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QUESTION AND ANSWER SET OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 1. How data dictionary can be used during software development?(May06-5Marks) Data Dictionary a) Data dictionary are integral components of structured analysis; since data flow diagrams by themselves do not fully describe a subject of the investigation. b) A data dictionary is a catalog-a repository of the element in the system. c) In data dictionary one will find a list of all the elements composing the data flowing through a system. The major elements are Data flows Data stores Processes d) The dictionary is developed during data flows analysis and assist the analysis Involved in determining system requirements and its content are used during System design as well. e) The data dictionary contains the following description about the data: The name of the data element. The physical source/ Destination name. The type of the data element. The size of data element. Usage such as input or output or update etc Reference(/s) of DFD process nos, where used. Any special information useful for system specification such as validation rules etc. f) this is appropriately called as system development data dictionary, Since it is created during the system development, facilitating the development functions, used by the developers and is designed for the developers information needs in mind. g) for every single data element mentioned in the DFD there should be at least one and only one unique data element in the data dictionary. h) the type of data elements is considered as numeric, textual or image, audio etc i) usage should specify whether the referenced DFD process uses it as input data(only read) or creates data output (e.g Insert) or update. j) a data element can be mentioned with reference to multiple DFD processes but in that case if the usages are different , then there should be one entry for each usage. k) the data dictionary is used as an important basic information during the development stages. l) Importance of data dictionary: To manage the details in large system. To communicate a common meaning for all system elements. To document the features of the system. To facilitate analysis of the details in order to evaluate characteristics and determine where system changes should be made. To locate errors and omissions in the system. m) Points to be considered while constructing a data dictionary Each unique data flow in the DFD must have one data dictionary entry. There is also a data dictionary entry for each data store and process. Definition must be readily accessible by name. There should be no redundancy or unnecessary definition in the data definitions. It must also be simple to make updates. The procedures for writing definitions should be straightforward but specific there should be only one way of defining words.

2. Under what circumstances or for what purposes would one use an interview rather than other data collection methods?Explain (May06-12Marks) OR Discuss hoe interview technique can be used to need of a new system(May-03) a) Interview is a fact finding technique whereby the system analyst collects information from individuals through face to face interaction. b) there are two types of interviews: a. Unstructured interviews: this is an interview that is conducted with only a general goal or subject in mind and with few, if any specific questions. b. Structured interviews: This is an interview in which the interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask of the interviewee. c) unstructured interviews tend to involve asking open ended questions while structured interviews tend to involve asking more close ended questions. d) ADVANTAGES: a) Interviews gives the analyst an opportunity to motivate the interviewee to respond freely and openly to questions. b) Interviews allow the system analyst to probe for more feedback from the interviewee. c) Interviews permit the system analyst to adapt or reword questions for each individual. d) A good system analyst may be able to obtain information by observing the interviewees body movements and facial expressions as well as listening to verbal replies to questions. e) this technique is advised in the following situations:a) Where the application system under consideration is highly specific to the user organization. b) When the application system may not very specialize but the practices followed this organization may be specific. c) The organization does not have any documentation where the part of information requirements are documented or any such documentation is irrelevant or not available or cannot be shared with developers due to privacy issues etc. d) The organization is not decided on the details of the practices, the new application system would demand or would be used to implement new practices but want to decided when responding to the information requirements determination . f) A structured interview meeting is useful in the following situation:a) When the development team and the user team members know the broad system environment with high familiarity. This reduces the amount of communication to significantly to just a few words or a couple of sentences. b) Responding to the questions involves collecting data from different sources or person and/or analyzing it and/or making the analysis ready for discussion at the meeting, in order to save on the duration of meeting. c) The costly communication media such as international phone/ conference call are to be used. d) Some of all of the members of the user team represent the top management or external consultants or specialist. g) A semi structured interview meeting is useful in the following situations :a) Usually in the initial stage of information requirements determination, the users and the developers need to exchange significant amount of basic information. The structured interview meetings may not be effective here since there is not enough information to ask questions of importance. b) Also very initially or with the new organization,the personal meetings are important because ,they help the development team not only in knowing the decisions but also in understanding the decision making process of the organization ,the role of every user team members in the decision and their organizational and personal interests. These observations during the meetings can help the software development team significantly in future communications. c) When the new application system is not a standard one and /or the users follow radically different or highly specialized business practices ,then it is very difficult to predict which questions are important from the point of determining the information requirements. d) When the members of the development team expects to participate in formulating some new information requirements or freezing them, as an advisor, say then interview meeting has to be personal and therefore, semi structured.

e) If the users are generally available , located very close and the number of top management users or external consultant is nil or a negligible issue, then the personal meeting are conducted. f) When there are no warranted reasons that only the structured interviews only the structured interviews only are to be conducted. 3. Describe steps in SDLC model with an example(Nov-03,May-06,Sies- 04,Dec-04) The steps in SDLC model are listed as follows a) System analysis:It is a set of activity in which the system analyst gathers the information requirements of the users, analyses them systematically in the form of functionality of the application system, the input data requirement and their sources the output data and their presentation requirements. The system analyst gathers data about the performance expectations of the users such as expected response time the total turn around time etc. the system analyst finally prepares a document called as system requirement specification(SRS) which documents all the agreements reached between the users and the system analyst. b) System design:It involves preparing the blue print of the new software system. Taking the SRS as a base to start with it prepares various diagrammatic representations of the logical and physical artifacts to be developed during the software development stages to follow. The major artifacts include data models, process models and presentation model. finally the system design is documented c) Coding or Construction:This involves programming and testing individual programs on the basis of the design document. The developers responsible for programming also creates text data sets for inputs and verifies that the program generate the expected output for these inputs data sets the individual program are also reviewed to ensure that they meet programming standard as expected by the users. This is the only face where the conceptual system is first translated into a computer executable program sources. d) Testing:It is to demonstrate to the development team members that the software system works exactly to meet the user expectation of information requirements as well as the performance expectation . it involves planning the testing creating the text data executing text runs matching the text results with the expected results, analyzing the differences fixing the bugs and testing the bug fixing repeatedly until a satisfactory number of mismatches are removed. e) Implementation:It involves installing the software system on the user computer system conducting user trained on new software system data preparations parallel running and going live as core activities. This is the stage where the software system is first transferred to the users premises and the users get a chance to work on the new software system for the first time. Also it involves the most important step of user acceptance testing which marks the technical and commercial milestone of the software development project f) Maintenance:It involves maintaining the software system always up to date to ensure that it is in the line with current information requirements considering even the latest changes in the same. It helps keep the software system up to date thereby ensuring the users high return on their investment at operational level of the business. The developer analyses the changes in the light of the latest changes in the design identifies the new changes in the system design, verify quickly that it works as expected. E.G :- the library management system done as the assignment.

04). Typically, they include the capabilities to produce data flow diagrams, data structure diagrams, and program structure charts. These high-level tools are essential for support of structured analysis mythology and CASE tools incorporate structured analysis extensively. They support the capability to draw diagram in chart and to store the details internally. When changes must be made the nature of changes is described to the system which can then withdraw the entire diagram automatically. The ability to change and redraw eliminates an activity that analyst finds both tedious and undesirable.

Centralized Information Repository A centralized information repository or data dictionary aides the capture analysis processing and distribution of all system information. The dictionary contains the details system components such as data items, data flows and processes and also includes information describing the volumes and frequency of each activities. While dictionary are designed so that the information is easily accessible. They also includes built-in control and safeguards to preserve the accuracy and consistency of the system details. The use of authorization levels process validation and procedures for testing consistency of the description ensures that access to definitions and the revisions made to them in the information repository occur properly according to the prescribed procedures.

Interface Generators System interfaces are the means by which users interact with an application, both to enter information and data and to receive information. Interface generator provides the capability to prepare mockups and prototypes of user interfaces. Typically the support the rapid creation of demonstration system menus, presentation screens and report layouts. Interfaces generators are an important element for application prototyping, although they are useful with all developments methods.

Code Generators: Code generators automated the preparations of computer software. They incorporate method that allows the conversion of system specifications into executable source code. The best generator will produce the approximately 75 percent of the source code for an application. The rest must be written by hand. The hand coding as this process is termed, is still necessary. Because CASE tools are general purpose tools not limited any specific area such as manufacturing control, investment portfolio analysis, or accounts management, the challenge of fully automating software generation is substantial.

The greatest benefits accrue in the code generator are integrated with the central information repository such as combination achieved objective of creating reusable computer code. When specification change code can be regenerated by feeding details from data dictionary through the code generators. The dictionary contents can be reused to prepare the executable code.

Management Tools: CASE systems also assist project manager in maintaining efficiency and effectiveness throughout the application development process. The CASE components assist development manager in the scheduling of the analysis and designing activities and allocation of resources to different project activities. Some CASE systems support the monitoring of project development schedules against the actual progress as well as the assignments of specific task individuals. Some CASE management tools allow project managers to specify custom elements. For example, they can select the graphic symbols to describe process, people, department, etc.

4. What is cost benefit analysis? Describe any two methods of performing same(May06,May-04). Cost -benefit analysis: Cost benefit analysis is a procedure that gives the picture of various costs, benefits, and rules associated with each alternative system. The cost benefit analysis is a part of economic feasibility study of a system. The basic tasks involved in cost-benefit analysis are as follows: To compute the total costs involved. To compute the total benefits from the project. Top compare to decide, if the project provides more net gains or no net gains.

Procedure for cost and benefit determination: The determination of costs and benefits entails the following steps Identify the costs and benefits pertaining to a given project. Categorize the various costs and benefits for analysis. Select a method for evaluation. Interpret the result of the system. Take action. Costs and benefits are classified are classified as follows: i. Tangible or intangible cost and benefits: Tangibility refers to the ease with which costs or benefits can be measured. The following are the examples of tangible costs and benefits: Purchase of hardware or software.(tangible cost) Personnel training.(tangible cost) Reduced expenses.(tangible benefit) Increased sales. (tangible benefit) Costs and benefits that are known to exist but whose financial value cannot be accurately measured are referred to as intangible costs and benefits. The following are the examples of intangible costs and benefits: Employee morale problems caused by a new system.(intangible cost) Lowered company image. (intangible cost) Satisfied customers. (intangible benefit) Improved corporate image. (intangible benefit) ii. Direct or Indirect costs and benefits: Direct costs are those with which a money figure can be directly associated in a project. They are directly applied to a particular operation. Direct benefits can also be specifically attributable to a given project. The following are the examples: The purchase of a box of diskettes for 35$ is a direct cost. A new system that can handle 25% more transaction per day is a direct benefit. Indirect costs are the results of operation that are not directly associated with a given system or activity. They are often referred to as overhead. Indirect benefits are realized as a by-product of another activity or system.

iii. Fixed or variable costs and benefits: Fixed costs are sunk costs. They are constant and do not change. Once encountered, they will not recur. For example: straight-line depreciation of hardware, exempt employee salary. Fixed benefits are also constant and do not change. For example: A decrease in the number of personnel by 20% resulting from the use of a new computer. Variable costs are incurred on a regular basis. They are usually proportional to work volume and continue as long as the system is in operation. For example: The costs of computer forms vary in proportion to amount of processing or the length of the reports required. Variable benefits are realized on a regular basis. For example: Consider a safe deposit tracking system that saves 20 minutes preparing customer with manual system. The following are the methods of performing cost and benefit analysis: Net benefit analysis. Present value analysis. Payback analysis. Break-even analysis. Cash flow analysis. Return on investment analysis. Net benefit analysis Net benefit analysis simply involves subtracting total costs from total benefits. It is easy to calculate, easy to interpret and easy to present. The main drawback is that it does not account for the time value of money and does not discount future cash flow. The time value of money is usually expressed in form of interest on the funds invested to realize the future value. Assuming compounded interest, the formula is: F = P (1 + i)n Where F= Future value of an investment. P= Present value of the investment. I = Interest rate per compounding year. N = Number of years . Present value analysis In developing long-term projects, it is often difficult to compare todays costs with the full value of tomorrows benefits. The time value of money allows for interest rates, inflation and other factors that alter the value of the investment. Present value analysis controls for these problems by calculating the costs and benefits of the system in terms of todays value at the investment and then comparing across alternatives. Present value = future value ---------------(1+i)n Net present value is equal to discounted benefits minus discounted costs.

Explain the concept of Normalization with examples. why would you denormilzation? (May-04) Normalization: Normalization is a process of simplifying the relationship between data elements in a record. Through normalization a collection of data in a record structure is replaced by successive record structures that are simpler and more predictable and therefore more manageable. Normalization is carried out for four reasons: To To To To structure the data so that any pertinent relationships between entities can be represented. permit simple retrieval of data in response to query and report requests. simplify the maintenance of the data through updates, insertions, and deletions. reduce the need to restructure or reorganize data when new application requirement arise.

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A great deal of research has been conducted to develop methods for carrying out the normalization. Systems Analysts should be familiar with the steps in normalization, since this process can improve the quality of design for an application. 1. Decompose all data groups into two- dimensional records. 2. Eliminate any relationships in which data elements do not fully depend on the primary key of the record. 3. Eliminate any relationships that contain transitive dependencies. There are three normal forms. Research in database design has also identified other forms, but they are beyond what analysts use in application design. First Normal Form: First normal form is achieved when all repeating groups are removed so that a record is of fixed length. A repeating group, the reoccurrence of a data item or group of data items within a record is actually another relation. Hence, it is removed from the record and treated as an additional record structure, or relation. Consider the information contained in a customer order: order number, customer name, customer address, order date, as well as the item number, item description, price and quantity of the item ordered. Designing a record structure to handle an order containing such data is not difficult. The analyst must consider how to handle the order. The order can be treated as four separate records with the order and customer information included in each record. However it increases complexity of changing the details of any part of the order and uses additional space. Another alternative is to design the record to be of variable length. So when four items are ordered, the item details are repeated four times. This portion is termed as repeating group. First normal form is achieved when a record is designed to be of fixed length. This is accomplished by removing the repeating and creating a separate file or relation containing the repeating group. The original record and the new records are interrelated by a common data item. Second Normal Form: Second normal form is achieved when a record is in first normal form and each item in the record is fully dependent on the primary record key for identification. In other words, the analyst seeks functional dependency. For example: State motor vehicle departments go to great lengths to ensure that only one vehicle in the state is assigned a specific license tag number. The license number is uniquely identifies a specific vehicle; a vehicles serial number is associated with one and only one state license number. Thus if you know the serial number of a vehicle, you can determine the state license number. This is functional dependency. In contrast, if a motor vehicle record contains the name of all individuals who drive the vehicle, functional dependency is lost. If we know the license number, we do not know who the driver is there can be many. And if we know the name of the driver, we do not know the specific license number or vehicle serial number, since a driver can be associated with more than one vehicle in the file. Thus to achieve second normal form, every data item in a record that is not dependent on the primary key of the record should be removed and used to form a separate relation. Third Normal Form:

Third normal form is achieved when transitive dependencies are removed from record design. The following is the example of third normal form: A, B, C are three data items in a record. If C is a functionally dependent on B and B is functionally dependent on A, Then C is functionally dependent on A Therefore, a transitive dependency exists. In data management, transitive dependency is a concern because data can inadvertently be lost when the relationship is hidden. In the above case, if A is deleted, then B and C are deleted also, whether or not this is intended. This problem is eliminated by designing the record for third normal form. Conversion to third normal form removes the transitive dependency by splitting the relation into two separate relations. Denormilzation Performance needs dictate very quick retrieval capability for data stored in relational databases. To accomplish this, sometimes the decision is made to denormalize the physical implementation. Denormalization is the process of putting one fact in numerous places. This speeds data retrieval at the expense of data modification. Of course, a normalized set of relational tables is the optimal environment and should be implemented for whenever possible. Yet, in the real world, denormalization is sometimes necessary. Denormalization is not necessarily a bad decision if implemented wisely. You should always consider these issues before denormalizing: Can the system achieve acceptable performance without denormalizing? Will the performance of the system after denormalizing still be unacceptable? Will the system be less reliable due to denormalization?

If the answer to any of these questions is "yes," then you should avoid denormalization because any benefit that is accrued will not exceed the cost. If, after considering these issues, you decide to denormalize be sure to adhere to the general guidelines that follow. The reasons for Denormalization Only one valid reason exists for denormalizing a relational design - to enhance performance. However, there are several indicators which will help to identify systems and tables which are potential denormalization candidates. These are: Many critical queries and reports exist which rely upon data from more than one table. Often times these requests need to be processed in an on-line environment. Repeating groups exist which need to be processed in a group instead of individually. Many calculations need to be applied to one or many columns before queries can be successfully answered. Tables need to be accessed in different ways by different users during the same timeframe. Many large primary keys exist which are clumsy to query and consume a large amount of DASD when carried as foreign key columns in related tables. Certain columns are queried a large percentage of the time. Consider 60% or greater to be a cautionary number flagging denormalization as an option.

Be aware that each new RDBMS release usually brings enhanced performance and improved access options that may reduce the need for denormalization. However, most of the popular RDBMS products on occasion will require denormalized data structures. There are many different types of denormalized tables which can resolve the performance problems caused when accessing fully normalized data. The following topics will detail the different types and give advice on when to implement each of the denormalization types.

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6. Write detailed note about the different levels and methods of testing software (May-06). Ans. A table that is not sufficiently normalized can suffer from logical inconsistencies of various types, and from anomalies involving data operations. In such a table: The same fact can be expressed on multiple records; therefore updates to the table may result in logical inconsistencies. For example, each record in an unnormalized "DVD Rentals" table might contain a DVD ID, Member ID, and Member Address; thus a change of address for a particular member will potentially need to be applied to multiple records. If the update is not carried through successfullyif, that is, the member's address is updated on some records but not othersthen the table is left in an inconsistent state. Specifically, the table provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular member's address is. This phenomenon is known as an update anomaly. There are circumstances in which certain facts cannot be recorded at all. In the above example, if it is the case that Member Address is held only in the "DVD Rentals" table, then we cannot record the address of a member who has not yet rented any DVDs. This phenomenon is known as an insertion anomaly. There are circumstances in which the deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates the deletion of data representing completely different facts. For example, suppose a table has the attributes Student ID, Course ID, and Lecturer ID (a given student is enrolled in a given course, which is taught by a given lecturer). If the number of students enrolled in the course temporarily drops to zero, the last of the records referencing that course must be deletedmeaning, as a sideeffect, that the table no longer tells us which lecturer has been assigned to teach the course. This phenomenon is known as a deletion anomaly.

Ideally, a relational database should be designed in such a way as to exclude the possibility of update, insertion, and deletion anomalies. The normal forms of relational database theory provide guidelines for deciding whether a particular design will be vulnerable to such anomalies. It is possible to correct an unnormalized design so as to make it adhere to the demands of the normal forms: this is normalization. Normalization typically involves decomposing an unnormalized table into two or more tables which, were they to be combined (joined), would convey exactly the same information as the original tabl Background to normalization: definitions Functional dependency:Attribute B has a functional dependency on attribute A if, for each value of attribute A, there is exactly one value of attribute B. For example, Member Address has a functional dependency on Member ID, because a particular Member Address value corresponds to every Member ID value. An attribute may be functionally dependent either on a single attribute or on a combination of attributes. It is not possible to determine the extent to which a design is normalized without understanding what functional dependencies apply to the attributes within its tables; understanding this, in turn, requires knowledge of the problem domain. Trivial functional dependency: A trivial functional dependency is a functional dependency of an attribute on a superset of itself. {Member ID, Member Address} {Member Address} is trivial, as is {Member Address} {Member Address}. Full functional dependency: An attribute is fully functionally dependent on a set of attributes X if it is a) functionally dependent on X, and b) not functionally dependent on any proper subset of X. {Member Address} has a functional dependency on {DVD ID, Member ID}, but not a full functional dependency, for it is also dependent on {Member ID}. Multivalued dependency: A multivalued dependency is a constraint according to which the presence of certain rows in a table implies the presence of certain other rows: see the Multivalued Dependency article for a rigorous definition. Superkey: A superkey is an attribute or set of attributes that uniquely identifies rows within a table; in other words, two distinct rows are always guaranteed to have distinct superkeys. {DVD ID, Member ID, Member Address} would be a superkey for the "DVD Rentals" table; {DVD ID, Member ID} would also be a superkey. Candidate key: A candidate key is a minimal superkey, that is, a superkey for which we can say that no proper subset of it is also a superkey. {DVD ID, Member ID} would be a candidate key for the "DVD Rentals" table.

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Non-prime attribute: A non-prime attribute is an attribute that does not occur in any candidate key. Member Address would be a non-prime attribute in the "DVD Rentals" table. Primary key: Most DBMSs require a table to be defined as having a single unique key, rather than a number of possible unique keys. A primary key is a candidate key which the database designer has designated for this purpose.

History Edgar F. Codd first proposed the process of normalization and what came to be known as the 1st normal form: There is, in fact, a very simple elimination[1] procedure which we shall call normalization. Through decomposition non-simple domains are replaced by "domains whose elements are atomic (nondecomposable) values."

Edgar F. Codd, A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks[2] In his paper, Edgar F. Codd used the term "non-simple" domains to describe a heterogeneous data structure, but later researchers would refer to such a structure as an abstract data type. Normal forms The normal forms (abbrev. NF) of relational database theory provide criteria for determining a table's degree of vulnerability to logical inconsistencies and anomalies. The higher the normal form applicable to a table, the less vulnerable it is to such inconsistencies and anomalies. Each table has a "highest normal form" (HNF): by definition, a table always meets the requirements of its HNF and of all normal forms lower than its HNF; also by definition, a table fails to meet the requirements of any normal form higher than its HNF. The normal forms are applicable to individual tables; to say that an entire database is in normal form n is to say that all of its tables are in normal form n. Newcomers to database design sometimes suppose that normalization proceeds in an iterative fashion, i.e. a 1NF design is first normalized to 2NF, then to 3NF, and so on. This is not an accurate description of how normalization typically works. A sensibly designed table is likely to be in 3NF on the first attempt; furthermore, if it is 3NF, it is overwhelmingly likely to have an HNF of 5NF. Achieving the "higher" normal forms (above 3NF) does not usually require an extra expenditure of effort on the part of the designer, because 3NF tables usually need no modification to meet the requirements of these higher normal forms. Edgar F. Codd originally defined the first three normal forms (1NF, 2NF, and 3NF). These normal forms have been summarized as requiring that all non-key attributes be dependent on "the key, the whole key and nothing but the key". The fourth and fifth normal forms (4NF and 5NF) deal specifically with the representation of many-to-many and one-to-many relationships among attributes. Sixth normal form (6NF) incorporates considerations relevant to temporal databases. First normal form Main article: First normal form The criteria for first normal form (1NF) are: A table must be guaranteed not to have any duplicate records; therefore it must have at least one candidate key. There must be no repeating groups, i.e. no attributes which occur a different number of times on different records. For example, suppose that an employee can have multiple skills: a possible representation of employees' skills is {Employee ID, Skill1, Skill2, Skill3 ...}, where {Employee ID} is the unique identifier for a record. This representation would not be in 1NF.

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Second normal form Main article: Second normal form The criteria for second normal form (2NF) are: The table must be in 1NF. None of the non-prime attributes of the table are functionally dependent on a part (proper subset) of a candidate key; in other words, all functional dependencies of non-prime attributes on candidate keys are full functional dependencies. For example, consider a "Department Members" table whose attributes are Department ID, Employee ID, and Employee Date of Birth; and suppose that an employee works in one or more departments. The combination of Department ID and Employee ID uniquely identifies records within the table. Given that Employee Date of Birth depends on only one of those attributes namely, Employee ID the table is not in 2NF. Note that if none of a 1NF table's candidate keys are composite i.e. every candidate key consists of just one attribute then we can say immediately that the table is in 2NF. Third normal form Main article: Third normal form The criteria for third normal form (3NF) are: The table must be in 2NF. There are no non-trivial functional dependencies between non-prime attributes. A violation of 3NF would mean that at least one non-prime attribute is only indirectly dependent (transitively dependent) on a candidate key, by virtue of being functionally dependent on another non-prime attribute. For example, consider a "Departments" table whose attributes are Department ID, Department Name, Manager ID, and Manager Hire Date; and suppose that each manager can manage one or more departments. {Department ID} is a candidate key. Although Manager Hire Date is functionally dependent on {Department ID}, it is also functionally dependent on the nonprime attribute Manager ID. This means the table is not in 3NF.

Boyce-Codd normal form Main article: Boyce-Codd normal form The criteria for Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) are: The table must be in 3NF. Every non-trivial functional dependency must be a dependency on a superkey.

Fourth normal form Main article: Fourth normal form The criteria for fourth normal form (4NF) are: The table must be in BCNF. There must be no non-trivial multivalued dependencies on something other than a superkey. A BCNF table is said to be in 4NF if and only if all of its multivalued dependencies are functional dependencies. Fifth normal form Main article: Fifth normal form The criteria for fifth normal form (5NF and also PJ/NF) are: The table must be in 4NF. There must be no non-trivial join dependencies that do not follow from the key constraints. A 4NF table is said to be in the 5NF if and only if every join dependency in it is implied by the candidate keys.

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Domain/key normal form Main article: Domain/key normal form Domain/key normal form (or DKNF) requires that a table not be subject to any constraints other than domain constraints and key constraints. Sixth normal form

It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article entitled Sixth normal form. (Discuss) This normal form was, as of 2005, only recently proposed: the sixth normal form (6NF) was only defined when extending the relational model to take into account the temporal dimension. Unfortunately, most current SQL technologies as of 2005 do not take into account this work, and most temporal extensions to SQL are not relational. See work by Date, Darwen and Lorentzos[3] for a relational temporal extension, or see TSQL2 for a different approach. Denormalization Main article: Denormalization Databases intended for Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) are typically more normalized than databases intended for On Line Analytical Processing (OLAP). OLTP Applications are characterized by a high volume of small transactions such as updating a sales record at a super market checkout counter. The expectation is that each transaction will leave the database in a consistent state. By contrast, databases intended for OLAP operations are primarily "read only" databases. OLAP applications tend to extract historical data that has accumulated over a long period of time. For such databases, redundant or "denormalized" data may facilitate Business Intelligence applications. Specifically, dimensional tables in a star schema often contain denormalized data. The denormalized or redundant data must be carefully controlled during ETL processing, and users should not be permitted to see the data until it is in a consistent state. The normalized alternative to the star schema is the snowflake schema. Denormalization is also used to improve performance on smaller computers as in computerized cashregisters. Since these use the data for look-up only (e.g. price lookups), no changes are to be made to the data and a swift response is crucial. Non-first normal form (NF) In recognition that denormalization can be deliberate and useful, the non-first normal form is a definition of database designs which do not conform to the first normal form, by allowing "sets and sets of sets to be attribute domains" (Schek 1982). This extension introduces hierarchies in relations. Consider the following table: Non-First Normal Form Pers Favorite on Colors Bob blue, red green, yellow, Jane red Assume a person has several favorite colors. Obviously, favorite colors consist of a set of colors modeled by the given table. To transform this NF table into a 1NF an "unnest" operator is required which extends the relational algebra of the higher normal forms. The reverse operator is called "nest" which is not always the mathematical inverse of "unnest", although "unnest" is the mathematical inverse to "nest". Another

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constraint required is for the operators to be bijective, which is covered by the Partitioned Normal Form (PNF).

The most useful and practical approach is with the understanding that testing is the process of executing a program with tha explicit intention of finding errors, that is ,making the program dail TESTING STRATEGIES: A test case is a set of data that the system will process as normal input. However the data are created with the express intent of determining whther the system will process them correctly There are two logical strategies for testing software that is the strategic of code testing and specification testing CODE TESTING: The code testing strategy examines the logic of the program to follow this testing method the analyst develops test cases that result in executing every instruction in the program or module that is every path through the program is tested This testing strategy does not indicate whether the code meets its specification nor does it determine whether all aspects are even implemented. Code testing also does not check the range of data that the program will accept even through when the software failure occur in actual size it is frequently because users submitted data outside of expected ranges(for example a sales order for $1 the largest in the history of the organization) SPECIFICATION TESTING: To perform specification testing the analyst examines the specifications stating what the program should do and how it should perform under various conditions. Then test cases are developed for each condition or combination of condition and submitted for processing. by examining the results the analyst can determine whether the program perform according to its specified requirement LEVELS OF TESTING: Systems are not designed as entire systems nor are they tested as single systems.The analyst must perform both unit and system testing UNIT TESTING: In unit testing the analyst tests the programs making up a system.(for this reason sometimes unit testing is also called as program testing) Unit testing focuses first on the modules independently of one another to locate error. This enables the tester to detect errors in coding and logic that are contained within that module alone. Unit testing can be performed only from bottom up,starting with the smallest and lowest level modules are proceeding one at time .for each module in bottom up testing a shot program executes the module and provides the needed data so that the module is asked to perform the way it will when embedded within the larger system.when bottom level modules tested attention turns to those on the next level that use the lower ones. They are tested individually and the linked with the previously examined lower level modules

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SYSTEM TESTING: System testing does not test the software but rather the integration of each module in the system .it also tests to find discrepancies between the system and its original objective current specifications , and system documentation. The primary concern is the compatibility of individual modules .Analyst trying to find areas where modules have been designed with the different specifications for data length,type and data element name For example one module may expect the data item for customer identification number to be character data item

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7. What are structured walkthrough and how are they carried out? Describe the Composition of walkthrough system.(May-06,Nov-03,May-05). A structured walkthrough is a planned review of a system or its software by persons involved in the development efforts. Sometimes structured walkthrough is called peer walkthrough because the participant are colleagues of the same levels in the organization PURPOSE: 1. The purpose of structured walkthrough is to find area where improvement can be made in the system or the development process. 2. structured walkthrough are often employed to enhance quality and to provide guidance to system analyst and programmers. 3. A walkthrough should be viewed by the programmers and analyst as an opportunity to receive assistance not as an obstacle to be avoided tolerated. 4. The structured walkthrough can be used to process a constructive and cost effective management tool after detailed investigation following design and during program development. PROCESS OF STRUCTURED WALKTHROUGH: 1. The walkthrough concept recognizes that system development is team process. The individuals who formulated the design specifications or crated the program code are parts of the review team 2. A moderated is chosen to lead the review. 3. A scribe a recorder is also needed to capture the details of the discussions and the ideas that are raised. 4. Maintenance should be addressed during walkthrough. 5. Generally no more than seven persons should be involved including the individuals who actually developed the product under review, the recorder and the review leader. 6. structured review rarely exceed 90 minutes in length. REQUIREMENT REVIEW: 1. A requirement review is a structured walkthrough conducted to examine the requirement specifications formulated by the analyst. 2. It is also called as specification review. 3. It aims at examining the functional activities and processes that the review the new system will handle. 4. it includes documentation that participants read and study price to actual walkthrough. DESIGN REVIEW 1. Design review focuses on design specification for meeting previously identified system requirements 2. The purpose of this type of structured walkthrough is to determine whether the proposed design will meet the requirement effectively and efficiently. 3. If the participant find discrepancies between the design and requprement they will point out them discuss them. CODE REVIEW: 1. A code review is structured walkthrough conducted to examine the program code developed in a system along its documentation. 2. It is used for new systems and for systems under maintenance 3. A code review does not deal with the entire software but rather with individual modules or major components in a program. 4. when programs are reviewed the participants also assess the execution efficiency use of standard data names and modules and program errors.

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8. What is user interface design?What tools is used to chart a User Interface Design(May-06). Ans: User interface design is the spercification of of a conversation between the system user and the computer.it generally results in the form of input or output.there are several types of user interface styles including menu selection , instruction sets, question answer dialogue and direct manipulation. 1. Menu selection: It is a strategy of dialogue design that presents a list of alternatives or options to the user.The system user selects the desired alternative or option by keying in the no. of alternatives associated with the options. 2. Instruction sets: It is strategy where the application is designed osing a dialogue syntax that the user must learn.There are three types of syntax :structured English,mnemonic syntax and natural language. 3. Question answer dialogue strategy: It is a style that wsa primerly used to supplement either menu-driven or syntax-driven dialogues.The system question involves yes or no.It was also popular in developing interfaces for character based screens inainframe applications. 4. Direct manipulation: It allows graphical objects appear on a screen.Essentialy, this user interface style foceses on using icons , small graphical images ,to sugest functions to the user.

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9.

Describe the different methods of file organization .Illustrate with examples For what type of system,which type of file organization methods can be used(May-06,Nov03) Ans. File Organisation :

A file id organized to ensure that records are available for processing.It should be designed in line with the acivity and volatility of the information and the nature of the storage media and devices. There are Four basic File organization Methods: 1. Sequential organization: i. Sequential organization simply means storing data in physical contigous blocks within files on tape or disk.Records are also in sequence with in each block. ii. To access a record previous records within the block are scanned.Thus sequential record design is best suited for get next activities,reading one record after another without a search delay. iii. In a sequential organistaion records can be added only at the end of the file.It is not possible to insert a record in the middle of the file without rewriting the file. iv. In this file update,transactions records are in same sequence as in the master file.Records from both files are matched.One recordat a time,resulting in an updated mster file. v. Advantages: - simple to design - easy to program - variable length and blocked records are available - best use of disk storage vi. Disadvantages : Records cannot be added to middle of the file. 2. Indexed Sequencial Organisation : i. Like Sequencial Organisation,keyed Sequencial Organisation stores data in physically contigous blocks. ii. The difference in the use of indexes to locate the records. iii. Disk storage is divided into three areas: a. Prime Area: The prime are contains file records stored by key or ID numbers.All records are initially stored in the prime area. b. OverFlow area: The overflow area contains records added to the files that cannot be placed in logical sequence in the prime area. c. Index area: The index area is more like a data dictionary.It contains keys of records and their loctions on the disks.A pointer associated with each key is an address that tells the system where to find a record. iv. Advantages : a. Indexed sequential organization reduces the magnitude of the sequential search and provides quick access for sequential and direct processing. b. Records can be inserted or updated in the middle of the file. v. Disadvantages : a. The Prime drawback is the extra storage required for the index. b. It also takes longer to search the index for data access or retrieval. c. Periodic reorganization of file is required. 3. Inverted List Organisation : i. Like the indexed-sequencial storage method the inverted list organization maintains an index. ii. The two methods differ however in the index level and record storage. iii. The indexed seqeuncial method has a multiple index for a given key,whereas the inverted list method has a single index for each key type.

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iv. v.

In an inverted list records are not necessarily stored in aparticular sequence.They are placed in data storage area bur indexes are updated for the record keys and location. Advantage: Inverted lists are best for application that request specific data on multiple keys.They are ideal for static file as additions and deletions cause expensive pointer updating.

4.

Direct access Organisation: i. In direct-access file organization,records are placed randomly throughout the file. ii. Records need not be in sequence because they are updated directly and rewritten back in the same location. iii. New records at the end of the file or inserted in specific locations based on software commands. iv. Records are accessed by address that specify their disk location.An address is required for locating a record,for linking records or for establishing relationships. v. Adantages: a. Records can be inserted or updated in middle of the file. b. Better control over at a location. vi. Disadvantages: a. Address calculation is required for the processing. b. Variable legth records are nearly impossible to process.

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10. What is mean by prototype? What is its use in application prototyping .(May-06). Prototyping: a. Prototyping is a technique for quickly building a functioning but incomplete model of the information system. b. A prototype is a small, representative or working model of users requirements oa a proposed design for an information system. c. The Development of the prototype is based on the fact that the requirements are seldom fully known of the beginning of the project.The idea is to build a first simplified version of the system and seek feedback from the people involved in order to then design a better subsequent version.This process is repeated until the system meets the client condition of acceptance. d. Any given prototype may omit certain functions or features until such a time as the prototype has sufficiently involved into an acceptable implementation of requirements. e. There are two types of prototyping models a. Throw-away prototyping In this model, the prototype is discarded once it has served the purpose of clarifying the system requirements. b. Explanatory prototyping In this model, the prototype evolves into the main system.
Need for Prototyping : a. Information requirement are not always well defined.Users may know onlythat certain bussiness areas need improvements or that the existing procedures must be changed.Or may know that they need better information for managing certain activities but are not sure what that information is. b. The users requirements may not be too vague to even begin formulating a design. c. Developers may have neither information nor experience of some unique situations or some high-cost or high-risk situations, in which the proposed design is new and untested. d. Developers may be unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm, the adaptabily of an operating system, or the form that human-machine interaction should take. e. In these and many other situations a prototypingapproach may offer the best approach. Steps in Prototyping: a. Requirement Analysis: Identify the users information and operating requirements. b. Prototype creation or modification : Develop a working prototype that focuses on only the most important functions using a basic database. c. Customer Evalution : Allow the customers to use the prototype and evaluate it.Gather the feedback, reviews, comments and suggestion. d. Prototype refinement : Integrate the most important changes into the current prototype on the basis of customer feedback. e. System development and implementation : Once the refined prototype satisfies all the clients conditions of acceptance, it is transformed into the actual system. Advantages : i. Shorter development time. ii. More accurate user requirements. iii. Greater user participation and support iv. Relatively inexpensive to build as compared with the cost of conventional system. Disadvantages : i. An appropriate operating system or programming languages may be used simply because is it available. ii. The completed system may not contain all the features and final touch. For instance headings titles and page numbers in the report may be missing. iii. File organization may be temporary nd record structures may left incomplete. iv. Processing and input controls may be missing and documentation of system may have been avoided entirely.

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v. vi.

Development of system may become never ending process as changes will keep happening. Adds to cost and time of the developing system if left uncontrolled.

Application : i. This method is most useful for unique applications where developers have little information or experience or where risk or error may be high. ii. It is useful to test the feasibility of the system or to identify user requirements. 11.Distinguish between reliability and validity how are they related?(May-06,Nov-03). Ans: Reliability and validity are two faces of information gathering .the term reliability is synonymous with dependability,consistency and accuracy.Concern for reliability comes from the necesisity for dependability in measurement whereas validity is concerned on what is being measured rather than consistency and accuracy. Reliability can be approached in three ways 1.it is defined as stability, dependability, and predictability. 2.It focuses on accuracy aspect. 3.Errors of measurement-they are random errors stemming from fatigue or fortuitous conditions at a given time. The most common question that defines validity is :Does the instrument measure what it is measuring? It refers to the notion that the question asked are worded to produce the information sought.in validity the emphasis is on what is being measured .

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12. Write short notes on(May-06) a. Structure charts (May-04)(May-03)(Dec-04) b. HIPO charts(May-04,May-03,May-05,Dec-04) c. Security and Disaster Recovery Dec-04 d. List of Deliverables Dec-04 e. Warrier or Diagram (M-05,Dec-04,May-04) HIPO charts 1. HIPO is a commonly used method for developing software.An acronym for Hierachical Input Process Output,this method was developed by IBM for its large,complex Operating Systems. 2. Purpose: The assumption on which HIPO is based is that one oftenly loses track of the intended function of large system. This is one reason why it is difficult to compare existing systems against their original specifications and therefore why failure can occur even in system that are technically well formulated. From the user view, single function can often extend across several modules. The concerns of the analyst is that understanding, describing and documenting the modules and their interaction in a way that provides sufficient details out that does not lose sight of the larger picture. 3. HIPO diagrams are graphic, rather than prose or narrative, descriptions of the system. 4. They assest the analyst in answering three guidelines. a. What does the system or module do? b. How does to do it? c.What are the inputs and outputs? 5. A HIPO descriptions for a system consists of a. Visual of the the table of contents(VTOC),and b. Functional diagrams. 6. Advantages: a. HIPO diagrams are effective for documenting a system. b. They also aid designers and force them to think about how specification will be met and where activities and components must be linked together. 7. Disadvantages: a. They rely on a set of specialized symbols that require explanation. an extra concern when compared to the simplicity of, for example, data flow diagrams. b. HIPO diagrams are not as easy to use communication purpose as many people would like.And of course, they donot guarantee error free systems. Hence, their greatest strength is the documentation of a system. List of Deliverables: The deliverables are those artifacts of the software system to be deliverable to the users. It is wrong to consider that only the executable code is deliverable. Some additional documentation as the part of the deliverables, but this too is incomplete list of deliverables. The deliverables of software system development project are numerous and vary with user organization. The broad classes of the system deliverables are as follows:Document deliverables. Source code deliverables. Some of the document deliverables are listed as follows:System requirement specifications. System Design documents. Data flow diagrams with process descriptions, data dictionary, etc. System Flow chart. Entity Relationship Diagrams. Structure charts. Forms Design of Input data forms. Forms Design of Outputs such as Query Responses/Reports. Errors Messages: List, Contents, Suggested Corrective Actions. Databases Schema. Testing documents: Test plan with Test Cases, Test Data and expected results. User Training Manual Operational manual-containing routine operations, exception processing, housekeeping functions etc.

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The source code deliverables-these are also called as soft copy deliverables, because they are delivered in a soft form.(may be in addition to print form),Major deliverables in this category are listed as follows The source code of programs. The source code of libraries/sharable code. The data base schema source code. The database Triggers, Stored Procedures, etc. If not covered above. The online help pages contents. The list of deliverables is generally a part of proposal. However, the final list of deliverables may include additional elements or clarifications after the system requirements specifications are finalized. Structure Charts: It is described as follows:1. The structured chart is graphical representation of the hierarchical organization of program functions of a program and the communication between program components. 2. It is drawn to describe a process or program component shown in System Flow chart in more details. The structure charts create further top-down decomposition. Thus it is another lower level of abstraction of the design before implementation. 3. A computer program is modularized so that it is very easy to understand; it avoids repetition of the same code in multiple places of the same (or different) programs and can be reused to save development time, effort and costs. The Structured chart makes it possible to model even at the lower level of design. 4. These modules of a program, called as subprograms, are placed physically one after the other serially. However, they are referenced in the order that the functionality requires them. Thus the program control is transferred from a line is the calling subprogram to the first line in the called subprograms. Thus they perform the role of calling and/or called subprograms, at different times during the program execution. 5. The calling subprograms is referred to as a parent and the called one is referred to as a child subprogram. Thus a program can be logically arranged into hierarchy of subprograms. The structured charts can be used to represent the parent-child relationships between subprograms effectively by correctly representing these relationships. 6. The subprograms also communicate with each other in either direction. The structure chart can describe the data flows effectively. These individuals data items between programs modules are called as data couples . They are represented by an arrow starting from a hollow circle, as shown in the diagram. The arrow is labeled with the name of data item passed. 7. The subprograms also communicate among themselves a type of data item called as flag which is purely internal information between subprograms, used to indicate some result. They could be binary values, indicating presence or absence of a thing. Symbol below is of calling Module calls the called Module

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Data Passed

Calling Module

Called Module
Warrier or Diagram: 1. The ability to show the relationship between processes and steps in a process is not unique to Warnier/Orr diagrams, not is the use of iteration ,or treatment of individual cases. 2. Both the structured flowcharts and structured-English methods do this equality well. However, the approach used to develop systems definitions with Warnier/Orr diagrams are different and fit well with those used in logical system design. 3. To develop a Warnier/Orr diagram, the analyst works backwards, starting with systems output and using on output-oriented analysis. On paper, the development moves from left to right. First, the intended output or results of processing are defined.. 4. At the next level, shown by inclusion with a bracket, the steps needed to produce the output are defined. Each step in turn is further defined. Additional brackets group the processes required to produce the result on the next level. 5. A complete Warnier/Orr diagram includes both process groupings and data requirements. Both elements are listed for each process or process component. These data elements are the ones needed to determine which alternative or case should be handled by the system and to carry out the process. 6. The analyst must determine where each data element originates how it is used, and how individual elements are combined. When the definition is completed, data structure for each process is documented. It is turn, is used by the programmers, who work from the diagrams to code the software. 7. Advantages: a. Warnier/Orr diagrams offer some distinct advantages to system experts. They are simple in appearance and easy to understand. Yet they are powerful design tools. b. They have the advantage of showing grouping of processes and the data that must be passed from level to level. c. In addition, the sequence of working backwards ensures that the system will be result-oriented. d. This method is also a natural process. with structured flowcharts. for example it is often necessary to determine the innermost steps before interactions and modularity. Security and Disaster Recovery: The system security problem can be divided into four related issues: 1. System Security: System security refers to the technical innovations and procedures applied to the hardware and operating systems to protect deliberate or accidental damage from a defined threat. 2. System Integrity:

Data Returne d Control Flag

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System integrity refers to the proper functioning of hardware and programs, appropriate physical security, and safety against external threats such as eavesdropping and wiretapping. 3. Privacy: Privacy defines the rights of the users or organizations to determine what information they are willing to share with or accept from others and how the organization can be protected against unwelcome, unfair, or excessive dissemination of information about it. 4. Confidentiality: The term confidentiality is a special status given to sensitive information in a database to minimize the possible invasion of privacy. It is an attribute of information that characterizes its need for protection. Disaster/Recovery Planning: 1. Disaster/recovery planning is a means of addressing the concern for system availability by identifying potential exposure, prioritizing applications, and designing safeguards that minimize loss if disaster occurs. It means that no matter what the disaster, the system can be recovered. The business will survive because a disaster/recovery plan allows quick recovery under the circumstances. 2. In disaster/recovery planning, managements primary roll is to accept the need for the consistency planning, select an alternative measure, and recognize the benefits that can be delivered from establishing a disaster/recovery plan. Top management should establishing a disaster/recovery policy and commit corporate support staff for its implementation 3. The users role is also important. The users responsibilities include the following: a. Identifying critical applications, why they are critical, and how computer unavailability would affect the department. b. Approving data protection procedures and determining how long and how well operations will continue without the data. c. Funding the costs of backup.

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13. What are the roles of the system Analyst in system analysis design?(Nov-03,May-01) The various roles of system analyst are as follows: 1. Change Agent: The analyst may be viewed as an agent of change. A candidate system is designed to introduce change and reorientation in how the user organization handles information or makes decisions .In role of a change agent, the system analyst may select various styles to introduce change to user organization. The styles range from that of the persuader to imposer. In between, there are the catalyst and confronter roles. When user appears to have a tolerance for change ,the persuader or catalyst(helper)styles is appropriate. On the other hand , when drastic changes are requires, it may be necessary to adopt the confronter or even imposer style .No matter what style is used; however the goal is same :to achieve acceptance of candidate system with a minimum of resistance. 2. Investigator and Monitor. In defining a problem, the analyst pieces together the information gathered to determine why the present system does not work well and what changes will correct the problem .In one respect, this work is similar to that of an investigator. Related to the role of investigator is that of monitor programs in relation to time, cost, and quality. Of these resources, time is the most important, If time gets away, the project suffers from increased costs and wasted human resources. 3. Architect: Just as an architect related the client abstract design requirement and the contractors detailed building plan, an analyst relates the users logical design requirement with the detailed physical system design,As an architect,the analyst also creates a detailed physical system design of the candidate systems. 4. Psychologist In system development, system are built around people. The analyst plays the role of psychologist in the way he/she reaches people, interprets their thoughts, assesses their behaviour and draws conclusions from these interactions. Understanding inetrfunctional relationships is important.It is important that analyst be aware of peoples feelings and be prepared to get around things in a graceful way. The art of listening is important in evaluating responses and feedback. 5. Salesperson: Selling change can be as crucial as initiating change. Selling the system actually takes place at each step in the system life cycle. Sales skills and persuasiveness are crucial to the success of system. 6. Motivator: The analyst role as a motivator becomes obvious during the first few weeks after implementation of new system and during times when turnover results in new people being trained to work with the candidate system. The amount of dedication if takes to motivate the users often taxes the analyst abilities to maintain the pace. 7. Politcian: Related to the role of motivator is that of politician. In implementing a candidate system , the analyst tries to appeases all parties involved.Diplomacy and fitness in dealing with the people can improve acceptance of the system.In as much as a politician must have the support of his/her constituency, so as good analysts goal to have the support of the userss staff.

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14. What is the requirement f good system analyst (M-04,May-01,M-06) An analyst must possess various skills to effectively carry out the job. The skills required by system analyst can be divided into following categories: i) Technical Skills: Technical skills focus on procedures and techniques for operetional analysis, system analysis and computer science. The technical skills relevant to system include the following: a. Working Knowledge of Information Technologies: The system analyst must be aware of both existing and emerging information technologies. They should also stay through disciplined reading and participation in current appropriate professional societies. b. Computer programming experience and expertise: System Analyst must have some programming experience. Most system analyst need to be proficient in one or more high level programming language. ii) Interpersonal Skills: Interpersonal skills deal with relationships and interface of the analyst with people in the business.The interpersonal skills relevant to system include the following: a. Good interpersonal Communication skills: An analyst must be able to communicate, both orally and in writing. Communication is not just reports, telephone conversations and interviewes. It is people talking, listening, feeling and reaching to one another; their experiences and reactions. Opening communication channel are a must for system development. b. Good interpersonal Relations skills: An analyst interacts with all stackholders in a system development project. There interaction requires effective interpersonal skills that enable the analyst o deal with a group dynamics, bussiness politics, conflict and change. iii) General knowledge of Business process and terminology: System analyst must be able to communicate with business experts to gain on understanding of their problems and needs. They should avail themselves of every opportunity to complete basic business literacy courses such as financial accounting, management or cost accounting, finance, marketing , manufacturing or operations management, quality management, economics and business law. iv) General Problem solving skills: The system analyst must be able to tke a large bussiness problem, break down that problem into its parts, determine problem causes and effects and then recommended a solution.Analyst must avoid the tendancy to suggest the solution before analyzing the problem. v) Flexibility and Adaptability: No two are alike.Accordingly there is no single, magical approach or standard that is equally applicable to all projects.Successful system analyst learn to be flexible and to adopt to unique challenges and situations. Character and Ethics: The nature of the systems analyst job requires strong character and a sense of right and wrong.Analysts often gain access to sensitive and confidential facts and information that are not meant for public disclosure.

vi)

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15. Build a current Admission for MCA system .Draw context level diagram, DFD upto Two level, ER diagram and a dataflow and data stores and a process. Draw input, output screen.(May-04) EVENT LIST FOR THE CURRENT MCA ADMISSION SYSTEM 1. Administrator enters the college details. 2. Issue of admission forms. 3. Administrator enters the student details into the system. 4. Administrator verifies the details of the student. 5. System generates the hall tickets for the student. 6. Administrator updates the CET score of student in the system. 7. System generates the score card for the students. 8. Student enters his list of preference of college into the system. 9. System generates college-wise student list according to CET score. 10. System sends the list to the college as well as student. Data Store used in MCA admission: 1) Student_Details : i) Student_id ii) Student Name iii) Student Address iv) STudent_contactNo v) Student Qualifiacation vi) Studentmarks10th vii) Studentmarks12th viii) StudentmarksDegree 2) Stud_cet details: i) Student_id ii) Student_rollNo iii) Student_cetscore iv) Student_percentile Stud_preference List: i) Student_id ii) Student_rollNo iii) Student_prefenence1 iv) Student_prefenence3 v) Student_prefenence3 vi) Student_prefenence4 vii) Student_prefenence5 College List: i) ii) iii) iv) v) College_id college_name college_address seats available Fee

3)

4)

Input Files 1) Student Details Form:

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Student Name: Student Address:

___________________________

Student Contact NO: Student Qualification: Students Percentge 12th: Students Percentage 10th: Students Degree Percentage: (optional) 2) Student preference List: _________

Student_rollNo: Preference No 1: Preference No 2: Preference No 3: Preference No 4: Preference No 5: 3)

Stdent CET Details :

Student id : Student rollno: Student Score: Student Percentile: 4) College List :

College Name: College Address: Sets Available : Fees : OUTPUT FILES

1)

Student ScoreCard

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Student RollNo Student Name Student SCore Percentile 2) RollNo 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 :

: : :

Student List to College Name Score Percentile

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16. Give the importance of formal methods.specially give the importance of spiral development model.(M-03). DEFINITION - The spiral model, also known as the spiral lifecycle model, is a systems development method (SDM) used in information technology (IT). This model of development combines the features of the prototyping model and the waterfall model. The spiral model is favored for large, expensive, and complicated projects.

The steps in the spiral model can be generalized as follows: 1. The new system requirements are defined in as much detail as possible. This usually involves interviewing a number of users representing all the external or internal users and other aspects of the existing system. 2. A preliminary design is created for the new system. 3. A first prototype of the new system is constructed from the preliminary design. This is usually a scaled-down system, and represents an approximation of the characteristics of the final product. 4. A second prototype is evolved by a fourfold procedure: (1) evaluating the first prototype in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, and risks; (2) defining the requirements of the second prototype; (3) planning and designing the second prototype; (4) constructing and testing the second prototype. 5. At the customer's option, the entire project can be aborted if the risk is deemed too great. Risk factors might involve development cost overruns, operating-cost miscalculation, or any other factor that could, in the customer's judgment, result in a less-than-satisfactory final product. 6. The existing prototype is evaluated in the same manner as was the previous prototype, and, if necessary, another prototype is developed from it according to the fourfold procedure outlined above. 7. The preceding steps are iterated until the customer is satisfied that the refined prototype represents the final product desired. 8. The final system is constructed, based on the refined prototype. 9. The final system is thoroughly evaluated and tested. Routine maintenance is carried out on a continuing basis to prevent large-scale failures and to minimize downtime. Advantages Estimates (i.e. budget, schedule, etc.) get more realistic as work progresses, because important issues are discovered earlier.

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It is more able to cope with the (nearly inevitable) changes that software development generally entails. Software engineers (who can get restless with protracted design processes) can get their hands in and start working on a project earlier. The spiral model is a realistic approach to the development of large-scale software products because the software evolves as the process progresses. In addition, the developer and the client better understand and react to risks at each evolutionary level. The model uses prototyping as a risk reduction mechanism and allows for the development of prototypes at any stage of the evolutionary development. It maintains a systematic stepwise approach, like the classic life cycle model, but incorporates it into an iterative framework that more reflect the real world. If employed correctly, this model should reduce risks before they become problematic, as consideration of technical risks are considered at all stages.

Disadvantages Demands considerable risk-assessment expertise It has not been employed as much proven models (e.g. the WF model) and hence may prove difficult to sell to the client (esp. where a contract is involved) that this model is controllable and efficient. [More study needs to be done in this regard It may be difficult to convince customers that evolutionary approach is controllable

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17. What is 4GL model? What are its advantages and diadvantages ? (M-03). Fourth Generation Technique: 1) The term 'Fourth Generation Technique' encompasses broad array of software tools that have one thing in common:ech toolenables this software developer to secify some characteristics of software of a high level.The tool then automatically generates source code based on developers specification. 2) There is a little debate that higher the level at which software can be specified to a machine,the faster a program can be built. 3) The 4gl model focuses on the ability to specify software to a machine at level that is close to natural language or using a notation that imparts significant functions. 4) Currently, a software development enviornment that supports th 4Gl model includes some or all of the foloowing tools: non-procedural languages for database query,report generation,data manipulation,screen interaction and defination,code generation,high-level graphics cpability,spreadsheets capability. 5) There is no 4GT enviornment today that may be applied with the equal facility to each of the software application categories. Steps in 4GT: 1) Requirement Gathering: i) Like other paradigms,4Gt begins with the requirement gathering step.Ideally,customer would describe requirements and these would be directly translated into an operational prototype.But this is unworkable. ii) The customer may be unsure of what is required,may be ambigous in specifying facts that are known and may be unable or unwilling to specify information in a matter that 4GT can consume. iii) In addition, current 4GT tools are not sophisticated enough to accomodate truly 'natural language' and won't be for some time.At this time, the customer-developer dialouge described for other paradigms remains an essential part of 4GT model. 2) Design Stratergy: i) For small applications it may be possible to move directly from the requirement gathering step to implementation using non-procedural fourth-generation language(4GT). ii) However for large it is necessary to develop a design strategy for the system,even a 4GL is to be used. iii) The use of 4GT without design(for large project) will cause the same difficulties (poor quality,poor maintainibilty etc) that we haveencountered when developing software using conentional approaches. 3) Implemention using 4GL: Implementation using a 4GL enables the software developer to represent desired results in a manner that results in automatic generation of code to generate those results obviously,a data structure with relevant information must exist and be readily accessible by 4GL. Testing: To transform a $GT implementation into a product the development must conduct through testing,develop meaningful documentation and perform all other 'transition' activities that are also required in other paradigms.In addition the 4GT developed software must be built in a manner that enables maintainance to be performed expeditiousl.

4)

Merits: i) Drastic reduction in software deveopment time. ii) Improved productivity for Software developments. Demerits: i) Not much easier to use as compared to programming languages. ii) Large software systems builkt using 4GT are very difficult to maintain.

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18. Discuss prototyping as a way to test a new idea?( M-03) 1. Prototyping is a technique for quickly building a functioning but incomplete model of the information system. 2. A prototype is a small, representative, or working model of users requirements or a proposed design for an information system. 3. The development of the prototype is based on the fact that the requirements are seldom fully know at the beginning of the project. The idea is to build a first, simplified version of the system and seek feedback from the people involved, in order to then design a better subsequent vesion. This process is repeated until the system meets the clients condition of acceptance. 4. any given prototype may omit certain functions or features until such a time as the prototype has sufficiently evolved into an acceptable implementation of requirements. Reason for Protoyping: 1. information requirements are not always well defined. Users may know only that certain business areas need improvement or that the existing procedures must be changed. Or, they may know that they need better information for managing certain activities but are not sure what that information is. 2. the users requirements may be too vague to even begin formulating a design. 3. developers may have neither information nor experience of some unique sitations or some highcost or high-risk situations, in which the proposed design is new and untested. 4. developers may be unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm, the adaptability of an operating system, or the form that human-machine interaction should take. 5. in these and many other situations, a prototyping approach may offer the best approach. Advantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. Shorter development time. more accurate user requirements greater user participation and support relatively inexpensive to build as compared with the cost of conventional system.

This method is most useful for unique applications where developers have little information or experience or where risk of error may be high. It is useful to test the feasibility of the system or to identify user requirements.

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19. Discuss features of good user interface design, using login context(M-03). The features of the good user interface design are as follows: Provide the best way for people to interact with computers. This is commonly known as Human Computer Interaction. (HCI). The presentation should be user friendly. User- friendly Interface is helpful e.g. it should not only tell user that he has committed and error, but also provide guidance as to how she can rectify it soon. It should provide information on what is the error and how to fix it. User-friendly ness also includes tolerant and adaptable. A good GUI makes the User more productive. A good GUI is more effective, because it finds the best solutions to a problem. It is also efficient because it helps the User to find such solution much quickly and with the least error. For a User, using a computer system, his workspace is the computer screen. The goal of the good GUI is to make the best, if not all, of a Users workspace. A Good GUI should be robust. High robustness implies that the interface should not fail because of some action taken by the User. Also, and User error should not lead to a system breakdown. The Usability o0f the GUI is expected to be high. The Usability is measures in the various terms. A good GUI is of high Analytical capability; most of the information needed by the User appears on the screen. With a good GUI, User finds the work easier and more pleasant. The User should be happy and confident to use the interface. A good GUI has a high cognitive workload ability i.e. the mental efforts required of the User to use the system should be the least. In fact, the GUI closely approximates the Users mental model or reactions to the screen. For a good GUI, the User satisfaction is high.

40

20. Discuss use and abuse of multiwindow displays (M-03). Multiple Window Design: Designer use multiple screens to give users the information they need. The first screen gives gives general information. By depressing a specified key, the user retrieves a second screen containing details. It allows users to browse through the details quickly and identify each item about which more detail is needed. At the same time, the explosion into detail for one specific item on a second (or even a third) screen maintains the readability of the first screen by requiring display of only enough detail to identify the item wanted. Display different data or report sets simultaneously . Switch between several programs, alternatively displaying the output from each. Move information from one window to the other (within the same or different programs).

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21. Write short notes on(M-03) a. Design of input and control b. Economic feasibility analysis c. Structural walkthroughs d. Design reviews. Q 21 (a) Short note on design of input and control ? Ans : The design of inputs involve the following four tasks :1. 2. 3. 4. Identify the data input devices and mechanisms. Identify the input data and attributes. Identify input controls. Prototype the input forms.

We study the detailed activities as follows. 1) Identify the data input devices and mechanisms: To reduce the input errors, use the following guidelines : Apart from entering data through the electronic form, new ways of entering data is through scanning , reading and transmitting devices. They are faster, more efficient and less error prone. Capture the data as close to where it originates as possible. These days application systems eliminate the use of paper forms, but encourage entry through laptops etc. which the user can carry to the origin of the data and enter data directly through it. This reduces errors in data entry dramatically. Automate the data entry and avoid the human intervention in the data capture, as much as possible. This will give users less chance to make typing errors and increase the speed of data capture. In case, the information is available in the electronic form, prefer it over entering data manually. This will also reduce errors further. Validate the data completely and correctly at the location where it is entered. Reject the wrong data at its source only. 2) Identify the input data and attributes : The activities involved in this step are as follows : This is to ensure that all system inputs are indentified and have been specified correctly. Basically, it involves indenfying the information flows across the system boundary. Using the DFD models, at the lowest levels of the system the developers mark the system boundary considering what part of the system is to be automated and what other not. Each input data flow in the DFD may translate into one or more of the physical inputs to the system. Thus it is easy to identify the DFD processes, which would input the data from outside sources. Knowing now the details of what data elements to input, the GUI designer prepares a list of input data elements. When the input form is designed the designer ensures that all these data elements are provided for entry, validations and storage.

3) Identify input controls : Input integrity controls are used with all kinds of input mechanisms. They help reduce the data entry errors at the input stage. One more control is required on the input data to ensure the completeness. Various error detection and correction methods are employed these days. Some of them arelisted as follows :i. Data validation controls introduce an additional digit called as check digit which is inserted based on some mathematical formula. The data verification step

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recalculates, if there is an data entry error, the check digit would not match and flag error. ii. Range of acceptable values in a data item can also be used to check the defects going into the data. If the data value being entered is beyond the acceptable range, it flags out an error. iii. References to master data tables already stored can be used to validate codes, such as customer codes, product codes, etc. if there is an error then either the reference would not be available or will be wrong. iv. Some of the controls are used in combination depending upon the business knowledge. Transaction logging is another technique of input control. It logs important data base update operations by user. The transaction log records the user Id, date, time, location of user. This information is useful to control the fraudulent transactions, and also provides recovery mechanisms for erroneous transactions.

4) Prototype input forms for better design : i. ii. iii. iv. v. Use the paper form for recording the transaction mainly, if an evidence is required or direct data capture is not feasible. Provide help to every data element to be entered. It should be easy to use, appear natural to the user and should be complete. The data elements asked should be related in logical order. Typically, the left to right and top to bottom order of entry is more natural. A form should not have too many data elements in one screen display. The prototype form can be provided to the users. The steps are as follows : a) The users should be provided with the form prototype and related functionality including validations, help, error messages. b) The users should be invited to use the prototype forms and the designers should observe them. c) The designers should observe their body language, in terms of ease of use, comfort levels, satisfaction levels, help asked etc. they also should note the errors in the data entry. d) The designers should ask the users their critical feedback. e) The designers should improve the GUI design and associated functionality and run second test runs for the users in the same way. f) This exercise should be continued until the input form delivers expected levels of usability. Q 21 (b) Economic feasibility analysis ? Ans : Economic feasibility consists of two tests : Is the anticipated value of benefits greater than the projected costs of development. Does the organization have adequate flow to find theproject during the development period?

As soon as specific requirements and solutions have been identified, the analyst can weigh the costs and benefits of each alternative. This is called costs benefit analysis. Variable costs occur in proportion to some usage factor. For eg : Costs of computer usage (eg : CPU time used) which vary with the workload. Supplies ( printer paper used) which vary with the workload. Overhead costs ( utilities) which can be allocated throughout the lifetime of the system using standard techniques of cost accounting. Benefits Benefits are classified as tangible and intangible. Tangible benefits: They are those benefits that can be easily quantified. Tangible benefits are usually measured in terms of monthly or annual savings or of profits to the firm. Eg: fewer processing errors, decreased response time etc.

43

Intangible benefits : they are those benefits believed to be difficult or impossible to quantify. Unless these benefits are at least identified, it is entirely possible that many projects would not be feasible. Eg: improved customer goodwill, better decision making etc.

Cost benefit analysis : a) The cost benefit analysis is a part of economic feasibility analysis : b) The basic tasks here are as follows: i. To compute the total costs involved. ii. To compute the totals benefits from the project. iii. Top compare to decide, if the project provides more net gains or no net gains. c) The costs are classified under two heads : i. Development costs : Although the project manager has final responsibility for estimating the costs of development, senior analyst always assists with the calculations. Generally project costs come in the following categories : Salaries and wages Software and licenses Training Facilities Support staff. ii) Operational costs : Once the system is up and running, normal operating costs are incurred every year. These annual operating costs must also be accounted for calculating costs and benefits of the new system. The following is the list of different operational cost : Connectivity Equipment maintenance Computer operations Supplies Sources of benefits : Benefits are usually come under two major sources : decreased costs or increased revenues. Costs savings come from greater efficiency in the operations of the company. Areas to look for reduced costs include the following : Reducing staff due to automating manaual functions or increasing efficiency. Maintaining constant staff with increasing volumes of work. Decreasing operating expenses, such as shipping charges for emergency shipments. Reducing error rates due to automated editing or validation. Reducing bad accounts or bad credit losses. Collecting accounts receivables more quickly. Reducing the costs of goods with the volume discounts and purchases. Financial calculations : There are two popular techniques to access economic feasibility also called as costs effectiveness.

Payback analysis : The payback analysis technique is simple and popular method for determining if and when an investment will be beneficial or not. The payback period, sometimes called the break- even point, is the point in time at which the increased cash flow exactly pays off the costs of development and operation. Return on investments analysis : The return on investment (roi) analysis technique compares the lifetime profitability of alternatives solutions or projects. The ROI for solutions or project is a percentage rate that measures the relationship between the amount the business gets back from

44

an investment and the amount invested. The lifetime ROI for a potential solution or project is calculated as follows : Lifetime ROI = (Estimated benefits estimated lifetime costs)

Q 21 (c) Structural walkthroughs ? Ans : it is described as follows : a) The structured walkthrough is a technique to verify and validate the system requirements. b) Verifying involves that right requirements have been incorporated into the system requirements documentation and validation involves that the models used to represent these requirements communicate the system requirements correctly. c) Thus it is a technique used to assure quality into the system development very early in the SDLC, right early at the stage of requirements specifications. d) It is called as structured b.coz most system analyst follow it as a part ofste of procedures of quality assurance and also b.coz of that there are slightly formal in terms of the specific procedures to invite the meeting, recording the major agreements, etc. e) Systems analysts carry out a structured walkthrough with the help of a documented system requirements, typically in the form of the System Requirements Specifications. f) The objective is to highlight the inconsistencies and incompleteness in the system requirements. g) Typically the systems analysts walk the team line by line or model by model through the documentation and also describes the system requirements in simple English. h) The other system analyst also think along and seek clarifications, where required. The system analysts response reveals the details, if the requirements have been strong, but otherwise they jointly discover the weakness. i) Since this meeting is generally with peers, it is informal in its conduct. The bosses are generally kept away, to foster free and open discussions. j) The merit of the structured walkthrough is that it reveals the important deficiencies in the system requirements specifications, which is otherwise being abstract very difficult to discover. k) Also, for new or inexperienced system analysts, this technique provides learning or a growing opportunity. This is useful for the development of organization also, to bring up maturity in its system analysts. l) The drawback of this technique is that since usually the systems analysts are invited from outside of the team, the other projects also suffer from the absence of their system analysts. This may be costly or may be cut short at times, hampering the effectiveness of the walkthrough. Q 21 (d) Short note on Design reviews ?

Ans : Design review focuses on design specification for meeting previously identified

system requirements. The purpose of this type of walkthrough is to determine whether the proposed design will meet the requirement effectively and efficiently. If the participants find discrepancies between the design and requirement, they will point out them and discuss them.

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22. What are the most important reasons why analysis use a Data Dictionary. Give atleast One example illustrating each reason. (M-03) Analyst use data dictionaries for five important reasons 1. To manage the detail in large systems. 2. To communicate a common meaning. 3. To document the features of the system. 4. To facilitate analysis of the details in order to evaluate characteristics and determine where system changes should be made. 5. To locate errors and omissions in the system. Ans: A data dictionary is a catalog - a repository of the elements in the system. Data dictionary is list of all the elements composing the data flowing through a system. The major elements are data flows, data stores, and processes. Analysts use data dictionary for five important reasons:

1. To manage the details in large systems:- Large systems have huge volumes of data flowing
through them in the form of documents, reports, and even conversations. Similarly, many different activities take place that use existing data or create new details. All systems are ongoing all of the time and management of all the descriptive details is a challenge. So the best way is to record the information.

2. To communicate a common meaning for all system elements:- Data dictionaries assist in
ensuring common meanings for system elements and activities. For example: Order processing (Sales orders from customers are processed so that specified items can be shipped) have one of its data element invoice. This is a common business term but does this mean same for all the people referring it? Does invoice mean the amount owed by the supplier? Does the amount include tax and shipping costs? How is one specific invoice identified among others? Answers to these questions will clarify and define systems requirements by more completely describing the data used or produced in the system. Data dictionaries record additional details about the data flow in a system so that all persons involved can quickly look up the description of data flows, data stores, or processes.

3. To document the features of the system :- Features include the parts or components and the
characteristics that distinguish each. We want to know about the processes are data stores. But we also need to know under what circumstances each process is performed and hoe often the circumstances occur. Once the features have been articulated and recorded, all participants in the project will have a common source for information about the system. For example: Payment voucher vendor details include field vendor telephone in which area can be optional if local phone. Item details can be repeated for each item. Purchasing Authorisation field may be added after invoice arrives if special order.

4. To facilitate analysis of the details in order to evaluate characteristics and determine where
system changes should be made:- The fourth reason for using data dictionaries is to determine whether new features are needed in a system or whether changes of any type are in order. For example: University is considering allowing its students to register for course by dialing into an online registration system over touch-tone telephones. Then a system analyst will focus on following system characteristics: Nature of transactions: What additional features are needed to permit registration by touchtone phone? How will payments be received if students do not choose to pay by credit card?

46

Will the system permit the processing of course registration transaction where payment is by bank credit card? Inquiries: Student & course descriptive data are in two separate files that are currently not linked together. How can we make the data jointly available for advisors who wish to assist students in program planning & course scheduling? Output & Report Generation: How can we identify those student who will register for courses over touch-tone telephones so that they can be listed on a separate report? How do we provide these same students with a signed registration record as we now do for those registering on-site? Files & Databases: What data must be captured to verify the accuracy and authenticity of transactions arriving over telephones? System Capacity: How many students can register simultaneously over touch-tone telephones? What are the current & the anticipated numbers of student that can be registered in one hour? 5. Locate errors & omissions:- To know that the information itself is complete & accurate we use data dictionaries. It helps to locate errors in the system description. Conflicting dataflow descriptions, processes that neither receive input nor generate output, data stores that are never updated, etc. indicate incomplete or incorrect analysis that we want to correct before determining that changes are needed.

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23. Consider a road-side news paper shopGive a typical Data Dictionary for its Operations (M-03).

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24. Describe, with example ,the Entity-Realtionship Diagram (ERD). Use those examples and show how you will derive a Data Structure Diagram(DSD)from them(M-03). The object relationship pair is the corner stone of data model. A set of primary components is identified for ER diagram : data objects, attributes, relationships & various type indicators. The primary purpose of ERD is to represent data objects & their relationships. Data objects are represented by a labeled rectangle. Relationships are indicated with a labeled line connecting objects. In some variations of ER diagrams, the connecting line contains a diamond shape that is labeled with a relationship. Connections between data objects and relationships are established using a variety of special symbols that indicate cardinality & modality. The following is the example of ERD with two entities customer and order.

i c

e n

s e

e a l e r s h

i p

t o

a n

f a c

t u

r e r

i l d

a r

t r a c

t s

i p

e r

r a n

s p

r t s

Ans: Entity relationship diagram show the entities and relationships graphically. For example taking order requires the relating of the 3 distinct entities of order, customer and inventory.

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CUSTOMER

PLACE

Buy Sm artDraw!- purchased copies print this document without a watermark. Visit www.smartdraw.com or call 1-800-768-3729.

ORDER
Entity Relationship diagram One customer may Place many orders

Each order is for one customer

CUSTOMER

ORDE R
One order may Include many items Items may be included On many orders

ITEM

Dependencies between entities

Entity relationships are described by their dependence on each other as well as by the extent of the relationship. Entity dependency are of 2 types existence dependency one entity is enable to exist in the database unless the other is first present & identification dependency an entity cannot be uniquely identified by its own attributes. In given example orders cannot exist unless there is first a customer. Extent of dependency includes 2 interrelated concerns: the direction of the relationship & the type of association between them. In the given example customer entity points to order entity as indicated by crows foot. The relationship means that customers own/have orders. Once the entities & relationships are determined we need to focus on data requirements for each entity.

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In addition to the basic components we have already identified in a data structure diagram- entities , attributes, and records- two additional elements are essential: Attribute pointers: Link two entities by common information, usually a key attribute in one and an attribute (non key)in another. Logical pointers: identify the relationship b/w entities, serve to gain immediate access to the information in one entity by defining a key attribute in another entity.

one customer may have many orders ORDER key attributes ORDER NUMBER ITEM DESCRIPTION ITEM PRICE QUANTITY ORDERED CUSTOMER NUMBER ITEM NUMBER CUSTOMER CUSTOMER NUMBER CUSTOMER NAME CUS. ADDRESS CURRENT BAL. 30 DAY BAL 60 DAY BAL 90 DAY BAL OVER 120 DAY BAL

attribute pointers

logical pointer order may contain many items No attribute pointer hence customer order information is available only through the order record

ITEM ITEM NUMBER ITEM DESCRIPTION ITEM COST ITEM RENTAL Buy SmartDraw!- purchased copies print this document without a watermark. Visit www.smartdraw.com or call 1-800-768-3729. DATA STRUCTURE DIAGRAM FOR ORDER EXAMPLE

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25. Consider a factory making garments. One sequence of actions starts with the factory receiving an order. Raw materials and bought Work distributed among the workers. Finished goods are checked and packed. When the total number of garments are ready. The packed cartoons are counted, a packing list made, an Invoice prepared and they are shipped. Give the ERD and DSD for this sequence of actions .Give a sample, single record of the resulting database that will result from this ERD and DSD.(M-03). The ERD will be..

Cust_i d

Cust_name

Cust_add

Customer

Gi
Give The Orde r To

ve s W Dept No.

Su ppl y Ra w Ma teri Name al

Tel.No

Ma nag er id
Gi ves W

General Manager

or
id

Production Manager

Mgr. Name e

Dept No,

T o

Supplier

ork
To

Sup Supplier plier Add Nam ress e

Supplier id

Workers

Name

Giv es Ord er Det ails Dept

Id

Account Manager

Mgr Id

Dept Name

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And the DSD will be..

Order Customer Cust_Id Cust Name Cust Add Cust_Tel Order_No Order_Type Order_Qunatity Order_Price Cust_Id General Mgr_Id Supplier_Id

General Manger Supplier Supplier_Id Supplier_name Supplier_add Supplier_Tel no Manager_Id Name Department No. Tele no

Account Manager Id Production Manager Worker Worker_id Prod._Manager_Id Worker_name Manager_id Name Department No. Tel.No Genera_ Mgr_Id Name Dept_no Tel_no General_Mgr

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26. Write short notes on(M-03) a. Use CASE Tools in the requirements phase b. Types of Documentations. c. rapid application development d. requirement of a good system analyst Types of Documentation Documentation is an important part of software engineering that is often overlooked. Types of documentation include: Architecture/Design - Overview of software. Includes relations to an environment and construction principles to be used in design of software components. Technical - Documentation of code, algorithms, interfaces, and APIs. End User - Manuals for the end-user, system administrators and support staff. Marketing - Product briefs and promotional collateral

Architecture/Design Documentation Architecture documentation is a special breed of design documents. In a way, architecture documents are third derivative from the code (design documents being second derivative, and code documents being first). Very little in the architecture documents is specific to the code itself. These documents do not describe how to program a particular routine, or even why that particular routine exists in the form that it does, but instead merely lays out the general requirements that would motivate the existence of such a routine. A good architecture document is short on details but thick on explanation. It may suggest approaches for lower level design, but leave the actual exploration trade studies to other documents. Technical Documentation This is what most programmers mean when using the term software documentation. When creating software, code alone is insufficient. There must be some text along with it to describe various aspects of its intended operation. This documentation is usually embedded within the source code itself so it is readily accessible to anyone who may be traversing it. User Documentation Unlike code documents, user documents are usually far divorced from the source code of the program, and instead simply describe how it is used. In the case of a software library, the code documents and user documents could be effectively equivalent and are worth conjoining, but for a general application this is not often true. On the other hand, the Lisp machine grew out of a tradition in which every piece of code had an attached documentation string. In combination with strong search capabilities (based on a Unix-like apropos command), and online sources, Lispm users could look up documentation and paste the associated function directly into their own code. This level of ease of use is unheard of in putatively more modern systems.

Marketing Documentation For many applications it is necessary to have some promotional materials to encourage casual observers to spend more time learning about the product. This form of documentation has three purposes:-

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1. To excite the potential user about the product and instill in them a desire for becoming more involved with it. 2. To inform them about what exactly the product does, so that their expectations are in line with what they will be receiving. To explain the position of this product with respect to other alternatives. Requirement/Characteristics of Good Requirements As described above, a list of system requirements contains a complete description of the important requirements for a product design. From this list, subsequent design decisions can be based. Of course, if one is to place their trust in them, we must assume that all the requirements in such a list are good. This raises the question, How does one differentiate between good requirements and those that are not so good? It turns out that good requirements have the following essential qualities: 1. A good requirement contains one idea. If a requirement is found to contain more than one idea then it should be broken into two or more new requirements. 2. A good requirement is clear; that is, the idea contained within it is not open to interpretation. If any aspects of a requirement are open to interpretation then the designer should consult the relevant parties and clarify the statement. 3. Requirements should remain as general as possible. This ensures that the scope of the design is not unnecessarily limited. 4. A good requirement is easily verifiable, that is, at the end of the design process it is possible to check whetherthe requirement has been met. These criteria apply to both user and systems requirements. Examples are given in the section below. In addition to the qualities listed above, a set of good requirements should completely describe all aspects relevant to aproducts design. Examples User Requirement A good user requirement is listed below The seat shall be comfortable for 95% of the population of each country in which the vehicle is sold. It meets the three criteria as follows: 1. It contains one idea. If the requirement had also made reference to leg room, then the requirement would need to have been broken into two requirements. 2. It is easily verifiable. The statement has given quantitative limits from which the seat can be designed. Stating that, The seat shall be comfortable for the majority of its intended users, would be unacceptable. 3. The requirement is general. The requirement does not state how the seat should be made so as to be Comfortable for 95% of the population. To do so would unnecessarily narrow the scope, and limit the design process. 4. The requirement is verifiable. To test whether the seat is comfortable or uncomfortable for the right number of people, you need only get people to sit in it, and see if during normal operation they experience discomfort.

Use Case Tool What is a use case? A use case is a description of how users will perform tasks on your Web site.

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A use case includes two main parts: the steps a user will take to accomplish a particular task on your site the way the Web site should respond to a user's actions

A use case begins with a user's goal and ends when that goal is fulfilled.

What does a use case describe? A use case describes a sequence of interactions between a user and a Web site, without specifying the user interface. Each use case captures: The actor (who is using the Web site?) The interaction (what does the user want to do?) The goal (what is the user's goal?)

How do you write a use case? Generally, you write the steps in a use case in an easy-to-understand narrative. This engages members of the design team and encourages them to be actively involved in defining the requirements. Kenworthy (1997) outlines eight steps to developing use cases: 1. Identify who is going to be using the Web site. 2. Pick one of those actors. 3. Define what that actor wants to do on the site. Each thing the actor does on the site becomes a use case. 4. For each use case, decide on the normal course of events when that actor is using the site. 5. Describe the basic course in the description for the use case. Describe it in terms of what the actor does and what the system does in response that the actor should be aware of. 6. When the basic course is described, consider alternate courses of events and add those to "extend" the use case. 7. Look for commonalities among the use cases. Extract these and note them as common course use cases. Repeat the steps 2 through 7 for all other actors.

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27. Consider the DFD given in the figure below If Item is available, customer buys it and makes cash payment. Add these details and redraw the DFD. Give a sample entry in each of above 3 database in the original DFD. In your modification, do you need a new database ? If yes, describe it in terms of sample entry. If no, justify that the 3 databases can contain the additional information and give a sample entry in modified 3 databases. Catalogue

Customer

item Availability Details

Product item Inventory item

Catalogue item Product item Inventory item Customer We need an extra database for sale of a product to a customer after he/she has paid the cash as the same details can be recorded in the customer database and to check out later if he returns the product or if sale is made on credit basis or cash n the records of customers is need for future use. This is clearly seen by the sample entry of the customer database. Product Item Name Milk Soap Pen Name ABC LMN PQR Availability Y Y N Phone Products NO Purchased 5641 Milk,Soap 323 6543 Milk Soap Quantiity Available 100 liters 2 pieces Quantiity Purchased 1 liters,1 piece 2 liters 1 Piece Total Amount 35 30 20 Price/unit 15 20 10 Cash/Cre Return dit Cash Y Credit Cash N N Customer

Customer

Availability Details cash

Address Xyz Jkn Jsur

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28. Explain RAD model?(m-04) Rapid Application Development Rapid Application Development (RAD) is an incremental software development process model that emphasises a very short development cycle [typically 60-90 days]. The RAD model, shown in Fig. 1.5, is a high-speed adaptation of the waterfall model, where the result of each cycle a fully functional system.

RAD is used primarily for information systems applications, the RAD approach encompasses the following phases:

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Business modeling The information flow among business functions is modeled in a way that answers the following questions: What information drives the business process? What information is generated? Who generates it? Where does the information go? Who processes it? Data modeling The information flow defined as part of the business modeling phase is refined into a set of data objects that are needed to support the business. The characteristics (called attributes) of each object are identified and the relationships between these objects are defined. Process modeling The data objects defined in the data-modeling phase are transformed to achieve the information flow necessary to implement a business function. Processing descriptions are created for adding, modifying, deleting, or retrieving a data object. Application generation RAD assumes the use of the RAD fourth generation techniques and tools like VB, VC++, Delphi etc rather than creating software using conventional third generation programming languages. The RAD works to reuse existing program components (when possible) or create reusable components (when necessary). In all cases, automated tools are used to facilitate construction of the software. Testing and turnover Since the RAD process emphasizes reuse, many of the program components have already been tested. This minimizes the testing and development time. If a business application can be modularized so that each major function can be completed within the development cycle then it is a candidate for the RAD model. In this case, each team can be assigned a model, which is then integrated to form a whole.

Disadvantages For Large (but scalable) projects, RAD requires sufficient resources to create the right number of RAD teams. RAD projects will fail if there is no commitment by the developers or the clients to rapid-fire activities necessary to get a system complete in a much abbreviated time frame. If a system cannot be properly modularized, building components for RAD will be problematic RAD is not appropriate when technical risks are high, e.g. this occurs when a new application makes heavy use of new technology.

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29. What is the difference between system analysis and system design. How does the focus of information system analysis differ from information system design?(m-04,m-05) . System analysis is a problem solving technique that decomposes a system into its component pieces for the purpose of studying how well the components parts work and interact to accomplish their purpose . System Analysis: System analysis is a problem solving technique that decomposes a system into its component pieces for the purpose of studying how well those component parts work and interact to accomplish their purpose System design : System design is a complimentary problem solving technique(to system analysis) that reassembles a systems component pieces back into a complete system .This may involve adding deleting and changing pieces relative to the original system. Information system analysis: Information system Analysis primarily focuses on the business problems and requirements, independent of any technology that can or will be used to implement a solution to that problem . Information system design: Information system design is defined as those tasks that follow system analysis and focus on the specification of a detailed computer based solution Whereas system analysis emphasizes the business problems, system design focuses on the technical implementation concerns of the system.

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30. What are the elements of the cost benefit analysis?(m-05) Cost/Benefit analysis: Cost benefit analysis is a procedure that gives the picture of various costs, benefits and rules associated with each alternative system. Cost and benefit categories: In developing cost estimates for a system we need to consider several cost elements among them are the following: 1. Hardware costs: Hardware cost relate to the actual purchase or lease of the computer and peripherals (e.g. printer, disk drive, tape unit etc .)Determining the actual costs of hardware is generally more difficult when the system is shared by many users than for a dedicated stand alone system. 2. Personnel costs: Personnel costs include EDP staff salaries and benefits (health insurance, vacation time, sick pay , etc.)as well as payment of those involved in developing the system . Costs incurred during the development of a system are one time costs and are labeled development costs. 3. Facility cost: Facility costs are facilities incurred in the preparation of the physical site where the application of computer will be in operation. This includes wiring, flooring, lighting and air conditioning .These costs are treated as one time costs

4.

Operating costs: Operating costs include all costs associated with the day to-day operation of the system. The amount depends on the number shifts the nature of the applications and the caliber of the operating staff. The amount charged is based on computer time, staff time and volume of the output produced. 5. Supply cost: Supply costs are variable costs that increase with increased use of paper, ribbons, disks and the like. Procedure for cost benefit determination: The determination of cost and benefit entails the following steps : 1. Identify the cost and benefits pertaining to a given project 2. Categorize the various costs and benefits for analysis 3. Select a method for evaluation 4. Interpret the result of the system 5. Take action Classification of costs and benefits: 1. a. Tangible and intangible costs and benefits Tangibility refers to the ease with which costs or benefits can be measured. An outlay of cash for a specific item or activity is referred to as tangible costs. The purchase of hardware or software personnel training and employee salaries are examples of tangible costs. Costs that are known to exist but its financial value cannot be accurately measured are referred to as intangible costs .For example employee morale problems caused by a new system or lowered company image is an intangible cost. Benefits can also be classified as tangible and intangible .Tangible benefits such a s completing jobs in fewer hours .

b.

c.

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d.

Intangible benefits such as more satisfied customers or an improved corporate image are not easily quantified .

2.

Direct or indirect costs and benefits : a. Direct costs are those with which a direct figure can be directly associated in a project . b. Indirect costs are the results of operation that are directly associated with a given system or activity Fixed or variable cost and benefits a. b. Fixed costs are sunked costs .They are constant and d not change Variable costs are incurred on regular basis .they are usually proportional to work volume and continue as long as the system is in operation.

3.

Examples of tangible benefits Fewer processing errors Increased throughput Elimination of job steps Examples of intangible benefits Improved customer goodwill Improved employers morale Better service to community Evaluation method : 1. Net benefit analysis Net benefit analysis simply involves subtracting total costs from total benefits .Its easy to calculate , easy to interpret and easy to present .its main drawback is that it does not account for the time value for money and does not discount future cash flow The time value in money is usually expressed in the form of interest on the funds invested to realize the future value. Assuming the compound interest the formula is F=P(L+i)^n Where F=future value of an investment P=present value of the investment I=interest rate pre compounding year N=number of years 2. Present value analysis: In developing long term projects , it is often difficult to compare todays cost with the full value of tomorrows benefits Present value analysis controls for these problems by calculating the costs and benefits of the system in terms of todays value of the investment and then comparing across alternatives Present value = future value/(1+i)^n Net price value =discounted value-discounted costs Payback analysis: The payback method is a common measure of the relative time value of a project .It is easy to calculate and allows two or more activities to be ranked .The payback period may be computed by the following formula Overall cash outlay/Annual cash return= +Ins.Time/Years to recover (A*B)+(C*D)/5+2=Years

3.

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Element of the formula : A=capital investment B=investment credit C=Cost investment D=Companies income tax E=state and local taxes F=Life of capital G=Time to install system H=Benefit and savings 4. Break even analysis: Break even analysis is a point where the cost of the candidate system and that of the current one are equal. Break even analysis compares the cost of the current and candidate system .When a candidate system is developed initial costs usually exceed those of the current system. This is an investment period .When both costs are equal, it is break even analysis Cash flow analysis: Cash flow analysis keeps a track of accumulated cost and revenues on a regular basis.

5. 6.

Return of investment analysis: The ROI technique analysis compares the life time probability of alternative solution and projects ROI=Estimated life time benefits-Estimated costs /Estimated life time costs

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31. Summarize the procedure for developing DFD?(m-05) Using your own example illustrate?(m-06) Developing a DFD Step1. Make a list of business activities and use it to determine: a. External entities i.e. source and sink b. Data flows c. Processes d. Data stores e. Draw a context level diagram: Context level diagram is a top level diagram and contain sonly one process representing the entire system .It determines the boundaries of the system .Anything that is not inside the diagram will not be the part of the system study

Step2.

Step3.

Develop process chart It is also called as hierarchy chart or decomposition diagram .It shows top down functional decomposition of the system Step4. Develop the first level dfd: Its also known as diagram 0 or level 0diagram.Its the explosion of the context level diagram It includes data stores and external entities. Here the processes are number

Step5.

Draw more detailed level : Each process in diagram 0 may in turn be exploded to create a more detailed DFD. New data flows and data stores are added .There are further decomposition/leveling of process

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32. What is the reason for selecting the prototype development method? What is the desired impact on the application development process?(m-05) 1. Prototyping is a technique for quickly building a functioning but incomplete model of the information system. 2. A prototype is a small, representative, or working model of users requirements or a proposed design for an information system. 3. The development of the prototype is based on the fact that the requirements are seldom fully know at the beginning of the project. The idea is to build a first, simplified version of the system and seek feedback from the people involved, in order to then design a better subsequent vesion. This process is repeated until the system meets the clients condition of acceptance. 4. any given prototype may omit certain functions or features until such a time as the prototype has sufficiently evolved into an acceptable implementation of requirements. Reason for Protoyping: 6. information requirements are not always well defined. Users may know only that certain business areas need improvement or that the existing procedures must be changed. Or, they may know that they need better information for managing certain activities but are not sure what that information is. 7. the users requirements may be too vague to even begin formulating a design. 8. developers may have neither information nor experience of some unique sitations or some highcost or high-risk situations, in which the proposed design is new and untested. 9. developers may be unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm, the adaptability of an operating system, or the form that human-machine interaction should take. 10. in these and many other situations, a prototyping approach may offer the best approach. Advantages: 5. 6. 7. 8. Shorter development time. more accurate user requirements greater user participation and support relatively inexpensive to build as compared with the cost of conventional system.

This method is most useful for unique applications where developers have little information or experience or where risk of error may be high. It is useful to test the feasibility of the system or to identify user requirements.

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33. What is the feasibility study? Hat are different types of feasibility study?(m-05) Feasibility study

A feasibility study is a preliminary study undertaken before the real work of a project starts to ascertain the likelihood of the project's success. It is an analysis of possible alternative solutions to a problem and a recommendation on the best alternative. It, for example, can decide whether an order processing be carried out by a new system more efficiently than the previous one. A feasibility study could be used to test a new working system, which could be used because: The current system may no longer suit its purpose, Technological advancement may have rendered the current system redundant, The business is expanding, allowing it to cope with extra work load, Customers are complaining about the speed and quality of work the business provides, Competitors are now winning a big enough market share due to an effective integration of a computerized system.

Types of Feasibility Within a feasibility study, six areas must be reviewed, including those of Economics, Technical, Schedule, Organizational, Cultural, and Legal. Economic feasibility study This involves questions such as whether the firm can afford to build the system, whether its benefits should substantially exceed its costs, and whether the project has higher priority and profits than other projects that might use the same resources. This also includes whether the project is in the condition to fulfill all the eligibility criteria and the responsibility of both sides in case there are two parties involved in performing any project. Technical feasibility study This involves questions such as whether the technology needed for the system exists, how difficult it will be to build, and whether the firm has enough experience using that technology.The assessment is based on an outline design of system requirements in terms of Input, Output, Fields, Programs, and Procedures.This can be qualified in terms of volumes of data,trends,frequency of updating,etc..in order to give an introduction to the technical system.

Schedule Feasibility study This involves questions such as how much time is available to build the new system, when it can be built (i.e. during holidays), whether it interferes with normal business operation, etc. Organizational Feasibility study This involves questions such as whether the system has enough support to be implemented successfully, whether it brings an excessive amount of change, and whether the organization is changing too rapidly to absorb it.

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Cultural Feasibility study In this stage, the project's alternatives are evaluated for their impact on the local and general culture. For example, environmental factors need to be considered. Legal Feasibility study Not necessarily last, but all projects must face legal scrutiny. When an organization either has legal council on staff or on retainer, such reviews are typically standard. However, any project may face legal issues after completion too. Marketing Feasibility study This will include analysis of single and multi-dimensional market forces that could affect the commercial

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34. Explain briefly by example ? a. decision table b. Decision tree. c. Structured English d. Data dictionary Decision Trees, Decision Tables, and Structured English are tools used to represent process logic. Decision table Decision tables are a precise yet compact way to model complicated logic. Decision tables, like if-thenelse and switch-case statements, associate conditions with actions to perform. But, unlike the control structures found in traditional programming languages, decision tables can associate many independent conditions with several actions in an elegant way. Structure Decision tables are typically divided into four quadrants, as shown below. The four quadrants Conditio ns Actions Condition alternatives Action entries

Each decision corresponds to a variable, relation or predicate whose possible values are listed among the condition alternatives. Each action is a procedure or operation to perform, and the entries specify whether (or in what order) the action is to be performed for the set of condition alternatives the entry corresponds to. Many decision tables include in their condition alternatives the don't care symbol, a hyphen. Using don't cares can simplify decision tables, especially when a given condition has little influence on the actions to be performed. In some cases, entire conditions thought to be important initially are found to be irrelevant when none of the conditions influence which actions are performed. Aside from the basic four quadrant structure, decision tables vary widely in the way the condition alternatives and action entries are represented. Some decision tables use simple true/false values to represent the alternatives to a condition (akin to if-then-else), other tables may use numbered alternatives (akin to switch-case), and some tables even use fuzzy logic or probabilistic representations for condition alternatives. In a similar way, action entries can simply represent whether an action is to be performed (check the actions to perform), or in more advanced decision tables, the sequencing of actions to perform (number the actions to perform). Example The limited-entry decision table is the simplest to describe. The condition alternatives are simple Boolean values, and the action entries are check-marks, representing which of the actions in a given column are to be performed. A technical support company writes a decision table to diagnose printer problems based upon symptoms described to them over the phone from their clients. Printer troubleshooter Printer does not print Conditio ns A red light is flashing Printer is unrecognized Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y N Y N Y N Y N

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Check the power cable Check the printer-computer cable Actions Ensure printer software is installed Check/replace ink Check for paper jam X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

Of course, this is just a simple example (and it does not necessarily correspond to the reality of printer troubleshooting), but even so, it is possible to see how decision tables can scale to several conditions with many possibilities. Software engineering benefits Decision tables make it easy to observe that all possible conditions are accounted for. In the example above, every possible combination of the three conditions is given. In decision tables, when conditions are omitted, it is obvious even at a glance that logic is missing. Compare this to traditional control structures, where it is not easy to notice gaps in program logic with a mere glance --- sometimes it is difficult to follow which conditions correspond to which actions! Just as decision tables make it easy to audit control logic, decision tables demand that a programmer think of all possible conditions. With traditional control structures, it is easy to forget about corner cases, especially when the else statement is optional. Since logic is so important to programming, decision tables are an excellent tool for designing control logic. In one incredible anecdote, after a failed 6 man-year attempt to describe program logic for a file maintenance system using flow charts, four people solved the problem using decision tables in just four weeks. Choosing the right tool for the problem is fundamental. Decision tree In operations research, specifically in decision analysis, a decision tree is a decision support tool that uses a graph or model of decisions and their possible consequences, including chance event outcomes, resource costs, and utility. A decision tree is used to identify the strategy most likely to reach a goal. Another use of trees is as a descriptive means for calculating conditional probabilities. In data mining and machine learning, a decision tree is a predictive model; that is, a mapping from observations about an item to conclusions about its target value. More descriptive names for such tree models are classification tree or reduction tree. In these tree structures, leaves represent classifications and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those classifications [1]. The machine learning technique for inducing a decision tree from data is called decision tree learning, or (colloquially) Four major steps in building Decision Trees: 1. 2. 3. 4. Identify Identify Identify Identify the the the the conditions outcomes (condition alternatives) for each decision actions rules.

Decision Tree Example

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Structured English The two building blocks of Structured English are (1) structured logic or instructions organized into nested or grouped procedures, and (2) simple English statements such as add, multiply, move, etc. (strong, active, specific verbs) Five conventions to follow when using Structured English: 1. 2. 3. 4. Express all logic in terms of sequential structures, decision structures, or iterations. Use and capitalize accepted keywords such as: IF, THEN, ELSE, DO, DO WHILE, DO UNTIL, PERFORM Indent blocks of statements to show their hierarchy (nesting) clearly. When words or phrases have been defined in the Data Dictionary, underline those words or phrases to indicate that they have a specialized, reserved meaning. 5. Be careful when using "and" and "or" as well as "greater than" and "greater than or equal to" and other logical comparisons.

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Data dictionary A data dictionary is a set of metadata that contains definitions and representations of data elements. Within the context of a DBMS, a data dictionary is a read-only set of tables and views. Amongst other things, a data dictionary holds the following information: Precise definition of data elements Usernames, roles and privileges Schema objects Data type Number Text Number Text Number Text Si ze 4 30 4 20 3 6 Foreign Key Integrit y Primary key Description Book Identity Name of book Student Identity Name of author Price of book Number edition of Integrity constraints Stored procedures and triggers General database structure Space allocations One benefit of a well-prepared data dictionary is a consistency between data items across different tables. For example, several tables may hold telephone numbers; using a data dictionary the format of this telephone

Attribute Book_Id Bk_name Stud_Id Bk_author Bk_price Bk_edition

number field will be consistent. When an organization builds an enterprise-wide data dictionary, it may include both semantics and representational definitions for data elements. The semantic components focus on creating precise meaning of data elements. Representation definitions include how data elements are stored in a computer structure such as an integer, string or date format (see data type). Data dictionaries are one step along a pathway of creating precise semantic definitions for an organization. Initially, data dictionaries are sometimes simply a collection of database columns and the definitions of what the meaning and types the columns contain. Data dictionaries are more precise than glossaries (terms and definitions) because they frequently have one or more representations of how data is structured. Data dictionaries are usually separate from data models since data models usually include complex relationships between data elements. Data dictionaries can evolve into full ontology (computer science) when discrete logic has been added to data element definitions.

Example of data Dictionary Library Management System (Data Dictionary of Book Details)

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35. What is normalization? What is purpose of normalization of database?(m-06) Normalization Broadly, normalization (also spelled normalisation) is any process that makes something more normal, which typically means conforming to some regularity or rule, or returning from some state of abnormality. It has specific meanings in various fields: Audio normalization Database normalization, used in database theory. Knowledge normalization Normalization of a wave function in quantum mechanics Normalization (people with disabilities) Normalizing constant, used in mathematics, perhaps most often in probability theory Normalization (Czechoslovakia), the restoration of the conditions prevalent before the reform in Czechoslovakia, 1969 Normalization (economics), which pertains when only relative prices matter Normalization (image processing) Normalization (metallurgy) Normalization (sociology), used in sociology. Normalization (statistics) Normalization model (visual neuroscience) Normalization of a function (in general calculus) is the process of removing a discontinuity (or singularity). Normalization property, used in Raymond's term rewriting systems Range normalization Text normalization Normalization of relations, a concept in diplomacy Normalization of speech sounds in speech perception

Database normalization

Database normalization is a data design and organization process applied to data structures based on rules that help build relational databases. In common terms it defines the buckets, fields, columns or blank spots on a form and how that is to be kept in the file, table or form. In sequential files a field is a component of a file and in Data Base terms a column belongs to a table and in data design terms an element belongs to an entity. Normalization defines the entity and the elements in it according to a series of rules. These rules are called normal forms and they are numbered. The first rule of normalization is also called first normal form. The term normalization has come to imply the data is in third normal form or more. Normalization helps; prevent data anomalies, support a single consistent version of the truth and reduces input and output delays as well as reducing memory usage. This generally speeds up response time. It is an industry best practice method of file or table or entity design.

Purpose The primary purpose of database normalization is to improve data quality through the elimination of redundancy. This involves identification and isolation of repeating data, so that the repeated information may be reduced down to a single record, then conveniently retrieved wherever it is needed, reducing the potential for anomalies during data operations. Maintenance of normalized data is simpler because the user need only modify the repeated information in one place, with confidence that the new information will be immediately available wherever it is needed. This is because all data duplication is system maintained by key field inheritance.

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Uses Database normalization is a useful tool for requirements analysis and data modeling processes in software development. The process of database normalization provides many opportunities to improve understanding of the information which the data represents, leading to the development of a logical data model which may be used for design of tables in a relational database, classes in an object database, or elements in an XML schema, to offer just a few examples. Description A non-normalized database can suffer from data anomalies: A non-normalized database may store data representing a particular referent in multiple locations. An update to such data in some but not all of those locations results in an update anomaly, yielding inconsistent data. A normalized database prevents such an anomaly by storing such data (i.e. data other than primary keys) in only one location. A non-normalized database may have inappropriate dependencies, i.e. relationships between data with no functional dependencies. Adding data to such a database may require first adding the unrelated dependency. A normalized database prevents such insertion anomalies by ensuring that database relations mirror functional dependencies. Similarly, such dependencies in non-normalized databases can hinder deletion. That is, deleting data from such databases may require deleting data from the inappropriate dependency. A normalized database prevents such deletion anomalies by ensuring that all records are uniquely identifiable and contain no extraneous information.

Normalized databases have a design that reflects the true dependencies between tracked quantities, allowing quick updates to data with little risk of introducing inconsistencies. Instead of attempting to lump all information into one table, data is spread out logically into many tables. Normalizing the data is decomposing a single relation into a set of smaller relations which satisfy the constraints of the original relation. Redundancy can be solved by decomposing the tables. However certain new problems are caused by decomposition. One can only describe a database as having a normal form if the relationships between quantities have been rigorously defined. It is possible to use set theory to express this knowledge once a problem domain has been fully understood, but most database designers model the relationships in terms of an "idealized schema". (The mathematical support came back into play in proofs regarding the process of transforming from one form to another.)

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36. what are the major threads in the system security. Which is one of the most serious and important and why? System Security Threats ComAirs system crash on December 24, 2004, was just one example showing that the availability of data and system operations is essential to ensure business continuity. Due to resource constraints, organizations cannot implement unlimited controls to protect their systems. Instead, they should understand the major threats, and implement effective controls accordingly. An effective internal control structure cannot be implemented overnight, and internal control over financial reporting must be a continuing process. The term system security threats refers to the acts or incidents that can and will affect the integrity of business systems, which in turn will affect the reliability and privacy of business data. Most organizations are dependent on computer systems to function, and thus must deal with systems security threats. Small firms, however, are often understaffed for basic information technology (IT) functions as well as system security skills. Nonetheless, to protect a companys systems and ensure business continuity, all organizations must designate an individual or a group with the responsibilities for system security. Outsourcing system security functions may be a less expensive alternative for small organizations Top System Security Threats The 2005 CSI/FBI Computer Crime and Security Survey of 700 computer security practitioners revealed that the frequency of system security breaches has been steadily decreasing since 1999 in almost all threats except the abuse of wireless networks. Viruses A computer virus is a software code that can multiply and propagate itself. A virus can spread into another computer via e-mail, downloading files from the Internet, or opening a contaminated file. It is almost impossible to completely protect a network computer from virus attacks; the CSI/FBI survey indicated that virus attacks were the most widespread attack for six straight years since 2000. Insider Abuse of Internet Access Annual U.S. productivity growth was 2.5% during the second half of the 1990s, as compared to 1.5% from 1973 to 1995, a jump that has been attributed to the use of IT (Stephen D. Oliner and Daniel E. Sichel, Information Technology and Productivity: Where Are We Now and Where Are We Going?, Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review, Third Quarter 2002). Unfortunately, IT tools can be abused. For example, email and Internet connections are available in almost all offices to improve productivity, but employees may use them for personal reasons, such as online shopping, playing games, and sending instant messages to friends during work hours. Laptop or Mobile Theft Because they are relatively expensive, laptops and PDAs have become the targets of thieves. Although the percentage has declined steadily since 1999, about half of network executives indicated that their corporate laptops or PDAs were stolen in 2005 (Network World Technology Executive Newsletter, 02/21/05). Besides being expensive, they often contain proprietary corporate data, access codes Denial of Service A denial of service (DoS) attack is specifically designed to interrupt normal system functions and affect legitimate users access to the system. Hostile users send a flood of fake requests to a server, overwhelming it and making a connection between the server and legitimate clients difficult or impossible to establish. The distributed denial of service (DDoS) allows the hacker to launch a massive, coordinated attack from thousands of hijacked (zombie) computers remotely controlled by the hacker. A massive DDoS attack can paralyze a network system and bring down giant websites. For example, the 2000 DDoS attacks

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brought down websites such as Yahoo! and eBay for hours. Unfortunately, any computer system can be a hackers target as long as it is connected to the Internet. Unauthorized Access to Information To control unauthorized access to information, access controls, including passwords and a controlled environment, are necessary. Computers installed in a public area, such as a conference room or reception area, can create serious threats and should be avoided if possible. Any computer in a public area must be equipped with a physical protection device to control access when there is no business need. The LAN should be in a controlled environment accessed by authorized employees only. Employees should be allowed to access only the data necessary for them to perform their jobs. Abuse of Wireless Networks Wireless networks offer the advantage of convenience and flexibility, but system security can be a big issue. Attackers do not need to have physical access to the network. Attackers can take their time cracking the passwords and reading the network data without leaving a trace. One option to prevent an attack is to use one of several encryption standards that can be built into wireless network devices. One example, wired equivalent privacy (WEP) encryption, can be effective at stopping amateur snoopers, but it is not sophisticated enough to foil determined hackers. Consequently, any sensitive information transmitted over wireless networks should be encrypted at the data level as if it were being sent over a public network. System Penetration Hackers penetrate systems illegally to steal information, modify data, or harm the system. Telecom Fraud In the past, telecom fraud involved fraudulent use of telecommunication (telephone) facilities. Intruders often hacked into a companys private branch exchange (PBX) and administration or maintenance port for personal gains, including free long-distance calls, stealing (changing) information in voicemail boxes, diverting calls illegally, wiretapping, and eavesdropping. Theft of Proprietary Information Information is a commodity in the e-commerce era, and there are always buyers for sensitive information, including customer data, credit card information, and trade secrets. Data theft by an insider is common when access controls are not implemented. Outside hackers can also use Trojan viruses to steal information from unprotected systems. Beyond installing firewall and anti-virus software to secure systems, a company should encrypt all of its important data Financial Fraud The nature of financial fraud has changed over the years with information technology. System-based financial fraud includes scam e-mails, identity theft, and fraudulent transactions. With spam, con artists can send scam e-mails to thousands of people in hours. Victims of the so-called 419 scam are often promised a lottery winning or a large sum of unclaimed money sitting in an offshore bank account, but they must pay a fee first to get their shares. Anyone who gets this kind of e-mail is recommended to forward a copy to the U.S. Secret Service Misuse of Public Web Applications The nature of e-commerceconvenience and flexibilitymakes Web applications vulnerable and easily abused. Hackers can circumvent traditional network firewalls and intrusion-prevention systems and attack web applications directly. They can inject commands into databases via the web application user interfaces and surreptitiously steal data, such as customer and credit card information. Website Defacement

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Website defacement is the sabotage of webpages by hackers inserting or altering information. The altered webpages may mislead unknowing users and represent negative publicity that could affect a companys image and credibility. Web defacement is in essence a system attack, and the attackers often take advantage of undisclosed system vulnerabilities or unpatched systems.

Most Serious And Important Viruses A computer virus is a software code that can multiply and propagate itself. A virus can spread into another computer via e-mail, downloading files from the Internet, or opening a contaminated file. It is almost impossible to completely protect a network computer from virus attacks; the CSI/FBI survey indicated that virus attacks were the most widespread attack for six straight years since 2000. Viruses are just one of several programmed threats or malicious codes (malware) in todays interconnected system environment. Programmed threats are computer programs that can create a nuisance, alter or damage data, steal information, or cripple system functions. Programmed threats include, computer viruses, Trojan horses, logic bombs, worms, spam, spyware, and adware. According to a recent study by the University of Maryland, more than 75% of participants received e-mail spam every day. There are two problems with spam: Employees waste time reading and deleting spam, and it increases the system overhead to deliver and store junk data. The average daily spam is 18.5 messages, and the average time spent deleting them all is 2.8 minutes. Spyware is a computer program that secretly gathers users personal information and relays it to third parties, such as advertisers. Common functionalities of spyware include monitoring keystrokes, scanning files, snooping on other applications such as chat programs or word processors, installing other spyware programs, reading cookies, changing the default homepage on the Web browser, and consistently relaying information to the spyware home base. Unknowing users often install spyware as the result of visiting a website, clicking on a disguised pop-up window, or downloading a file from the Internet. Adware is a program that can display advertisements such as pop-up windows or advertising banners on webpages. A growing number of software developers offer free trials for their software until users pay to register. Free-trial users view sponsored advertisements while the software is being used. Some adware does more than just present advertisements, however; it can report users habits, preferences, or even personal information to advertisers or other third parties, similar to spyware. To protect computer systems against viruses and other programmed threats, companies must have effective access controls and install and regularly update quarantine software. With effective protection against unauthorized access and by encouraging staff to become defensive computer users, virus threats can be reduced. Some viruses can infect a computer through operating system vulnerabilities. It is critical to install system security patches as soon as they are available. Furthermore, effective security policies can be implemented with server operating systems such as Microsoft Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Other kinds of software (e.g., Deep Freeze) can protect and preserve original computer configurations. Each system restart eradicates all changes, including virus infections, and resets the computer to its original state. The software eliminates the need for IT professionals to perform timeconsuming and counterproductive rebuilding, re-imaging, or troubleshooting when a computer becomes infected. Fighting against programmed threats is an ongoing and ever-changing battle. Many organizations, especially small ones, are understaffed and underfunded for system security. Organizations can use one of a number of effective security suites (e.g., Norton Internet Security 2005, ZoneAlarm Security Suite 5.5, McAfee VirusScan) that offer firewall, anti-virus, anti-spam, anti-spyware, and parental controls (for home offices) at the desktop level. Firewalls and routers should also be installed at the

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network level to eliminate threats before they reach the desktop. Anti-adware and anti-spyware software are signature-based, and companies are advised to install more than one to ensure effective protection. Installing anti-spam software on the server is important because increasing spam results in productivity loss and a waste of computing resources. Important considerations for selecting antispam software include a systems effectiveness, impact on mail delivery, ease of use, maintenance, and cost. Many Internet service providers conveniently reduce spam on their servers before it reaches subscribers. Additionally, companies must maintain in-house and off-site backup copies of corporate data and software so that data and software can be quickly restored in the case of a system failure.

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37. Define Data structure? What are the major type of data structure ? illustrate? Data are structured according to the data model. An entity is a conceptual representation of an object. Relationships between entities makeup a data structure. A data model represents a data structure that is described to the DBMS in DDL. Types of Data-Structure Data-structuring determines whether the system can create 1:1 1:m or m:m relationships among entities. Although all DBMSs have a common approach to data management they differ in the way they structure data. i. Hierarchical ii. Network and iii. Relational Hierarchical Structuring i. Hierarchical (also called tree) structuring specifies that an entity can have no more than one owing entity; that is, we can establish a 1:1 or a 1:m relationship. ii. The owing entity is called the parent; the owned entity, the child. A parent can have many children (1:m), whereas a child can have only one parent iii. A parent with no owners is called the root. There is only one root in a hierarchical model. iv. Elements at the ends of the branches with no children are called leaves. v. Trees are normally upside down, with the root at the top and leaves at the bottom. vi. The hierarchical model is easy to design and understand . some application,however do not conform to such a scheme. The problem is sometimes resolved by using a network-structure. Network-Structuring i. A network structure allows 1:1 1:m or m:m relationships among entities. For example, an auto parts shop may have dealings with more than one automaker(parent). ii. A network structure reflects the real-world although a PROGRAM STRUCTURE CAN BECOME COMPLEX. The solution is to separate the network into several hierarchies with duplicates. This simplifies the relationship to more complex than 1: M A hierarchy, then , becomes a subview of the network structure Relational Structuring i. In relational structuring all data and relationships are represented in a flattwo dimensional tables called a relation ii. A relation is equivalent to a file where each line represents a record. iii. All entries in each column are of same kind. Furthermore each column has a unique name iv. Finally, no two rows in the tables are identical a row is reffered to as a tuple

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38. what cost elements are considered in the cost/benefit analysis? Which do you think is most difficult to estimate? Why? The cost-benefit analysis is a part of economic feasibility study of a system. The basic elements of costbenefit analysis are as follows. I. To compute the total costs involved. II. To compute the total benefits from the project. III. Top compare to decide, if the project provides more net gains or no net gains. The costs are classified under two heads as follows. i. Initial Costs- They are mainly the development costs. ii. Recurring Costs- They are the costs incurred in running the application system or operating the system (usually per month or per year) The initial costs include the following major heads of expenses: Salary of development staff Consultant fees Costs of software Development tools-Licensing Fees. Infrastructure development costs Training and Training material costs Travel costs Development hardware applied for te costs, Networking costs Salary of support staff The development costs are applied for the entire duration of the software development. Therefore, they are over initial but longer period. To keep these costs lower, the development time reduction is the key. The Recurring costs include the following major costs: Salary of operation users License fees for software tools used for running the software systems, if any. Hardware/Networking Maintenance charges Costs of hard discs, magnetic tapes, being used as media for data storage. The furniture and fixture leasing charges Electricity and other charges Rents and Taxes Infrastructure Maintenance charges Spare Parts and Tools The benefits are classified under two heads, as follows:i. Tangible benefits- benefits that can be measured in terms of the rupee value. ii. Intangible benefits-benefits that can not be measured in terms of the rupee value. The common heads of tangible benefits vary from organisation to organisation, but some of them are as follows:i. Benefits due to reduced business cycle times i.e production cycle, marketing cycle, etc. ii. Benefits due to increased efficiency iii. Savings in the salary of operational users iv. Savings in the space rent and taxes v. Savings in the cost of stationary, telephone and other communication costs, etc. vi. Savings in the costs due to the use of storage media vii. Benefits due to overall increase in profits before tax. The common heads of intangible benefits vary from organisation to organisation, but some of them are as follows:i. Benefits due to increased working satisfaction of employees. ii. Benefits due to increased quality of products and/or services provided to the end-customer. iii. Benefits in terms of business growth due to better customer services iv. Benefits due to increased brand image v. Benefits due to captured errors, which could not be captured in the current system.

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vi.

Savings on costs of extra activities that were carried out and now not required to be carried out in the new system. The net gain or loss is worked after calculating the difference in the costs and benefits. The advantages of cost or benefit analysis are many. Some of them are listed below i. Since it is a computed value, the decisions of go or no-go ahead based on it are likely to be more effective than just going ahead without it. ii. It completes the user management proposal developer to think through the costs and benefits ahead of time proactively and assign some numbers to these heads of accounts. iii. Since it assigns the amount values to each one of these heads, they can be used to verify against, after the g-ahead decision is implemented, to test the correctness of basis of assumptions made during the planning stage. This acts as a very effective control tool. iv. If used properly, the cost/benefit analysis can be used as a very good opportunity for organisational learning which will go into building up the organisational maturity into that key performance area. (KPA) Some common drawbacks of the cost/benefits analysis are as follows: i. The basis for computing of costs and that of benefits should be balanced. E.g. salary expenses incurred and salary expenses saved should have some bearings on reality. Unfortunately, these basis are subjective and therefore, may be difficult to balance. ii. The personal bias of the team members may reflect upon the computations. If a person/team is in favour of developing the new system, they may overlook, some important cost elements or likely to underestimate the costs and vice versa. iii. Some of the intangible benefits may be very hard to compute accurately. iv. Many times, in practice, the Top managements decision does not depend upon the outcome of the cost/benefit analysis. If the project manager/system analyst knows about the decision, they may not take all hard efforts to collect data and carry out the comparative analysis. v. Many times, the software development projects are business compulsions rather than the matter of choice. Therefore, the cost/benefit analysis may be either fertile exercise or acts only as a paper horse.

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39. There are 2 ways of debugging program software bottom up and top down. How do they differ? Its a long-standing principle of programming style that the functional elements of a program should not be too large. If some component of a program grows beyond the stage where it's readily comprehensible, it becomes a mass of complexity which conceals errors.Such software will be hard to read, hard to test, and hard to debug. In accordance with this principle, a large program must be divided into pieces, and the larger the program, the more it must be divided. How do you divide a program? The traditional approach is called top-down design: you say "the purpose of the program is to do these seven things, so I divide it into seven major subroutines. The first subroutine has to do these four things, so it in turn will have four of its own subroutines," and so on. This process continues until the whole program has the right level of granularity-each part large enough to do something substantial, but small enough to be understood as a single unit. As well as top-down design, they follow a principle which could be called bottom-up design-- changing the language to suit the problem.It's worth emphasizing that bottom-up design doesn't mean just writing the same program in a different order. When you work bottom-up, you usually end up with a different program. Instead of a single, monolithic program, you will get a larger language with more abstract operators, and a smaller program written in it. Instead of a lintel, you'll get an arch. This brings several advantages: 1.By making the language do more of the work, bottom-up design yields programs which are smaller and more agile. A shorter program doesn't have to be divided into so many components, and fewer components means programs which are easier to read or modify. Fewer components also means fewer connections between components, and thus less chance for errors there. As industrial designers strive to reduce the number of moving parts in a machine, experienced Lisp programmers use bottom-up design to reduce the size and complexity of their programs. 2.Bottom-up design promotes code re-use. When you write two or more programs, many of the utilities you wrote for the first program will also be useful in the succeeding ones. Once you've acquired a large substrate of utilities, writing a new program can take only a fraction of the effort it would require if you had to start with raw Lisp. 3.Bottom-up design makes programs easier to read. An instance of this type of abstraction asks the reader to understand a general-purpose operator; an instance of functional abstraction asks the reader to understand a special-purpose subroutine. 4.Because it causes you always to be on the lookout for patterns in your code, working bottom-up helps to clarify your ideas about the design of your program. If two distant components of a program are similar in form, you'll be led to notice the similarity and perhaps to redesign the program in a simpler way. Top-Down Advantages 1.Design errors are trapped earlier 2.A working (prototype) system 3.Enables early validation of design 4.No test drivers are needed 5.The control program plus a few modules forms a basic early prototype 6.Interface errors discovered early 7.Modular features aid debugging Disadvantages 1.Difficult to produce a stub for a complex component 2.Difficult to observe test output from top-level modules 3.Test stubs are needed

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4.Extended early phases dictate a slow manpower buildup 5.Errors in critical modules at low levels are found late Bottom-Up Advantages 1.Easier to create test cases and observe output 2.Uses simple drivers for low-level modules to provide data and the interface 3.Natural fit with OO development techniques 4.No test stubs are needed 5.Easier to adjust manpower needs 6.Errors in critical modules are found early 7.Natural fit with OO development techniques Disadvantages 1.No program until all modules tested 2.High-level errors may cause changes in lower modules 3.Test drivers are needed 4.Many modules must be integrated before a working program is available 5.Interface errors are discovered late

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40. Discuss the six special system test? Give special examples? Special System Tests: The tests which do not focus on the normal running of the system but come under special category and are used for performing specific tests related specific tasks are termed as Special System Tests. They are listed as follows: 1. Peak Load Test: This is used to determine whether the system will handle the volume of activities that occur when the system is at peak of the processing demand. For instance when all terminals are active at the same time. This test applies mainly for on-line systems. For example, in a banking system, analyst want to know what will happen if all the tellers sign on at their terminals at the same time before start of the business day. Will the system handle them one at a time without incident, or will it attempt to handle all of them at once and be so confused that it locks up and must be restarted, or will terminal address be post? The only sure way to find out is to test for it. 2. Storage Testing: This test is to be carried out to determine the capacity of the system to store transaction data on a disk or in other files. Capacities her are measured in terms of the number of records that a disk will handle or a file can contain. If this test is not carried out then there are possibilities that during installation one may discover that, there is not enough storage capacity for transactions and master file records. 3. Performance Time Testing: This test refers to the response time of the system being installed. Performance time testing is conducted prior to implementation to determine how long it takes to receive a response to a inquiry, make a backup copy of the file, or send a transmission and receive a response. This also includes test runs to time indexing or restoring of large files of the size the system will have during atypical run or to prepare a report. A system may run well with only a handful of test transactions may be unacceptably slow when full loaded. This should be done using the entire volume of live data. 4. Recovery Testing: Analyst must never be too sure of anything. He must always be prepared for the worst. One should assume that the system will fail and data will be damaged or lost. Even though plans and procedures are written to cover these situations, they also must be tested. 5. Procedure Testing: Documentation & manuals telling the user how to perform certain functions and tests quite easily by asking the user to follow them exactly through a series of events. By not including instructions about aspects such as, when to depress the enter key, removing the diskettes before putting off the power and so on, could cause problems. This type of testing brings out what is not mentioned in the documentation, and also the errors in them. 6. Human Factors: In case during processing, the screen goes blank the operator may start to wonder as to what is happening and the operator may just do things like press the enter key number of times, or switch off the system and so on, but if a message is displayed saying that the processing is in progress and asking the operator to wait, then these types of problems can be avoided. Thus, during this test we determine how users will use the system when processing data or preparing reports. As we have noticed that these special test are used for some special situations, and hence the name as Special System Tests.

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41. Define the following types of maintenance. Give examples for each? a. corrective maintenance b. adaptive maintenance c. perfective maintenance d. preventive maintenance Solution Corrective Maintenance: Corrective maintenance means repairing processing or performance failures or making changes because of previously uncorrected problems or false assumptions. For example, fixing cosmetic problems, like correcting a misspelled word in the user interface; fixing functional errors that dont obviously affect processing, like correcting a mathematical function so that it is calculated correctly; fixing algorithmic errors that cause severe performance problems, like changing a program to avoid crashes or infinite loops fixing algorithmic problems that damage lose, corrupt, or destroy data in the program or in files. Adaptive Maintenance: Adaptive maintenance is a type of software maintenance where changes the software in response to changes in the working environment or due to system upgrade or hardware replacement in short changing the program function/ For example, porting to use newer versions of the development tools and/or components, porting product to a different operating system, adapting a program for new locales, modification of code to take full advantages of hardware supported operations, most year 2000 fixes, adding support for network access or web access. Perfective Maintenance: Perfective maintenance means enhancing the performance or modifying the program(s) to respond to the users additional or changing needs. For example: changing the GUI to streamline user interactions, replacing algorithms to speed up processing, adding color, higher resolution, better sound, better graphics animation, and other multimedia enhancements, adding security features, making a program more customizable and adaptable to user preferences. Preventive Maintenance: Preventive maintenance is a type of software maintenance where work is done in order to try to prevent malfunctions or improve

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maintainability.

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42. what are different methods of file organization? Explain advantages and disadvantages of each? File Organization: A file is organized to ensure that records are available for processing. It should be designed in line with the activity and volatility of the information and the nature of the storage media and devices. Other consideration for it are Cost of the media, File privacy, security, and confidentiality. There are four methods of organizing files: 1. Sequential organization: - Sequential organization simply means storing data in physical , contiguous blocks within files on tapes or disk. Records are also in sequence within each block. - To access a record, previous records within the block are scanned. Thus this design is best suited for get next activities, reading one record after another without a search delay. - In this, records can be added only at the end of the file. It is not possible to insert a record in the middle of file without rewriting the file. - In this, file update, transactions records are in the same sequence as in the master file. Records from both files are matched, one record at a time, resulting in an updated master file. Advantages: - Simple to design and Easy to program. - Variable length and blocked records are available. - Best use of disk storage. Disadvantages: - Records cannot be added to middle of the file. 2. Indexed Sequential Organization: - Like sequential organization, it also stores data in physically contiguous blocks. - The difference is in the use of indexes to locate the records. -Disk storage is divided into three areas: (a). Prime area: It contains file records stored by key or ID numbers. All records are initially stored in the prime area. (b). Overflow area: It contains records added to the files that cannot be placed in logical sequence in the prime area. (c) Index area: This is more like a data dictionary. It contains keys of records and their locations on the disks. A pointer associated with each key is an address that tells the system where to find a record. Advantages: - Indexed sequential organization reduces the magnitude of the sequential search and provides quick access for sequential and direct processing. - Records can be inserted or updated in middle of the file. Disadvantages: - The prime drawback is the extra storage required for the index. - It also takes longer to search the index for data access or retrieval. - Periodic reorganization of file is required.

3. Inverted List Organization:

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- Like the Indexed-sequenced storage method, the inverted list organization maintains an index. - The two methods differ, however, in the index level and record storage. - The Indexed-sequenced method has a multiple index for a given key, whereas the inverted list method has a single index for each key type. - In an inverted list, records are not necessary stored in a particular sequence. They are placed in data storage area, but indexes are updated for record keys & location. Advantage: - Inverted lists are best for applications that request specific data on multiple keys. They are ideal for static files because additions and updated cause expensive pointer updating. 4. Direct Access Organization: - In direct-access file organization, records are placed randomly throughout the file. - Records need not be in sequence because they are updated directly and rewritten back in the same location. - New records are added at the file or inserted in specific locations based on software commands. - Records are accessed by addresses that specify their disk locations. An address is required for locating a record. for linking records, or for establishing relationships. Advantages: - Records can be inserted or updated in middle of the file. - Better control over record at a location. Disadvantages: - Address calculation is required for the processing. - Variable length records are nearly impossible to process.

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43. Consider an online railway reservation system perform output design. Show some sample screen layouts. A detailed note about different levels and methods of testing software? Levels of tests: 1) Unit Test 2) System Testing Unit Testing: In unit testing the analyst test the programs making up a system. The software units in a system are the modules and routines that are assembled and integrated to perform a specific function. Unit testing focuses first on the modules, independently of one another, to locate errors. This enables the tester to detect errors in coding and logic that are contained within that model only. The test cases needed for unit testing should exercise each condition and option Unit testing can be performed from the bottom up, starting with the smallest and lowest-levels modules and proceeding one at a time. For each module in bottom-up testing, a short program executes the module and provides the needed data, so that the module is asked to perform the way it will when embedded within the larger systems. When bottom-level modules are tested, attention turns on the next level that use the lower ones. Then are tested individually and then linked with the previously examined lower-level modules. Top-down testing begins with the upper-level modules. However, since the detailed activities usually performed in the lower-level routines are not provided, stubs are written. A stub is a module shell that can be called by the upper-level module and that, when reached properly, return a message to the calling module, indicating that proper interaction occurred. No attempt is made to verify lower-level module. System Testing: System testing does not test the software per se but rather the integration of each module in the system. It also tests to find discrepancies between the system and its original objective, current specifications, and systems documentation. The primary concern is the compatibility of individual modules. System testing must also verify that file sizes are adequate and thatindices have been built properly. Sorting and reindexing procedures assumed to be present in the lower-level modules must be tested at the system level to see that they in fact exist and achieve the results modules expect. Methods of testing software: There are two general methods for testing software, 1) Code Testing 2) Specification Testing Code Testing: The code-testing strategy examines the logic of the program. To follow the testing method, the analyst develops test cases that result in executing every instruction in the program or module, that is, every path through the program is tested. A path is a specific combination of conditions that is handled by the program. Code testing seems the ideal method for testing software. This testing strategy does not indicate whether the code meets its specification nor

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does it determines whether all aspects are even implemented. It also does not check the range of data that the program will accept. Specification Testing: In this the analyst examines the specifications stating what the program should do and how it should perform under various conditions. Then the test case are developed for each condition or combination of conditions and submitted for the processing. By examining the results, the analyst can determine whether the program performs according to its specified requirements. This strategy treats the program as if it were a black box: the analyst does not look into the program to study the code and is not concerned about whether every instruction or path through the program m is tested. Specification testing strategy is a more efficient, since it focuses on the way software expected to be used.

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44. Write a note on a) software design tools b) GUI design - The Concept of use of tools is brought to software engineering is similar to that of tools used in the other Engineering production technologies such as automobile industry etc. - A software tool is general-purpose software, which carries out a highly specific task of human being, which would completely or partially eliminate need of human skills in that task. - Though there are various types of software tools available, we study here only those which can automate some or many of the software system development tasks. These are broadly termed as Software development (design) tools. CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering) tool is another broader set of tools. - The Software tools can be useful in the following SDLC phases as shown below: Sr No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SDLC Phase System Analysis High-Level Design Low-Level Design Construction Testing Implementation Project Management Software Configuration Control Management & Software Tools can be used for DFD, ERD, and other models, Word Processor and editors, Drawing/Graphics. DFD, ERD, and other models, Word Processor and editors, Drawing/Graphics. Integrated Development Environment (IDE). IDE, DBMS, Code generation, Report generators, Query builders, Form developers, Control development tools, Web Page Builder. Test data generation tools, Tools to execute and monitor test runs, Debugging tools, Change Impact Analysis Tools. Reverse Engineering Tools, Remote deployment tools, e-tutors, Online help development management tools. PERT/CPM schedule generation tools, Spread sheet, Charting tools, Reporting tools, Appointments/ Schedule management tools. Software Inventory Management, Version Control Management, Source code safes.

The basic purpose of using software tools are as follows: - Increased Speed and Accuracy. - High-level of automation brings in lot of Standardization. - Less dependence on human skills. - For high volume of work, the costs are considerably low. - Iterative several times. - Versatile because of high programmability. Thus the use of tools increases the development productivity several times.

(b) GUI Design: - The word GUI stands for Graphical User Interface (GUI). Since the PC was invented, the computer systems and application systems have started considering the GUI as one of the most important aspect of system design. The GUI design component in every application system will vary depending upon the importance of the user interactions for the success of the system. - However, by now, we have definitely shifted successfully from purely non-interactive batch oriented application system, having almost no component of GUI, to present day applications such as games and animations and internet based application systems, where the success of the application systems vests almost completely on the effectiveness of the GUI.

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The Goals of a good GUI: 1. Provide the best way for people to interact with computers. This is commonly known as Human Computer Interaction (HCI). 2. The presentation should be user friendly. User-friendly Interface is helpful eg. It should not only tell user that he has committed an error, but also provide guidance as to how he/she can rectify it soon. 3. It should provide information on what is the error and how to fix it. 4. User-friendliness also includes tolerant and adaptable. 5. A good GUI makes the User more productive. 6. A good GUI is more effective, because it finds the best solutions to a problem. 7. It is also efficient because it helps the User to find such solution much quickly and with the least error. 8. For a user, using a computer system, his workspace is the computer screen. The goal of a good GUI is to make the best, if not all, of a Users workspace. 9. A good GUI should be robust. High robustness implies that the interface should not fall because of some action taken by the user. Also, any user error should not lead to a system breakdown. 10. The Usability of a GUI is expected to be high. The usability is measured in the various terms. 11. A good GUI is of high Analytical capability, most of the information needed by user appears on the screen. 12. With a good GUI, user finds the work easier and more pleasant. 13. The user should be happy and confident to use the interface. 14. A good GUI has a high cognitive workload ability i.e. the mental efforts required of the user to use the system should be the latest. In fact, the GUI closely approximates the users mental model or reactions to the screen. 15. For a good GUI, the user satisfaction is HIGH. These are the Characteristics or Goals of a good GUI.

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45. Describe in brief the spiral model of development? DEFINITION - The spiral model, also known as the spiral lifecycle model, is a systems development method (SDM) used in information technology (IT). This model of development combines the features of the prototyping model and the waterfall model. The spiral model is favored for large, expensive, and complicated projects.

The steps in the spiral model can be generalized as follows: 10. The new system requirements are defined in as much detail as possible. This usually involves interviewing a number of users representing all the external or internal users and other aspects of the existing system. 11. A preliminary design is created for the new system. 12. A first prototype of the new system is constructed from the preliminary design. This is usually a scaled-down system, and represents an approximation of the characteristics of the final product. 13. A second prototype is evolved by a fourfold procedure: (1) evaluating the first prototype in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, and risks; (2) defining the requirements of the second prototype; (3) planning and designing the second prototype; (4) constructing and testing the second prototype. 14. At the customer's option, the entire project can be aborted if the risk is deemed too great. Risk factors might involve development cost overruns, operating-cost miscalculation, or any other factor that could, in the customer's judgment, result in a less-than-satisfactory final product. 15. The existing prototype is evaluated in the same manner as was the previous prototype, and, if necessary, another prototype is developed from it according to the fourfold procedure outlined above. 16. The preceding steps are iterated until the customer is satisfied that the refined prototype represents the final product desired. 17. The final system is constructed, based on the refined prototype. 18. The final system is thoroughly evaluated and tested. Routine maintenance is carried out on a continuing basis to prevent large-scale failures and to minimize downtime. Advantages Estimates (i.e. budget, schedule, etc.) get more realistic as work progresses, because important issues are discovered earlier.

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It is more able to cope with the (nearly inevitable) changes that software development generally entails. Software engineers (who can get restless with protracted design processes) can get their hands in and start working on a project earlier. The spiral model is a realistic approach to the development of large-scale software products because the software evolves as the process progresses. In addition, the developer and the client better understand and react to risks at each evolutionary level. The model uses prototyping as a risk reduction mechanism and allows for the development of prototypes at any stage of the evolutionary development. It maintains a systematic stepwise approach, like the classic life cycle model, but incorporates it into an iterative framework that more reflect the real world. If employed correctly, this model should reduce risks before they become problematic, as consideration of technical risks are considered at all stages.

Disadvantages Demands considerable risk-assessment expertise It has not been employed as much proven models (e.g. the WF model) and hence may prove difficult to sell to the client (esp. where a contract is involved) that this model is controllable and efficient. [More study needs to be done in this regard It may be difficult to convince customers that evolutionary approach is controllable

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46. what is the purpose of feasibility study? What are the parameter used to decide different feasibilities of a system in detail? Feasibility study is an analysis of possible alternative solutions to a problem and a recommendation on the best alternative .It, for example, can decide whether an order processing be carried out by a new system more efficiently than the previous one. A feasibility study is a study conducted to find out whether the proposed system would be : 1. Possible to build with given technology and resources 2. Affordable given the time and cost constraint of the organisation ,and 3. Acceptable for use by the eventual users of the system

Purpose of the feasibility study 1. Need analysis-to determine the need for a change in an organisation 2. Cost benefit analysis -to study the effect of the change on the economics of the organisation 3. Technical feasibility - to evaluate various technologies that can be used for implementing the suggested change given the cost and resources constraints of an organisation 4. Legal feasibility - to evaluate the legal procedure ,if any should come into play to implement the suggested change 5. Evaluation of alternatives -to evaluate the various alternatives that would be thrown up with regards to resolving the problems of an organisation and recommend the best suited one. Parameter used to decide different feasibilities : 1.Economic feasibility study This involves questions such as whether the firm can afford to build the system, whether its benefits should substantially exceed its costs, and whether the project has higher priority and profits than other projects that might use the same resources. This also includes whether the project is in the condition to fulfill all the eligibility criteria and the responsibility of both sides in case there are two parties involved in performing any project.

2.Technical feasibility study This involves questions such as whether the technology needed for the system exists, how difficult it will be to build, and whether the firm has enough experience using that technology.The assessment is based on an outline design of system requirements in terms of Input, Output, Fields, Programs, and Procedures.This can be qualified in terms of volumes of data,trends,frequency of updating,etc..in order to give an introduction to the technical system. 3.Schedule Feasibility study This involves questions such as how much time is available to build the new system, when it can be built (i.e. during holidays), whether it interferes with normal business operation, etc.

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4.Organizational Feasibility study This involves questions such as whether the system has enough support to be implemented successfully, whether it brings an excessive amount of change, and whether the organization is changing too rapidly to absorb it. 5.Cultural Feasibility study In this stage, the project's alternatives are evaluated for their impact on the local and general culture. For example, environmental factors need to be considered. 6.Legal Feasibility study Not necessarily last, but all projects must face legal scrutiny. When an organization either has legal council on staff or on retainer, such reviews are typically standard. However, any project may face legal issues after completion too. 7.Marketing Feasibility study This will include analysis of single and multi-dimensional market forces that could affect the commercial

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47. Explain how the waterfall model and the prototyping model can be accommodated in spiral process model? DEFINITION - The spiral model, also known as the spiral lifecycle model, is a systems development method (SDM) used in information technology (IT). This model of development combines the features of the prototyping model and the waterfall model. The spiral model is favored for large, expensive, and complicated projects.

The steps in the spiral model can be generalized as follows: 19. The new system requirements are defined in as much detail as possible. This usually involves interviewing a number of users representing all the external or internal users and other aspects of the existing system. 20. A preliminary design is created for the new system. 21. A first prototype of the new system is constructed from the preliminary design. This is usually a scaled-down system, and represents an approximation of the characteristics of the final product. 22. A second prototype is evolved by a fourfold procedure: (1) evaluating the first prototype in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, and risks; (2) defining the requirements of the second prototype; (3) planning and designing the second prototype; (4) constructing and testing the second prototype. 23. At the customer's option, the entire project can be aborted if the risk is deemed too great. Risk factors might involve development cost overruns, operating-cost miscalculation, or any other factor that could, in the customer's judgment, result in a less-than-satisfactory final product. 24. The existing prototype is evaluated in the same manner as was the previous prototype, and, if necessary, another prototype is developed from it according to the fourfold procedure outlined above. 25. The preceding steps are iterated until the customer is satisfied that the refined prototype represents the final product desired. 26. The final system is constructed, based on the refined prototype. 27. The final system is thoroughly evaluated and tested. Routine maintenance is carried out on a continuing basis to prevent large-scale failures and to minimize downtime. Advantages Estimates (i.e. budget, schedule, etc.) get more realistic as work progresses, because important issues are discovered earlier.

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It is more able to cope with the (nearly inevitable) changes that software development generally entails. Software engineers (who can get restless with protracted design processes) can get their hands in and start working on a project earlier. The spiral model is a realistic approach to the development of large-scale software products because the software evolves as the process progresses. In addition, the developer and the client better understand and react to risks at each evolutionary level. The model uses prototyping as a risk reduction mechanism and allows for the development of prototypes at any stage of the evolutionary development. It maintains a systematic stepwise approach, like the classic life cycle model, but incorporates it into an iterative framework that more reflect the real world. If employed correctly, this model should reduce risks before they become problematic, as consideration of technical risks are considered at all stages.

Disadvantages Demands considerable risk-assessment expertise It has not been employed as much proven models (e.g. the WF model) and hence may prove difficult to sell to the client (esp. where a contract is involved) that this model is controllable and efficient. [More study needs to be done in this regard It may be difficult to convince customers that evolutionary approach is controllable

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48. Discuss the advantages of graphical information displays and suggest four application areas where it would be more appropriate to use graphical rather than digital display of numeric information? The Advantages of Graphical information display are: - Improve Effevtiveness of Output. - Manage Information Volume. - Fulfilling Personal Preference. - Use of different graphic forms ensures better readibility of information. Use of ICONS- < Pictorial representation of entities described by data. > - Properly selected icons communicate information immediately since they duplicate images that Users are already familiar with. - Appropriate icon ensures that the right words & phrases,that is the Intended Meaning is conveyed. COLOUR REPRESENTATION- A consistent colour usage enhances a good output design. eg- RED for Exceptions, GREEN/BLUE for Normal Situations. - The Bightest colour Emphasizing most important information on Display screen eg- TORQUOISE & PINK. Application areasi. BUSINESS REPORTS- PIE-DIAGRAMS, BAR CHARTS help better understand information than just printing the values &

the figures.

ii. AUTOMOBILE SHOWROOMS- A Comparison of Different Models using different graphics gives a better output value to the user. iii.HOSPITALS- Diagrams showing different dosages, Instrument outputs on paper< Scans> give a quick idea about the patient condition n needs.

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49. What are design principles of a good user interface? The U.I is everything that the end user comes into contact with while using the system. The 3 aspects of UI are:1.Physical 2.Perceptual 3.Conceptual aspect. The General Design Principles a Good USER INTERFACE are: 1. VISIBILITY: All the controls should be Visible & provide Feedback to indicate that the control is responding to the User's Action. 2. AFFORDANCE: Appearance of any Control should suggest its FUNTIONALITY. 3. ROBUSTNESS: Ability to prevent interface error from Corrupting the system. 4: USABILITY: How EASY it is to use an Interface.. The 8 Golden Rules for DESIGNING INTERACTIVE INTERFACE are: 1: STRIVE for CONSISTENCY. 2: ENABLE USE of SHORTCUTS. 3: OFFER INFORMATIVE FEEDBACK. 4: DESIGN DIALOGUE to YIELD CLOSURE. 5: OFFER SIMPLE ERROR HANDLING. 6: SUPPORT INTERNAL LOCUS of CONTROL. 7: PERMIT EASY REVERSAL of ACTIONS. 8: REDUSE SHORT TERM MEMORY-LOADS.

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50. What do you mean by structured analysis? describe the various tools used for structured analysis wit pros n cons of each STRUCTURED ANALYSIS:SET OF TECHNIQUES & GRAPHICAL TOOLS THAT ALLOW THE ANALYST TO DEVELOP A NEW KIND OF SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS THAT ARE UNDERSTANDABLE TO THE USER. Tools of Structured Analysis are: 1: DATA FLOW DIAGRAM ( DFD )--[ Bubble Chart ] Modular Design; Symbols: i. External Entities: A Rectangle or Cube -- Represents SOURCE or DESTINATION. ii. Data Flows/Arrows: Shows MOTION of Data. iii.Processes/Circles/Bubbles: Transform INCOMING to OUTGOING functions. iv. Open Rectangles: File or Data Store. ( Data at rest or temporary repository of data ) -DFD describes data flow logically rahter than how it is processed. -Independent of H/W, S/W, Data Structure or File Organization. ADV- Ability to represent data flow. Useful in HIGH & LOW level Analysis. Provides Good System Documentation. DIS ADV- Weak input & output details. Confusing Initially. Iterations. 2: DATA DICTIONARY-- It is a STRUCTURED REPOSITORY of DATA METADATA: Data about Data 3 items of Data present in Data Dictionary are: i. DATA ELEMENT. ii. DATA STRUCTURE. iii. DATA FLOW & DATA STORES. ADV- Supports Documentation. Improves Communication b/w Analyst & User. Provides common database for Control. Easy to locate error. DIS ADV- No Functional Details. Not Acceptable by non-technical users. 3: DECISION TREE-ADV- Used to Verify Logic. Used where Complex Decisions are Involved. Used to Calculate Discount or Commissions in Inventory Control System. DIS ADV- A Large no. of Branches with MANY THROUGH PATHS will make S.A difficult rather than Easy.

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4: DECISION TABLE-- A Matrix of rows & coloumns that shows conditions & actions. LIMITED/EXTENDED/MIXED ENTRY DECISION TABLE. CONDITION STUB | CONDITION ENTRY ACTION STUB | ACTION ENTRY ADV- Condition Statement identifies relevant conditions. Condition Entries tell which value applies for any particular condition. Actions are based on the above condition statements & entries. DIS ADV- Drawing tables becomes Cumbersome if there are many conditions and Respective entries. 5: STRUCTURED ENGLISH-- 3 Statements are used: i. SEQUENCE- All statements written as Sequence get executed Sequentially. The Execution does not depend upon the existence of any other statement. ii. Selection- Make a choice from given options. Choice is made based on conditions. Normally condition is written after 'IF' & action after 'THEN'. For 2 way selection 'ELSE' is used. iii.Iteration- When a set of statements is to be performed a no. of times,the statements are put iin a loop. ADV- Easy to understand. DIS ADV- Unambigious language used to describe the logic.

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51. Describe how you would expect documentation to help analyst and designers? Introduction: Documentation is not a step in SDLC. It is an activity on-going in every phase of SDLC. It is about developing documents initially as a draft, later on the review document and then a signed-off document. The document is born, either after it is signed-off by an authority or after its review. It cries initial version number. However, the document also undergoes changes and then the only way to keep your document up tom date is to incorporate these changes. Software Documentation helps Analysts and Designers in the following ways: 1. The development of software starts with abstract ideas in the minds of the Top Management of User organization, and these ideas take different forms as the software development takes place. The Documentation is the only link between the entire complex processes of software development. 2. The documentation is a written communication, therefore, it can be used for future reference as the software development advances, or even after the software is developed, it is useful for keeping the software up to date. 3. The documentation carried out during a SDLC stage, say system analysis, is useful for the respective system developer to draft his/her ideas in the form which is shareable with the other team members or Users. Thus it acts as a very important media for communication. 4. The document reviewer(s) can use the document for pointing out the deficiencies in them, only because the abstract ideas or models are documented. Thus, documentation provides facility to make abstract ideas, tangible. 5. When the draft document is reviewed and recommendations incorporated, the same is useful for the next stage developers, to base their work on. Thus documentation of a stage is important for the next stage. 6. Documentation is a very important because it documents very important decisions about freezing the system requirements, the system design and implementation decisions, agreed between the Users and Developers or amongst the developers themselves. 7. Documentation provides a lot of information about the software system. This makes it very useful tool to know about the software system even without using it. 8. Since the team members in a software development team, keep adding, as the software development project goes on, the documentation acts as important source of detailed and complete information for the newly joined members. 9. Also, the User organization may spread implementation of a successful software system to few other locations in the organization. The documentation will help the new Users to know the operations of the software system. The same advantage can be drawn when a new User joins the existing team of Users. Thus documentation makes the Users productive on the job, very fast and at low cost. 10. Documentation is live and important as long as the software is in use by the User organization. 11. When the User organization starts developing a new software system to replace this one, even then the documentation is useful. E.G. The system analysts can refer to the documentation as a starting point for discussions on the documentation as a starting point for discussions on the new system requirements. Hence, we can say that Software documentation is a very important aspect of SDLC.

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52. What are the elements of cost/benefits analysis. Take a suitable example and given a system proposal for it? Soln: Cost-benefit analysis: Cost-benefit analysis is a procedure that gives the picture of various costs,benefits and rules associated with each alternative system. Cost-benefit categories: In developing cost estimates for a system we need to consider several cost elements. Among them are following: 1. Hardware costs: Hardware costs relate to the actual purchase or lease of the computer and Peripherals(e.g printer,disk drive, tape unit, etc). Determining the actual costs of hardware is generally more difficult when the system is shared by many users than for a dedicated stand-alone system. 2.Personnel Costs: Personnel costs include EDP staff salaries and benefits (health insurance, vacation time, sick pay, etc.) as well as payment of those involved in developing the system . Costs incurred during the development of a system are one-time costs and are labeled development costs. 3.Facility Costs: Facility costs are expenses incurred in the preparation of the physical site where the application or computer will be in operation. This includes wiring, flooring, lightning and air conditioning. These costs are treated as one time costs. 4. Operating costs: Operating costs includes all costs associated with the day-to-day operation of the system. The amount depends on the number shifts, the nature of the application and the caliber of the operating staff. The amount charged is based on computer time, staff time and volume of the output produced. 5. Supply Costs: Supply costs are variable costs that increase with increased use of paper, ribbons, disks and the like. Procedure for cost-benefit Determination: The determination of costs and benefit entails the following steps: 1. Identify the costs and benefits pertaining to a given project. 2. Categorize the various costs and benefits for analysis. 3. Select a method of evaluation. 4. Interpret the result of the system. 5. Take action. Classification of costs and benefits: 1. Tangible and intangible costs and benefits: a. Tangible refers to the ease with which costs or benefits can be measured. An outlay of cash for a specific item or activity is referred to as tangible costs. The purchase of a hardware or software, personnel training and employee salaries are examples of tangible costs. b. Costs that are known to exist but those financial value cannot be accurately measured are referred to as the intangible costs. For example employee morale problems caused by a new system or lowered company image is an intangible cost. c. Benefits can also be classified as tangible and intangible. Tangible benefits such as completing jobs in few hours or producing reports with no errors are quantifiable. d. Intangible benefits such as more satisfied customers or an improved corporate image are not easily quantified. 2. Direct and Indirect Cost and benefits: a. Direct costs are those with which a money figure can be directly associated in a project. They are applied directly to a particular operation. For example the purchase of a box of diskettes for $35 is a direct cost. b. Indirect costs are the result of operation that are not directly associated with a given system or activity. They are often referred to as overhead. c. Direct benefits also can be specifically attributable to a given project. For example a new system that can handle 25 percent more transaction per day is a direct benefit.

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d. Indirect benefits are realized as a by-product at another activity or system. 3. Fixed or variable cost and benefits: a. Fixed costs sre sunk costs. They are constant and do not change. Once encountered, they will not recur. Examples are straight-line depreciation of hardware, exempt employee salary, and insurance. b. Variable costs are incurred on a regular basis. They are usually proportional to work volume and continue as long as system is in operation. For example the costs of the computer forms vary in proportion to amount of processing or the length of the reports required. c. Fixed benefits are also constant and do not change. An example is a decrease in the number of personnel by 20 percent resulting from the use of a new computer. d. Variable costs are realized on a regular basis. For example consider a safe deposit tracking system that saves 20 minutes preparing customer notices compared with the manual system. Examples of Tangible benefits: Fewer processing errors. Increased throughput. Decreased response time. Elimination of job step. Reduced expenses. Increased Scale. Faster turnaround. Better credit. Reduced credit losses. Examples of Intangible Benefits: Improved customer goodwill. Improve employer morals. Improved employer job satisfaction. Better service to community. Better decision making.

Evaluation Method: 1. Net Benefit analysis: Net benefit analysis simply involves subtracting total costs from total benefits. It is easy to calculate, easy to interpret and easy to present.The main drawback is that it does not account for the time value of money and does not discount future cash flow. The time value of money is usually expressed in the form of interest on the funds invested to realize the future value. Assuming compounded interest, the formula is: F=P(1+i)n Where F=future value of an investment. P=Present value of the investment. I=Interest rate per compounding year. N=Number of years. 2. Present value analysis: In developing long-term project, it is often difficult to compare todays costs with the full value of tomorrows benefits. The time value of money allows for interest rates,inflation and other factors that alter the value of the investment. Present value analysis controls for these problems by calculating the costs and benefits of the system in terms of todays value of the investment and then comparing across alternatives. Present Value=Future Value (1+i)n Net present value is equal to discounted benefits minus discounted costs.

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3. Payback analysis: The pay back method is a common measure of the relative time value of a project. It determines the time it takes for the accumulated benefits to equal the initial investment. It is easy to calculate and allows two or more activities to be ranked. The payback period may be computed by the following formula: Overall Cash Outlay = (A*B)+(C*D) = Years + Ins.Time Annual Cash return 5+2 Years to recover Where A=Capital Investment B=Investment Credit C=Cost investment. D=Companies income tax. E=State and local taxes. F=Life of capital G=Time to install system. H=Benefits and Savings. 4. Break even analysis: Break even is a point where the cost of the candidate system and that of the current one are equal. Break-even compares the costs of the current and the candidate system. When a candidate system is developed initial costs usually exceeds those of the current system. This is an investment period. When both costs are equal, it is break-even. Beyond that point, the candidate system provides greater benefits than the old one-a return period. 5. Cash Flow analysis: Cash-flow analysis keeps track of accumulated costs and revenues on a regular basis. The spreadsheet format also provides break-even analysis and payback information. 6. Return on Investment analysis: The ROI analysis technique compares the life time probability of alternative solutions and projects. The ROI for a solution or project is a percentage note that measures the relationship between the amount the business gets back from an investment and the amount invested. The ROI is calculated as follows: ROI=Estimated lifetime benefits-Estimated costs Estimated lifetime costs

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53.What are the sources of information used for evaluating hardware and software? Which source do you consider the most reliable and why? Hardware Selection:

1. Determining Size and Capacity Requirements:

The starting point in the equipment decision process is the size and capacity requirements. One particular system may be appropriate for one workload and inappropriate for another. Systems capacity is frequently the determining factor. Relevant features to consider include the following: 1. Internal memory size. 2. Cycle speed of system for processing. 3. Number of channels for input, output and communication. 4. Characteristics of display and communication components. 5. Types and numbers of auxiliary storage units that can be attached. 6. Systems support and utility software provided or available. Auxiliary storage capacity is generally determined by file storage and processing needs. To estimate the disk storage needed for a system, the analyst must consider the space needed for each master file, the space for programs and software, including systems software, and the method by which backup copies will be made. When using flexible diskettes on a small business system the analyst must determine whether master and transaction files will be maintained on the same diskette and on which diskette programs will be stored. Backup considerations as well as file size, guide the decision about how many disk drives are needed.

2.

Design of synthetic Programs: A synthetic job is a program written to exercise a computers resources in a

way that allows the analyst to imitate the expected job stream and determine the results. Then the artificial job stream can be adjusted and rerun to determine the impact. The process can be repeated as many times as necessary to see which tasks a comparison set of computers handles well and which they do not handle as well. The synthetic jobs can be adjusted to produce the same type of activity as actual programs, including random access of files, sequential searching of files with varying size records.

3.

Plug Compatible Equipment:

For reasons of cost, analysts frequently consider using equipment for a particular make of computer that is not manufactured by the computer vendor. Such components are called plug-compatible equipment. Some companies specialize in manufacturing systems components, such as printers, disk drives, or memory units, that can be connected to a vendors system in place of the same equipment manufactured by the vendor. The central processing unit does not care or know that the equipment is not the same make.

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The benefit of plug-Compatible equipment is the lower cost of an item compared with one produced by a major computer vendor. Because firms specializing in specific components can develop manufacturing expertise or are likely to have a smaller investment in research and developmentthey are duplicating components developed by another firmthey are able to offer the same product at a lower cost. Although there is a large market for plug-compatible equipment because of price differences, the analyst must ensure that the equipment will meet necessary quality levels, that it will perform as well as(or possibly better than) the original equipment, and that the computer vendor will not disallow warranties and service agreements on the rest of the system. Also must reach agreements on maintenance responsibilities and methods for resolving possible disputes about malfunction.

4.

Financial Factors: The acquisition of and payment for a computer system are usually handled

through one of three common methods: rental, lease, or purchase. Determining which option is appropriate depends on the characteristics and plans of the organization at the time the acquisition is made. No one option is always better than others.

5.

Maintenance and Support: An additional factor in hardware decisions concerns the maintenance and

support of the system after it is installed. Primary concerns are the source of maintenance, terms, and response times. Maintenance Source: Once the system is delivered and installed, there is a brief warranty period during which time the sales unit is responsible for maintenance. This is a typically a 90-day period. After that time, the purchaser has the option of acquiring maintenance from various sources. The most common source of maintenance for new equipment is the firm from which it was purchased. Service is also available from companies specializing in providing maintenance service. Third-party maintenance companies, as these firms are called, frequently provide service in smaller communities, where manufactures do not find it cost effective to maintain offices. When a used computer system is purchased from an independent sales organization, the purchaser may have no choice but to use a thirdparty maintenance firm. Many manufactures do not service equipment they did not sell. Terms: In formulating a maintenance agreement, the terms of agreement are as important as the cost. The type of contract desired depends on the expenditures the organization is willing to make in comparison with how frequently it estimates service will be required. The analyst should also consider how maintenance costs will change. Service and Response: Maintenance support is useful only if it is available when needed. Two concerns in maintenance are the response time when service is requested and the hours of support. The user has a right to expect a reasonable response time after making an emergency call. Organizations often specify in the contract that the response to a telephone call must be made in how much time. Whenever contracting for maintenance, a schedule of preventive maintenance must be agreed on in advance.

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Evaluation of software: One of the most difficult tasks in selecting software, once systems requirements are known, is determining whether a particular software package fits the requirements. After initial selection, further scrutiny is needed to determine the desirability of a particular software compared with other candidates.

1. Application Requirements Questions:

When analyst evaluates possible software for adoption, they do so by comparing software features with previously developed application requirements. Representative requirements considerations include the following: What transactions and what data about each transaction must be handled? What reports, documents, and other output must the system produce? What files and database drive the system? What transaction files are needed to maintain them? What is the volume of data to be stored? What volume of transactions will be processed? Are there unique features about this application that require special consideration when selecting software? What inquiry requirements must the software support? What are the limitations of the software? Working from this basic set of questions, coupled with mandated cost and expenditure limitations, the analyst is able to quickly remove from consideration those packages that do not meet requirements. Then it is necessary to further examine the remaining candidates for adoption on the basis of other attributes such as flexibility, capacity and vendor support.

2. Flexibility: The flexibility of a software system should include the ability to meet changing
requirements and varying user needs. Software that is flexible is generally is more valuable than a program that is totally inflexible. However, excessive flexibility is not desirable, since that requires the user or analyst to define many details in the system that could be included in the design as the standard feature. Areas where flexibility is needed are data storage, reporting and options, definition of parameters, and input output. The flexibility of software varies according to the types of hardware it will support. The capability to instruct the system to handle one of the optional formats is another dimension of software flexibility.

3. Audit and Reliability Provisions: Users often have a tendency to trust systems more than should,
to the extent that they frequently believe the results produced through a computer-based information system without sufficient skepticism. Therefore the need to ensure that adequate controls are included in the system is an essential step in the selection of the software. Auditors must have the ability to validate reports and output and to test the authenticity and accuracy of data and information. Systems reliability means that the data are reliable, that they are accurate and believable. It also includes the element of security, which the analyst evaluates by determining the method and suitability of protecting the system against unauthorized use. Ensuring system has passwords is not sufficient access protection. Multiple levels of passwords are often needed to allow different staff members access to those files and databases or capabilities that they need.

4. Capacity: Systems capacity refers to the number of files that can be stored and the amount each file
will hold. To show complete capacity, it may be necessary to consider the specific hardware on which the software will be used. Capacity also depends on the language in which the software is written.

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Capacity is also determined by following: The The The The The maximum size of each record measured in number of bytes. maximum size of the file measured in number of bytes. maximum size of the file measured in number of fields per record. number of files that can be active at one time. number of files that can be registered in a file directory.

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54. STAR HOTELis medium size hotel having capacity of 100 rooms belonging to to different categories such as AC/Non-AC/Delux/Super Delux/Suit etc The main purpose of the Hotel is to computerized its billing system end get some financial related MIS reports. The Hotel wants to keep following information in their database 1. Customer who are booking and checking in the hotel. 2. The Hotel offers different kinds of services such as Bar and Restaurant, Laundry ,Room service, Rent-a-car etc. 3. The customer are charges daily for the given services, through voucher and such transactions are maintained. 4. The room tariff depends on the category of the room selected by the customer. 5. When the customer check-out,The bill is generated and details of payments received are maintained for generating various financial reports. a. Draw context level DFD for the above case. b. Draw ER-Diagram mentioninfg the key attributes of Entities.(May-04)

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55. Draw screen Layout for the capturing information written on following input documents. i. Purchase Order. ii. Case paper of patients,admitted in the Hospital. iii. Saving Bamk Account opening form[M-04] Purchase Order Purchase Order No. Supl No. Date:-

Supplier:Address:Pin:Sr. No 1. 2. 3. Class Title Qty Rate Value

Case paper of patient admitted in the hospital

II SHREE HOSPITAL II Name of patient:Address:Telephone No:Age:Sex (M/F):Disease:Ref of Dr.:Case Handled by Dr.:Admit Date:-

Saving Bank Account Opening Form

ICICI Bank Photo
Name:Address:Telephone:Age:Sex (M/F):Nationality:Marital status:Email:Deposit Amt:ATM(Y/N):Internet Banking(Y/N):For office use only Signature

Name:A/c No.:-

Signature

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56. i) Explain with examples specialization/Generalization ii) Explain with examples Aggregation iii) Explain with example Decision Table[May-04] iv) Discuss Importance of Functional Decomposition Diagram. Decision table:A decision table is a matrix of rows and column rather than a tree that shows conditions and actions. Decision rules, included in a decision table, state what rules to follow when certain condition exist. Decision table characteristic:a) condition statement :The condition statement identifies the relevant condition b) condition entries:Condition entries tell which value, if any, apply for a particular condition. c) Action statement:Action statements list the set of all steps that can be taken when a certain condition occurs. d) Action entities:Action entities show what specific actions in the set to take when selected condition or combinations of conditions are true.

Condition Condition statement

Decision rules Condition entities

Action statement
For example :Conditions C1 patient has basic health C2 patient has social health assurance

Action entities

Decision rules 1 2 3 4 Y N Y N N Y N Y

2) Specialization:The term specialization often comes up when discussing inheritance, Specialization is define as the term taking on features in addition to those inherited from another object. We can say that5 item offers and volume is a specialization of offers. The inherit all the features of offers but are also specialized with additional features. Decision table 1. This techniques use a tabular structure of specification. 2. It is tabular representation of processing logic containing the decision variables, decision variable values, and actions.

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3. The decision variables are the parameters on the basis of which a decision alternative is chosen. A decision variable can take carious values. 4. Decision variable values are those values decision variable is likely to take, one at a time. All different values that decision variable can take and that can impact the decision are tabulated 5. An action or a decision to be taken by the process is a direct result of set of decision values of different decision variables in combination such as AND, OR and NOT or another combination of them. 6. Typically, one set of decision values generates only one set of action(s) or decision(s). However, vice versa may not be true. Advantages 1. The tabular structure is well understood by the user as well as developers. 2. Less or no chance of communication error. 3. Highly specific and therefore no room for ambiguity. 4. Usually, it provides self check to ensure the completeness of specification. 5. Since it provides for combinations of decision values, complex conditions can also be represented using this technique. Disadvantages 1. This is reasonably good technique up to certain number of decision variables, but when the decision variable exceed 5, typically, the decision table is difficult to communicate 2. Even for lesser number of decision variables, the possible number of alternatives for decision values of all decision variables may pose threat to the increasing complexity of the decision table.

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57. Solve a. Draw report of pay-slip give to employees in payroll system b. Draw layout of the Hotel Bill given to customer for lodging and boarding. Employee no : Employee Name : Designation : Branch Name : Month : Basic : Days : Sal Code Basic DA TSA MMA HRA Total COIN B/F : RC COIN C/F : POST-EXP Earnings Current Arrears Sal Code Deduction Current Arrears NPF EDB PT PAN No:

PF-ADV-BAL PF-AC-NO

Signature Net Rs

Officer In Charge

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58. Write short notes. a. Importance of Documentation in SSAD? b. Feasibility study c. Requirements Gathering techniques Importance of documentation in SSAD 1. The development software starts with abstract ideas in the minds of the top management of user organization, and these ideas take different forms as the software development take place. The documentation is the only link between the entire complex processes of software development. 2. The documentation is a written communication, therefore it can be used for future reference as the software development advances, or even after software developed, and it is useful for keeping software up to date. 3. The documentation carried out during a SDLC stage, say a system analysis is useful for the respective system developer to draft his/her ideas in the form which is sharable with the other team members or users. Thus it acts as a very important media for communication. 4. The documentation reviewer can use the document for pointing out the deficiencies in them, only because the abstract ideas or models are documented. Thus the documentation provides facility to make abstract ideas. 5. When the draft document is reviewed and recommendations incorporated, the same is useful for the next stage developers, to base their work on, thus documentation of stage is important for the next stage. 6. Documentation is very important because it documents very important decision about freezing the system requirements, the system design and implementation decision, agreed between the user and developer or among the developers itself. 7. Documentation provides lots of information about software system. This makes it very useful tool to know about the software system even without using it. 8. Since the team members in a software development team, keep adding, as the software development project going on, the documentation acts as important source of detailed and complete information for the newly joined members. 9. Also, the user organization may spear implementation of a successful software system to little other location in the organization. The documentation will help the new user to know the operation of the software system. The same advantage can be drawn when a new user joins existing team of user. Thus documentation makes the users productive on the job, very fast and at low cost. 10. Documentation is live and important as long as software is in use by the user organization. 11. When the user organization starts developing a new software system to replace older one, even then the documentation is useful. b) Feasibility Study The feasibility of a project can be ascertained in terms of technical factors, economic factors, or both. A feasibility study is documented with a report showing all the ramifications of the project. In project finance, the pre-financing work (sometimes referred to as due diligence) is to make sure there is no "dry

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rot" in the project and to identify project risks ensuring they can be mitigated and managed in addition to ascertaining "debt service" capability. Technical Feasibility Technical feasibility refers to the ability of the process to take advantage of the current state of the technology in pursuing further improvement. The technical capability of the personnel as well as the capability of the available technology should be considered. Technology transfer between geographical areas and cultures needs to be analyzed to understand productivity loss (or gain) due to differences (see Cultural Feasibility).

Managerial Feasibility Managerial feasibility involves the capability of the infrastructure of a process to achieve and sustain process improvement. Management support, employee involvement, and commitment are key elements required to ascertain managerial feasibility.

Economic Feasibility This involves the feasibility of the proposed project to generate economic benefits. A benefit-cost analysis and a breakeven analysis are important aspects of evaluating the economic feasibility of new industrial projects. The tangible and intangible aspects of a project should be translated into economic terms to facilitate a consistent basis for evaluation.

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Financial Feasibility Financial feasibility should be distinguished from economic feasibility. Financial feasibility involves the

capability of the project organization to raise the appropriate funds needed to implement the proposed project. Project financing can be a major obstacle in large multi-party projects because of the level of capital required. Loan availability, credit worthiness, equity, and loan schedule are important aspects of financial feasibility analysis.

Cultural Feasibility Cultural feasibility deals with the compatibility of the proposed project with the cultural setup of the project environment. In labor-intensive projects, planned functions must be integrated with the local cultural practices and beliefs. For example, religious beliefs may influence what an individual is willing to do or not do.

Social Feasibility Social feasibility addresses the influences that a proposed project may have on the social system in the project environment. The ambient social structure may be such that certain categories of workers may be in short supply or nonexistent. The effect of the project on the social status of the project participants must be assessed to ensure compatibility. It should be recognized that workers in certain industries may have certain status symbols within the society.

Safety Feasibility Safety feasibility is another important aspect that should be considered in project planning. Safety feasibility refers to an analysis of whether the project is capable of being implemented and operated safely with minimal adverse effects on the environment. Unfortunately, environmental impact assessment is often not adequately addressed in complex projects. As an example, the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico was temporarily suspended in 1993 because of the legal consideration of the potential environmental impacts of the projects to be undertaken under the agreement.

Political Feasibility

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A politically feasible project may be referred to as a "politically correct project." Political considerations often dictate direction for a proposed project. This is particularly true for large projects with national visibility that may have significant government inputs and political implications. For example, political necessity may be a source of support for a project regardless of the project's merits. On the other hand, worthy projects may face insurmountable opposition simply because of political factors. Political feasibility analysis requires an evaluation of the compatibility of project goals with the prevailing goals of the political system.

Environmental Feasibility Often a killer of projects through long, drawn-out approval processes and outright active opposition by those claiming environmental concerns. This is an aspect worthy of real attention in the very early stages of a project. Concern must be shown and action must be taken to address any and all environmental concerns raised or anticipated. A perfect example was the recent attempt by Disney to build a theme park in Virginia. After a lot of funds and efforts, Disney could not overcome the local opposition to the environmental impact that the Disney project would have on the historic Manassas battleground area.

Market Feasibility Another concern is market variability and impact on the project. This area should not be confused with the Economic Feasibility. The market needs analysis to view the potential impacts of market demand, competitive activities, etc. and "divertible" market share available. Price war activities by competitors, whether local, regional, national or international, must also be analyzed for early contingency funding and debt service negotiations during the start-up, ramp-up, and commercial start-up phases of the project.

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58.c Information Gathering Gathering all the relevant information is one of the most crucial tasks in the analysis of system. The steps followed in gathering information are to first identify the information sources and then find the appropriate method of obtaining information from each identified source. The most important source of information, both qualitative and quantitative, are the end-users of the system at all levels. The other secondary sources can be: o o o Forms and reports used by the organization Procedure manual Book of rules

Information is gathered from top down. An overview is obtained at the top. Details are collected from the people at working level. Gaining the confidence of working level users are vital for the success of the project.

General strategy used by an analyst to gather information: o o o Identifying information sources Evolving a method of obtaining information from the identified sources, and Using an informational flow model of the organization

Main sources of information of an organization: o o o o o o o o o o Interview with users of systems Group Discussion Forms and documents used in the organization Procedure manuals and rule books (if any) Any existing automated applications Systems used in other similar organizations Trade Journals Conference Proceedings Trade Statistics Conversation with other system analyst

Methods of Gathering Information: o o o Interviewing various levels of managers Interviewing persons who will operate the system Using questionnaires distributed to the users

Interviews o o Both qualitative and quantitative information can be obtained Suggestion based on experience should be incorporated

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o o o

Reading of the background material and preparation of the checklist prior to interview is always recommended Taking prior appointment, informing the purpose and time needed for interview always help. Interview should be brief and should not exceed 40 minutes (ideally)

Group Discussions o o Useful to obtain consensus on priorities Many facts collected from individuals serves as an useful input to project

Questionnaires o o o o o Can gather quantitative data quickly from a large number of responders Short questionnaires elicit quick response. Anonymity, if needed, of responders can be preserved Follow up may be required to get questionnaires back. Questionnaires should not be used when qualitative information is needed

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59. What is data structure? What is there are relation to data elements to data process data Hows, data stores,[Nov-04]. Data Elements:The most fundamental level is the data element, for e.g. invoice no. invoice date, and amount due are data elements included in the invoice data flow. These serve as building blocks for all other data elements in the system. By themselves, they do not convey any enough message to any user, for e.g. the meaning of the data item DATE on an invoice may be well understood it means the date invoice was issued. However, out of this context it is meaningless. It might pertain to pay date, graduation date, starting date or invoice date. Data Structures:It is a set of data items that are related to one another and that collectively describe a component in the system. Both Data flows and data stores are data structures. They consist relevant elements that describe the activity or entity being studied. Relationship between data structures, data elements, data processes, data flows, and data stores: Data element is the smallest unit of data that provides no further decomposition. Data structure is a group of data elements handled as a unit e.g. Student Data Structure consist of student_id, student_name, gender, prog_enrolled, blood_grp, Address, contact_no. Data flows and data stores are data structures in motion and data structures at rest respectively. And, Process is a procedure that transforms incoming data flows to outgoing Data flows.

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60. Built air line reservation system. Draw context level diagram, DFD upto two level, ER diagram, draw
input, output screen [Nov-04].

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61. What is goal of input and output design.[Apr-04] Goals of Input Design: 1. The data which is input to a computerized system should be correct.. If the data is carelessly entered will lead to erroneous results. The system designer should ensure that system prevents such errors. 2. The Volume of data should be considered since if any error occurs, it will take long time to find out the source of error. The design of inputs involves the following four tasks: a. Identify data inputs devices and mechanism. b. Identify the input data and attributes c. Identify input controls d. Prototype the input forms

a. Identify data inputs devices and mechanism.

To reduce input error: 1. Automate the data entry process for reducing human errors. 2. Validate the data completely and correctly at the location where it is entered. Reject the wrong data at its source only. b. Identify the input data and attributes 1. It involves identifying information flow across the system boundary. 2. When the input form is designed the designer ensures that all these data elements are provided for entry, validations and storage. c. Identify input controls 1. Input integrity controls are used with all kinds of mechanisms which help reduces the data entry errors at input stage and ensure completeness. 2. Various error detection and correction techniques are applied. d. prototype the input forms 1. the users should be provided with the form prototype and related functionality including validation, help ,error message. Goals of Output Design: In order to select an appropriate output device and to design a proper output format, it is necessary to understand the objectives the output is expected to serve. Following questions can address these objectives: 1. Who will use the report? 2. What is the proposed use of the report? 3. What is the volume of the output? 4. How often is the output required? a. If the report is for top management, it must be summarized, highlighting important results. Graphical outputs e.g. bar charts and pie charts convey information in a form useful for decision making. b. If the report is for middle management it should highlight exceptions. for example, in a stores management system, information on whether items are rapidly consumed or not consumed for longer period should be highlighted. Exceptions convey information for tactical management. c. At operational level all relevant information needs to be printed. for example, in a Payroll system, pay slips for all employees have to be printed monthly. d. The system should provide the volume of information appropriate for user requirement. The total volume of printed output should be minimal. Irrelevant reports should be avoided.

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62. Describe the concept and procedure used in constructing DFDs.Using and example of your own to illustrate.[Apr-04] Data flow diagram (DFD): DFD is a process model used to depict the flow of data through a system & work or processing performed by the system. It also known as Bubble Chart Transformation graph & process model. DFD is a graphic tool to describe & analyze the movement of data through a system, using the processes, stores of data & delay in system. DFD are of two types: A) Physical DFD B) Logical DFD Physical DFD: Represents implementation-dependent view of current system & system show what task are carried out & how they are performed. Physical Characteristics are: 1. name of people 2. form & document names or numbers 3. names of department 4. master & transaction files 5. locations 6. names of procedures Logical DFD: They represent implementation-independent view of the system & focus on the flow of the specific devices, storage locations, or people in the system. They do not specify physical characteristics Listed above for physical DFDs. The most useful approach to develop an accurate & complete description system begins with the development of a physical DFD & then they are converted to logical DFD

Data store

PROCES S

External entity

Procedure: Step 1: make a list of business activities & use it to determine: External entities Data flows Processes Data stores Step 2: draw a context level diagram: Context level diagram is a top level diagram & contains Only one process representing the entire system. Anything that not inside the context diagram will not be the part of the system study. Step3: develop process chart:

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It is also called as hierarchy charts or decomposition diagram. It shows top down functional decomposition of the system. Step4: develop the first level DFD: It is also known as diagram 0 or level 0 diagram. It is the explosion of the context level diagram. It includes data stores & external entities. Here the processes are number. Step 5: draw more detailed level: Each process in diagram 0 may in turn be exploded to create a more detailed DFD. New data flows & data stores are added. There are decomposition/ leveling of processes. E.g. library management system

1.0

Librarian

Maintenance of Book Master

Book Master

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63. What consideration are involved in feasibility analysis which consideration do you think is not crucial? Why? Feasibility study 1. Feasibility study is the measure of how beneficial or practical development of an information system will be to an organization. 2. Feasibility analysis is the process by which feasibility is measured 3. Feasibility study should be performed throughout the system development file cycle 4. A feasibility study is a study conducted to find out whether the proposed system would be Possible to build with given technology and given resources Affordable given the time and cost constraints of the organization Acceptable for the use by an eventual user of the system Purpose of the feasibility study 1. Need analysis : to determine the need for a change in an organization 2. cost benefit analysis : to study the effect of the change on the economics of the organization 3. Technical Feasibility : to evaluate various technologies that can be used for implementing suggested change given the cost and resources constraints of an organization 4. Legal feasibility : to evaluate the legal procedure , if any should come into play to implement the suggested change Feasibility consideration: 1. need analysis a need analysis is conducted with the following objectives seekig background information of the organization understanding current issues to be tackled understanding the user profile Economic feasibility Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of the candidate system. It is the most important phase in the development of the project. It is also know as cost benefit analysis While doing economic feasibility, one attempt to weigh the cost of developing n implementing a new system against the benefit to be occurred from the having the new system in place Tangible benefits are those that can be measured in money value where as intangible are difficult to quantity Technical feasibility Technical feasibility is a measure of the practicality of a technical solution and the availability of the technical resources and expertise It helps I understanding what level and kind of technology is needed for the system It entails an understanding in different technologies involved in the proposed system, existing technology levels within the organizations and the level of expertise to use the suggested technology Legal feasibility It entails copyright violations for systems that have to be developed for the open market framing the contract for large systems, violation of terms etc In order to ascertain legal feasibility, legal expert have to be called in In many organization company secretaries can help out Personal/ behavioral feasibility People are into inherently resistant to change and computers have been to know to facilitate the change It is common knowledge that computer installations have something to do turnover, transfer, retraining and changes in employee job status Its is considerable that the introduction of a candidate system requires special effort to educate, sell and train staff on new ways of conducting business

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Political feasibility It depends on the political environment of the organization

Steps in feasibility analysis Form a project team and a appoint a project leader Prepare system flow chart Enumerate potential candidate systems Describe and identify the characteristic of the candidate systems Determine and evaluate the performance of each candidate systems Weight system performance and cost data Select the best candidate systems Prepare and report the final project directives to management

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64. What is normalization? What is purpose of normization,illustrate the method of normalization of databases. Normalization is a data analysis technique that organizes data attributes such that they are grouped to form non redundant, stable, flexible and adaptive entities. Normalization is a three step technique that places the data model into first normal form (1NF), second normal form (2NF), and third normal form (3NF). It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their functional dependencies and primary key to achieve the desirable properties of: Minimizing Redundancy. Minimizing insertion, deletion, and update anomalies. Method of Normalization of Databases The process of normalization was first proposed by Codd, the process proceeds in a top down fashion by evaluating each relation against a criterion of normal forms and decomposing relations as necessary. A relation schema is said to be in first normal form (1NF) if the values in the domain of each attribute relation are atomic. In, other words only one value is associated with each attribute and the value is not a set of value. A database schema is in 1NFif every relation schema included in the database schema is in 1NF. A relation schema is in second normal form (2NF) if it is in 1NFand if all the non prime attribute are fully functional dependent on the relation keys. A database schema is in 2NF if every relation schema included in the database schema is in 2NF. A relation schema is in 3NF if for all non trivial functional dependencies in F + (closure of the given set of functional dependencies ) of the form X->A, either X contains a key (i.e. X is a Super key) or A is a prime attribute. A database schema is in 3NF if every relation schema included in the database schema is in 3NF.

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65. Discuss the six special system tests. Explain the purpose of each. Give example to show the purpose of the tests. Following are the types of system testing: Functional Requirement Testing Regression Testing Parallel Testing Execution Testing Recovery Testing Operations Testing The first three types of system testing focus on testing the functional aspects of the system. i.e. examining if the system is doing all that it was expected to do and it doing completely and accurately. The last three types of system testing focus on testing the structural aspects of the system. I.e. examining if the structure on the system is built meets expectations and how best. 1) Functional Requirement Testing This is described as follows:a. The focus of this system testing is to ensure that the system requirements and specifications are all met by the system. It also examines, if the application system meets the user standards. b. The test conditions are created directly from the user requirements and they aim to prove the correctness of the system functionality. c. The development team may prepare a list of core functionality to check and follow it rigorously during the system testing for completion. d. Every software system must be tested for the functional requirements testing. It is a mandatory system testing. e. The testing activities should begin at the system analysis phase and continue in every phase, as expected. 2) Regression Testing This is described as follows:a. Software testing is peculiar in a way that a system change carried out in one part of the application system to charge its (previously tested) functionality. b. The regression testing examines that the (testing) changes carried out in one part has not changed the functionality in the other parts of the system. c. This may happen, if a change (in software requirements or due to testing) is implemented incorrectly either to wrong program (or lines) or wrongly. d. In order to carry out the regression testing, the previously run test-data-packs are applied at the input of the tested and/or unchanged programs and their expected outputs are compared to match exactly to the expected output. e. It also checks that there is no change in the manual procedures of unchanged parts of the application system. f. Regression system is more useful during system testing of large complex system, where development team is very large, multiplication and/or team communication may be weak. g. It is also advisable in frequently changing systems, such as the fast changing requirements application system etc., where the regression system testing not only is effective technique but also saves the system testing time and efforts significantly controlling the costs. h. Also, with the changing requirements, changing test data is not current, then quality of regression testing is poor. i. Regression testing is optional. 3) Parallel Testing It is described as follows:a. The objective of the parallel system testing is to ensure that the new application system generates exactly similar output data as the just previous or the current application system.

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b. Since the current application system is working live, the input data for that system is readily available for parallel testing the new application system. Also, the expected results for that data as input are also computed by the current application system. c. The parallel testing for an exiting computerized current system involves mainly setting up the environment for accepting the same input data, running the new application system and matching the results or highlight the differences. d. The purpose is to develop the user confidence in the new application systems. The Users use the current system, so they are more confident about the functionality of the current system. If the new system results the current one, Users derive confidence from it. e. The parallel testing is advantageous because the testing activities are very minimum and user confidence, which is otherwise very difficult to build, is built. f. The drawback of the parallel testing is that the variation in the new and current system functionality may make it difficult. Usually, the user builds newer systems to draw many more benefits and therefore, typically, there are many differences. Therefore, analyzing the mismatches is a very complex task. g. Since the users are not trained so well on the new system. Or they are new to the new system. They take time to analyze the differences and hence it may be costly activity. h. Some times the changes may need to change the input data before the test run. This may not be simple, therefore error prone, time consuming and frustrating to many users. i. The parallel Run testing is optional. 4) Execution Testing This is described as follows:a. The execution testing is to examine the new system by executing it. The purpose is to check, how far it meets the operational expectations of the users. b. It focuses on measuring the actual performance of the system, by measuring the response time, turn around time, etc. c. The response time is measured by timing the following activities as follows: The time taken by the new system to respond to critical queries of the users, where a large database is accessed, computations performed and the query response is displayed on the user screen. The time taken by the new system to respond to some on-line transactions processing requests of the users, involving Updating of the database and/or printing a document and/or any other activity, as a part of the same transaction processing. Similar operations carried out by secondary User, such as a Customer of the User organization, etc who is located in different local and/or remote locations of the installations etc. d. the turn-around-time is measured in some situations as follows: For some batch processing part of the system, it measures the end-to-end time taken for completely executing a certain number of transactions. The above processing may include or exclusive processing dedicated processing involving one or more of the following activites,such as report printing or documents printing (e.g. bills) And/or mass database updating/insertions. The above processing in the different combination can be carried out from local and remote locations. e. The execution testing will also examine the system performance under the User stated constraints. Various possible situations are as follows: Shortage of memory-either internal or external. Use of slightly old and/or slower technologies to accept the external input data or to send the output data to. Restrictions of execution time-windows e.g. a specific processing must complete end-to-end in45 minutes -60 minutes during the lunch hours in the Head Office etc. or night processing/week-end processing windows etc. f. The execution testing is also used to find out the resource requirements of the new system, such as the internal memory, storage space, etc; this can also be used to plan for capacity expansion, e.g. targeted speed of the proposed printer to be purchased soon.

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g. Some times it is not possible to create the actual scenarios during the execution testing, for various reasons. Then the execution testing uses simulations and models and uses them effectively. h. The execution testing is advantageous, because it can be carried out with little modifications along with the other types of testing, e.g.requriements testing. Therefore, it saves time, efforts and costs of total testing. i. The drawback of execution testing is that creating the situations like remote processing or use of new hardware/software proposed to be bought but not in possession at the time execution time. j. Also, the simulation may not be possible at times. 5) Recovery Testing This is described as follows:a. Due to any attempts of attacks on the software systems integrity, such as virus or unauthorized intrusion, etc. the systems integrity may be threatened or sometimes harmed. In that case, the software system reliability is said to be in danger. b. The recovery testing is expected to examine how far the system can recover from such a disintegrated state and how fast. c. The recover testing is also aimed at the following: Establishing the procedures for successful recovery. Create Operational documentation for recovery procedure. Train the users on the same and provide them an opportunity to develop/build confidence on the system security. d. The integrity loss may happen at any time for any long duration. Therefore the system recovery processing must identify the time of failure, duration of failure and the scope of damages carried out. The recovery testing should examine various commonly occurring situations and even some exceptional situations. e. The recovery procedure essentially involves the procedures to back-up of data, documentating and training on the same. f. The recovery requirements differ from one application system to another. Therefore it may not be carried out for some application system. g. The drawback of the recovery system testing is the number of security failure scenarios, it has been built for may be inadequate. h. Also, the time, budget inadequacies may reflect to avoid or to inadequate focus on it. 6) Operation Testing This is described as follows:a. The operation testing is to examine the operations of the new system in the operational environment of the organization, along with the other systems being executed simultaneously. b. Typically, it can be used for the other purpose also, as mentioned below: To examine if the operations documents are complete, unambiguous and user friendly. To examine the effectiveness of the User training. To examine the completeness and correctness of the Job Control source codes developed to automate system operations. To examine the operations of external interfaces and their Users efficiency in handling them at work. c. The advantages of the operation Testing is that it helps surface otherwise hidden problems related to User Training, Documentation, and other operational flaws. d. Also, if planned properly, it need not be carried out separately; it can be combined to save testing time, effort and costs. e. The drawback is that the users availability is always very for a limited time. Therefore, this testing is either avoided or inadequately performed.

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66. Consider payroll system for college, Explain the system to be developed for this the task through. Develop Context level DFD,Draw physical and logical DFD,Data Dictionary and Draw ERD Diagram.

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67. What is purpose of the system study? Whom should it invove? What outcome is expected? Different stages in the System Study (SDLC) addresses the following keys points: 1. Recognition of needs: Identify the business problem and opportunities. 2. Feasibility Study: Check whether the problem is worth solving. Redefine the problem. 3. Analysis: Select appropriate solution for solving the problem. 4. Design: Design the system to address ho must the problem be solved and define system flow. the user approval is important. Proper testing should be exercised over each and every program/module. 5. Implementation: Actual operations should be identified. Manuals should be provided to the user. 6. Post Implementation and Maintenance: Proper maintenance support should be provided. Modifications are done if some change occurs. The primary source of information for the functional system requirement is various types of stake holders of the new system. Stake holders are all the people who have interest in the successful implementation of the system. Stake holders are classified in three groups: 1. The uses: who actually work on the system on a daily basis. 2. the clients: who pay or own the system. 3. the technical staff: who ensure that the system operates the computing environment of the organization. The next important after identifying the stakeholders, is to identify the critical persons from each stakeholder type.

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68. What is structured analysis? How is it related to Fact Finding Technique? 1) Structured analysis is a model-driven, process-centered technique used to either analyze system or define business requirements for new system, or both. 2) The models are pictures that illustrate the systems components pieces: processes and their associated inputs, outputs, and files. 3) The traditional approach focuses on cost-benefit and feasibility anaysis, project management, hardware and software selection, and personnel considerations. In contrast, structured analysis considers new goals and structured tools for analysis. 4) The new goal specify the following: Use graphics wherever possible to help communicate better with the user. Differentiate between logical and physical systems. iii. Build a logical system model to familiarize the user with system characteristics and interrelationships before implementation. 5) The structured tools focus on the following toolsData flow diagrams (DFDs) Data Dictionary Structured English Decision trees and Decision tables. 6) The objective is to build a new document, called system specifications. This document provides the basis for design and implementation. Step 1: Study affected user areas, resulting in a physical DFD. Step 2: remove the physical checkpoint and replace them with a logical equivalent, resulting in the logical DFD. Step 3: Model new logical system. Step 4: Establish man-machine interface. Step 5: Quantify costs and benefits and select hardware. Features of Structured Analysis:

1. It is graphic. The DFD for example, presents a picture of what is being specified and is a
conceptually easy-to-understand presentation of the application. 2. The process is partitioned so that we have a clear picture of the progression from general to specific in the system flow. 3. It is logical rather than physical. The elements of the system do not depend on vendor or hardware. They specify in a precise, concise, and highly readable manner the working of the system and how it hangs together. 4. It calls for a rigorous study of the user area, a commitment that is often taken lightly in the traditional approach to system analysis. 5. Certain tasks that are normally carried out late in the system development life cycle are moved to the analysis phase. For example, user procedures are documented during analysis rather than later in implementation. Following are the fact finding techniques: 1. Existing documents or record review 2. On-site observation 3. Interview 4. Questionnaires Existing documents or record review: 1. Many kinds of records and reports can provide analysts with valuable information about the organization and its operation. 2. 2. In record reviews analyst examines information that has been recorded about system and users. 3. Records include written policy manual, regulation and standard operation procedures used by most organization as a guide for managers and employees. 4. They describe the formal and functions of the present system. Included in most manual are systems requirements that help determine how well various objectives are met.

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5. Up-to-date manuals save hours of information gathering time. Unfortunately, in many cases, manuals do not exist or are seriously out of date. On-site observation: 1. On-site observation is the process of recognizing and nothing people, objects and occurrences to obtain information. 2. The analyst role is that of an information seeker who is expected to be detached from the system being observed. This role permits participation with the user staff openly and freely. 3. The major objective of on-site observation is to get as close as possible to the real system being studied. For this reason it is important that the analyst is knowledgeable about the general makeup and activities of the system. Advantages: 1. Data gathered based on the observation can be reliable. Sometimes observations are conducted to check the validity of the data obtained directly from individuals. 2. The system analyst is able to see exactly what is being done. Through observation the analyst can identify tasks that have been missed or inaccurately described by other fact-finding techniques. 3. Observation is relatively inexpensive compared with other fact-finding techniques usually require substantially more employee release time and copying expenses. 4. Observation allows the system analyst to do work measurements. Disadvantages: 1. Because people usually feel uncomfortable when being watched they may unwittingly perform differently when being observed. 2. The work being observed may not involve the level of difficulty or volume normally experienced during that time period. 3. Some system activities may take place at odd times, causing a scheduling inconvenience for the system analyst. 4. If people have been performing tasks in a manner that violates standards operating procedures, they may temporarily perform their job correctly while they are being observed. In other words people may let you see what they want you to see. Interviews: 1. Interview is a fact-finding technique where by the system analyst collects information from individuals through face-to-face interaction. 2. There are two roles assumed in an interview: a. Interviewer: The system analyst is the interviewer responsible for organizing interviews. b. Interviewee: The system user or system owner is the Interviewee, who is asked to respond to a series of questions. 3. There are two types of interviews:

a. Unstructured interviews: This is an interview that is conducted with only a general goal or
subject in mind and with few if any specific questions. The interviewer counts on the interviewee to provide a framework and direct the conversation. b. Structured interviews: This is an interview in which the interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask of the interviewee. 4. Unstructured interviews tend to involve asking open ended questions while structured interviews tent to involve asking more closed ended questions. Advantages: 1. Interviews give the analyst an opportunity to motivate the interviewee to respond freely and openly to questions. 2. Interviews allow the system analyst to probe for more feedback from the interviewee. 3. Interviews permits the system analyst to adapt or reword questions for each individual.

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4. A good system analyst may be able to obtain information by observing the interviewees body movements and facial expressions as well as by listening to verbal replies to questions. Disadvantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. Interviewing is very time consuming fact-finding approach. It is costlier that other approaches. Success of interviews is highly dependant on the system analysts human skills. Interviewing may be impractical due to location of the interviewees.

Questionnaires: 1. Questionnaire is a special purpose documents that allows the analyst to collect information and options from respondent. 2. There are two format for questionnaires: a. Free format questionnaire: these are designed to offer the respondent greater latitude in answer. A question is asked, and the respondent records the answer in the space provided after the question. b. Fixed format questionnaires: these are more rigid and contain questions that require selecting an answer from predefined available responses. Advantages: 1. Most questionnaires can answers quickly. People can complete and returns questionnaires at their convenience. 2. Questionnaires allow individuals to maintain anonymity. Therefore, individuals are more likely to provide the real facts, rather that telling u what they think their boss would want them to. 3. Questionnaires are relatively inexpensive means of gathering data from a large number of individuals. 4. Responses can be tabulated and analyzed quickly. Disadvantage: 1. The number of respondents is often low. 2. Theres no guarantee that an individual will answers or expand an all of the questions. 3. Questionnaires tend to be inflexible. There is no opportunity for the system analyst to obtain voluntary information from individuals or to reword questions that may have been misinterpreted. 4. Its impossible for the system analyst to observe and analyze the respondents body language. 5. Good questionnaires are difficultly to prepare.

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69. What are the basic components of the file? Give an example of each. Explain how file differ.

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70. Explain how you would expect documentation to help analyst and designers. Introduction: Documentation is not a step in SDLC. It is an activity on-going in every phase of SDLC. It is about developing documents initially as a draft, later on the review document and then a signed-off document. The document is born, either after it is signed-off by an authority or after its review. It cries initial version number. However, the document also undergoes changes and then the only way to keep your document up tom date is to incorporate these changes. Software Documentation helps Analysts and Designers in the following ways: 12. The development of software starts with abstract ideas in the minds of the Top Management of User organization, and these ideas take different forms as the software development takes place. The Documentation is the only link between the entire complex processes of software development. 13. The documentation is a written communication, therefore, it can be used for future reference as the software development advances, or even after the software is developed, it is useful for keeping the software up to date. 14. The documentation carried out during a SDLC stage, say system analysis, is useful for the respective system developer to draft his/her ideas in the form which is shareable with the other team members or Users. Thus it acts as a very important media for communication. 15. The document reviewer(s) can use the document for pointing out the deficiencies in them, only because the abstract ideas or models are documented. Thus, documentation provides facility to make abstract ideas, tangible. 16. When the draft document is reviewed and recommendations incorporated, the same is useful for the next stage developers, to base their work on. Thus documentation of a stage is important for the next stage. 17. Documentation is a very important because it documents very important decisions about freezing the system requirements, the system design and implementation decisions, agreed between the Users and Developers or amongst the developers themselves. 18. Documentation provides a lot of information about the software system. This makes it very useful tool to know about the software system even without using it. 19. Since the team members in a software development team, keep adding, as the software development project goes on, the documentation acts as important source of detailed and complete information for the newly joined members. 20. Also, the User organization may spread implementation of a successful software system to few other locations in the organization. The documentation will help the new Users to know the operations of the software system. The same advantage can be drawn when a new User joins the existing team of Users. Thus documentation makes the Users productive on the job, very fast and at low cost. 21. Documentation is live and important as long as the software is in use by the User organization. 22. When the User organization starts developing a new software system to replace this one, even then the documentation is useful. E.G. The system analysts can refer to the documentation as a starting point for discussions on the documentation as a starting point for discussions on the new system requirements. Hence, we can say that Software documentation is a very important aspect of SDLC.

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71. Discuss the six special system test give example?

The system testing examines the entire system to check how far it meets user expectations, especially in terms of meeting the functional requirements and also meeting the performance requirements. Six different types of testing are Functional requirements testing Regression testing Parallel testing Execution testing Recovery testing Operations testing Functional requirements testing: This is described as follows: o o o o o The focus of this system testing is to ensure that the system requirements and specifications are all met by the system. It also examines, if the application system meets the user standards. The test conditions are created directly from the user requirements and they aim to prove the correctness of the system functionality. The development team may prepare a list of core functionality to check and follow it rigorously during the system testing for completion. Every software system must be tested for the functional requirements testing. It is a mandatory system testing. The testing activities should begin at the system analysis phase and continue in every phase, as expected.

Regression Testing: This is described as follows:o o o o o Software testing is peculiar in a way that a system change carried out in one part of the application system, may impact the unchanged part of the application system to change its functionality. The regression testing examines that the testing changes carried out in one part has not changed the functionality in the other parts of the system. This may happen, if a change is implemented incorrectly either to wrong programs or wrong. In order to carry out the regression testing, the previously run test data packs are applied at the input of the tested and/or unchanged programs and their expected outputs are compared to match exactly to the expected output. This testing is more useful during system of large complex system, where development team is very large, multilocation and or team communication may be weak.

Parallel Testing: It is described as below: o The objective of the parallel system is to ensure that the new application system generates exactly similar output data as the just previous or the current application system. o The parallel testing for an existing computerized current system involves mainly setting up the environment for accepting the same input data, running the new application system and matching the results to highlight the differences. o The parallel testing is advantageous because the testing activities are minimum and user confidence, which is otherwise very difficult to build, is built. o The drawback of the parallel testing is that the variations in the new and current system functionality may make it difficult. Execution testing: It is described as below:

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o o o o o

The execution testing is to examine the new system by executing it. The purpose is to check, how far it meets the operational expectations of the users. It focuses on measuring the actual performance of the system, by measuring the response time, turn around time etc. The execution testing is also used to find out the resource requirements of the new system, such as the internal memory, storage space, etc. this can also be used to plan for capacity expansion. The execution testing is advantageous, because it can be carried out with little modifications along with the other types of testing. Therefore it saves time effort and cost of total testing. The drawback of execution testing is that creating situations like remote processing or use of new hardware/ software proposed to be bought but not in possession at the time of execution time.

Recovery testing: It is described as below: o Due to any attempts of attacks on the software systems integrity, such as virus or unauthorized intrusion. The sys integrity may be threatened or sometimes harmed. In that , the software system reliability is said to be in danger. o The recovery testing is also aimed at the following: - Establishing the procedures for successful recovery, - Create operational documentation for recovery procedure. - Train the users on the same and provide them an opportunity to develop/build confidence on the security . o The integrity loss may happen at any time for any long duration. Therefore the system recovery processing must identify the time of failure, duration of failure and the scope of damages carried out. The recovery testing should examine various commonly occurring situations and even some exceptional situations.

Operations testing: It is described as below: o The operation testing is to examine the operations of the new system in the operational environment of the organization, along with the other systems being executed simultaneously. o Typically it can be used for the other purposes also, as mentioned below: o o To examine if the operations documents are complete, unambiguous and user friendly To examine the effectiveness of the user training To examine the completeness and correctness of the job control source codes developed to automate system operations To examine the operations of external interfaces and their users efficiency in handling them at work.

The advantages of the operations testing is that it helps surface otherwise hidden problems related to user training, documentation and any other operational flaws. The drawback is that the users availability is always very for a limited. Therefore this testing is either avoided or inadequately performed.

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72. Build Buying and selling system of import business of engineering products. Using following problem definition. a. Recording details of sales. b. Details of stock c. Evaluation of stock and placement of order to appropriate suppliers develop context level DFD.Draw physical and logical DFD, Data Dictionary and Draw ER Diagram.

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73. Explain the difference between: a. Logical and physical record. b. Data item and field c. File activity and file volatility. d. Sequential and indexed sequential. 1. Logical and Physical record. 2. Data item and field. 3. File activity and file volatility. 4. Sequential and indexed sequential. Logical record:1) A logical record maintains a logical relationship among all the data times in record . 2) It is the way the program or user sees the data. 3) The software present the logical record in the require sequence. Physical record:1) Physical record is the way data recorded on storage medium. 2) The programmer does not mean about the physical Map on the disk. Data Item:1) Individual elements of data are called data items (also known as fields). Each data item is identified by name and has specific value associate with it. The association of a value with a field creates one instance of data item. 2) Data items can comprise sub items or subfields for examples, Data is often used as a single data item, consisting of subfields of month, day and year. 3) Whenever a field consisting of subfields is referenced by name, it automatically includes only that subfields and excludes all other subfields in data item. Therefore the subfield day in data item excludes months and year. Data Fields: 1) Fields are the smallest units of meaningful data stored in a file or database. There are four types of fields that can be stored: primary key, secondary key, and foreign keys, and descriptive fields.

Primary key: A primary key is a field that identifies a record in a file. Secondary key: A secondary key is a field that identifies single record or a subset of related
records. Foreign key: A foreign key is a field that points to records in different file in a database. Descriptive fields: A descriptive field is a nonkey field that stores business data.

File Activity: 1) Its specifies the percentage of actual record processed in single record. 2) If small percentage of record is accessed at any given time file should be organized on the disk for direct access and if fair percentage is effected regularly then storing the file on the tap would be more efficient and less costly. File Volatility:1) It addresses properties of record changes .

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2) File record with substantial change are highly volatile, meaning disk design would be more efficient then tape. 3) Higher the volatility more attractive is disk design. Sequential:1) In computer science sequential access means that a group of elements (e.g. data in a memory array or a disk file or on a tape) is accessed in a predetermined, ordered sequence. Sequential access is sometimes the only way of accessing the data, for example if it is on a tape. It may also be the access method of choice, for example if we simply want to process a sequence of data elements in order. 2) Write operation require that data is first arrange in order thus data need to be sorted before entry .Append adding at the end of the file is simple. 3) to access the record, previous record within the block are scanned thus the sequential record design is best suited for get next activities , reading one record after another without a search delay. 4) Advantages: Simple to desine Easy to program Variable length & block record are available Best use of best disk storage

5) Disadvantage Records can not be added to the middle of the file. Indexed Sequential:1) ISAM stands for Indexed Sequential Access Method, a method for storing data for fast retrieval. ISAM was originally developed by IBM and today forms the basic data store of almost all databases, both relational and otherwise. 2) The difference is in use of indexes to locate the record. 3) Disks storage: Disk storage is divided in 3 parts 1) prime area: Contain file records stored by key or id no 2) Overflow area: contains records added to the files that cannot be placed to in the logical sequence in prime area. 3) Index area: Contains keys of records and their locations on the disks. Advantages: reduces the magnitude of the sequential search Records can be inserted or updated in middle of the file. 5) Disadvantage: extra storage is required Longer to search Periodic reorganization off file is required.

4)

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74. Describe some ways of questioning during an interview?Describe some typical users and the most appropriate questioning for then. Asking question depends upon the developer team asking questions to different users with the purpose to seek their exact and complete information requirements. The types of Questions to be asked:- either the structured interview meetings or semi-structure, questions is the powerful tool the software development team uses to determine information requirements in this technique. Therefore, it is important to ask right questions, at the right time, to the right user members and confirms time and again with the user, the development team members understanding of the exact information requirements during the meeting and document them correctly for future references. It is therefore, important to know, how the question should be framed. There are two types of questions they are as follows:

1. Open questions These are those questions which seek descriptions of an object of the system.
Eg.what is the purpose of the new software system? is an open ended question, since it expects the elaborate, descriptive answers to the question asked. Generally, this type of questions start with words, such as what, how why etc. some times answers to questions starts when and who may also descriptive. The open questions are very useful in information requirements determination, because if answered properly by the user, they provide a lot of information to the developers. This helps very significantly, in ending a lot of uncertainty about the proposed application system just with a single question. That means, if used properly the open ended questions are very efficient for information determination requirements.

2. Closed questions It can also be used effectively to freeze the understanding of the user team
and development team on long discussed topic. eg. in payroll application there was a long discussion on should the new information system should provide for two components of salary structure, such as a fixed component and a variable components. The meeting nearly concluded that new application system should provide the same. The developers may ask questions to the users, such as Can this meeting confirms to the development team, that new payroll application should provide for two components salary structure, such as fixed and variable components? Will force the meeting to answer as either Yes or No or To be confirmed later by the VR (HR). this will summarize the status on agreement on this issue. This is an important issue of the payroll application development, which can be concluded very effectively by asking a close question as above. There are two types of interviews, unstructured and structured. Unstructured interviews are characterized as involving general questions that allow the interviewee to direct the conservation. This type of interview frequently gets off track, and the analyst must be prepared to redirect the interview back to main goal or subject. For this reason, unstructured interviews dont usually work well for systems analysis and design. Structured interviews involve the interviewer asking specific questions designed to elicit specific information from the interviewee. Depending on the interviewees responses the interviewer will direct additional questions to obtain clarification or amplification. Some of these questions may be planned and others spontaneous. Unstructured interviews tend to involve asking open-ended questions. Questions give the interviewee significant latitude in their answers. An example of an open-ended question is Why are You dissatisfied with there ort of uncollectible accounts?. Structured interviews tend to involve asking more closed-ended Questions that are designed to elicit short, direct responses from the interviewee .Examples of such questions are Are you receiving the report of uncollectible accounts on time?. And does the report of uncollectible accounts on time? and Does the report of uncollectible accounts contain accurate information / Realistically, most questions fall between the two extremes.

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75. What is decoupling? What is its role in system handling?

DECOUPLING AND ITS ROLE IN SYSTEM HANDLING Decoupling facilitates each module of the system to work independently of others. Decoupling enhances the adaptability of the system by helping in isolating the impact of potential changes i.e. more the decoupling, easier it is to make changes to a subsystem without effecting the rest of the system. Concept of decoupling is also used in : Separation of functions between human beings and machines. Defining the human-computer interfaces. Decoupling is achieved by: Defining the subsystems such that each performs a single complete function. Minimizing the degree of interconnection (exchange of data and control parameters). Key decoupling mechanisms in system designs are: Inventory, buffer, and waiting line. Provision of slack resources. Extensive use of standards.

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76. Draw a context diagram for purchasing systems. Also draw two levels of details for the same. Write
data dictionary entries for any 2 data elements,2 data stores,2 processes and 2 data structure of your choice for the above system.

Product

Customer

Order request

Bills

Customer

Purchasing Dept

Order notification

Purchasing Dept

WareHouse

Purcha sing System

Low inventory notice

Shipment request

WareHouse

Product Low inventory notice

Supplier

Raises invoice

Payment Purchase order

Supplier

Product supply

CONTEXT DIAGRAM

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM 1. Warehouse dept gives stock details to the system.

Warehouse

Stock details

Manage stock

1. 0

Stock details

1 Stock master

2. Customer gives product order to the system.

p Shi

es equ nt r me

Warehouse

2.0

2 3

Order details

Customer

Customer and order details

Process order

Order details Customer details Customer details

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3. Warehouse gives product confirmation/low inventory notification to the system and the system gives delivery confirmation to the customer and the low inventory notice to the purchasing dept.

Warehouse

Con deli firma ver tion y of

Customer
3. 0 Product delivery notification Low inventory notice

Low inventory notice Stock details

Process request

1 master

Stock

Purchasing Dept.

4. Make purchase order process gives purchasing order to the supplier.

Purchase details

Purchasing dept.
Purchasing details Order details

Make purchase order

4. 0

4
Purchasing details Purchase Order details

Order details

Supplier

5. Supplier gives receipt for product supplied to the purchasing dept.

4 Purchase

Supplier produc t

5.0 Receive product

details
Purchasing details Receipt of supplied product

Purchasing dept.

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6. Manage inventory process updates the stock master file.

Purchasing dept.

Warehouse. 6.0 Manage inventory

Inventory details Inventory details 1 Stock master

Purchasing order details Purchasing details

4 Purchase details

7. Supplier raise invoice for the product supplied to the purchasing dept.

Purchasing dept. Supplier

Raises invoice

7.0 Generate invoice

invoice
Invoice details
5

Invoice master

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8.Purchasing dept. makes payment to the supplier

Purchasing details
Make payment 8. 0 Payment details Payment received Payment details

Purchasing dept.

Make payment

Supplier

5 2

Invoice details

Order details

9. Purchasing dept generates bills to the customer.

Purchasing dept. Bill details Invoice details

5

9.0

Customer Bill issued Bill details

3

Generate bills

Invoice details

customer details

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10.Receive payment process maintains the payment maid by the customer in various master

Customer
Make payment

10

5 Payment details Payment 2 details Payment details

Invoice details Order details

Receive payment

customer details

DATA DICTIONAR

Data Elements: 1.Shipment Request

Data stores Order number Product id Order details Product number name Order Quantity code Product Order datename Product

Quantity demanded 2. Low inventory notice

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77. Develop a decision tree and a decision table for the following: a. If thre person is under 3 years of age,there is no admission fee.If a person is under 16 half the full admission is charged and this admission is reduced to quarter of full admission if the person is accompanied by adult (the reduction applies only if the person is under 12).Between 16 and 18,half the full admission fee is charged if the person is student :otherwise the full admission is charged. b. Over 18,the full admission fee is charged. c. A discount of 10% is allowed for a person over 16,if they are in group of 10 or more. d. There are no student concession during weekends.On weekends under 125 get one free ride.

Ans 79

DECISION TREE

g A
Adult

12 e< Ag 3<

Age

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Ans 79

Dec

Age Adult Student Group Weeken d Fee

Age < 3

3 < age < 12 Yes no

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What is difference between system analysis and system design. How does the focus of information system analysis differ from information system design? System analysis: System analysis is a problem solving technique that decomposes a system into its component pieces for the purpose of studying how well those components parts work and interact to accomplish their purpose System design: System design is the process of planning a new business system or one to replace or complement an existing system. Information system analysis: Information system analysis primarily focuses on the business problem and requirements, independent of any technology that can or will be used to implement a solution to that problem Information system design: Information system design is defined as those tasks that follow system analysis and focus on the specification of a detailed computer based solution. System analysis emphasizes the business problems; system design focuses on the technical or implementation concerns of the system. What are the elements of cost benefit analysis? Cost benefit analysis is a procedure that gives the picture of various costs, benefits and rules association with each alternative system Cost benefit categories: In developing cost estimates for a system, we need to consider several cost elements. They are: Hardware costs: It relates to the actual purchase or lease of the computer and peripherals (for e.g. printer, diskdrive, and tape unit). Determining the actual cost of hardware is generally more difficult when the system is shared by various users than for a dedicated stand alone system alone system. In some cases, the best way to control for this cost is to treat it as an operating cost. Personnel costs: It includes EDP staff salaries and benefits (health insurance, vacation time, sick pay etc.) as well as pay for those involved in developing the system. Costs incurred during the development of a system are one time costs and are labeled developmental costs. Once the system is installed, the costs of operating and maintaining the system become recurring costs. Facility costs: They are the expenses incurred in the preparation of the physical site where the application or the computer will be in operation. This includes wiring, flooring, acoustics lighting and air conditioning. These costs are treated as one time cost and are incorporated into overall cost estimate of the candidate system. Operating costs : It includes all costs associated with the day to day operation of the system; the amount depends on the no. of shifts, the nature of the applications and the caliber of the operating staff. There are various ways of covering operating costs. One approach is to treat operating costs as overhead. Another method is to charge each authorized user for the amount of processing they request from the system. The amount of processing they request from the system. The amount charged is based on computer time, time and volume of the o/p produced. In any case, some accounting is necessary to determine how operating costs should be handled. Supply costs: They are variable cost that increases with increased use of paper, ribbons, disks etc. They should be estimated & included in the overall cost of the system.

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The two major benefits are improving performance & minimizing the cost of processing. The performance category emphasizes improvement in the accuracy of or access to info & easier access to the system by authorized users. Minimizing costs through an efficient sys. Error control or reduction of staff is benefit that should be measured & included in cost benefit analysis. Summarize he procedure for developing DFD, using your own example illustrate. Structured analysis is a model driven, process centered technique used to either analyze an existing system or define business requirements for a new system or both. One of the tools of structured analysis is the DFD. DFD is a process model used to depict the flow of data through a system and work or processing performed by the system. DFD are of 2 types: Physical DFD Logical DFD Physical DFD represent implementation dependent view of the current system & show what tasks are carried out and how they are performed. Logical DFD represent implementation independent view of the system and focus on the flow of the specific devices, storage locations or people in the system. Most comprehensive and useful approach to develop an accurate & complete description of the current begins with the development of physical DFD & then they are converted to logical DFD. Developing DFD: 1. make a list of biz activities & use it to determine External entities i.e. source & sink Data flows Processes Data stores 2. draw a context level diagram Context level diagram is a top level diag and contains only one process representing the entire system. It determines the boundaries of the system. Anything that is not inside the context diag will not be the part of system study. 3. develop process chart It is also called as hierarchy charts or decomposition diagram. It shows top down functional decomposition of the sys. 4. develop the first level DFD It is aka diag 0 or 0 level diag. It is the explosion of the context level diagram. More processes are included. It includes data stores and external entities. Here the processes are numbered. 5. draw more detailed level : Each process in diagram 0 may in turn be exploded to create a more detailed DFD. New data flows & data stores are added. There are further decomposition/ leveling of processes.

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Explain briefly by example: Decision table A decision tree is a diagram that presents conditions and actions sequentially and thus shows which conditions to consider first, which second and so on..it is also a method of showing the relationship of each condition and its permissible actions. The root of the tree, on the left of the diagram is the starting point of the decision sequence. The particular branch to follow depends on the conditions that exist and the decision to be made. Progression form the left to right along a particular branch is the result of making a series of decisions. Developing decision trees is beneficial to analyst in 2 ways: The need to describe conditions & actions forces analysts to formally identify the actual decisions that must be made. It becomes difficult to overlook an integral step in the decision process, whether it depends on quantitative or quantitative value Decision trees also force analysts to consider the sequence of decision

Condition: Size of order: over $10,000 $ 5000 to $ 10,000 Less than $ 5000

Action: take 3 % discounts from Invoice tools 2% no discount

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3 Amount < 10days 0 Days

> 10 days

Amount

Decision tables A decision table is a matrix of rows and columns, rather than a tree that shows conditions and actions. The decision table is made up o four sections: conditions statements, condition entries, action statement and action entries. Condition statements identifies the relevant conditions Conditions entries tell which value, if any applied for particular condition. Action statements list the set of all steps that can be taken when a certain condition occurs. Action entries show what specific action in the set to take when selected conditions or combinations of conditions are true.

The columns on the right side of the table, linking conditions and actions, form decision rules, which state the conditions that must be satisfied for a particular set of actions to be taken. e.g. decision table using y/n format for payment discount

<10 days >$ 10,000 $ 5000 - $ 10,000 < $ 5000 Take 3% discount Take 2 % discount Pay full invoice

Y Y N N X

Y N Y N X

Y N N Y

N Y N N

N N Y N

N N N Y

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amount

Structured English This technique is described as follows: The structured English description of process combines the structured programming techniques with the simple English The statements used are very brief The process description is articulated very carefully This method does not use trees or tables, but rather narrative statements to describe a procedure It does not show decision rules: it states them The terminology used in the structured description of an application consists largely of data names for elements that are defined in the data dictionary developed for the project. It makes a rich use of indentations to denote the nesting of blocks of statements There is no scope for ambiguity & representation errors.

Eg a/c payable processing Accept invoice for processing Prepare payment voucher using invoice Revise a/c balance due Mail check to vendor

Data Dictionary Data dictionaries are integral components of structures analysis, since data flow diagrams themselves do not fully describe the subject of the investigations. A data dictionary is a catalog a repository of the elements in a system In data dictionary one will find a list of all the elements composing the data flowing through a system. The major elements are Data flows Data stores Processes The dictionary is developed during data flow analysis and assists the analysis involved in determining the sys. Design as well.. Importance To manage the details in large sys. To communicate a common meaning for all system elements To document the features of the sys. To facilitate analysis of the details in order to evaluate characteristics and determine where sys changes should be made To locate errors and omissions in the sys Contents of data dictionary Data elements The most fundamental data level is the data element. They are the building blocks for all other data in the system Data structures

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A data structure is a set of data items that are related to one another and that collectively describe a component in the sys. What is the reason for selecting the prototype development method? What are the desired impacts on the application development process? The sys prototype method involves the user more directly in the analysis & design experience than does the SDLC or structured analysis method. A prototype is working sys not just an idea on paper that is developed to test ideas and assumption about the new system. Like any computer based sys it consists of working software that accepts input, performs calculations, produces printed or displayed information or performs other meaningful activities.it is the first version or iteration of an information system an original model The design and the information produced by the system are evaluated by users. This can be effectively done only if the data are real & the situations live. Changes are expected as the system is used

Reasons for sys prototyping: Information requirements are not always well defined. Users may know only that certain biz areas need improvement or that existing procedures must be changed. Or they may know that they need better information for managing certain activities but are not sure what that info is. The users requirements might be too vague to even begin formulating a design. In other cases, a well managed systems investigations may produce a comprehensive set of sys requirements, but building a sys that will meet those requirements may require development of new technology. Unique situations, about which developers have neither info nor experience, and high cost or high risk situations in the proposed design is new and untested, are often evaluated through prototypes. The prototype is actually a pilot or test model; the design evolves through use. Although the prototype is working system, it is designed to be easily changed. Information gained through its use is applied to a modified design that may again be used as a prototype to reveal still more valuable design information. The process is repeated as many times as necessary to reveal essential design requirement. System prototyping is an interactive process. It begins with only few functions and be expanded to include others that are identified later.

Steps in the prototyping process: 1. identify the user known information requirements and features needed in the system. 2. develop a working prototype 3. use the prototype, noting needed enhancements and changes. These expand the list of known sys requirements 4. revise the prototype based on info gained through user experience 5. repeat these steps as needed to achieve a satisfactory system.

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What s feasibility study? What are different types of feasibility study? What considerations are involved in feasibility analysis? Which considerations do you think is most crucial? Why? Feasibility study: 1. Feasibility is the measure of how beneficial or practical the development of an information system will be to an organization 2. Feasibility study (feasibility analysis) is the process by which feasibility is measured. 3. Feasibility study should be performed throughout the system development life cycle 4. A feasibility study is a study conducted to find out whether the proposed system would be : Possible to build with given technology and resources. Affordable given the time and cost constraints of the organization and Acceptable for use by the eventual users of the system Purpose of feasibility study: Need analysis to determine the need for a change in an organization. Cost benefit analysis to study the effect of the change on the economics of the organization. Technical feasibility to evaluate various technologies that can be used for implementing the suggested change given the cost and resources constraints of an organization Legal feasibility to evaluate the legal procedures, if any should come into play to implement the suggested change Evaluation of alternatives to evaluate the various alternatives that would be thrown up with regard to resolving the problems of an organization and recommend the best suited one.

Feasibility considerations: Need analysis: A need analysis is conducted with the following objectives in mind: Seeking background information of the organization. Understanding current issues to be tackled, and Understanding the user profile.

Economic feasibility: Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a candidate system. It is the most important phase in the development of the project. It is also known as cost benefit analysis While doing economic feasibility one attempt to weigh the costs of developing and implementing a new system against the benefits to be accrued from having the new system in place. Several costs as well as the benefits of a system are considered when studying the economic feasibility of a system. When benefits outweigh cost, a system is said to be economic feasible. It includes both, the tangible and the intangible benefits. Tangible benefits are those that can be measured in money value whereas intangible benefits are difficult to quantity.

Technical feasibility : - Technical feasibility is a measure of the practicality of a technical solution and the availability of the technical resources and expertise. - It helps in understanding what level and kind of technology is needed for a system. - It includes functions, performance issues and constraints that may affect the availability of the technical resources and expertise.

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Technical feasibility entails an understanding in different technologies involved in the proposed system, existing technology levels within the organization and the level of expertise to use the suggested technology.

Legal feasibility: Legal feasibility entails copyright violations for systems that have to be developed for the open market, framing of the contract for large system, violation of terms etc. In order to ascertain legal feasibility, legal experts have to be called in. In many organizations, company secretaries can help out. It is beyond expertise level of the analyst conducting the study.

Personal/ behavioral feasibility: People are inherently resistant to change and computers have been known to facilitate change. An estimate should be made of how strong a reaction the user staff is likely to have towards the development of a computerized sys. It is common knowledge that computer installations have something to do with turnover, transfers, retraining and changes in employee job status. Therefore, it is considerable that the introduction of a candidate sys requires special effort to educate, sell and train the staff on new ways of conducting biz.

Political feasibility: It depends on the political environment of an organization.

Evaluation of alternatives : It includes an evaluation of alternative approaches to the development of system The option with the lowest cost and maximum returns is considered the most feasible option However a number of qualitative and intangible issues also greatly influence this decision.

Steps in feasibility analysis: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Form a project team and appoint a project leader Prepare sys flow chart Enumerate potential candidate systems. Describe and identify characteristics of candidate system. Determine and evaluate performance and effectiveness of each candidate system. Weight system performance and cost data. Select the best candidate system. Prepare and report final project directive to management.

What is normalization? What is purpose of normalization of database? Normalization is a process of simplifying the relationship between data elements in a record. Through normalization a collection of data in a record structure is replaced by successive record structures is replaced by successive record structures that are simpler and more predictable and therefore more manageable. Normalization is carried out for four reasons: To To To To structure the data so that any pertinent relationships between entities can be represented. permit simple retrieval of data in response to query and report requests. simplify the maintenance of the data through updates, insertions and deletions. reduce the need to restructure or reorganize data when new application requirements arise.

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Systems analysts should be familiar with the steps in normalization, since this process can improve the quality of design for an application. Decompose all data groups into two dimensional records. Eliminate any relationships in which data elements do not fully depend on the primary key of the record. Eliminate any relationships that contain transitive dependence.

There are three normal forms. They are First normal form: One of the most basic improvements the analyst can make is to design the record structure so that all record in a file is the same length. Variable length records create special problems, since the system must always check to see where a record ends. Fixing record length eliminates this problem. First normal form is achieved when all repeating groups are removed so that a record is of fixed length. Second normal form: Second normal form is achieved when a record is in first normal form and each item in the record is fully dependent on the primary record key for identification. In other words, the analyst seeks functional dependency: a data item is functionally dependent if its value is uniquely associated with a specific data item. Third normal form : Third normal form is achieved when transitive dependencies are removed from a record design. The general case is as follows: A, B,C are three data items in a record. If C is functionally dependent on B and B is functionally dependent on A, Then C is Functionally dependent on A. Therefore, a transitive dependency exists.

What are major threats of system security? Which one is more serious? Why? System security: The system security problem can be divided into four related issues: System security: System security refers to the technical innovations and procedures applied to the hardware and operating systems to protect deliberate or accidental damage from a defined threat. System integrity: System integrity refers to the proper functioning of hardware and programs, appropriate physical security, and safely against external threats such as eavesdropping and wiretapping Privacy : Privacy defines the rights of the users or organizations to determine what information they are willing to share with or accept from others and how the organization can be protected against un welcome, unfair or excessive dissemination of information about it. Confidentiality: The term confidentiality is special status given to sensitive information in a database to minimizes the possible invasion of privacy. It is an attribute of information that characterizes its need for protection

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Threats to system security: o o Errors and omissions: errors and omission contains a broad range of miscues. Some results in incredible but short lived Disgruntled and dishonest employees: when huge quantities of info are stored in one database sensitive data can be easily copied and stolen. A dishonest programmer can bypass control and surreptitiously authorize his/ her own transactions. Dishonest employee have an easier time identifying the vulnerabilities of a software sys than outside hackers because they have access to the sys for a much longer time and can capitalize on its weakness. Fire: fire and other man made disasters that deny the system power, air conditioning or needed supplies can have a crippling effect. In the design of sys facility, there is tendency to place fire fighting equipments. Natural disaster: natural disasters are floods hurricanes, snowstorms, lightening, and other calamities. Although there is no way to prevent them from occurring there are measures to protect computer based systems from being wiped out. External Attack: Outside hackers can get into the systems and have access to confidential, sensitive data. This is possible because of bugs or vulnerabilities in the current system

o o o

According to a survey, an estimated $ 70 billion are lost each year to computer related crime, fraud and embezzlement; 75 percent of this is attributed to insiders of organizations. Therefore disgruntled and dishonest employees are more serious threats to systems security. Define data structure? What are the major types of data structure? An entity is conceptual representation of an object. Relationships between entities make up a data structure. Types of relationships exist among entities: one to one, one to many, many to many relationships. A one to one (1:1) relationship is an association between two entities. A one to many (1:M) relationship describes an entity that may have two or more entities related to it. A many to many (M:M) relationship describes entities that may have many relationships in both the directions. Types of data structures: Data structuring determines whether the system can create 1:1, 1:M, M:M relationships among entities. There are three types of data structures: hierarchical, network, and relational Hierarchical structuring: hierarchical (also called tree) structuring specifies that an entity can have no more than one own entity; that is we can establish a 1:1 or 1:M relationship. The owning entity is called parent or root. There is only one root in a hierarchical model. A parent can have many children 1:M whereas a child can have only one parent.

children

toys

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Network Structuring: a network structure allows 1:1 , 1:M or M:M relationships among entities. A network structure reflects the real world.

Ford

GM

Grille

Radiator

Alternator

Distributor

batteries

Drive Shaft

Relational structuring: in relational structuring, all data and relationships are represented in a flat , tow dimensional table called a relation. It is equivalent to a file. It allows user to update the tables content. Employee number 211 212 213 degree MBA MCA high school