suitability of

he
tubes, and graduated cylinders. It is a very useful unit for chemists different apparatus for specific
who work with small volumes every day. Another unit used by measurements in a given experimental
chemists is grams (g). This unit is used to measure the weight of setup, considering factors like accuracy,
precision, and the nature of the
lis
matter. It is a very precise unit that helps chemists when they balance
substance being measured.
equations or weigh small crystals. Finally, chemists use seconds (s)
to time chemical reactions. They use this unit to note color changes or
b
the timing of adding reagents. It helps them keep track of how long a
reaction takes. In summary, chemists use practical units like cm³, g,
pu

and s to get precise results in the lab. These units make it easier for
chemists to measure small amounts of things and keep track of
reactions.
Test your self
ab

Which of the following units are applicable for time, temperature, volume, and mass: cm3, kilograms, hours, degrees
Celsius, dm3, minutes, seconds, and grams?
Additionally, accurate measuring instruments are necessary for experiments. state the expected precision for the
following measuring instruments:
nt

1. Stopwatch 2. Thermometer 3. Electronic balance 4. Burette.

Why is it important to choose the appropriate apparatus for each type of measurement in a chemistry experiment?
ca

If you had to measure exactly 0.5 mL of a liquid, which piece of lab equipment would you choose and why?
Why is the main reason for using centimeters cubed (cm³) instead of liters when measuring small liquid volumes in
chemistry labs?
What might be the effect of using a measuring cylinder with worn-off markings on the precision of your experiment?
How does a stopwatch provide more accurate time measurements in a lab experiment than using a regular clock?
Why are digital scales preferred over analog scales for measuring the mass of substances in the lab?
Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using a gas syringe to measure the volume of gas produced in a
reaction.
When preparing a dilute solution, why is it important to use a volumetric pipette instead of a measuring cylinder?

Data Handling 324


Student Learning Outcomes
Scientific Notation/Standard Form
Use the standard form A × 10n where n
is a positive or negative integer, and 1≤
A < 10
Convert quantitative values into and
out of the scientific notation form.
Calculate with values in standard
form.
b
pu
ab
nt
ca
The lengths of the rectangular objects
are measured in centimeters.
325 Data Handling
16.3 Knowledge
"The Essentials of Scientific Notation: Understanding and
Applying Standard Form"
This section aims to discuss the concept of scientific notation, also
known as standard form, and how to use it. The format of scientific
notation is A × 10n, where n is a positive or negative integer, and 1 ≤ A
< 10. It is used to convert numerical values into and out of scientific
om
notation as well as to perform calculations with values in standard
form. Moving forward, we will delve into the topic in more detail.
However, before that, we will discuss Measured Numbers and
Significant Figures.
Measured Numbers and Significant Figures
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When you want to know how long something is, how heavy
something is or how hot it is, you need to use a tool to measure it. For
example, you might use a ruler to measure your height, a scale to
he
check your weight, or a thermometer to take your temperature. When
you measure something, you get a number that tells you how long,
heavy or hot it is. This number is called a measured number. To get a
measured number, you look at the measuring tool and see where the
lis
thing you want to measure ends.
Then, you try to guess the number that comes after that. For example,
if you want to measure the length of something, you look at the ruler
and see where it ends. If it ends between the 4- and 5-centimeter
marks, you can guess that it's probably 4.5 centimeters long. But
someone else might guess that it's 4.4 centimeters long, because
everyone guesses a little bit differently. Sometimes the measuring
tool has smaller marks on it, so you can guess the number more
exactly. For example, if the ruler has marks for every 0.1 centimeter,
you can guess that the thing you're measuring is 4.55 centimeters
long, or maybe 4.56 centimeters long. And sometimes the thing
you're measuring ends right on one of the marks on the measuring
tool. In that case, you know that the number you want to guess is zero.
For example, if the thing you're measuring ends right on the 3-
centimeter mark, you know that it's 3.0 centimeters long.
Significant Figures
When we measure a number, we consider all the digits, including the
estimated digit, as significant figures (SFs). If a number is non-zero, it
is always counted as a significant figure. However, whether a zero is
significant or not depends on its position in the number. You can refer
to the table below to understand the rules and examples of counting
significant figures
 Number of
Measured Significant
Rule
Number
Figures
1. A number is a significant figure if it is

4.5 g 2
a. a nonzero digit
122.35 m 5
205 °C 3
b. a zero between nonzero digits
5.008 kg 4

om
50. L 2
c. a zero at the end of a decimal number
16.00 mL 4
d. in the coefficient of a number written 4.8×105 m 2
in scientific notation 5.70×10-3 g 3

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2. A zero is not significant if it is

0.0004 s 1
a. at the beginning of a decimal number

he
0.075 cm 2

b. used as a placeholder in a large 850 000 m 2

number without a decimal point 1 250 000 g 3
lis
Sample Problem 1
b
Significant Figures
Try it first
pu

Write the number of significant figures in each of the following measured

numbers:
a. 0.000 250 m b. 70.040 g c. 1.020 × 106 L
ab

Analyze Given Need Connect

the Measured Number of Rules for significant
problem number significant figures
figures
nt

a. Nonzero digits and zeros at the end of a decimal number are significant.
0.000 250 m has three SFs (Rules 1a, 1c).
b. Nonzero digits, zeros between nonzero digits, or at end of a decimal
ca

number are significant. 70.040 g has five SFs (Rules 1a, 1b, 1c).
c. All digits in the coefficient of a number written in scientific notation are
significant. 1.020 × 106 L has four SFs (Rule 1d).

Understanding Standard Form in Scientific Notation

Standard form is a way of expressing very large or very small
numbers more concisely. It is written as the product of a coefficient
and a power of 10, where A is a number between 1 and 10 inclusive

Data Handling 326


Skill:16.3
The Essentials of Scientific
Notation: Understanding and
Applying Standard Form
Objective. Evaluate the effectiveness of
using scientific notation in simplifying
calculations and representing very large
(the coefficient), and n is an integer indicating the power of 10(A ×
n
10 ). For example, the speed of light in a vacuum is about
299,792,458 meters per second. In standard form, this is written as
2.99792458 × 108m/s. The diameter of a hydrogen atom is
approximately 0.0000000000529 meters, which is written in
standard form as 5.29 × 10–11 m. Standard form is particularly useful
in science and engineering where very large or very small numbers
are common, as it allows for easier comparison and manipulation of
these values.

or very small numbers in different
scientific contexts.
om
It is important to place the decimal point correctly in standard form,
especially after a significant zero at the end of a number. For example,
in the case of a measurement given as 500g, the decimal point after
the second zero indicates that both zeros are significant. To make this

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concept clearer, we can write it as 5.00 × 102g. Similarly, 400,000g
can be expressed as 4 × 105g, which has only one significant figure.
This method of expression is also known as scientific notation.
Further Reading

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Exact Numbers

Exact numbers are those numbers obtained by counting items or using a definition that
compares two units in the same measuring system. Suppose a friend asks you how
many classes you are taking.
lis
You would answer by counting the number of classes in your schedule. Suppose you
want to state the number of seconds in one minute. Without using any measuring
device, you would give the definition: There are 60 s in 1 min. Exact numbers are not
b
measured, do not have a limited number of significant figures, and do not affect the
number of significant figures in a calculated answer. For more examples of exact The number of baseballs is
pu

numbers, see picture counted, which means 2 is an

exact number

Test your self

ab

Identify the numbers in each of the following statements as measured or exact:

a. There are 31 students in the laboratory.
b. The largest gem ever found, an aquamarine, has a mass of 104 kg.
nt

c. A laboratory test shows a blood cholesterol level of 184 mg/dL.

Write each of the following in scientific notation with two significant figures:
a. 5000 L b. 30 000 g c. 100 000 m d. 0.000 25 cm
ca

Write the number of significant figures in each of the following measured numbers:
a. 0.040 08 m b. 6.00 x 103g
Write the number of significant figures in each of the following measured numbers:
a. 0.000 250 m b. 70.040 g c. 1.020 x 106 L
Indicate if the zeros are significant in each of the following measurements:
a. 0.0038 m b. 5.04 cm c. 800. L d. 3.0 x 10-3 kg e. 85 000 g
Why is the zero in the coefficient of 3.20 x 104 cm a significant figure?
Why is the 4 in "4 hats" an exact number, whereas the 6.24 in 6.24 cm has three significant figures?

327 Data Handling

 om
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Exercise

A Encircle the most suitable answer.

he
1 What is the SI unit for mass?
a) Pound b) Gram
A detailed summary, chapter
c) Ounce d) Kilogram roadmap, multiple projects,
and extensive exercises are
2 Which unit is NOT part of the International System of Units (SI)? accessible via QR code.
lis
a) Meter b) Second c) Pound d) Ampere
3 If a chemist wants to measure a very small amount of liquid, which unit would they most likely use?
a) Liters b) Milliliters c) Gallons d) Cubic meters
b
4 What does the prefix "milli" mean?
a) One thousandth b) One hundredth c) One tenth d) One hundred
pu

5 Which of these is the correct scientific notation for 6500?

a) 65 x 102 b) 6.5 x 103 c) 650 x 101 d) 0.65 x 104
6 What apparatus would you use to measure the time it takes for a reaction to complete?
ab

a) Thermometer b) Stopwatch c) Balance d) Burette

7 Which tool is most suitable for measuring an exact volume of 50.0 mL of solution?
a) Beaker b) Measuring cylinder c) Volumetric pipette d) Conical flask
8 The temperature of a substance is measured in:
nt

a) Celsius b) Kelvin c) Both a and b d) Fahrenheit

9 What is the disadvantage of using a beaker to measure liquid volume instead of a graduated cylinder?
a) Less accurate b) More expensive c) Less durable d) More difficult to handle
ca

10 When converting 0.00025 to scientific notation, what is the correct form?

a) 2.5 x 10-4 b) 25 x 10-5 c) 2.5 x 10-3 d) 25 x 10-4
11 What is an advantage of using a gas syringe in experiments?
a) More accurate gas volume measurement b) Easier to clean
c) It can measure solids d) Cheaper than other methods
In the reaction 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O, what is the SI unit for the amount of substances, hydrogen, and oxygen?
a) Grams b) Liters c) Moles d) Molecules
12 Which of the following errors is most likely to occur when using a balance that has not been zeroed properly?

Data Handling 328

14 a) Random error b) Systematic error c) Gross error d) Human error
Why might a chemist choose cm³ over mL when measuring liquid volume in the lab?
15 a) They are more precise. b) They are larger units.
c) They are the same volume. d) They are smaller units.
What does a thermometer measure in an experiment?
16 a) Mass b) Volume c) Temperature d) Time

B Answer the following question briefly.

om
1 Explain the importance of using standardized units in scientific communication.
2 What is the SI unit for measuring time?
3 How does the prefix "kilo" affect the magnitude of a unit?

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4 Why are cm³, g, and s considered practical units in the laboratory?
5 Describe an example of how precision can be managed in a chemical experiment.
6 Convert the value 0.00045 into scientific notation.
7 What is the significance of the SI unit for the amount of matter in chemical reactions?

he
8 How can errors be minimized when measuring volume in an experiment?
9 Explain the role of standard form in scientific calculations.
10 What are the advantages of using a digital thermometer over a mercury thermometer?
lis
11 How does the prefix "deci" change the value of a
12 Explain why standardized units are important for communication and collaboration in chemistry.
13 Identify the SI units for mass, time, and amount of matter.
b
14 How do the prefixes kilo, deci, and milli modify the magnitude of units?
15 Why are cm³, g, and s more practical units for chemists working with small amounts in the lab?
pu

16 How many significant figures are in each of the following?

a. 11.005 g b. 0.000 32 m . 36 000 000 km d. 1.80 x 104 kg e. 0.8250 L f. 30.0 °C
17 Identify each of the following as measured or exact, and give the number of significant figures (SFs) in each
measured number:
ab

a. The mass of a neonate is 1.607 kg.

b. The Daily Value (DV) for iodine for an infant is 130 mcg.
c. There are 4.02 x 106 red blood cells in a blood sample.
nt

d. In November, 23 babies were born in a hospital.

18 Determine the volume, in milliliters, of each liquid in the graduated
cylinders by reading the lowest point of the curve of the liquid in the
ca

diagrams (a), (b), and (c) using the correct number of significant figures.

C Long questions
1 Discuss the significance of the International System of Units (SI) in promoting global collaboration among
chemists and provide examples of how inconsistencies in units can lead to communication barriers.
2 Analyze the importance of using appropriate apparatus for measuring time, mass, and volume in a laboratory
setting, and suggest ways to ensure the reliability of these measurements.
3 Explain the concept of scientific notation and demonstrate how it simplifies calculations with very large or
very small numbers in chemistry.
329 Data Handling
CHAPTER

17 Chemical Analysis

om
Separation techniques are crucial in modern
technology for purifying compounds in the chemical
and pharmaceutical industries, managing waste and

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treating water in environmental technology, and
extracting and refining ingredients in the food and
beverage industry.

he
b lis
pu
ab

Chemistry is a fascinating field that involves creating chemical solutions

and identifying substances. These processes are essential for various
scientific disciplines and have practical applications in our daily lives. To
create chemical solutions, chemists must use the appropriate solvents and
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be familiar with the right terminology. They also employ techniques like
filtration, crystallization, and distillation to isolate and purify substances
with precision and efficiency. Determining the purity of substances by
analyzing their melting and boiling points is crucial and provides valuable
ca

insights into their composition and quality. But that's not all! Scientists can
also detect and characterize various elements and compounds in a
controlled environment using specific tests. The flame test is a particularly
powerful tool for identifying cations based on the distinct colors they emit
when subjected to heat. Are you interested in learning more about these
fundamental concepts and techniques in the field of chemistry? Let's
explore together the theoretical foundations and practical applications of
these exciting processes!

Chemical Analysis 330

 Students’ Learning Outcomes
Define important terms associated with creating chemical solutions
Explain methods of separation and purification (some examples include:
a) using a suitable solvent b) Filtration c) Crystallization
d) simple distillation e) Fractional distillation
Suggest suitable separation and purification techniques, given information about the substances
involved and their usage in daily life
Identify substances and assess their purity using melting point and boiling point information.
Describe tests to identify important gasses. Some examples include:
a) Ammonia NH3, using damp red litmus paper b) Carbon dioxide CO2, using limewater

om
c) Chlorine C12, using damp litmus paper d) Hydrogen H2, using a lighted splint
e) Oxygen O2, using a glowing splint
f) Sulfur dioxide SO2, using acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII)).
Explain the use of a flame test to identify important cations. Some examples include:
a) Lithium Li+ b) Sodium Na+ c) Potassium K+
2+ 2+ 2+
d) Calcium Ca e) Copper(II) Cu f) Barium Ba

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All the above mentioned SLOs are classified into knowledge and skills for the better understanding of
students.
After studying this Unit, the students will be able to understand:
Knowledge
17.1 Key terms in Chemical Solutions.
Define important terms associated with creating he Skills
Skill 17.1:
Be able to suggest appropriate separation and
lis
chemical solutions purification techniques based on the properties
17.2 Methods of Separation and Purification of the substances involved and their practical
Explain methods of separation and purification applications.
(some examples include:
b
Skill 17.2:
a) using a suitable solvent b) filtration
Develop skills in setting up and conducting
c) Crystallization d) simple distillation
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experiments for separation and purification,

e) Fractional distillation).
Suggest suitable separation and purification
techniques, given information about the
substances involved and their usage in daily life
ab
including the use of apparatus for distillation,
filtration, and crystallization.
Skill 17.3:
Acquire the ability to perform specific tests to

17.3 Assessing Purity

Identify substances and assess their purity using
melting point and boiling point information.
17.4 Identifying Gases
Describe tests to identify important gasses. Some
nt
identify different gases using appropriate
indicators or reagents.
Skill 17.4:
Be capable of interpreting data from

examples include: experiments, such as changes in temperature,

a) Ammonia NH3, using damp red litmus paper b) color, or the formation of precipitates, to
Carbon dioxide CO2, using limewaterc) Chlorine conclude the identity and purity of substances.
ca

C12, using damp litmus paper d) Hydrogen H2, Skill 17.5a:

using a lighted splint e) Oxygen O2, using a
glowing splint f) Sulfur dioxide SO2, using
acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII).
17.5 Understanding the Flame Test.
Explain the use of a flame test to identify important
cations. Some examples include:
a) Li+ b) Na+ c) K+ d) Ca2+
e) Cu2+ f) Ba2+
Use knowledge of separation techniques and
tests for gases to solve practical problems or
explain everyday phenomena related to
chemical solutions and reactions.
Skill 17.5b:
Conduct a flame test using a clean platinum or
nichrome wire loop, observing flame color changes
to identify metal ions; clean the loop between tests
for accurate results.

331 Chemical Analysis

17.1 Knowledge
Key terms in Chemical Solutions
In the field of chemistry, the creation of chemical solutions and the
identification of substances are important processes that support
various scientific disciplines and practical applications. In the
previous chapter, you learned about analytical chemistry, which
focuses on the chemical characterization of substances through

om
quantitative and qualitative analysis. To understand the deep
concepts of separation of substances, you should learn some basic
concepts about solutions and related terminology. This will enhance Student Learning Outcomes
your knowledge and help you better understand the chemical Define important terms associated

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analysis of substances using different techniques such as filtration, with creating chemical solutions
crystallization, etc. We will discuss these concepts in the upcoming
section.
Solution

he
A solution is a mixture of two or more substances in which the
boundaries of the components can't be distinguished. This means that
a solution exists as one phase. For example, the air we breathe is a sugar water
lis
solution
solution of several gases, while sugar dissolved in water is an sugar
example of a liquid solution as shown in Figure 17.1. The easiest way
to differentiate between a solution and a pure liquid is by
Fig 17.1 Dissolving sugar in water
b
evaporation. A liquid that completely evaporates, leaving no
residue, is a pure compound. On the other hand, a liquid that leaves
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behind a residue upon evaporation is a solution.

Aqueous Solutions
An aqueous solution is a solution formed by dissolving a substance in
ab

water. Water is always present in greater amounts in aqueous

solutions and is referred to as the solvent. For example, sugar in water
(see Figure 17.1) and table salt in water. Aqueous solutions are
commonly used in laboratories. Water is known as a universal
nt

solvent because it can dissolve most of the compounds present in the

Earth's crust.
Solute
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A solute is a component of a solution that is present in a smaller

quantity. It is dissolved in a solvent to create a solution. For instance, salt water water
when salt is dissolved in water (as shown in Figure 17.2), the solution
salt
resulting solution is a salt solution, with salt being the solute and
water being the solvent. A solution may contain more than one solute.
For example, soft drinks contain water as the solvent and solutes such Fig 17.2 Dissolving table salt in water.
as sugar, salts, and CO2.

Chemical Analysis 332

 Solvent
In a solution, the component that is present in a larger quantity and
Solute
dissolves other substances is called a solvent. When there are more
than two substances present in a solution, one of them acts as the
Solvent
solvent while the others are called solutes. For example, in the above
figure water is the solvent, and substances like sugar, and salts, are
solutes.
water Saturated Solution
salt

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When a small amount of solute is added to a solvent, it dissolves very
easily. However, if more solute is added, a point will be reached
Solvent where the solvent can no longer dissolve any more solute. At this
stage, the additional solute will remain undissolved and settle at the
bottom of the container. To better understand this process, see the

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Figure 17.3
unsaturated A saturated solution is a solution that contains the maximum amount
solution
more solute
of solute at a given temperature. At the particle level, a saturated
solution is one in which undissolved solute is in equilibrium with

he
dissolves
supersaturated dissolved solute.
saturated solution added
solution no crystals grow
Solute (crystallizes) Solute (dissolved)
more solute
At this stage, a dynamic equilibrium is established. Although
lis
dissolves
Fig 17.3 Type of solution on the basis of dissolution and crystallization continue to occur at a given
concentration of solute. temperature, the net amount of dissolved solute remains constant.
Unsaturated Solution
b
A solution that cannot dissolve any more solute at a given
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temperature is called a saturated solution. If a solution contains less

+Heat
solute than required to saturate it, it is called an unsaturated solution.
saturated
solution supersaturated
Supersaturated Solution
Cooled solution When a saturated solution is heated, it can dissolve more solute than before,
Extra solute
ab

slowly
making it more concentrated. This type of solution is called a supersaturated
Fig 17.4 Supersaturated solution. solution. It contains a greater amount of solute than what is required to form
a saturated solution. For example, to create a salty solution, add salt to water
and mix until the salt completely dissolves. When no more salt is able to
nt

dissolve, it means that the solution is now saturated. To dissolve more salt,
Do you Know you can heat the water. When the amount of salt in the solution exceeds the
Aconcentration in a solution refers to how normal limit at that temperature, it is called a supersaturated solution as
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much of a substance is dissolved in a shown in figure 17.4.

certain amount of liquid. It's like how Solubility
strong or weak a flavor is in a drink. If you
Solubility is the amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 grams of a
add a lot of sugar to a glass of water, the
solvent to create a saturated solution at a specific temperature. The
solution has a high concentration of
concentration of a saturated s
sugar. But if you add just a little sugar, the
The solubility of solutes is affected by various factors, such as the principle
concentration is low. Concentration can
of "like dissolves like". Polar and ionic substances dissolve in polar
be measured in different ways, like how
solvents, such as water. For example, substances like KC1, Na2CO3, sugar,
many grams of solute are in a certain
and alcohol are all soluble in water. On the other hand, non-polar substances
volume of solvent

333 Chemical Analysis

do not dissolve in polar solvents. For instance, non-polar covalent Skill:17.1
compounds like ether and petrol are insoluble in water.olution is known as Key terms in Chemical Solutions
the solubility of the solute in a given solvent. Objective: Be able to suggest appropriate
Test your self separation and purification techniques
What is the solute in a solution? based on the properties of the substances
involved and their practical applications.
Define solvent and give an example.
Instructions: An activity-based
Define solubility with an example.
worksheet is attached to the QR code
What happens when a solution becomes saturated? provided at the beginning of this

om
knowledge section. Scan the code, read
17.2 Knowledge the worksheet, and complete it.

Methods of Separation and Purification

In the field of chemistry, the separation and purification of substances

r.c
are crucial processes that enable scientists to isolate and obtain pure
compounds from complex mixtures. Different methods are utilized
to achieve this objective, each customized to the specific properties
of the substances involved. Many mixtures contain useful substances

he
mixed with unwanted materials. To obtain these useful substances,
chemists often have to separate them from the impurities. Chemists Student Learning Outcomes
have developed various separation methods, particularly for Explain methods of separation and
isolating compounds from complex mixtures. The separation method purification (some examples include:
lis
a) using a suitable solvent
used depends on the mixture's composition and the properties of the
b) filtration c) Crystallization
substances present. It also depends on whether the substances to be d) simple distillation
separated are solids, liquids, or gases. e) Fractional distillation).
b
Methods of Purification Suggest suitable separation and
purification techniques, given
pu

The method of separation chosen depends on the characteristics of information about the substances
the substances being separated. Every technique relies on there being involved and their usage in daily life,
a difference in a physical property, such as boiling point, between the
elements being isolated.
ab

Mixtures of solids can be separated by utilizing their differences in

density, magnetic properties, sublimation, and solubility. When
using a difference in solubility, it is important to select a suitable
Magnet
nt

solvent
to ensure that the intended substance only dissolves in it and not other
substances or impurities. For example, you can use a magnet can be Iron filling Sand
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used to separate a mixture of magnetic iron filings and non-magnetic

sand as shown in Figure 17.5
When dealing with mixtures of liquids, it is sometimes necessary
to separate immiscible liquids. This can be done by using a separating
funnel or by carefully pouring the mixture from one container to
another. For example, if an organic product is formed in aqueous
conditions, it may be necessary to separate the two liquids based on Fig 17.5 separation of sand and salt
their nature. In this case-separating funnel can be used to separate water
kerosene and water as shown in figure 17.6.

Chemical Analysis 334

 Filtration.
When you strain a cup of tea using a tea strainer, you are essentially
Separating
Funnel filtering out any solid particles that might be present. Filtration is a
widely used separation technique in chemistry labs worldwide,
especially when there is a need to separate a solid from a liquid. For
Kerosene example, filtering a mixture of sand and water through filter paper, as
Oil shown in Figure 17.7, can help separate the sand from the liquid.

Water

om
Liquid and
insoluble solid

Stopcock
Filter Paper

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Fig 17.6 Separating funnel being used to Filter funnel
separate kerosene and water Filtered
solid (residue)

Key definition
Residue is a substance that remains after he
Filtered liquid
(filtrate)
lis
evaporation, distillation, filtration or any
similar process. A filtrate is a liquid or
solution that has passed through a filter.
b
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Fig 17.7 It is important when filtering not to overfill

A filtrate is a liquid or solution that has passed through a filter.The

filter paper contains holes that, although too small to be seen, are
ab

large enough to allow the molecules of water through but not the sand
particles. It acts like a sieve. The sand gets trapped in the filter paper
and the water passes through it. The sand is called the residue and the
water is called the filtrate.
nt

Evaporation
If a solid dissolves in a liquid, it cannot be separated by filtering. In
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such a case, the solution needs to be heated until the liquid

completely evaporates, leaving the solid behind. For example, the
easiest method to obtain salt from its solution is through slow
evaporation, as shown in Figure 17.8.
It may be necessary to choose a suitable solvent. For example, you
may have a mixture of substances of which one is soluble in water.
This would be the suitable solvent to separate the soluble substance.
Fig17.8 Apparatus used to slowly
evaporate a solvent.

335 Chemical Analysis

 Crystallization
In various regions around the globe, seawater is a major source of salt
extraction. This process involves utilizing the Sun's heat to evaporate
water and obtain a concentrated salt solution called brine. A saturated
solution refers to the highest possible concentration of a solute
dissolved in a solvent. It's crucial to keep in mind that the solubility of
a substance changes with temperature, resulting in varying
maximum concentrations at different temperatures. At higher
temperatures, more solutes can dissolve. Once the solution becomes

om
saturated, the salt will start to crystallize and can be removed using
Fig 17.9 Sea salt farming, the sea salt large scoops (as shown in Figure 17.9).
crystals that crystallize on the salt fields.

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Practical Activity of Crystallisation

copper(II) sulfate 1. Gently heat the copper (II) sulfate solution In an evaporating dish to evaporate
solution most of the liquid, until the solution is saturated. Stop heating the solution before
all the solvent has evaporated.

he
Evaporating
Dish
2. Cool the solution gradually until 2 the solid copper(II)
Saturated Solution
sulfate crystals appear within the solution.
lis
Copper(II)
Sulfate Crystals
Copper(II) sulfate
Crystals (residue)
b
3. Carefully pour the mixture (solution with the crystals)
through a funnel lined with filter paper to collect the solld
crystals. If more crystals are required, the filtrate is re-
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concentrated and re-crystallised (repeat steps 1 to 3).

Filter

Copper(II) Filter paper

4. The copper(II) sulfate crystals are washed 4 with
some cold distilled water to remove Impurities. They Sulfate crystals
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can be dried between a few sheets of filter paper.

Crystallisation of copper (II) sulfate

nt

Simple distillation
Distillation is a process that involves heating, evaporation, and
ca

condensation to separate a liquid from a solution. The solution is

heated, causing the liquid with the lower boiling point to evaporate
and leaving the solute with the higher boiling point behind. The
evaporated gas is then cooled and condensed back into a liquid,
which is collected.
Separating water from ink
Mixtures such as water and ink can be separated by distillation. The
mixture is heated to pure water's boiling point (100°C.

Chemical Analysis 336

 Cool water vapour
Boiling point condenses in the tube
(100°C/212°F)

3 Cool water is
pumped around a
2 Hot water liebig condenser
vapour rise tube to help the
through the hot water vapour
tube and cools cool and condense

om
4 Pure, clear runs
down the tube and
collects in the beakesr

water in
1 The mixture of water out

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water and link in
a flask is heated by
a bunsen burner

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b lis
Water has a lower
boiling point than
and evaporates
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into vapour
ab

Fractional distillation
The process of distillation is used to separate two or more liquids that
can mix with each other (e.g. ethanol and water in a mixture). The
solution is heated until it reaches the temperature of the substance
nt

with the lowest boiling point. This substance will evaporate first and
its vapors will pass through a condenser where they will cool and
condense to form a liquid that is collected in a beaker. The remaining
ca

components of the mixture are left behind as all of the substance

evaporates and is collected. In the case of a mixture of water and
ethanol, ethanol has a boiling point of 78ºC, and water has a boiling
point of 100ºC. The mixture is heated until it reaches 78ºC, at which
point the ethanol boils and distills out of the mixture, then condenses
into the beaker. Heating should be stopped when the temperature
starts to increase towards 100ºC, and the water and ethanol are now
separated. as shown in Figure 17.10

337 Chemical Analysis

 3. Ethanol vapour continues to rise. At 4. The hint ethanol vapour inols and
Thermometer
its bulling point of 78 °C, Il exits the condenses Into aliquid as it travels
columin through the siteam at the top. through the inner tube of the condenser.

water out

glass beads Condenser

om
fractionating column

2. Water lhas a higher bullng point

than ethanol. The water vapour
condenses on the coul surfaces within water in

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the ractionating column and the liquiit
Conical flask
water returns to the flank. (receiver)

water+
ethanol

he
found bottom flask Ethanol
(distillate)
boiling chips
1. At the solution is heated, hoth 5. Liquid ethanol (distillate) flows
ethanol and water vapour rise up into the conical Bask (receiver).
lis
the column.

Fig 17.10. Fractional distillation of a mixture of ethanol and water

b
Solvent Extraction
This technique involves using a solvent to extract a desired organic
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product from a reaction mixture. Different solvents can be used, but

the chosen solvent must have the following characteristics: - It
should not mix with the solvent containing the desired organic
product. - The desired organic product should be much more soluble
ab

than the added solvent.

The process can be summarized as follows
Place the reaction mixture in a separating funnel and add the
nt

chosen solvent so that a separate layer forms.

Place a stopper in the neck of the funnel and gently shake the
contents of the funnel for a while.
ca

Allow the contents of the funnel to settle into two layers.

Remove the stopper and open the tap to allow the lower layer to
drain into a flask.
Pour the remaining layer into a clean, dry conical flask and add
two spatulas of anhydrous magnesium sulfate to remove any
water.
Continue adding the magnesium sulfate until there is no further
clumping, then remove it by gravity filtration. See the figure 17.11
Chemical Analysis 338
 The stopcock The immiscible
is opened to liquids are allowed
to separate The stopper
release the
is removed
pressure

Organic
layer

om
Aqueous
layer

The separating funnel is

inverted and shaken several
times

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The blue liquid is more dense than the red Fig 17.11 Process of solvent extraction
liquid and so sinks to the bottom of the
separating funnel. When the tap is opened Chromatography
the blue liquid can be run off.

he
Chromatography is a technique used to separate soluble solids, like
mixtures of inks and dyes. This helps to identify the materials. There
are several types of chromatography, but all follow the same basic
principles. The simplest kind is paper chromatography. To separate
lis
Chromatography the different coloured dyes in a sample of black ink for instance, a
paper pencil line is drawn about 1cm from the bottom of a piece of
chromatography paper, which is called the baseline. It is important
b
not to use a pen to draw the baseline, as the dyes in its ink can interfere
with the results. A spot of ink is put onto the pencil line on the
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chromatography paper. This paper is then put into a suitable

container, such as a beaker, containing a suitable solvent. It is
important to ensure that the solvent level does not reach the pencil
Black ink spot
line, as shown in Figure 17.12. A lid is placed over the container to
ab

on the pencil
Before
baseline reduce the evaporation of the solvent.
nt

Dye R

Chromatography
paper
ca

Dye Q

Dye P

After Black ink spot

on the pencil Fig 17.12 (a). 2Chromatographic separation of black ink.
baseline
Fig 17.12 (b) The black ink separates into
three dyes: P, Q, and R

339 Chemical Analysis

As the solvent moves up the paper, the dyes are carried with it and
begin to separate. They separate because the substances have Watch glass
different solubilities in the solvent and are absorbed to different Solvent front
degrees by the chromatography paper. As a result, they are separated Beaker
Solvent soaks
gradually as the solvent moves up the paper. The chromatogram in up the paper
Figure 17.12(b shows how the ink contains three dyes, P, Q and R. Solvent
During
Chromatography is used extensively in medical research and
forensic science laboratories to separate a variety of mixtures.
Retardation Factor (Rf values)

om
solvent front
The Rf value is the ratio of the distance a substance moves to the
distance moved by the solvent. The distance is measured to the center
For substance Q:
of the spot, as shown in Figure 17.13. 4
Rf = = 0.8
distance moved by substance 5

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Rf = 5cm For substance P:
distance moved by solvent 4cm
3
3cm Rf = = 0.6
The Rf value for a substance is always the same in the same solvent. 5
However, substances will have different Rf values in different

he
solvents. Rf values can be used to identify substances. starting line
P Q
To summarize all the above techniques, please refer to Table 17.1
provided below." Fig 17.13 Finding Rf values.
lis
Separation Technique Principle Typical Applications

Separates insoluble solids from Used to separate sand from water or

b
Filtration liquids using a filter tea leaves from tea.
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Separates a solvent from a solute

Evaporation Used to obtain salt from seawater.
by evaporating the solvent.

Separates a liquid from a solution Used to separate pure water from

Simple Distillation
based on different boiling points. saltwater.
ab

Separates miscible liquids with Used to separate ethanol from water or

Fractional Distillation different boiling points. in petroleum refining.
nt

Separates substances based on Used in analysing coloured substances

Chromatography
their movement through a medium. or separating gases in the air.
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Test your self

Which method of separation involves using a filter to separate solid Skill:17.2
particles from a liquid? Methods of Separation and
How does crystallization separate substances in a mixture based on Purification
their solubility? Objective: Develop skills in setting up
and conducting experiments for
What is the process of separating a liquid mixture into its components
separation and purification, including the
based on their boiling points called?
use of apparatus for distillation, filtration,
Name a method used to separate a mixture of liquids with different and crystallization.
boiling points.

Chemical Analysis 340

 17.3 Knowledge
Assessing Purity
What is a pure substance?
In everyday language, we refer to a natural substance that has not
been mixed with anything else as a pure substance. For instance, pure
orange juice refers to the juice extracted from oranges without any
Student Learning Outcomes
additional colorings or sweeteners. Similarly, pure soap is soap
Identify substances and assess their

purity using melting point and boiling
point information
om
without any added perfumes, while milk is also considered a pure
substance as it is obtained directly from the cow without any
additives. However, scientists employ a different definition of pure,
and they do not consider the examples mentioned above to be pure
substances.

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A pure substance is a single element or compound. For example:
Diamond (C) is a pure substance because it contains only carbon
atoms.

he
Oxygen (O2) is a pure substance because it contains only oxygen
molecules.
Glucose (C6H12O6) is a pure substance because it contains only
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glucose molecules.
A mixture contains more than one substance. For example,
Orange juice is a mixture of water molecules, citric acid
b
molecules, vitamin C molecules, glucose molecules, etc.
(Figure 17.14).
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Soap is a mixture of several salts made from different fatty acids.

Milk is a mixture of several substances including water, animal
fats, emulsifiers, minerals, etc.
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Fig 17.14 A scientist would not
consider this orange juice to be 'pure.
nt
Mineral water is a mixture because it contains water molecules,
calcium ions, magnesium ions, nitrate ions, and many other
ions.
Air is a mixture because it contains nitrogen molecules, oxygen

molecules, argon atoms, etc

Melting and boiling points of pure substances and mixtures
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Pure substances have specific temperatures at which they melt and

boil. For instance, water boils at 100°C and melts at 0°C. During the
state change of a pure substance, the temperature remains constant at
these values. For example, while pure water is boiling, the
temperature remains at 100°C, and while it is freezing, the
temperature remains at 0°C. However, mixtures change their state
over a range of temperatures.

341 Chemical Analysis

 The car radiator contains a mixture of antifreeze
and water so that the mixture freezes below O°C.

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Salt is put on roads to create a mixture

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with water that freezes below 0°C.
Petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons that
boil over a range of temperatures from
about 60 to 100°C.

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Fig 17.15 Shows some everyday examples of this.
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Saltwater has a unique freezing and boiling point. It freezes at Do you Know?
temperatures below 0°C, usually between –5°C and –10°C, Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas,
b
depending on the amount of salt dissolved. This is why salt is added so it's hard to detect.
to roads during winter to prevent the formation of ice. The salt, which Oxygen is required for a substance to
pu

combust. You can test for the presence of

is contained in grit, prevents the water from freezing when the
oxygen by relighting a glowing splint.
temperature drops below 0°C. On the other hand, saltwater boils at
temperatures above 100°C, usually between 101°C and 103°C,
ab

depending on the amount of salt dissolved.

To prevent the water in car radiators from freezing in cold weather,
antifreeze is mixed with it. The melting point of antifreeze is -13°C,
antifreeze is mixed with it. The melting point of antifreeze is -13°C,
nt

while that of water is 0°C. The mixture usually has a melting point
range of -30°C to -40°C, depending on the amount of antifreeze used.
Petrol is a mixture of hydrocarbons that boils over a temperature
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range of approximately 60°C to 100°C. Although each individual

component in petrol possesses its own specific boiling point, the
mixture boils over a range of temperatures.
Skill:17.3
Test your self Assessing Purity
What is the melting point of a substance? Objective: Acquire the ability to perform
How does purity affect the melting point of a substance? specific tests to identify different gases
Define boiling point.
using appropriate indicators or reagents.
How can impurities influence the boiling point of a substance?
Why in cold winter antifreeze mixture is used in car radiator .

Chemical Analysis 342


Student Learning Outcomes
Describe tests to identify important
17.4 Knowledge
Identifying Gases:
Identifying gases is a crucial aspect of chemistry as it helps us
comprehend the composition and properties of different substances.
There are various tests used to identify common gases, and each test
utilizes specific reactions or changes that are unique to the gas being
identified. Below are the tests for some important gases:

gasses. Some examples include:
a) Ammonia NH3, using damp red litmus
paper
b) Carbon dioxide CO2, using limewater
c) Chlorine C12, using damp litmus paper
om
Testing for oxygen.
Oxygen is a gas that is both colorless and odorless. As a result,
detecting it can be difficult. However, it is essential for combustion to
occur, meaning that if a substance that can burn comes into contact
with more oxygen, it will burn even more easily and brightly. This

d) Hydrogen H2, using a lighted splint
e) Oxygen Co2, using a glowing splint
f) Sulfur dioxide SO2, using acidified
aqueous potassium manganate (VII)).
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property can be used to detect the presence of oxygen.
Setting up the experiment
Add 3 grams of manganese oxide to a conical flask. Measure 20 cm3

he
of hydrogen peroxide with a measuring cylinder. Connect the conical
flask to a basin of water using the two delivery tubes.
1. Pour 20 cm3 of clear hydrogen
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peroxide solution into the flask
4. Light a wooden splint, and blow
containing manganese oxide
it out to leave a glowing ember.
powder using the thistle funnel.
Quick- ly open the test tube and
place the splint into the test tube. If
b
oxygen was successfully collected,
the lit splint will re-ignite.
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Delivery tube 3. Oxygen gas is collected

over water in a test tube.
Repeat this step twice with
two other test tubes.
Thistle funnel
ab

Two-hole stopper
Wooden splint

2. Manganese oxide
powder inside conical
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flask reacts with hydrogen

peroxide solution.
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Trough filled with water Beehive shelf

Do you Know?
Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless,
and non-toxic gas. Carbon dioxide gas
extinguishes a lit splint, turns limewater
milky, or turns universal indicator red
upon reaction
343 Chemical Analysis
Test tube in rack
Testing for carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is non-toxic and
relatively unreactive. It can form a weakly acidic solution when
dissolved in water, and can be detected in the laboratory using
various methods.
Setting up the experiment Why test for oxygen?
Add calcium carbonate to a conical flask. Measure 50 cm3 of Testing for the presence of oxygen is
hydrochloric acid. Connect the conical flask to a basin of water using important, because oxygen-rich air is a
the two delivery tubes. fire hazard. Underground vaults, tunnels,
or sewers are confined spaces that may
have high levels of oxygen in the air.
Thistle Funnel People working in these spaces may
need to test for high oxygen levels to
Stand confirm these spaces are safe to work in.

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Cork Delivery tube

Test tube

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Carbob dioxide gas

Ethanoic acid Test tube

Calcium

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hydroxide
solution
Sodium
carbonate
b lis
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Splint Limewater Universal indicator

Place a lit splint in one of the test tubes, Add limewater using a pipette to one Add five drops of universal indicator
nt

and the carbon dioxide gas will of the test tubes and shake well. to one of the test tubes and shake well.
extinguish it. Carbon dioxide will turn the limewater Carbon dioxide is slightly acidic, so it
milky. will turn red.
ca

Testing for hydrogen Do you Know?

Hydrogen (H2) is a non-toxic, colorless, and odorless gas. It is highly Hydrogen is a non-toxic, colourless, and
explosive, so testing for its presence in the laboratory must be odourless gas.
Hydrogen can react explosively with
conducted carefully, following safety procedures. other elements such as oxygen.
Setting up the experiment Hydrogen can be detected in the lab by
Add zinc to a conical flask. Measure 50 cm3 of hydrochloric acid. listening for a squeaky “pop” when a lit
splint is placed near hydrogen gas.
Connect the conical flask to a basin of water using the two delivery
tubes.

Chemical Analysis 344

 Setting up the experiment Add calcium carbonate to
a conical flask. Measure 50 cm³ of hydrochloric
1. Pour 50 cm³ of hydrochloric
acid. Connect the conical flask to a basin of water
acid using the thistle funnel into
using the two delivery tubes.
the conical flask containing
calcium carbonate.
3. Carbon dioxide gas is collected
over water in an upside down test
tube, Repeat this step twice with
two other test tubes.
2. Calcium carbonate

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reacts with hydrochloric
acid, producing carbon
dioxide gas.

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Testing for Ammonia

Testing for ammonia
Ammonia gas smells really bad and is
dangerous for your eyes. If you hold
b
damp red litmus paper over a test tube
containing ammonia, it will turn blue. Be
pu
he
Ammonia is a colorless gas with a very pungent smell. It turns blue in
an alkaline environment and can turn damp red litmus paper into
blue.
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Testing for Sulfur dioxide
One standard method to detect the presence of Sulphur dioxide gas
(SO2) is by using Aqueous Potassium Permanganate (KMnO2). To
perform this test:
Pour 20cm3 of sulphuric acid into a conical flask containing

sure to follow safety procedures when

carrying this experiment out. sodium sulphite using a thistle funnel.
As the reaction between sulphuric acid and sodium sulphite
occurs, sulfur dioxide gas is released, according to the following
ab

equation:
Na2SO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O+SO2
Dilute a small amount of KMnO4 in water to make a light purple
nt

solution.
Litmus Bubble the SO2 gas through the KMnO4 solution using a gas
paper delivery tube.
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Test 5 As the SO2 gas reacts with the KMnO4 solution, the purple
solution colour of the solution will fade and eventually become
colourless.
Bunsen burner

345 Chemical Analysis

 1. Pour 50 cm3 of
hydrochloric acid using
the thistle funnel inta the
conical flask containing
zinc.
4. Light a wooden splint. Quickly open
the test tube and place the splint into the
test tube. If hydrogen was successfully
collected, the lit splint will audibly "pop".

3. Hydrogen gas is collected over

water in a test tube. Repeat this step
twice with two other test tubes.

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2. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric add, praducing hydrogen gas.

Here a summary table is given to enhance your knowledge.

Gas

Ammonia
Colour and Smell

Colourless, pungent
he Test
Hold damp red Imus
paper in gas
Test Result

Paper turns blue

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Colourless, odourless Bubblegas through White ppt
Carbon dioxide Imewater
b
Pale groen, choking Hold damp litmus paper Paperisbleached white
Chloride
smell ingas
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Hold a lighted splint in Burns with a squeaky

Hydrogen Colourless, odourless
gas pop

Oxygen Colourless, odourless Hold a glowing splint in The splint re-lights

gas
ab

Bubble gas through

acidified aqueous Potassium manganate
Sulfur Dioxide Colourless, choking smell (VII) change from
potassium manganate
(VII) purple to colourless
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Test your self

What color change occurs when damp red litmus paper is exposed to
ca

ammonia (NH3)? Skill:17.4a

How limewater can be used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide Identifying Gases
(CO2). Objective: Be capable of interpreting
What is the expected reaction when chlorine (Cl2) comes into contact data from experiments, such as changes
with damp litmus paper? in temperature, color, or the formation of
precipitates, to conclude the identity and
What observation indicates the presence of oxygen (O2) when using a
purity of substances.
glowing splint?
How does acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) react with
sulfur dioxide (SO2)?

Chemical Analysis 346

 17.5 Knowledge
Understanding the Flame Test.
Elements in the same group of the periodic table share similar
chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons
in their outermost shell or valence shell. This common electronic
configuration determines how these elements react and bond with
other substances, leading to similarities in their chemical behavior
and reactivity.

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Student Learning Outcomes
Explain the use of a flame test to identify Test your self
important cations. Some examples What color change occurs when damp red litmus paper is exposed to
include: ammonia (NH3)?
a) Lithium Li+ b) Sodium Na+ How limewater can be used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide
+
c) Potassium K

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2+
(CO2).
d) Calcium Ca e) Copper(II) Cu2+ What is the expected reaction when chlorine (Cl2) comes into contact
2+
f) Barium Ba with damp litmus paper?
What observation indicates the presence of oxygen (O2) when using a
Skill:17.4b glowing splint?

Identifying Gases
Objective: Use knowledge of separation
techniques and tests for gases to solve
practical problems or explain everyday
phenomena related to chemical solutions
and reactions.
b
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he
How does acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) react with sulfur
dioxide (SO2)?
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The flame test is a straightforward and efficient analytical technique
employed in chemistry for detecting the existence of specific metal
ions based on the unique colors they give off when heated in a flame.
This method is particularly useful for identifying alkali and alkaline
earth metals that are well-known for their distinctive flame colors.

Fact Here is a step-by-step guide on how to perform a flame test:

Some ions may produce the same colour in Clean the wire loop by dipping it in hydrochloric acid.
the flames, in this case, a different test can Moisten the clean wire loop with distilled water, then dip it into the
be used
powdered metal salt sample.
ab

Carefully place the wire loop in the blue part of a Bunsen burner's
flame.
Falme test Metal Ions Observe the color of the flame produced when the sample is
introduced.
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Metal Ion Flame Colour

Different metal ions produce different colors. See the table for some
Potassium(K+) Lilac examples:
Sodium (Na+): Bright yellow
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Sodium(Na+) Yellow
Calcium (Ca2+): Orange-red
Lithium(Li+) Srimson Lithium (Li+): Crimson.
Calcium(Ca²+) Red Potassium (K+): Lilac
Copper (Cu2+): Blue-green.
Copper(II) Cu²+) Blue Green Barium (Ba2+): Pale green.
Barium(Ba²+ Plae green Clean the wire loop before testing the next sample to
contamination.

347 Chemical Analysis

 Skill:17.6
Objective: Learn how to safely conduct a
flame test by using a platinum or
nichrome wire loop, cleaning the loop
between tests, and observing the color of

om
the flame when a sample is introduced.

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Ba2+ Sr2+ Li1+ Na+ Cu2+ K+
(Barium) (Strontium) (Lithium) (Sodium) (Copper) (Potassium)

he
b lis
pu
ab

Test your self

Skill:17.5
Understanding the Flame Test What is the purpose of the flame test experiment?
nt

Objective: Conduct a flame test using a
clean platinum or nichrome wire loop,
observing flame color changes to identify
metal ions; clean the loop between tests
ca
Can you recall the flame color produced by sodium ions?
why do different metal ions produce different flame colors?
What safety precautions should be taken when conducting the flame

test?
for accurate results.
Apply your knowledge to predict the flame color for barium ions.
Evaluate the limitations of the flame test in identifying metal ions.
Judge the effectiveness of the flame test in distinguishing between
different metals.
Determine the practical applications of the flame test in real-world
scenarios.
Construct a chart that categorizes different metal ions based on their
flame colors

Chemical Analysis 348

 Chemical Solutions Terms: Define essential terminology like solvent , solute and solution etc.
Separation Methods: Use solvent, filtration, crystallization, distillation.
Technique Selection: Choose methods based on substance properties.
Purity Assessment: Identify substances by melting/boiling points.
Gas Tests:NH3: Damp red litmus turns blue. CO2: Cloudy limewater.
Cl2: Bleaches litmus. H2: "Pop" with a lighted splint.
O2: Relights a glowing splint. SO2: Decolorizes potassium manganate (VII).

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Flame Tests for Cations:
Li+: Crimson flame. Na+: Yellow flame.
K+: Lilac flame. Ca2+: Orange-red flame.
Cu2+: Green-blue flame. Ba2+: Green flame.

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Exercise
A detailed summary, chapter
roadmap, multiple projects,
and extensive exercises are
A Encircle the most suitable answer. accessible via QR code.

1
a)
c)
Filtration
Simple distillation he
Which method of separation is most suitable for separating a mixture of salt and water?
b) Crystallization
d) Fractional distillation
lis
2+
2 The flame test for calcium (Ca ) produces a color of:
a) Red b) Yellow c) Orange d) Brick red
b
3 Which gas turns damp red litmus paper blue?
a) Ammonia (NH3) b) Carbon dioxide O2)
pu

c) Chlorine (Cl2) d) Hydrogen (H2)

4 The boiling point of a substance can be used to:
a) Determine its purity ` b) Identify its color
ab

c) Measure its volume d) Calculate its density

5 Which method is used to separate a mixture of two or more liquids with different boiling points?
a) Filtration b) Crystallization
nt

c) Simple distillation d) Fractional distillation

+
6 The flame test for sodium (Na ) produces a color of:
a) Red b) Yellow c) Lilac d) Green
ca

7 Which gas turns limewater milky?

a) Ammonia (NH3) b) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
c) Chlorine (Cl2) d) Hydrogen (H2)
2+
8 The flame test for copper(II) (Cu ) produces a color of:
a) Blue-green b) Yellow c) Red d) Orange
9 A substance that has a sharp melting point is likely to be:
a) Impure b) Pure c) A mixture d) A compound

349 Chemical Analysis

B Answer the following short question briefly.
1 Define the term "solvent" in the context of chemical solutions.
2 What is the purpose of filtration in separation techniques?
3 Describe the process of crystallization and its applications.
4 How does simple distillation differ from fractional distillation?
Detailed Glossary,
5 Suggest a suitable separation technique for a mixture of oil and water. Credits Biblography
6 How can the purity of a substance be assessed using its boiling point? are available in this
QR Code
7 Describe the test for identifying ammonia gas.
8 What color does carbon dioxide turn limewater?

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9 Explain the significance of the flame test in identifying cations.
10 Describe the appearance of the flame test for sodium (Na+).
11 How can sulfur dioxide (SO2) be identified using acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII)?
12 Discuss the importance of assessing the purity of substances in chemical analysis.

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D Answer the following long question briefly.

1 Describe the various methods of separation and purification of substances, providing examples for each
method.

he
2 Explain the principles behind the flame test and how it can be used to identify different cations, including
the expected colors for specific cations.
3 Discuss the importance of melting point and boiling point in determining the purity of substances and
provide examples of how these properties can be used in chemical analysis.
lis
4 Describe the tests for identifying important gases such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen,
oxygen, and sulfur dioxide, including the expected outcomes for each test.
5 Discuss the significance of using suitable solvents in separation techniques and provide examples of how
b
different solvents are selected based on the properties of the substances involved.
pu

C Reason-Assertion type questions

In each of the following questions, two statements are given, one labelled as Assertion (A) and the other as
Reason (R). Examine the statements carefully and mark the correct answer according to the instructions
given below:
ab

(a) If both A and R are correct and R is the correct reason for A
(b) If both A and R are correct but R is not the reason for A
(c) If A is correct and R is wrong
(d) If A is wrong and R is correct
nt

1. Assertion (A): Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from a solute.

Reason (R): It relies on the difference in boiling points between the solvent and the solute.
2. Assertion (A): Sulfur dioxide (SO2) turns acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII) from purple
ca

to colorless.
Reason (R): SO2 is a reducing agent that reduces MnO4– to Mn2+.
3. Assertion (A): The flame test for lithium (Li+) produces a red color.
Reason (R): The energy absorbed by the electrons of lithium ions causes them to emit light in the red
region of the spectrum when they return to their ground state.
4. Assertion (A): Filtration is used to separate a solid from a liquid in a heterogeneous mixture. Reason
Reason (R): The solid particles are trapped by the filter paper while the liquid passes through.
5. Assertion (A): Chlorine (Cl2) turns damp litmus paper from blue to red and then bleaches it. Reason
Reason (R): Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent that first acidifies the litmus paper and then
oxidizes the dye, resulting in bleaching.

Chemical Analysis 350

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CHEMISTRY SSC–I
SECTION–A (Marks 12) Time allowed: 20 Minutes

he
Section – A is compulsory. All parts of this section are to be answered on this page and handed over to the
Centre Superintendent. Deleting/overwriting is not allowed. Do not use lead pencil.
Q.1 Fill the relevant bubble for each part. All parts carry one mark.
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i. Which of the following steps in the scientific method involves formulating a clear and specific hypothesis
based on observations and background knowledge?
A. Analysis B. Hypothesis
b
C. Conclusion D. Experimentation
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ii. Analyze the concept of an element. What distinguishes it from compounds and mixtures?
A. Consists of multiple types of atoms B. Comprises different molecules
C. Composed of only one type of atom D. Demonstrates variable properties
ab

iii. Which property allows metals to be drawn into wires?

A. High melting point B. Low electrical conductivity
C. Ductility D. malleability
+ 2–
iv. Given the ions Na and SO4 , what is the formula of the resulting ionic compound?
nt

A. NaSO4 B. Na2SO4
C. Na3SO4 D. Na4SO4
ca

–
v. In the reaction Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu, which specie undergoes reduction?
A. Fe B. Cu
C. SO42– D. FeSO4
vi. What happens to the energy when bonds are broken in a chemical reaction?
A. Always absorbed B. Always released
C. Either absorbed or released D. Transformed into light
vii. How does an increase in temperature affect an exothermic reaction at equilibrium?
A. Shifts towards reactants. B. Shifts towards products.
C. Stops the reaction. D. Has no effect
viii. The reaction of an acid with a metal carbonate typically produces:
A. Hydrogen gas B. A salt and water
C. A salt, water, and carbon dioxide D. A salt and hydrogen gas
ix. The element with the electronic configuration [Ar]4s2 3d10 4p4 is in which period of the periodic table?
A. Period 3 B. Period 4

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C. Period 5 D. Period 6
2+
x. The flame test for calcium (Ca ) produces a color of:
A. Red B. Yellow
C. Orange D. Brick red

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xi. A friend claims that eating only protein and avoiding other food groups is a healthy way to lose
weight. Why is this statement incorrect?
A. Proteins are the only source of energy for the body.
B. All other food groups lack essential nutrients needed for good health.

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C. Consuming excess protein can put strain on the kidneys.
D. Avoiding carbohydrates makes it impossible to lose weight
xii. In a substitution reaction involving alkanes and chlorine, the product of mono substitution is:
lis
A. An alkene B. An alkyl hloride
C. An alcohol D. An aldehyde
b
Federal Board SSC-I Examination Chemistry Model Question Paper
Time allowed: 2.40 hours Total Marks: 53
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Note: Answer all parts from Section ‘B’ and all questions from Section ‘C’ on the E-sheet. Write your
answers on the allotted/given spaces
SECTION – B (Marks 33)
(11× 3 = 33)
ab

Q.2 Attempt all parts from the following. All parts carry equal marks.
i. Compare and contrast the roles of science, technology, and engineering in addressing environmental
issues. Provide specific examples related to Environmental Chemistry. (1+1+1)
OR
nt

How do "physical chemistry" and "analytical chemistry" can be used in conjunction to study the
properties and behaviour of a complex material, using an example. (1+2)
ii. Define the term "allotropic forms" and provide two examples of elements that exhibit allotropy. (2+1)
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OR
Compare and contrast the properties of protons, neutrons, and electrons in terms of their charge, mass,
and location within the atom. (3)
iii. How can you differentiate between ionic and covalent compounds based on their bonding? (1.5+1.5)
OR
Aspirin (C9H8O4) has a molar mass of 180.14 g/mol. How many moles of aspirin are present in 500 mg
of aspirin? (3)
iv. Why the oxidation number of elements in their free state is zero. How this concept is applied in
determining oxidation numbers. OR (2 + 1)
 How does enthalpy change relate to the energies absorbed and released during bond breaking and bond
forming? (1.5+1.5)
v. How reversible reactions may not go to completion. Provide an example to illustrate this idea. (2+1)
OR
What is a weak base, and how does its dissociation differ from that of a strong base? Provide an
example of a weak base. (1+1+1)
vi. What is ionization energy and how does it vary in the periodic table? (2+1)
OR
How can the electronic configuration of an element help determine its block in the periodic table?

om
Justify with example (2.5+0.5)
vii. Francium (Fr) is the most reactive element in Group I. Why Francium is likely to have the lowest
melting point among all Alkali Metals. OR (2+1)
How does methane contribute to global warming, and what role do oxides of nitrogen play in the
formation of photochemical smog? (1.5+1.5)

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viii. Why are some naturally occurring substances in water considered beneficial? (3)
OR
What are the components of NPK fertilizers and their roles in plant growth? (1+2)
ix. What are the products of the complete combustion of alkanes? Wrote symbolic equation. (2+1)

he
OR
Name the four main biomolecules and their primary function (1.5+1.5)
x. What are the benefits of consuming a diet rich in fruits and vegetables (3)
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OR
How does the prefix "kilo" affect the magnitude of a unit, and why are cm³, g, and s considered practical
units in the laboratory? . (1.5+1.5)
b
xi. The given flow chart illustrates the aerobic respiration. Answer the questions related to it: (1.5+1.5)
OR
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Why ATP is important for the cell? Give the complete name of ATP. (2+1)
SECTION – C (Marks 20)
Note: Attempt all questions. Marks of each question are given within brackets.
3. Differentiate between solutions, colloids, and suspensions as types of mixtures and provide examples of
ab

each. (2+2+2) OR
Positively charged particles move with the electric field, while negatively charged particles move against
it; these behaviors correlate with the formation of ions through electron gain or loss. (4+2)
nt

4. What are the type of bonds responsible for the formation of CH4, O2 and N2? Explain the formation of
bond with the help of structures. OR (2+2+2)
Relate Avogadro's number and moles to dozens and gross, explaining how chemists use moles for
ca

calculations. Give an example where knowing moles is crucial in a chemical reaction. (3 + 3)

5. Define the term "corrosion" and provide examples of methods used to prevent corrosion, mentioning
both barrier methods and sacrificial protection OR (4)
Define acid rain and its effects on the environment, and strategies to reduce its impact. (1+3)
6. Discuss the trends in ionization energy, and electronegativity across periods and down groups in the
periodic table. Provide examples to illustrate these trends. OR (2+2)
Describe the preparation of alkanes using methods such as the cracking of larger hydrocarbons, and
hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes. (2+2)
ca
nt
ab
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ish
er
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