SAMET3 Book

MEM03003B (SAMET3)
Perform Sheet and Plate Assembly
Learning Edition
LEARNER’S GUIDE
LEARNING & ASSESSMENT
RESOURCES
Table of Contents
Sheet Metal Working ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Sheet And Plate Assembly ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to Joining Methods........................................................................... 3
Section 1: Welding and Soldering .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Welding ............................................................................................................... 4
Non-Fusion Types ............................................................................................... 5
Brazing ................................................................................................................ 5
Braze or Bronze Welding..................................................................................... 5
Soft Soldering ...................................................................................................... 6
Fusion Type......................................................................................................... 7
Section 2: Mechanical fastening ............................................................................. 20
PART A ................................................................................................................. 21
Non-Threaded Fasteners .................................................................................. 21
Rivets ................................................................................................................ 22
PART B .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
THREADED FASTENERS ................................................................................ 33
Head Forms....................................................................................................... 34
Common Head Forms ....................................................................................... 34
Screws............................................................................................................... 35
Thread-Cutting Screws ...................................................................................... 36
Thread-Cutting Screws ...................................................................................... 37
Thread-Forming Screws .................................................................................... 37
Self-Drilling and Tapping Screws ...................................................................... 38
Bolts .................................................................................................................. 39
Common Standard Bolt Styles .......................................................................... 39
Section 3: Integral Fastening Systems..................................................................... 46
Section 4: Adhesive Bonding and Sealants ............................................................ 52
Sealants ............................................................................................................ 60
SECTION 5: Skills practice ...................................................................................... 67
Doc Ref: Page 2 of 67

Issue Date: MEM03003B Perform Sheet and Plate Assembly
Validated By: Learner Guide Version 1.1
RESOURCES
Sheet Metal Working
Sheet and Plate Assembly
Introduction to Joining Methods
Products or components fabricated from sheet metal almost invariably require fastening or joining by
some means at one or more stages leading up to, and during final assembly.
The method of fastening would or should have been determined early in the design stage. These design
consideration would take into account:
• Component materials: type of material, quality, coating, and finish.

• Unit strength requirements: rigidity, mobility, flexibility, permanent fixture, vibration,
thermal effects or hygienic requirements.
• Permanence of joint: demountable or permanent.
• Desirable joining method: mechanical or integral fastening, welding, soldering, and
adhesive bonding.
• Unit exposure: environment, external exposure, and aggressive atmosphere, commercial,
domestic or internal.
This unit contains five sections:

1. Welding and soldering
2. Mechanical fastening
3. Integral fastening
4. Adhesive bonding and sealants
5. Skills practice
Each section is designed to give a basic understanding of the terminology and a brief description of the
particular process involved. The section on welding and soldering discovered to a far greater depth in
the relevant units of training associated with these assembly methods.
Assessment
There will be a short-answer theory test for all the sections based on the student review questions. To be
assessed as competent (C) you will need to pass this test and complete practical exercises in Section 5.
Failure to complete the practical exercises to a competent industry level will result in a NYC result and
competence will have to be proved at work. Failure to pass the written test will result in you having to
attend a tutorial where your teacher will give you individual attention before you are retested on the parts
you had difficulty with.

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Section 1: Welding and Soldering
Welding
Welding is a general term used to describe localized joining of sheet metal b y fusion, with or without a
filler metal and, in the case of resistance welding, under a forging pressure.
The process can be broadly classified into two groups:
• NON-FUSION TYPE - where the joint bond relies on the alloying of the non-fused sheet
metal surface with filler metal.
• FUSION TYPE- where the sheet metal surfaces are fused together with or without a filler
metal.
Within these two groups are a number of different methods, each having its advantages and
limitations, depending upon the metal to be joined, function of the weld, and the cost of the
welding equipment.
Non-fusion types of welding are:
• Brazing (hard soldering or silver soldering)

• Braze or bronze welding
• Soldering
Fusion types of welding include:
• Gas welding (OAW)

• Manual metal arc welding (MMAW)
• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
• Resistance welding
• Stud welding
A thorough knowledge of the physics and techniques of welding can only be gained by good training,
study and practical experience. Even welders with a wealth of knowledge and experience agree that
advancing technology in welding methods, equipment and materials provide a challenge to learn more
about this science.

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Non-Fusion Types
Brazing
(Sometimes referred to as a silver soldering or hard soldering.)

In the brazing process, the surfaces of the steel sheet parts are joined by apply the appropriate flux,
heating to temperatures above 450 °C and applying a filler metal that has a melting temperature below
that of the parent metal. The function of the flux is critical to the success of the joint, as its purpose is to
clean the surface of any residue oxides or contaminates that might have been left after mechanically
cleaning the surface.
The filler metal flows by capillary action into parallel gaps (about 0.1mm) between the surfaces to be
joined forming an alloy bond between the two surfaces.
Brazing is usually carried out with torch or furnace heating but other methods include dip, resistance and
induction heating.
Brazing is suitable for mild steel sheet; zinc coated steel sheet, copper and its alloys, it is not suitable for
zincalume, organic coated steel sheet, terne-coated steel sheet and stainless steel. However, stainless
steel can be silver soldered.
Silver soldering (hard soldering) is not suitable for zinc-coated materials as it requires a much higher
heating temperature (700°c - 750°c). This can also cause problems when silver soldering stainless steel as
the temperature can lead to oxidisation of the surface, which can be very difficult and costly to remove.
Braze or Bronze Welding
Bronze welding is similar to brazing but the joint is characterised by a substantial external fillet of filler
material. The same conditions and remarks apply for bronze welding as were outlined for brazing except
that a close tolerance fit-up is not as important.
Bronze welding is suitable for copper and its alloys and mild steel. It can be used with zinc-coated sheet
but as the zinc coating will not withstand the higher (up to 750°c) then repair to the metallic coating will
be necessary.
Bronze welding is usually carried out using a torch.

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Soft Soldering
Soldering is a process of joining metal surfaces together with a filler metal, (an alloy of tin and lead -
sometimes tin and silver) which in turn forms an alloy between the surfaces to be joined. Solder is
designed to melt at relatively low temperatures (160°c- 220°c) however, some of the tin/silver alloys have
a higher melting point (320°c - 450°c) depending upon the amount of silver in the alloy.
The soft soldering process is used to join copper, zinc, steel, zinc coated steel, lead, brass, tinplate, terne
plate, stainless steel and with great care aluminium (tin/silver alloy only).
Soldering of Zincalume (mild steel coated with a alloy of aluminium and zinc) is possible but in practice
is impractical and not recommended (due to the high soldering temperatures, special solder alloys,
fluxes).
With soft soldering a flux must be used to keep the soldered joint free of oxidisation. The heat is normally
applied by using a soldering iron but other methods used include furnace heating, torch and dip.
With all of these methods it is critical that the residue flux be removed from the finished joint as this
can cause corrosion and/or stain the finished product. This in itself can be a very costly operation.
Soldered joints are primarily a low mechanical strength sealer capable of only holding the joint members
in place. Where any significant strength is required the joint should be mechanically fastened (screwed,
riveted), integrally formed (groove seamed) or resistance welded prior to soldering.
Joint design should permit easy application of solder and heat as well as providing an escape route for the
flux and the flux vapours.
Joint clearances are important to allow proper sweating. The necessary drawing in of solder by capillary
action cannot occur with too loose seams, whereas too tight seams prevent solder penetration. A desirable
clearance range is 0.05-0.15mm.
Maintenance of this tolerance is often impractical but a clearance of more than 0.35mm will seriously
reduce the ability of the solder to fill the gap.

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Fusion Type
Gas Welding (OAW)
A mixture of gases, usually acetylene and oxygen, are burnt in a torch to provide a high temperature
flame (about 3000°c) for welding.
The actual welding operation is performed above the melting point of the metal and a filler metal may be
used to ensure adequate area of contact of the fused surfaces. This method is slower than electric welding,
can produce extensive distortion and is seldom used in industry these days.
Gas welding is usually confined to uncoated steel sheet, as neither metallic or organic coatings will
withstand the fusion temperature of steel. If a metallic coated steel is gas welded, coating repair is
necessary.
It is possible to weld other metals with this process, but other joining methods are far more cost effective.
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW)
Manual metal arc welding used to be a common method of welding, although developments in GMAW
and GTAW have led to a decline in this method of welding. It is a highly skilled, manually controlled
system, with the welder feeding a flux-coated electrode into the weld area to form an electric arc between
the work-piece and the electrode. The flux coating on the electrode when melted by the heat of the
electric arc (about 6000°c) forms a gas which shields the molten weld pool from the atmosphere, and
therefore from oxidisation. The residue (or slag) forms a protective cover over the weld whilst the weld is
cooling, which also helps with protection from oxidisation. This slag must be removed from the weld
after cooling; this can be very time consuming.
The heat input of MMAW usually restricts its use to sheet of 1.5mm and thicker as with thinner sheet
there is an increased risk of bum-through. Close fitting joints are essential in sheet metal as even the
slightest root opening can cause excessive burn-through.
MMAW is suitable for welding mild steel, stainless steel and medium carbon steels. It can also be used
with metallic coated steel sheet such as Galvabond, but care must be taken as the zinc will burn-off,
causing excessive fumes. It must also be remembered that the surface must be repaired after the welding
process is completed.
It is normally recommended that if a article needs extensive welding then the zinc coating is applied after
manufacture (called hot-dipped galvanising).

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
GMAW (sometimes called MIG) is a versatile, semi- automatic welding process, which is convenient
and reasonably easy to use. It is particularly suited to welding steel sheet as thin as 0.8mm using the short
arc method of transfer. A continuous consumable filler wire electrode is used for welding sheet metals.
The wire is normally coated in copper to protect the wire surface and also maintain electrical contact
between the wire and the power source within the welding torch. The electric arc, which is struck
between electrode and work-piece, is shrouded with a flow of protective gas (inert gas), which prevents
oxidisation of the weld pool by the atmosphere. The filler wire is fed automatically to the torch nozzle
through a flexible cable, which also carries the shielding gas.
Because GMAW uses a DC+- current the heat input is not as critical as with MMAW and therefore even
thinner sections of sheet metal (0.6 - 0.4mm) can be successfully welded using this method, but as the
metal thickness gets thinner the operator skill level rises.
GMAW is suitable for welding most metals: mild steel, metallic coated steel sheet, stainless steel, and
aluminium. However, when welding zinc-coated metal the zinc must be removed from the surface of the
steel sheet by volatilisation. This prevents excess spatter and inter granular penetration of the zinc into the
steel weld, which would render it susceptible to cracking. To achieve this welding speeds are 15-20%
slower than for uncoated steel sheet to allow for burn-off of the zinc. The thicker the coating the slower
the welding speed although this is also governed by the joint type and welding position.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
GTAW (sometimes called TIG) is a highly skilled welding process in which an electric arc is established
between anon-consumable tungsten electrode and the work-piece. A shielding gas is used to protect the
weld pool from atmospheric contamination and DC-, DC+ or ACHF welding current can be used. Filler
wire can be used and these must be compatible with the parent metal. When welding mild steel porosity
can be overcome by using a filler wire that is triple deoxidised (contains silicon, manganese and
aluminium).
It is very important that dirt, oil, grease, paint and other contaminants are cleaned away from the weld
area and the filler wire. If solvents are used as cleaning agents it is important to ensure that all traces are
removed from the weld area as they may present a safety hazard, such as the risk of explosion or toxic
fumes.
GTAW is suitable for welding most metals, especially stainless steel and aluminium. It is not commonly
used for welding zinc-coated steel sheet as the zinc spatter and zinc oxide fumes produced at welding
temperature will rapidly foul the tungsten electrode. It can be used to successfully weld zincalume
although the same rule would apply and remember the surface coating must be repaired after welding.

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Resistance Welding
A common method of joining sheet metal is carried out using resistance-welding (sometimes called spot
welding) techniques. Parts to be joined are pressed together by copper alloy electrodes and the localised
pressure provides a point through which low voltage, high amperage current can pass. Resistance to the
flow of current through the metal thickness causes a rise in temperature and a molten nugget develops.
Rapid cooling of the weld follows through the-water cooled-electrodes when the current flow ceases.
Resistance welding methods are suitable for stainless steel, mild steel, metallic coated steel sheet
(including Zincalume) and organic coated steel sheet (some limitations depending on the material).
Uncoated steel sheet and stainless steel sheet are readily weldable (stainless steel is the best as it has the
most resistance to the flow of current).
However, the addition of a zinc coating to the steel sheet produces a barrier, which must be displaced
before a steel-to-steel weld can be achieved. In resistance welding this is accomplished by fusing the zinc
coating using the heat generated by the path of the electric current through the thicknesses of the sheet,
and then squeezing the molten zinc away from the surfaces to be joined by the action of the weld force
through the electrodes. Consequently, an allowance must be made for the extra time involved in the weld
cycle and for additional current to compensate for the lower initial interface electrical resistance of the
zinc-coated steel sheet.
Quality control of resistance welding operations

It is most important for successful and economical resistance welding of sheet materials, especially metal-
coated steel sheet, that rigid quality control procedures are put in place. The consequences of not
providing machine operators with positive guidance on electrode tip life and tip redressing can only be a
gradual deterioration of welding techniques, practice and quality. To set up maintenance schedules for
electrode tips, distinctive tests must initially be carried out on actual production articles.
Often it possible for these tests to use rejected articles, or articles already used for testing in order to
reduce the number of first class products rejected. It is also possible to use pieces of scrape material of the
same type as the finished article to set up the machine (see table below), but due to variations in the
volume of metal inside the loop made by the welding machine, horizontal support arms and vertical
electrodes it can produce differences in the actual welding current and weld time used.

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Recommended resistance welding machine set-up based on electrode body of 12mmØ.

Thickness Electrode Electrode Weld Weld Minimum Minimxu
(steel tip force (kn) time current contact ufeld
base) diameter (cycles) (100OA) overlap spacing
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
0.4 4 1.1 5 5 10 io
O.S 4 1.3 6 6.5 10 io
0.6 4 1.4 6 7 10 IO
0.8 5 1.8 8 8 10 15
l.O 5 2.2 9 9.5 IS 15
1.2 6 2.7 11 10.5 15 20
2.6 7 3.7 14 12 15 25
2.0 7* 4.8 17 14 15 30
2.S 9* 5.3 21 16 20 40
3.0 10** 7.8 25 18.5 20 45
* Electrode body increased to 16mm

** Electrode body increased to 20mm
Once correct machine settings are established, experimental production runs should be undertaken with
tests carried out on welds at 100 weld intervals until failure occurs. This should be repeated at least twice
after each redressing of the tips in order to determine the number of welds that can be achieved with
confidence before a further redressing is required and the results or settings recorded for future use.
After this the tips should be redressed just before the nominated life is reached and an occasional check
carried out in case of accidental alterations to sheet metal or weld machine variables. Deliberate changes
to machine settings or steel thickness/type must be followed by a tip life check and the results recorded
for future use.
Testing of resistance welds
The main tests used for resistance welding are the Peel Test, the Chisel Test and the Shear Tension Test.
The Shear Tension Test is less likely to be needed, as minimum strength requirements are unnecessary for
some applications. This test also requires the complete destruction of a component and a tensile test is
placed on the weld. A much more rapid and reasonable assessment of a welds quality is the Peel Test.
This may be carried out on a piece of scrape where the two parts are peeled apart and in a satisfactory
weld, a nugget or slug is pulled from one of the surfaces by the other. It can also be used on a completed
component using a chisel to force the weld apart. This is called the Chisel Test.
With the Chisel Test a cold chisel is forced between the sheet surfaces as close as possible to the weld in
order to force them apart. A test piece need not be cut from the component and if the weld fails, the article
can be recovered by further welding after redressing the tips. If the weld passes the test, forcing the
surfaces back together and re-welding can repair the article.
The Chisel Test does not need to be taken to complete destruction as at the first sign that a nugget is being
pulled can be a satisfactory indication of good weld quality.

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Electrode material
Copper/chrome/zirconium (J47Z alloy) electrodes are recommended for most applications, as they are
more resistant to copper/zinc alloying than other types. The next best is the copper/chromium (J47)
electrode. Both of these give a good compromise of toughness (resistance to mushrooming) and electrical
and heat conduction.
Electrode geometry
Recommended electrode tip profiles for resistance welding are shown below.
Type A Type B
The truncated cone profile, Type A, produces more

consistent weld quality and a better tip life than the doomed
shape, Type B. Type B can produce adequate results when accurate electrode alignment is difficult to
maintain.
Water-cooling of electrodes
Adequate water-cooling of electrodes must be provided for consistently acceptable welds to be made. The
water inlet tube should extend as near as possible to the bottom of the water-cooling passage (about
10mm.) with provision for an unrestricted return flow. This will help to eliminate steam pockets and
localised overheating. From a practical point of view the flow Tate should be sufficient to reduce the tip
temperature to close to room temperature between each weld.
Electrode tip life
It is important to consider all of the variables that can affect tip life. Tip life can be increased by
• The use of a larger diameter electrode
• Periodically increasing the weld current to near expulsion level (although this cannot be
achieved automatically on most machines
The application of an electrode force more than 1kN outside the specified load could substantially
decrease the tip life. A tip life in excess of 2000 welds should be possible and if this is not being achieved
then the welding operation should be checked.

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Tip dressing
The use of correctly prepared electrode tips is essential for efficient welding performance. Dressing and
contouring is best carried out on an electrode-dressing machine with a cutting tool to suit the profile and
size required for the material to be welded. Other alternatives are straight machining by lath or using
replaceable caps in the electrode holders. Preparation by filing/linishing is a quick method employed by
many workshops but for maximum tip life this method is not recommended, as a file/linisher will not
produce consistent results for the following reasons:
1. Parallel surfaces are difficult to produce with a file.
2. Uneven indentations on electrode tips result in a loss of weld strength and short tip life.
3. Filed tips are difficult to match exactly causing overlapping tip edges which results in skidding,
loss of weld strength and short tip life.
4. The surface of the filed tip face is too rough; presenting a larger surface area to the zinc surface
resulting in accelerated copper/zinc alloying and therefore promotes a short tip life.
Welding machine adjustment
Recommended resistance welding settings was given on page 8. Machine variables need to be under
careful scrutiny and adjustments made as necessary for optimum performance.
Producing a resistance weld
Producing a satisfactory resistance weld is achieved by regulation of the weld current, weld time and
electrode force; these major factors are determined by the thickness and the type of material to be welded.
It is quite common for production workers or inexperienced workers to weld above the expulsion limit,
taking the evidence of explosion or sparking as a visual indication that the welding current is sufficiently
high and doing its job. This is bad practice; it can lead to poor quality welds and accelerated deterioration
of the electrodes. There is also an increased risk of injury to the operator and damage to the machine.
When setting up a resistance-welding machine the best method of adjustment is to set the weld force and
weld time according to the recommended settings before adjusting the current. As most machines do not
have a current meter the optimum setting is easily attained by increasing the current to the point when
expulsions occurs and then reduce it slightly to just below the amount of heat which produces the
sparking. This is normally done with a phase shift control.
Unfortunately most machines do not have this function and the current control is a transformer tap
mechanism. This is a very coarse adjustment and setting below the point of expulsion could produce heat
well below that desirable for the other welding machine settings. In this case the weld time should be
increased to the point of expulsion, provided the time does not become excessive. If this is the case then a
one higher transformer tap with a shorter weld time may give a better result.

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Organic coated sheet
Resistance welding of organic coated steel sheet is limited mainly to joint designs where it is possible/
permissible to remove the organic coating from the weld area, such as in a standing seam T joint. An
alternative method of welding organic coated sheet is where a temporary bridging piece can be used to
make contact between the steel sheet edges in a standing seam. Initially during the welding sequence the
weld cunent flows around the bridging piece, generating heat and causing the organic coating to melt and
be displaced under the electrode force until metal to metal interface is achieved.
Organic coating removed Bridging piece in position

on Marviplate
Projection welding
This is a excellent method for single or multiple, closely spaced resistance welds, where one or more
projections of a predetermined shape and size are formed in one of the sheets to be welded, preferably the
thicker sheet if thickness varies. These projections cause the weld current to be concentrated and give
sufficient current density to achieve welding temperature. Two main advantages are that metals of
different thickness can be easily joined and that parts/welds can be accurately positioned.

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Projection welding
A variation of projection welding is Burst Projection Welding. The projections are burst or ruptured to
produce a jagged or sharp edge that will penetrate through an organic coating to the metal, thus
eliminating the need to remove the organic coating at the weld point
Indirect spot and projection welding

This is similar to resistance welding except that both of the electrodes are situated on the same side of the
sheet.
Current flow differs from that of direct resistance welding and the method is used where there is an
insulating layer on the lower surface of the bottom sheet such as paint or PVC film, or where access to the
underside is restricted.

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Multiple-spot welding
When making multiple-spot welds the current flows through all the electrodes at the same time. This has
the advantage of reducing control equipment, giving higher productivity but the disadvantage of very high
plant cost. Special care must also be taken to ensure that the resistance of each weld circuit is identical;
this is critical as the same current and weld temperature must be provided to each weld. The two most
common methods are parallel spot welding and series projection welding
Parallel spot welding Series projection welding
Seam welding
Seam welding employs the same principles as resistance welding except that the electrodes are copper
alloy wheels, which drive the work piece through a special machine. Motion and current are timed to
provide a series of welds either overlapping or spaced apart at regular intervals. Some machines do not
have this function and can only produce a continuous weld. The wheel-sheet interface temperature is
much higher than for resistance welding because of the extra current required to allow for the effects of
current shunt losses from previously made welds, therefore cooling is critical: quite often external water
is run over the wheels to assist with reducing the temperature of the wheels as high temperature can cause
contamination of the wheel face resulting in poor welds. Used a mainly in the mass production of
stainless steel articles to reduce the costs associated with GTAW.

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Seam welding
Stud Welding
Stud welding is a method by which a 'stud', pin, nut or other mechanical fastening device is quickly
welded onto the surface of a sheet of metal. Heat from an electric arc drawn between the fastener and the
work piece melts a quantity of metal, after which the two heated parts are forced together. The fastener
usually takes its normal form (pin, screw or nut) but incorporates an in-built feature on one end to
perform the weld. The feature may differ according to the system used but the fastener must be made
from weldable material.
There are two common processes, arc stud and capacity or discharge welding. The basic tool in each case
is an electrically actuated, gun-shaped, stud welder. The stud acts as the electrode to transmit electrical
energy from the power source to the parent metal surface.
Method suitability
Stud welding is suitable for most metals that can be welded normally. Capacitor discharge methods are
preferred for coated steel sheets as the coating damage is negligible.
Arc stud welding
Studs for arc stud welding incorporate an aluminium, flux in the weld end. The stud is paced against the
work piece surface and as the current flows, the gun lifts the stud drawing an arc. This melts the end of
the stud and the surface directly beneath and the stud is then forced into the molten pool. A disposable
ceramic arc shield is used around each stud to control the shape of the weld pool and ensure a uniform
fillet.
The weld is normally completed in less than 1 second, but the weld cycle depends on the stud diameter
and may vary from 0.1 to 1.5 seconds.

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Capacitor discharge welding
Capacitor discharge welding derives its heat from an arc produced by a rapid discharge of stored
electrical energy. Pressure is applied during or immediately following the electrical discharge. Fasteners
can be welded to thin sheets of metal without pronounced distortion, bum-through or discolouration.
Increases in variable welding results occur if there is any twisting and overlapping of the leads to the gun.
There are two types of capacitor discharge welding; the contact type and the gap type. The contact type
needs to have the stud placed in contact with the metal surface and when the energy is released, an arc
results melting the tip of the pin. Spring pressure forces the stud to the work piece, giving a strong bond
with an extremely short weld time. When the weld heat is accurately controlled, heat marking on the
reverse side is negligible.
The gap type capacitor discharge welding is similar to contact type except that initially the stud projection
is not brought into contact with the work surface. When the triggering system is actuated the projection is
plunged onto the work surface. Current flows immediately contact is made and the weld proceeds as for
contact type. The major advantage of gap type welding over contact type welding is that it is;
• More readily automated

• Makes less noise
• Electrical contact through organic coatings is assisted by the plunging action of the stud.
Arc Stud Welding Contact Type CD Gap Type CD

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STUDENT REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR
SECTION 1
1. When should the method of fastening be determined?
2. Which method of brazing is suitable for stainless steel?
3. If you had to join lout carbon steel (l.c.s.) pipes with a poor fit-up which of the non-fusion types of
welding would you chose?
4. Which method of non-fusion welding would you chose to join zinc-coated sheet metal? (You
cannot use mechanical fasteners)
5. Why is it critical that all traces of the flux residue be removed from the metal sheet after soft
soldering has been completed?
6. Why should soft soldered joints be mechanically fastened?
7. Which of the fusion welding types does not require a high level of skill?
8. Which method of fusion welding is suitable for welding thin gauge (1.2mm) stainless steel?

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9. When welding zinc-coated steel sheet the zinc must be removed by volatilisation. Why?
10. Which method of fusion welding would you select if you had to site weld 5mm low carbon steel?
11. Is it possible to fusion weld Zincalume?
12. Why does the zinc coating need to be displaced when resistance welding?
13. If you are to resistance weld apiece of 1.6mm l.c.s. to a piece of 1.0 mm l.c.s what would be the
recommended settings for the resistance-welding machine?
14. What is the difference between a Peel Test and a Chisel Test?
15. How can you increase the tip life of an electrode in resistance welding?
16. The flow rate of water should reduce the temperature at:
17. Which method of resistance welding is used in the mass production of stainless steel sink units?
18. Which type of stud welding is commonly used by duct manufactures?

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Section 1: Mechanical fastening
INTRODUCTION
Correct selection of mechanical fasteners involves careful consideration of the many factors involved
with fastening systems. It is estimated that with mechanically fastened assemblies the fastener price is
about 25% of the total in-place fastener cost. This would indicate that cost control of 75% of the
total fastening operation is in the hands of the fabricator. A 10% saving in assembly cost could well
outweigh 30% saving in the fastening component.
It will therefore be seen that planning what, how and where the fastening system will be used should be a
pre-requisite rather than an afterthought in design process.
Factors to be considered should always include:
• Function
• Strength requirements
• Service conditions
• Exposure conditions
• Composition/compatibility
• Assembly method
• In-place costs
• Life expectancy (fastener/article to be fastened)
It is essential that any chosen fastener is adequate for the task. Cost of rectification in the event of fastener
failure will far outweigh any minor savings achieved through the use of inadequate or even borderline
fasteners. Using integral fastening methods could reduce the quantity of fasteners used per assembly. A
component such as a cover plate could be located by recesses and tabs on the plate and retained by a
single screw.
Mechanical fastener types for use with sheet metal can be broadly classified into two groups:
• Non-threaded fasteners (rivets, stapling)

• Threaded fasteners (screws, nuts and bolts, studs)
Within both groups there is some special purpose fasteners designed for a specific purpose.
One of these is Fastener Caps.

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Fastener Caps
In the design of an assembly, a frequent necessary consideration is the appearance of the fastener head
when the assembly is finished. Although this can usually be accommodated by choosing a suitable
fastener head style from the variety on offer, and in an acceptable finish, a complementary alternative
design approach is available. Decorative and protective Snap Caps have been designed for use with a
variety of fastener type and head styles, including blind rivets (pop rivets) and screws. The caps are
suitable for use with sheet metal assemblies, especially those fabricated from Colour bond or Marvi plate.
Snap Caps are demountable and reusable. If access to the fastener head is required then the cap can be
prised of the washer flange by a lever action with a thin knife blade; removal with the fingers is virtually
impossible.
PART A
Non-Threaded Fasteners
Wire Staples
Staples can be driven and clinched in thin sheet metal by means of a motor-driven, pedestal wire stitcher
or an air-operated portable metal stapling machine. The stitcher forms its own staples from a coil of steel
wire; the portable machine uses preformed wire staples. Staple wire is either tin coated high tensile or
stainless steel to the strength/grade specified by the manufacturer. Application is as fast as the operator
can position the work/machine. The formed wire is forced through the metal, punching its own holes, and
the staple legs are clinched as required.
Joining by stapling requires no surface preparation, pilot drilling, and pre-punching or hole alignment.
This method is suitable for ductile metal only, including metallic and organic coated steel sheet. Two or
more pieces of steel sheet of similar/ dissimilar thickness with a combined total thickness of not more
than 2mm can be joined by this method. Steel sheet can also be stapled to other materials.
Wire Staples
Loop Clinched Flat Clinched Outward Clinched

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Rivets
Rivets depend upon a squeezing or expanding action to bring the parts together and secure them. Rivets
are suitable for most ferrous/non-ferrous metals including metallic and organic coated sheet, where a
permanent, low cost fastener is required. Some types are suited to automatic assembly operations using
high speed machines; other types to slow manual operation.
The location of the rivet in the assembled part influences both the strength of the joint and also the design
of the joint (for clinching). The important dimensions are:
• Edge distance - the distance between the rivet centre line and the edge of the sheet
• Pitch distance - the distance between adjacent rivet centres
Minimum edge distance should be a least twice the rivet diameter to avoid buckling of the sheet edge
when clinching.
Normal practice is three times the shank diameter.
Minimum pitch distance should be a least three times the rivet diameter to avoid unnecessary high
stress levels in the riveted material. Normal practice is eight times the shank diameter.
Many rivets carry a protective coating or are made from corrosion resisting metals or alloys.
Compatibility of this coating/metal with the parent metal must always be taken into consideration when
selecting a rivet. Plastic rivets are also available, most being in colours that will match or contrast with
organic coated sheet.

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Rivets should not be used where severe vibrations may loosen the fastening, or where tension loads
could pull out or weaken the clinch.
Punched or drilled holes are required for most rivets except some of the metal piercing riveting
systems, which do not need a hole.
Joints made with conventional rivets are not normally watertight, but in some cases can be made so if
some form of a sealer is used. Some of the special rivets claim to provide leak proof joints (i.e. sealed
type blind rivets, insulated rivets or metal piercing rivets) but leakage can still occur around the hole and
the edges of the sheet would still need to be sealed.
Rivets cannot be dismantled for maintenance or part replacement without chiseling or drilling the rivet
out and then installing a new rivet on reassembly.
Solid Rivet
The solid rivet consists of a head and a solid shank that comes in many different head forms and shank
diameters. It is a common form of compressive fastener, which is inserted into a pre-formed hole, 'drawn',
'set' and buttoned' to compress and clinch the components being joined. The setting of the rivet can be
done either by hand using a rivet set and hammer, or by pneumatic riveting tools.
A rivet can be drawn in sheet metal up to 2.0mm thick, but you will still need to pre-form a hole in the
underside of the joint.
Solid rivets provide a strong fastening both in shear and tension. Their main use is in the aircraft industry,
transport industry and for decorative work.
Solid rivets can only be used where there is unrestricted access to both sides of the joints.
Semi-Tubular Rivets
The semi-tubular rivet has a straight or tapered shallow hole in the end of the shank that never exceeds
1.12 times the shank diameter. Correct selection of the rivet size is critical in relation to the total
combined material thickness as the shank length needs to be of suitable length for the hole walls to roll
outwards when clinched, leaving the solid part of the shank in the hole.
The semi-tubular rivet has shear and compression strength comparable to solid rivets but not quite as
strong in tension. These rivets need a pre-formed hole in both sides of the joint and are set and clinched
using a special setting tool, but again access to both sides of the joint is needed.

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Another common type of semi-tubular rivet is the insulated rivet. This type of rivet comes with a
mushroom head, the shank and the under-the-head surface covered with a uniformly thick nylon. The
main application of this type of rivet is in electrical assemblies where the fastener needs to be insulated
from the work piece. They can also be used where airtight or water tight joints are required. They are set
and clinched in the normal way, but the hole must be 0.13mm larger to allow extra clearance.
Full Tubular Rivets
Similar to semi-tubular rivets except that the hole in the shank is much greater in length. This type of rivet
is designed for applications where it is desirable to punch the rivet through the relatively soft materials
being joined. A pre-formed hole is required for sheet metal and when joining metal to canvas, leather or
other soft materials a star or daisy clinch is most suitable.
Semi-Tubular Rivet Insulated Rivet Full Tubular Rivet
Blind Rivets
These types of rivets form a group of fasteners whose design allows them to be installed in joints
accessible from only one side. However, for various reasons including simplicity, low operator skill level,
equipment costs and appearance, extensive use is made of this riveting system where both sides of the
joint are accessible. Pre-formed holes are necessary for blind riveting systems. In setting a blind rivet a
self-contained mechanical component expands the hollow shank and forms an upset on the blind end,
fastening the parts to be joined.
Blind rivets are classified according to the method by which they are set. The two most common types
are:
• Pull-mandrel type
• Drive-pin type
Tools for the pull-mandrel type are normally hand-operated, using special pliers (pop pliers, lazy tongs)
or pneumatic powered machines. With the drive-pin type the pin is driven into the body with a hammer.
Pull-mandrel rivet installation speed is far quicker and much more popular than the drive-pin type.
Pull-Mandrel Type Blind Rivets (Pop Rivets)
Blind rivets are classified as a permanent fastening system although they can be removed by drilling out
the rivet with a drill of the same size (always remember to remove the mandrel first). They are suitable
for use with all metals; however, compatibility of the fastener material with the work piece and the
ultimate environment is of major importance.
It should be remembered that with most blind rivet systems a portion of the mandrel is retained within the
set rivet. Mandrel material must therefore become part of the basis of rivet material selection.

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Total combined thickness to be joined is called the grip range and this can vary from as low as 1.6mm up
to 14.0mm depending upon the type, diameter, length and construction of the rivet. It is possible to join
material with a grip range of 0.5mm provided the shank expansion is carefully controlled during the
setting process. Where practical, it is best to form the blind head against the thicker sheet in any
combination of metal to metal.
Pull-Mandrel Blind Rivet
Open Type
Closed Type
BLIND RIVET CODE

SYSTEM (pull mandrel
type)
RIVET TYPES 1
73 Truss head Plugged rivet
72 Countersunk head Plugged rivet
TA Truss head Sealed rivet
CA Countersunk head Sealed rivet
M Monel S Zinc plated steel

S Zinc plated steel S Zinc plated steel
A Aluminum A Aluminum*
ST Stainless steel ST Stainless Steel*
MS Nickel copper S Zinc plated steel
*Available with S rivet stem as well
GRIP RANGE 4
Code Mm
No.
1 1.6
2 3.2
3 4.8
4 6.4
5 8.0
6 9.5
7 11,1
8 12.7
9 14.3

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RIVET DIAMETER DRILL SIZE 5
Code No. Mm Imp Mm

3 2.4 2.5
4 3.2 No.30 3.3
5 4.0 No. 20 4.1
6 4.8 No. 11 4.9
8 6.4 6.5
How to select a blind rivet

Step 1- Decide the head form and rivet type that is best for the job.
Step 2 - Select the type of material for the rivet body.
Step 3 - Select the type of material for the rivet stem.
Step 4 - Measure the total thickness of material to be joined and select the most appropriate grip range.
Step 5 - Choose the most suitable size of rivet for the job and the correct size of drill.
A quick exercise! Which rivet would you select if the drawing asked for a 73-ST-S-4-2?
Another quick exercise! Which rivet would you order if youwanted to join two pieces of 1.6mm thick
zinc anneal.
Pull-mandrel type rivets are available as either open type or sealed type with two head forms; truss head
(a domed shape) and countersunk (to fit flush with the surface). The open type is a hollow-cored rivet
with the as-manufactured blind end open, whilst the sealed type is a hollow-cored rivet with a closed end
and is primarily used where a watertight or pressure-tight rivet is required.
Setting is controlled by the mandrel, which will break when the joint is tight and the blind head fully
formed. With some types of pull-mandrel rivets the mandrel stem is designed to break near the mandrel
head and be retained in the body; this is classed as either semi-filled, break stem or short break. Other
types are designed so that the mandrel will fracture nearly flush with the rivet head; these are called filled,
flush break or long break. Some types are designed so that the mandrel will fall out of the body of the
rivet when set; these are called either hollow or break head. Other designs are non-break, where the
mandrel is cut flush with the rivet head and pull-through, where the mandrel head is completely pulled
through the rivet.
There are two variations of the open type blind rivets. One is a grooved rivet that has a serrated shank for
joining sheet metal to soft and brittle materials such as bricks, plywood, hard board, Perspex and fibre
glass; these are very successful as long as the head of the rivet can be placed against the metal. The other
type is the threaded rivet, which is available with a external metric thread.

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Grooved Rivet External Threaded Rivet
Drive-Pin Type
Blind Rivet
Drive-pin rivets consist of a hollow body and a pin. In the as manufactured condition the pin projects
from the rivet head, the blind end of the rivet is slotted to form prongs and a single hammer blow sets the
rivet. The pin is driven through the hollow shank, expanding the rivet and flaring the prongs outwards;
thereby securing the work pieces between the rivet head and the flared blind end.
Rivet construction materials are plated steel, aluminium, stainless steel, nylon or other thermoplastics.
These may be colour matched to suit customer requirements, which can be of great assistance for joining
materials such as Marvi plate. In addition to fastening steel sheets components, drive-pin rivets can be
used to secure steel sheet to timber frames as the prongs can be expanded inside such materials (rivet
head must be against the steel sheet).
Drive-Pin Blind Rivet
Swage-Lock Fasteners (Huckbolt System)

Huckbolt pins and collars' are the two locking components of the Huck fastening system, which is used to
secure assemblies that are subjected to high levels of stress or vibration. The pins are available in an
extensive range of materials, head forms and configurations to suit most applications (often used in the
aircraft and transport industry).
The pin consists of a head, plain shank, annular locking grooves, breakneck groove, and a pintail with
annular locking grooves. The collar has a smooth, groove-less interior and you will need a preformed hole
in both the surfaces to be joined.
A special hydraulic or pneumatic powered, hand-held installation tool is required to set the fastener. This
tool exerts a high clamping force, which combined with high shear and tension, produces speedy and
quiet installation. The system is suitable for joining heavy gauge sheet metal (i.e. 3mm to 3mm).

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When considering the use of a swage-lock fastening system the size of the installation tool and access for
its use must be taken into consideration.
Swage Lock (Huckbolt) Fastening
1. Collar is placed over pintail
2. Tool pulls on pin and draws sheets together
3. Tool anvil swages collar into grooves
4.Pin breaks at breakneck groove

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Push-On Fixes
Hardened and tempered spring steel push-on fixes are started by hand on unthreaded shanks and then
pushed to seat with a simple hand tool. An inward bite by the prongs, and an arched spring lock combine
to provide a secure fastening. Push-on fixes are suitable for variety of light gauge assemblies and come
with round or rectangular/ square with chamfered ends.
Push-On Fixes
Metal Piercing Rivets

Significant improvements in metal piercing rivet technology have led to broader application of these
systems in metal fabrication. Steel sheet penetration capacity of metal piercing riveting systems has been
increased to allow consistent joints to be obtained, even in 1.6mm sheets, using this method. Hole
preparation is eliminated with these systems, but extreme care must be taken with alignment of the parts
to be joined. Two types of systems are available:
• Metal piercing semi-tubular rivets
• Metal piercing solid rivets
Metal piercing semi-tubular riveting can be applied to either pierce right through the metal and clinch
the parts to be joined or can deform but not penetrate the lower sheet. When set in the latter manner this
will provide a leak-proof joint.

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Metal piercing solid riveting uses a system developed in Australia by which solid rivets with a
countersunk head can be driven into steel sheets up to a total thickness of 3.2mm.Penetration of the rivet,
countersinking and clinching of the rivets carried out in one action. The countersunk head produces a
flared hole that increases the shear strength of the joint while expansion of the rivet end on the
reverse/underside of the work piece prevents pullout.
Metal Piercing Solid Rivet
STUDENT REVIEW QUESTIONS
SECTION 2 PART A
1. List 5 factors that must be considered in the selection of a mechanical fastener.
2. If a fastener costs $1.25 what is the estimated cost to fix 100 fasteners?
3. When would you use a fastener cap?
4. What is the total maximum thickness that can be joined using wire staples?
5. Why is it important to maintain the minimum edge distance when using rivets?

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6. Where should rivets not be used?
7. Which riveting system does not need a preformed hole?
8. Where can you use a solid rivet?
9. Where would you use insulated semi-tubular rivets?
10. What is the most common type of blind rivets?
11. What is the maximum metal thickness that can be successfully riveted with a blind rivet system?
12. Which rivet would you select if the drawing asks for a 72-A-S-5-5?
13. Which rivet would you chose if you had to join stainless steel (1.6mm) to aluminium (3.0mm)?
14. If you have to join aluminium to a wood frame which type of blind rivet would you use?
15. Which blind rivet system can be used in areas of high stress and vibration?

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16. Where would you use a push-on fix?
17. What is the maximum metal thickness that can be joined with metal piercing rivets?
18. The cost of a fastener is $0.02 and for the job in hand there are 10000 of these fasteners to be
fitted. What would be the total cost of these fasteners fitted? (Remember the labour costs)

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PART B
THREADED FASTENERS
The range of threaded fasteners in this section has been selected on the basis of suitability and common
use in the sheet metal industry for the joining of two or more pieces of metal. Included are screws, bolts,
nuts, inserts and miscellaneous special fasteners. Threaded fasteners are not a permanent fastening
system. Although in practice articles joined by these types of fastening systems do become permanent.
What is the difference between a Screw and Bolt?
A screw can be basically defined as a threaded fastener that engages either pre-formed or self-made
internal threads and is fastened by torquing its head, whereas a bolt is mated to a nut and tightened by
torquing the nut.
Type 1.Prepare a hole. Insert a screw. Apply a nut to the screw. Tighten nut.
Type 2. Prepare a hole. Tap a thread. Apply a screw and tighten.

Type 3.Prepare a hole. Use screw to tap its own thread while fastening.
Type 4.With one fastener, in one operation, pierce or drill a hole, tap a thread and fasten.
Each type of fastener has its own particular advantages and disadvantages, and although each new type of
fastener will, in most cases, increase the cost of the fastener, the installation costs normally will decrease
due to process and part elimination.
The important cost for consideration in any fastening system is the total in-place cost.

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Head Forms
Screws and bolts share some common head forms, the choice of which to use depends upon the type of
driving equipment to be used, the joint load and the preferred appearance. (Australian Standard 1427)
Common Head Forms

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Limitations of the standard screwdriver slot form are difficulty in retaining screwdriver engagement and
the possibility of surface damage if the screwdriver slips. To overcome these problems two commonly
used cross-recess heads forms are used. These are:
Screws
Machine Screws
A machine screw consists of a threaded body with a head on one end for driving. The screw is used in
conjunction with a nut or a preformed tapped hole of an equivalent size. The shank may be threaded up to
the head or may have an unthreaded portion.
Machine screws are one of the simplest and oldest methods of joining two or more parts together and
permitting them to be separated without damage to the parts or the fastener.
Self-Tapping Screws
These screws are hardened fasteners that make their own mating thread as they are applied in preformed
holes in the work piece.
The four types, based on thread form, form the basis of the wide range of self-tapping screws available:
Spaced thread - thread-forming

Spaced thread - thread-cutting
Machine thread - thread forming
Machine thread - thread-cutting
The type of thread form to be used will depend upon the material into which the screw is to penetrate and
the service conditions of the application.

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Machine screw thread is more suitable for deep thread engagement of higher strength assemblies or where
thicker sections are to be joined.
Spaced screw thread is more suitable when thin sections are to be joined.
Spaced Thread Machine Thread
Thread-Cutting Screws
These have cutting edges and chip cavities that make their tapping action similar to that of a conventional
fluted tap. Removing material from the work piece cuts the thread form and the depth of the thread is the
difference between the major diameter of the screw and the hole into which it is driven. Therefore the size
of the preformed hole becomes critical.
Screw size number Material total thickness Hole size

2 0.45 1.60
0.90 1.85
1.6 1.95
4 0.45 2.05
0.90 2.3
1.6 2.45
2.0 2.6
6 0.45 2.35
0.9 2.8
1.6 2.95
2.0 3.0
2.5 3.3
7 0.9 3.0
1.6 3.3
2.0 3.3
2.5 3.5
8 0.7 2.85
0.9 3.3
1.2 3.3
1.6 3.5
2.5 3.7
3.2 3.8
10 0.7 3.5
1.2 3.5
1.6 3.8
2.5 4.1
3.2 4.3
4.5 4.5

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These types of screws are suitable for brittle materials where the structure of the material could break
down under the thread-forming actions of self-tapping screws and for thin sections as the cutting action
reduces residual stresses.
Thread-Cutting Screws
Type D/1 Blunt point with single narrow flute. Machine thread.
Easy starting requires less driving torque than type C
and has longer thread engagement. Requires
prepared holes. Suitable or low strength metals, high
strength brittle metals and for rethreading clogged pre
tapped holes
Type T/23 Blunt point with single wide flute. Machine thread.
Same as type D but has more chip clearance and cuts
easier. Requires prepared holes.
Typpe F Blunt point with five evenly spaces cutting groves and
large chip cavities. Machine thread. Fast driving.
Resists vibration. Requires prepared holes.
Enamel Special Shake proof Enamel Reaming Point screw
Reaming Point reams out vitreous enamel clogged holes. Sharp joint
facilitate hole finding.
Thread-Forming Screws
In thread-forming the mating thread in the work piece is produced by displacement of the
steel sheet without actual metal removal. This forming action generates extra thread depth,
the minor diameter of the tapped hole being smaller than the original hole in the sheet. This
allows for a very tight fit to be achieved, resisting vibration and shock load, even in the
thinnest of sheet metal. Thread-Forming Screws

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Self-Drilling and Tapping Screws
These types of screws have a drill point that will drill its own hole. When the metal is penetrated the
screw cuts and forms its own mating thread in the same manner as the standard self-tapping screw.
These screws are specially designed and constructed with an unthreaded drilling point so that the drilling
operation is completed before the thread starts to engage. For example an 8-18 fastener advances 0.12mm
per revolution when drilling and 1.4mm per revolution when the thread engages. It is therefore necessary
that the unthreaded drill point be equal to or greater than the thickness of material to be drilled and must
include all material and air space comprising the 'sandwich' to be joined.
Power driving at 2200 to 2500 rpm is recommended for the optimum installation efficiency and economy.
Self-Drilling and Tapping Screws

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Bolts
For many steel sheet joining applications the common bolt and nut combination has been replaced by
more advanced screw types or at least by mating a nut with a screw.
Bolts are more likely to be used in thick steel joints and normally where only the nut (not the bolt) is
rotated to fasten.
Common Standard Bolt Styles
Nuts
Nuts are an internally threaded fastener designed to mate with a bolt. As with screws and bolts many
types are available including:
Basic nuts
Standard hexagon and square nuts, also called full nuts, are the most common types of nuts used. Square
nuts are normally used for lighter work than hexagon nuts. These types of nuts normally come with a
washer (fitted or separate); this is used to overcome problems associated with bridging oversize holes or
vibration (lock or positive locking washers).
Basic Lock Nuts

The use of lock nuts should be considered when the joint is subjected to excess vibration, cyclic motion,
or needs accurate pre-loading of the parts to be joined.

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Thin Nuts
Normally used under a full nut to provide a locking action.

The thin nut is torqued only to seat it and the full nut is assembled on top
and torqued to full pre-load value.
Castle and Slotted Nuts
Used primarily as a safety nut, these nuts are slotted or castled to receive a cotter pin or wire that will pass
through a hole drilled in the shaft of the bolt.
Stiff or Nylon Lock Nuts
Used primarily as a safety nut where excess vibration is of primary concern. A fibre or nylon insert that is
not threaded replaces two threads at the top of the nut.

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Captive Nuts
These provide a permanent, strong threaded, self-wrenching fastener suitable for use on sheet steel and
they are especially good in blind locations. The two normal types used in sheet metal work are the Self-
Clinched Nut and the Self-Piercing Nut
Self-Clinched Nuts provide a strong, multi-threaded fastener in metal too thin to be

extruded or tapped. They do need a pre-formed hole, a clinching tool and an anvil.
Self-Clinching Nut
Self-Piercing Nuts are strong, multiple-threaded, work-hardened steel nuts with external
undercuts on two sides. The feature of this type of nut is their resistance to torque, vibration,
tension and shear load. Normally inserted using a hydraulic operated machine that drives the
nut through the thin sheet and in the same operation, clinching the nut into the work piece.
Self-Piercing Nut

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Single Thread Spring Nuts
These are formed by stamping a thread engaging impression in to a flat piece of metal that can then be
formed to the desired shape. Generally used for light duty applications.
Typical Single Threaded Nut
In addition to the normal conventional methods used to prevent a nut "working" loose three other
methods are used; these are peening the bolt end, doping the mating threads with lacquer and deforming
the nut thread.
Washers
There are as many different types of washers as there are nut or bolts. Everyone has a particular use. The
three main groups are Plain Washers, Lock Washers (Spring) and Positive Locking (Star) Washers.
Plain Washers are used to overcome problems with oversize holes or packing an article to maintain a
level. Come in either thick or thin thicknesses and should be compatible with the diameter of the bolt.
Lock Washers (Spring) will prevent a screw, bolt or nut vibrating loose.

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Positive Locking Washers (Star Washers) have chisel-like serrations on the internal or external edges
of the washer that will bed into the mating parts and prevent the nut or screw from working loose through
excess vibration or cyclic motion.
Miscellaneous Special Fasteners
These fasteners are normally made from plastic or spring steel and in their design have a mushroom head
form, interference fit body and may be permanent or removable.
The mushroom shaped head exerts pressure over a large area making it suitable to hold light materials,
such as cardboard or sheet plastic, to a sheet metal base.
On installation the clip body is inserted into a preformed hole and pressed into position; as pressure is
applied the body shape springs inwards until full penetration is achieved. The body knows partially
recovers its original shape and holds itself in position as a result of the outward spring force.
The three most common types are:

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SECTION 2 PART B
1. Are threaded fasteners classed as permanent?
2. What is the difference between a screw and a bolt?
3. Describe a type 3 screw.
4. Where would you use a type 2 screw?
5. What is the advantage of a hexagon head?
6. Why do some hexagon heads have a washer fitted to the underside of the head?
7. What are the problems with using a straight slotted screwdriver blade?
8. If you had to use a number 6 thread-cutting screw to join metal with a thickness of 2.5mm what
size hole would you drill?

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9. Why is it important that the unthreaded drill point be equal to or greater than the metal thickness
when using a type 4 screw?
10. What is the recommended rpm for pouter driving a type 4 screw?
11. Why would you dope the threads of a type 1 fastener?

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Section 3:Integral Fastening Systems
Introduction
Integral fastening, sometimes called self-secured joints, are an economical and practical method for
typical low strength joint applications in sheet metal. These joints are made in the parent metal by
combining normal workshop operations such as bending, forming, punching, crimping or nibbling
without the use of any mechanical fasteners, welding operations or adhesives; however, they will require
a sealant to make them water or air tight.
Most integral fastening systems have been in use for many years and the scope of the industry allows for
many of these methods to be incorporated into modern day production techniques.
The increasing use of organic coated metals and the need to fasten these metals without damaging the
coating has resulted in development of improved integral fastening systems.
Sheet metal integral fastening systems come in two types.
Seam type - work pieces are formed close to the edge for the full width or length, then interlocked and
tightly closed to form a seam.
Tab and recess type - tab projections such as lugs or tongues are fitted into recessed counterparts then
bent, swaged, twisted or otherwise deformed to make a tight locking joint. Some form of punching of the
work piece is required.
In both types the design of the fastening form to be used must suit the material to be joined. It is
recommended that sheet metal thicknesses in the range of 0.2mm to 2.0mm are the most suitable. Care
must be taken not to damage the metallic or organic coating of the sheet. Tab and recess joints should be
designed so that the bends are always across the grain of the metal and always use two or more tabs; one
alone makes a poor fastening with little strength.
Groove Seam- is a very common sheet metal seam used extensively by ductwork manufactures,
especially circular duct, and manufactures of plumbing supplies (downpipes etc.). This joint requires
backing with a bar and a special grooving tool to form the seam.

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Drive Slide or Drive Cleat- is a very common seam used to join square or rectangular duct. It does not
require backing and the drive slides can be made either on a machine or in a folder.
Pittsburgh Lock-Seam - is a machine made seam used extensively in square and rectangular ductwork.
This seam does not require backing
Box or Snap-Lock Seam - is a machine made seam used extensively in ductwork and cubicle work. This
seam does not require backing.

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Paned-Down Seam - is really the first stage of a knocked-up seam; it is mainly used for joining the tops
and bottoms to cylindrical tanks or containers. Normally turned out and finished on a jenny burring
machine.
Knocked-Up Seam - is normally used to join the tops and bottoms on to cylindrical tanks or containers.
Normally made on a swage machine. This joint is also being used as a corner or edge seam in ductwork to
replace the Pittsburgh and Snap-lock seams.
Recessed Knock-Up Seam - was a favorite method of making the end seams on petrol tanks. Normally
made in a power swage machine.

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Standing Seam - is normally used to joining roofing sheets together; the standing seam not only joins the
sheets together but also acts as a reinforcing rib to give extra strength to the joint.
Tab and Recess Fastening Systems - used extensively in the manufacture of industrial switchboards, shop
fittings, domestic and commercial electrical goods (such as computers) and whitegoods (washing
machines).
Corner tabbed and bent
Pierced, slit, tabbed and twisted

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Pierced, tabbed and bent in alternative directions for added strength
Pierced, slit, tabbed and bent

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SECTION 3
1. What is the recommended maximum metal thickness for integral fastening systems?
2. Which seam is commonly used in circular duct?
3. Which seams are used for rectangular duct?
4. Which seam is used to join bottoms to cylindrical tanks?
5. Should tab and recess joints be designed to bend with the grain or across the grain?
6. Which tab and recess fastening system has added strength?
7. Where would tab and recess fastening system normally be used?

RESOURCES
Section 4: Adhesive Bonding and Sealants
Introduction
A common industry misunderstanding is that a sealant can be used as a bonding adhesive as well as
sealing the joint.
A sealant will give limited holding power; however, they are not designed to hold a joint together without
the aid of some form of fastening.
Adhesive bonding can be used without the aid of any form of mechanical fastening or integral fastening
system and will act as a sealant.
This section is in two parts and will examine the differences between adhesive bonding and sealants, the
benefits and disadvantages of both types and the correct use of the different types.
Adhesive Bonding
Why Use Adhesives?
Adhesive bonding is a technique for joining materials which in recent years has shown itself capable of
replacing or, supplementing conventional methods such as riveting, welding and integral fastening
systems in a variety of applications. Although the strength and durability of bonded joints has been
proved over many years the acceptance of this joining technique in the Sheet Metal Industry has not.
Broadly speaking there are two parts to the decision on whether to use an adhesive:
1. Decide whether adhesive bonding is the most suitable technique for the job in hand.
2. Decide which adhesive system should be used for that job.
Why aren't adhesives used more?

The greatest obstacle to the acceptance of adhesive bonding in assembly operations is one of education
and understanding. If an assembly has been designed to use mechanical fastenings then simply endorsing
the drawings or assembly specification with the magic words 'Replace riveting with adhesive 123applied
in accordance with the manufacture's instructions' is unlikely to lead to a successful outcome. The
decision on whether to use adhesive bonding on a sheet metal job should be made by the designer after
having considered possible application techniques, production rates, comparative joining costs, joint
quality/position/type and the materials to be joined.

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In many cases adhesives offer advantages in cost, finish and handling; but often to achieve these
advantages the joint under consideration will need to be designed to accommodate the adhesive
components.
Weight is often a critical factor in the design of a job and with adhesive bonding joints in much thinner
materials can be used. Aluminium alloys a thin as 0.35mm have been satisfactorily bonded and metal film
as thin as 0.05mm has been successfully joined in honeycomb sandwich structures.
Adhesives
By definition an adhesive is a substance capable of holding materials together by surface attachment. The
three major groups of adhesives used in the bonding of metal are: -
Thermo-plastic Adhesive
Thermo-plastic adhesives (Hot-melts) are extruded from hand-held or in-line applicators that are
thermostatically controlled to extrude a bead 5mm in diameter at a uniform temperature of 200°C. Too
low a temperature will give a weak bond; too high a temperature and the adhesive will degrade which will
give a weak bond.
The molten adhesive bead is applied to one of the adherens (the surfaces that are to join together) and the
parts are held together under pressure until the adhesive has cooled to its solid state.
The surfaces to be joined need to be pre-heated to avoid premature chilling of the adhesive and although
the hot adhesive might melt an organic coating this is classed as an advantage and will improve the bond
strength.
The benefits of hot-melt adhesives are: -

1. they are the least expensive of the adhesive range
2 they produce a flexible joint
3 they will bond metal to metal or plastic
The disadvantage is that they are affected by heat
Thermosetting Adhesives
Thermo-setting adhesives will not soften when heated but will be affected by temperatures in excess of
425°C. The bond is brittle and may need a period of time in which to cure (this can be as long as seven
days to reach full strength).
This group of adhesives includes the well-known epoxy and phenolic resin adhesives that undergo a
chemical change when curing. This change is irreversible and is brought about by mixing together a two-
part pack or by heating a single pack type.
Hydra-epoxies axe water based two-part pack adhesives that can be used in damp areas. Great use of
these types of adhesives has been made in site-work allowing early adhesion of metal panels to moist or
uncured concrete walls. A benefit of these hydra-epoxies is that they have no volatile vapors.
RESOURCES
There is a two-part pack of reactive acrylic thermosetting adhesive available for use with oil covered
mild steel sheet where the adhesive is applied to one sheet while the reactor is applied to the other or
mating sheet. Sheets are then clamped together and the adhesive is cured in about 30 seconds. This
adhesive will also bond metal to glass but must not be used with organic or metal-coated sheets.
The benefits of these types of adhesives are:

1 they are very strong
2 they have high creep strength
The drawbacks are:

1 they are less flexible
2 they have low impact resistance
3 they are very expensive
Elastomeric Adhesives
These are the synthetic rubber-based type and are dissolved in a flammable solvent. The adhesive sets as
the solvent evaporates; they are more commonly known as contact type adhesives.
The benefits of these types are:

1 they have excellent resistance to shock and vibration
2 they can withstand peel stresses
3 they give a flexible joint
The drawbacks are:

1. they are affected by heat in excess of 250°C
2 they are not high strength
3 solvents can affect them
Advantages of Adhesive Bonding
• There is a more uniform distribution of stresses over the bonded area compared to the
stress concentration found around mechanical fasteners
• Adhesive not only bond but also seal the joint
• The problem of electrolytic corrosion is overcome because the adhesive provides an
insulating barrier to electrical currents and eliminates moisture entrapping crevices in the
joint
• Adhesives provide an effective means of joining sheet metal to other materials such as
plastic, glass, rubber or timber
• Similar and dissimilar metals can be joined
• Organic and metallic coated sheets can be joined without damage to the coating
• They provide a good means of joining very thin sheet
• Adhesives have a tendency to absorb vibration
• Heat related distortion and stress found in welded joints is eliminated

RESOURCES
• They present a smooth appearance when used instead of mechanical fastened or welded
joints
• They can be readily combined with other joint making methods to produce a more effective
joint
• Simplifies and speeds up production by eliminating drilling, tapping and riveting
procedures
Limitations Of Adhesive Bonding
As with any fastening method adhesive bonding has its limitations and these should be recognised and
considered before adhesive bonding.
• Some materials and adhesives are incompatible and informed careful selection is
necessary
• The in-service environment may not suit all adhesives e.g. high temperature, exposure to
oxidising agents, solvents and acids
• Long curing times may disrupt production flow, necessitate the use of more work shop
space and create the need for special jigs
• Bonded joints are not easily dismantled for in-service repair
• Careful joint design, preparation of the surfaces, adhesive application and the mating of
the parts to be joined are necessary to produce a reliable joint.
• Volatile vapours are released
Designing A Bonded Joint
Bonded joints may be subjected to tensile, compressive, shear or peel stresses, often in combination.
Adhesives are strongest in shear, compression and tension. They perform relatively poorly under peel and
cleavage loading.
A bonded joint needs to be designed so that the loading stresses will be directed along the lines of the
adhesive's greatest strengths.

RESOURCES
Adhesive Bonded Joint Loadings
The strength of a joint is a complex function of the stress concentrations set up by the load. In a simple
lap joint made from thin sheet metal there are two types of stress, shear and peel, with the shear stress
varying along the length of the joint and the greatest concentrations at the ends.
The peel stress acts at right angles to the lap joint and is at a maximum at the ends. The peel stress tends
to distort the joint and consequently weakens it.

RESOURCES
Redesign Joints To Reduce Or Eliminate Peel
Combining a resistance weld, rivet or other type of mechanical fastener with an adhesive can overcome
these problems and produce an ideal joint with a high peel loading and general load distribution over the
whole bonded area.
Bonded And Resistance Welded Box Beam

RESOURCES
Basic Bonded Joints

The basic types of bonded joints can be rated from poor to excellent, the evaluation being based on the
type and the load distribution of the stresses involved.
Basic Bonded Joints
Surface Preparation
When a bonding job is to be carried out it is critical that the surfaces to be joined are cleaned of all
contaminates such as water, grease, oil, scale, paint etc. Handling of a cleaned surface must be avoided
and the adhesive must be applied to the surfaces to be bonded as quickly as possible.
Surfaces are prepared by one of the following methods listed in order of increasing effect.
• Degrease only
• Degrease, abrade remove loose particles and degrease again
• Degrease and chemically pre-treat

RESOURCES
Degreasing Methods
Degrease metal surfaces by one of the following methods
• Suspend the metal in a halocarbon solvent vapour

• Successively immerse the metal in two tanks one containing low-toxicity halocarbon
solvent the other containing a rinse
• Brush or wipe the surface with clean brush or cloth soaked in a low-toxicity solvent
• Scrub the joint in a mixture of hot caustic soda and water; force air-dry after
Abrading
This method of surface preparation, which follows degreasing is used to remove surface contaminates
such as tarnish, rust and mill scale or to abrade a smooth surface such as stainless steel to provide a better
key. This treatment can be achieved by:-
• Grit-blasting with either air-borne or water-borne grit

• Using abrasive belts or discs in the range of 40 to 120 grit
• Abrading by hand using emery cloth
Abrasive treatment must be followed by the following treatments

• Repeat the degreasing operation
• Clean with a soft brush
• Blow with a clean, dry compressed air-blast
Chemical Pre-treatment
The surface preparation described previously is sufficient for most adhesive work, but to obtain maximum
strength and long-term resistance to deterioration a chemical or electrolytic pre-treatment may be
required.
With this pre-treatment immersion of the metals to be joined takes place in a bath that contains a mixture
of acids, other chemicals and water that is held in a temperature range of about 60°C
Adhesive Application
There are many ways of applying adhesives from the simple hand operated tools to the complex
automatic multi-nozzled applicators.
Before an application method is chosen careful consideration must be given to:

RESOURCES
• Type of adhesive - liquid, paste, film or hot melt

• Size and shape of the unit to be joined
• The quantity of units to be produced
• Where the adhesive is to be applied and in what position - horizontal, vertical etc.
The most common method of manual application is by brush if the adhesive is a liquid or thin paste,
spatulas or putty knives where the adhesive is a thick paste or in a putty form. One drawback with these
manual methods is to achieve a uniform thickness of adhesive, therefore after the adhesive has been
applied a roller with a plastic or hard rubber face is used to evenly distribute the adhesive.
Spraying or using multi-nozzled applicators depending upon the type of adhesive can achieve higher
production rates.
Curing
Curing is achieved under a range of temperatures, pressures and times. The time for curing is usually
dependent upon the temperature; therefore the highest temperature permissible should be used to obtain
the shortest curing time.
Limitations to the temperature may be due to the breaking down of the final properties of the adhesive, or
due to alterations to the properties of the metal being bonded. Many aluminium alloys will 'over-age' and
soften at the temperatures and times needed to cure epoxies (160°-18O°C).
In some cases, such as car bodies, the painting process requires a hake' cycle and the curing can be done
during this cycle. In these cases a secondary form of fixing such as resistance welding is needed to keep
the components together until it goes through this stage.
Sealants
Introduction
Sealant is a descriptive word commonly used in sheet metal work to mean polymeric sealants. Polymeric
sealants are formulated to provide a continuous surface-polymer bonding layer to both opposing surfaces
to fill (seal) a gap and to set(cure) either by polymerisation initiated by curing agents or by evaporation of
constituent solvents, followed by polymerisation of the resins.
Polymerisation is a process whereby small organic molecules chemically combine to form very large
molecules.
Polymeric sealants include natural rubber and synthetic elastomers of nitrile, Neoprene, silicone and butyl
generic types (acrylic, polysulphide and polyurethane).
Although as part of their sealing function sealants are designed to hold components together for joining
steel sheets they will always require some form of mechanical fastening or integral fastening.

RESOURCES
Sealants are not adhesives: their prime purpose is to exclude moisture.
Selection
Careful selection of a sealant is necessary as there is a range of sealants which contain acids and other
chemicals that make them incompatible with certain metals or metallic coatings especially aluminium and
zinc.
Joints for exterior applications such as steel roofing, walls, flashing and gutters are a particular problem
due to the number of exposure environments and variables. The use of pre-coated steel sheets for exterior
use contributed to the development of sealants suitable for these types of applications.
Ductwork constitute a special case in that often the duct is being sealed to prevent air loss which can be
more of a problem than excluding moisture.

RESOURCES
Recommended Sealants
The most suitable sealants have all of the following requirements
• Compatible to and adhere to the metal

• Non-corrosive
• Flexible
• Water-resistant
• Ultra-violet (sunlight) resistant
• Heat and cold resistant
• Mould resistant
• Non-slumping (gap-filling)
• No primer needed
Acetic acid free and amine free silicone rubber sealants are the types recommended for sheet metal work
as they meet all these requirements.
Surface Preparation
Irrespective of their sealing ability the same surface preparations apply as were listed for adhesive
bonding.
Joint Design
A sealant is designed for sealing and the following factors apply
• To ensure complete sealant cure, the width of the sealant within a lap joint should not
exceed25mm when compressed
• The joint may be resistance welded as long as the welding is carried out before the sealant
has cured and the sealant does not emit volatile fumes
• Apply a single bead of sealant in line with and over each row of fastening holes.
• If die joint has a wet environment, it should be completely filled with sealant or alternatively
all openings should be sealed.
• Folded, grooved and Pittsburgh joints may have the sealant apply during forming of the
seam or after completion.

RESOURCES
Width Of Sealant In Lap Joint
Precautions That Apply To All Adhesives And

Sealants
• Avoid contact with the skin
• Always wear cotton lined rubber gloves
• Work in a well ventilated area
• Wash hands and arms with warm soapy
water after use
• Do not eat or smoke when using
adhesives or sealants
• Lastly read the manufactures
instructions carefully

RESOURCES
SECTION 4
1. Can a sealant be expected to hold a joint without using a mechanical fastener?
2. What is the main disadvantage of a thermo-plastic adhesive?
3. Which type of adhesive can be used with oil covered steel sheets without degreasing?
4. Where would you use a hydro-epoxy adhesive?
5. Which adhesive would you select if you had to bond 0.5mm stainless steel that was subjected to
temperatures up to 300°C?
6. Which adhesive can withstand peel stresses?
7. Who should decide on whether to use adhesive bonding?
8. Could stainless steel be joined to copper with an adhesive?

RESOURCES
9. Which stresses are bonded joints strongest to?
10. Where are the greatest concentrations of stress in a lap joint?
11. What is abrading?
12. Why is it necessary to be careful when using heat to cure an adhesive that has been used on an
aluminium alloy?
13. What is the prime purpose of a sealant?
14. Why do you have to be careful when selecting a sealant for use with zinc coated steel sheet?
15. Why does sealing an air-conditioning duct constitute a special problem?
16. Which types of sealant are recommended for sheet metal work?

RESOURCES
17. The width of sealant in a lap joint should be no more than?
18. Give three safety precautions that must be observed when using adhesives and sealants.
19. Describe how you would prepare stainless steel for adhesive bonding

RESOURCES
SECTION 5: Skills practice
Introduction
The aim of this section is to familiarise you with some of the fastening method that are in use in most
sheet metal workshops. It is not the aim of this section to cover other areas such as welding and adhesive
bonding/sealing. These are covered in other units of training.
The skills that you will be developing are the ability to interpret the drawing and to produce/use the type
of fastening system that is required.
The first drawing in this series is Drawing No. 102 titled Nut and Bolt Box. The aim of this exercise is to
introduce you to resistance welding where you will be expected to set and test your resistance welds
before assembling your box as per the drawing.
The second drawing is Drawing No. 114 titled Tray With Double Safe Edge Top, Grooved and
Knocked-Up Base. The aim of this exercise is to introduce you to integral seam fastening. The machine
setting for this exercise is critical and it is most important that you carefully watch the demonstration by
your teacher.
The third drawing is Drawing No. NF 44-4 titled Tool Carry Tray. This is a skills test. Again great care
must e taken in the marking out of the blank so that all the rivet holes line up correctly and that the correct
type and size of rivets are used.
SAFETY
Keep your work area clean and free of scrape metal.
Protect the tools that you are using from accidental damage and misuse.
Stay alert when using machinery - know how to use the machine.
Handle the metal carefully, especially when moving sheets of metal from the store.
Take care when using the resistance-welding machine.
Last of all, work safely and wear your protective equipment as directed by your teacher.


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MEM03003B (SAMET3)

Perform Sheet and Plate Assembly

Sheet Metal Working ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Sheet Metal Working

Sheet and Plate Assembly

Introduction to Joining Methods

• Component materials: type of material, quality, coating, and finish.

This unit contains five sections:

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Section 1: Welding and Soldering

The process can be broadly classified into two groups:

Non-fusion types of welding are:

• Brazing (hard soldering or silver soldering)

• Gas welding (OAW)

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(Sometimes referred to as a silver soldering or hard soldering.)

Braze or Bronze Welding

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Gas Welding (OAW)

Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW)

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Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

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Quality control of resistance welding operations

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Recommended resistance welding machine set-up based on electrode body of 12mmØ.

* Electrode body increased to 16mm

Testing of resistance welds

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The truncated cone profile, Type A, produces more

Electrode tip life

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Welding machine adjustment

Producing a resistance weld

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Organic coated sheet

Organic coating removed Bridging piece in position

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Indirect spot and projection welding

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Parallel spot welding Series projection welding

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Arc stud welding

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Capacitor discharge welding

• More readily automated

Arc Stud Welding Contact Type CD Gap Type CD

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STUDENT REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR

1. When should the method of fastening be determined?

2. Which method of brazing is suitable for stainless steel?

6. Why should soft soldered joints be mechanically fastened?

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11. Is it possible to fusion weld Zincalume?

18. Which type of stud welding is commonly used by duct manufactures?

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Section 1: Mechanical fastening

Factors to be considered should always include:

• Non-threaded fasteners (rivets, stapling)

One of these is Fastener Caps.

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