materials
Article
Viscoelastic Numerical Simulation Study on the Co-Extrusion
Process of Tri-Composite Tire Tread
Guo-Lin Wang, Hua-Jian Zhou *, Hai-Chao Zhou and Chen Liang
Citation: Wang, G.-L.; Zhou, H.-J.;
Zhou, H.-C.; Liang, C. Viscoelastic
Numerical Simulation Study on the
Co-Extrusion Process of Tri-
Composite Tire Tread. Materials 2023,
16, 3301. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma16093301
Academic Editors: Laurence G. D.
Hawke and Petra Bačová
Received: 21 February 2023
Revised: 14 April 2023
Accepted: 17 April 2023
Published: 22 April 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2023, 16, 3301. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16093301
School of Automotive and Traffic Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
* Correspondence: xiaojianzhou@126.com
Abstract: The co-extrusion process is widely used to produce composite tire treads with better
performance. This study investigated the rubber co-extrusion flow process and quality influencing
factors of tri-composite tire tread through numerical simulation and experimental methods. Here,
RPA 2000 rubber processing analyzer was used to carry out rheological tests on the three rubber
materials, the PTT viscoelastic constitutive model was fitted, and the fitting curves were in good
agreement with the test data. Then, a three-dimensional viscoelastic numerical simulation model of
the tri-composite tread co-extrusion process was established using Ansys Polyflow software. The
parameter evolution technique is adopted in the model establishment to improve the calculation
convergence. In addition, a global remeshing function is used to avoid excessive mesh deformation.
A co-extrusion experiment is conducted to verify the model’s accuracy using a tri-screw extruder. The
extruded tread size error rate between the experiment and simulation is less than 6%. The variation of
the velocity field, pressure field and shear rate field during extrusion is analyzed, and the formation
mechanism of die swell is explained simultaneously. Finally, the influence of process parameters
(inflow rate and traction speed) and die structure (convergence angle and thickness) on the extruded
tire tread shape and quality was investigated, which can provide theoretical guidance for improving
tread quality and production efficiency. Furthermore, the numerical simulation method can assist the
design of the die plate in enhancing the efficiency of the die plate design.
Keywords: die swell; co-extrusion process; PTT constitutive model; process parameters; die structure;
numerical simulation
1. Introduction
With the rapid development of the automobile industry in recent years, people have
put forward higher requirements for the performance of tires. Tire manufacturing compa-
nies use co-extrusion molding technology [1] to produce composite tire treads with better
performance. Co-extrusion process refers to using multiple screw extruders to compound
different types of rubber materials at the die plate of the extruder head to form a composite
tread [2]. However, as a kind of polymer material, extrusion rubber exhibits rheological
properties such as shear thinning and die to swell [3]. At the same time, the invisibility of
the flow process of rubber also increases the difficulty of die structure design and process
parameters formulation. The traditional “trial and error” die design method requires
multiple extrusion tests and die modification [4]. This design approach has significant
drawbacks, such as a long design cycle and poor applicability. Foremost, it lacks a theoret-
ical basis. Overall, it leads to low production efficiency and poor-quality stability of the
extruded tread.
With the development of computer technology, the numerical simulation method can
be used to simulate the co-extrusion process, which can predict the profile of the extruded
tread and obtain the distribution and change of the velocity, pressure, and shear rate in the
process of rubber flow, thus providing a theoretical basis for the design and optimization
of the die structural and process parameters. In the numerical simulation study of the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2023, 16, 3301 2 of 17

polymer co-extrusion process, Takase et al. [5] simulated the flow of two viscoelastic fluids
in a square passage based on the finite element method. They found that the difference
in viscosity and elasticity between the two materials would lead to the deformation of
the material interface. With the development of flow, one material would gradually wrap
the other. Anderson et al. [6] simulated the co-extrusion flow in square and rectangular
channels. They determined the location of the material interface by mapping method,
finding that the secondary flow of polymer melt has an important influence on the shape of
the interface. Sharma et al. [7] used the Carreau-Yasuda constitutive model to simulate the
variation of velocity, pressure and die swelling in the co-extrusion process of special-shaped
rubber strips, providing theoretical methods for the design of die opening shape and the
improvement of extrusion quality. Liang [8] studied the influence of die Angle on the
extrusion expansion rate. It found that the convergent flow at the die entrance and the
elastic recovery of shear and tensile deformation caused by shear strain in the die flow after
melt leaves the die should be the main factors causing die swelling. Sunwoo et al. [9] used
PTT (Phan-Thien–Tanner) viscoelastic constitutive model to simulate the flow of two kinds
of adhesives in the rectangular die. They studied the influence of viscoelastic properties of
adhesives, such as shear rate and second normal stress difference, on the interface curvature
of extrudates. Liu et al. [10] established a viscoelastic numerical simulation model of double
composite extrusion by using the Navier slip model, focusing on the influence of the wall
slip coefficient on the deflection degree of the extruder interface. The results show that the
deflection degree of the interface increases with the increase of the slip coefficient.
Previous simulation studies mainly focused on single and double extrusion processes
considering a relatively simple die structure. However, the co-extrusion process of tri-
composite tire tread is more and more widely used in actual production. Compared with
double compound extrusion, the flow of rubber melt in the triple compound extrusion
process is more complex, so it is more complex to establish and calculate the numerical
simulation model. In this paper, the rheological properties of rubber were tested by RPA
2000 rubber processing analyzer [11]. Then a three-dimensional viscoelastic numerical
simulation model of the co-extrusion process of a tri-composite tread rubber compound
from the extruder head was established by using PTT viscoelastic constitutive model, and
the accuracy of the model was verified by co-extrusion experiment. The influences of two
process parameters (inflow rate, traction speed) and two die structure parameters (die
thickness and die convergence angle) on extrusion tread profile and extrusion tread quality
were investigated, which can be used to guide the design of die structure and process
parameters in actual production. It has practical significance in improving product quality
and efficiency.

2. Numerical Simulation Model

2.1. Mathematical Model
Figure 1a shows the structure of the tri-screw extruder, which is composed of three
screw extruders of different specifications, runners, pre-die plate, die plate and traction
devices. Notice that the actual structure of the extruder is more complex than indicated.
The co-extrusion process’s essential features (stages) are summarized as follows. First,
three rubber materials enter the extruder as solid sheets from their respective feed inlets
at room temperature. Then, they suffer the shear and stretch action formed by screw
rotation in the barrel. Next, due to the viscous heating effect of the rubber material and the
heating/cooling effect of the extruder, the temperature of the rubber material will gradually
rise and stabilize at 80 ◦ C to become a molten plastic state. Then it flows through the runner
and the pre-die plate and converges in the die plate to form the tri-composite tire tread.
There, the temperature of the rubber material is about 110 ◦ C. Finally, it is picked up by
the traction device for cooling and other subsequent processes. Figure 1b is the section
diagram of the extruded tread. TC, TB, and TW represent crown, wing, and base rubber,
respectively. The crown rubber is the direct contact part between the tire tread and the
 Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, 3301 3 of 17

picked up by the traction device for cooling and other subsequent processes. Figure 1b is
the section diagram of the extruded tread. TC, TB, and TW represent crown, wing, and
base rubber, respectively. The crown rubber is the direct contact part between the tire
ground,
tread andthethe
wing rubber
ground, theiswing
distributed
rubber on both sides on
is distributed of the tread,
both sidesand thetread,
of the base rubber
and theis
located underisthe
base rubber crown
located rubber.
under the crown rubber.

Figure1.
Figure 1. Extruder
Extruder structure
structure and
andextruded
extrudedtread
treaddiagram
diagram(a)(a)
extruder structure;
extruder (b)(b)
structure; extruded tread.
extruded tread.

The pre-die
The pre-die plate
plate and
and the
the die plate constitute
constitute the
the extruder
extruder head.
head.Based
Basedon onthe
theflow
flow
characteristics of
characteristics of the
the rubber
rubber melt in the extruder
extruder head
head and
andthe thefree
freeextrusion
extrusionarea
area[12],
[12],the
the
following assumptions
following assumptions are made: 1. 1. The
The flow
flow process
processisisisothermal
isothermalsteady
steadylaminar
laminarflow;
flow;
2.2.The
Theinlet
inletflow
flowisisfully
fully developed,
developed, ignoring
ignoring thethe inertia
inertia force
force andand volume
volume force;
force; 3. The
3. The melt
ismelt is incompressible
incompressible and insoluble
and insoluble [13]. Based[13]. Based
on the aboveon assumptions
the above assumptions and
and simplification,
simplification,
the the governing
governing equation of the equation
flow fieldofisthe flow in
shown field is shown(1)
Equations inand
Equations
(2). (1) and (2).
1.1. continuity equation
continuity equation
∇ · vk = 0 k = I, II, III (1)
∇ ⋅ vk = 0 k = I, II,III (1)
2. momentum equation
2. momentum equation
ρk (vk · ∇)vk = −∇ pk + ∇ · τk k = I, II, III (2)
ρ k ( vk ⋅ ∇ ) vk = −∇ p k + ∇ ⋅ τ k k = I, II,III (2)
Here ∇
Here ∇ isisthe Hamiltonian; vv is
theHamiltonian; is the
the velocity vector; ρρ isis the
velocity vector; the rubber density;ppisisthe
rubberdensity; the
hydrostatic pressure and isotropic; τ is the deviatoric stress tensor; k represents
hydrostatic pressure and isotropic; τ is the deviatoric stress tensor; k represents three types three types
of
ofrubber,
rubber,respectively.
respectively.
2.2. Constitutive Model and Parameters
2.2. Constitutive Model and Parameters
To simulate the die swell process of the rubber melt after extrusion from the die, the
To simulate the die swell process of the rubber melt after extrusion from the die, the
Phan-Thien-Tanner (PTT) [14] differential viscoelastic constitutive model is selected. PTT
Phan-Thien-Tanner (PTT) [14] differential viscoelastic constitutive model is selected. PTT
constitutive model can characterize the shear thinning and die swell characteristics of
constitutive model can characterize the shear thinning and die swell characteristics of
polymer fluid [15]. The expression is shown in Equation (3).
polymer fluid [15]. The expression is shown in Equation (3).
τ = ττ1=+τ 1τ+2 τ 2
ελ  ελ   ξξ ∇∇ ξξ ∆Δ 
h i   
exp exp tr
η1  1( τ tr
) (τ
τ )+
11  1τλ+ λ 1 22  11 22 11 ==2η2η
− 1- ττ +
+ τ
τ 1D1D (3)
(3)
 η1    
τ2 =τ2η=2 D2η 2 D
2

Here, ττ isis the

Here, the stress tensor;τ1τ1and
stress tensor; andτ 2 τare the elastic and viscous components of the
2 are the elastic and viscous components of
stress
the tensor,
stress respectively;
tensor, ε is εthe
respectively; material
is the parameter
material related
parameter to stretching
related property;
to stretching ξ is
property;
ξthe material
is the parameter
material parameterrelated to shear
related property;
to shear λ is the
property; λ isrelaxation η1 and
time; time;
the relaxation η1ηand
2 are η2
are
thethe elastic
elastic andand viscous
viscous components
components of zero-shear
of the the zero-shear viscosity
viscosity respectively;
respectively; D israte
D is the the
rate of deformation
of deformation tensor.
tensor. ∇ and
∇ and Δ∆ arethe
are thelower-convected
lower-convectedand andupper-convected
upper-convectedtime time
derivation,
derivation,respectively.
respectively.
As
Asshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2,
2, to obtain the experimental rheologicaldata
experimental rheological dataofofthe
therubber
rubberandand
fit the PTT constitutive
fit the PTT constitutive model, model, the RPA 2000 processing analyzer was used to
processing analyzer was used to perform perform
frequency scanning tests in accordance with ISO standards [16]. The frequency scanning
range was 0.03–33 Hz, and the oscillation strain rate was 12%. Since the rubber temperature
at the extruder head is about 110 ◦ C, the test temperature was set to 110 ◦ C. Three tests
were carried out for each rubber to reduce the error.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, 3301
frequency scanning tests in accordance with ISO standards [16]. The frequency scanning
frequency scanning tests in accordance with ISO standards [16]. The frequency scanning
range was 0.03–33 Hz, and the oscillation strain rate was 12%. Since the rubber
range was 0.03–33 Hz, and the oscillation strain rate was 12%. Since the rubber 4 of 17
temperature at the extruder head is about 110 °C, the test temperature was set to 110 °C.
temperature at the extruder head is about 110 °C, the test temperature was set to 110 °C.
Three tests were carried out for each rubber to reduce the error.
Three tests were carried out for each rubber to reduce the error.

Figure 2.
2. RPA
RPA 2000
2000 rubber
rubber processing
processing analyzer
analyzer and
and rubber
rubber sample (a)
(a) RPA 2000
2000 (b) rubber
rubber sample
Figure
Figurethe
before 2. RPA
test 2000
(c) rubber
rubber processing
sample after analyzer
the test. and rubbersample
sample (a)RPA
RPA 2000(b)
(b) rubbersample
sample
before
beforethe
thetest
test(c)
(c)rubber
rubbersample
sampleafter
afterthe
thetest.
test.
The polymat
The polymat [17]
[17] module
module under
under the the fluid
fluid simulation
simulation software
software Ansys
Ansys isis used
used to
to fit
fit the
the
The polymat [17] module under the fluid simulation software Ansys is used to fit the
PTT constitutive
PTT constitutivemodel.
model.The ThePTT
PTT fitted
fitted curves
curves (lines)
(lines) andand the experimental
the experimental data (solid
data (solid dots)
PTT constitutive model. The PTT fitted curves (lines) and the experimental data (solid
dots)
are are depicted
depicted in Figure
in Figure 3. Itbecan
3. It can bethat
seen seenthe
that the fitting
fitting curvescurves
are inare in good
good agreement
agreement with
dots) are depicted in Figure 3. It can be seen that the fitting curves are in good agreement
with the test data. PTT constitutive model parameters are
the test data. PTT constitutive model parameters are listed in Table 1. listed in Table 1.
with the test data. PTT constitutive model parameters are listed in Table 1.

Figure 3. PTT fitted curves and experimental data.

Figure3.3.PTT
Figure PTTfitted
fittedcurves
curvesand
andexperimental
experimentaldata.
data.
Table 1. PTT constitutive model parameters.
Table1.1.PTT
Table PTTconstitutive
constitutivemodel
modelparameters.
parameters.
Rubber η0/(Pa.s) λ/s ε ξ
Rubber η0/(Pa.s) λ/s ε ξ
TC
Rubber 142,708
η0 /(Pa.s) 10.8
λ/s 0.019
ε 0.19
ξ
TC 142,708 10.8 0.019 0.19
TB
TC 116,929
142,708 9.5
10.8 0.014
0.019 0.21
0.19
TB 116,929 9.5 0.014 0.21
TWTB 202,837
116,929 11.6
9.5 0.022
0.014 0.14
0.21
TW 202,837 11.6 0.022 0.14
TW 202,837 11.6 0.022 0.14
2.3. Geometry Model and Mesh Division
2.3. Geometry Model and Mesh Division
Taking the
2.3. Geometry extruder
Model and MeshheadDivision
and free extrusion areas as the modeling objects due to the
Taking the extruder head and free extrusion areas as the modeling objects due to the
geometric symmetry, to improve the calculation efficiency, a 1/2 model is established, as
Takingsymmetry,
geometric the extruder to head andthe
improve freecalculation
extrusion areas as theamodeling
efficiency, 1/2 modelobjects due to the
is established, as
shown in Figure 4a. To ensure that the profile of the extruded tread is stable, the length of
geometric symmetry,
shown in Figure 4a. Toto ensure
improve thethe
that calculation
profile of efficiency,
the extruded a 1/2 model
tread is established,
is stable, the lengthas of
the free expansion area is 150 mm. The grid model is shown in Figure 4b. Due to the
shown
the freeinexpansion
Figure 4a. area
To ensure
is 150 that
mm.theThe profile
grid of the extruded
model is showntread is stable,
in Figure the length
4b. Due to the
irregular structure of the pre-die and the die, it is discretized into a tetrahedral non-
of the freestructure
irregular expansion of area is 150 mm.
the pre-die and The griditmodel
the die, is showninto
is discretized in Figure 4b. Due
a tetrahedral to
non-
structural grid. Due to the deformation problems of the free surface and interface in the
the irregular structure of the pre-die and the die, it is discretized into a
structural grid. Due to the deformation problems of the free surface and interface in thetetrahedral non-
free extrusion area, the remeshing technique [18] is used to improve the convergence.
structural grid. Due
free extrusion area,tothe
theremeshing
deformation problems[18]
technique of theis free
usedsurface and interface
to improve in the free
the convergence.
extrusion area, the remeshing technique [18] is used to improve the convergence. Therefore,
the discretization is made into the pentahedral prismatic grid, and all areas were set with
second-order node grids to improve calculation accuracy.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, 3301 5 of 17

Therefore, the discretization is made into the pentahedral prismatic grid, and all areas
were set with second-order node grids to improve calculation accuracy.

Figure 4. Three compound extrusion physical models (a) geometry model; (b) mesh model.
Figure 4. Three compound extrusion physical models (a) geometry model; (b) mesh model.

2.4. Flow
2.4. Flow Boundary
Boundary Conditions
Conditions
Flowboundary
Flow boundary conditions
conditions werewere set according
set according to 4a,
to Figure Figure 4a,process
and the and the process
parameters
are shown inare
parameters Table 2. fn ,in
shown fs , Table
vn, and
2.vs.
fn, frepresent the represent
s, vn, and vs. normal force,
the tangential force,
normal force, normal
tangential
velocity, and tangential
force, normal velocity,
velocity, and respectively.
tangential velocity, respectively.
1.1. flow is
Inlet: the total inlet volume flow rate is Q, and the flow is fully
fully developed.
developed.
2.
2. Wall: Generalized
Wall: GeneralizedNavier’s
Navier’s law
law [19]
[19] was
was adopted
adopted toto characterize
characterizethe
theslip
slipof
of the
the rubber
rubber
as shown
melt at the wall, as shown in
in Equation
Equation (4)
(4) below:
below:
e
= −−kvkve
FF((vv)) = (4)
(4)

Here, F(v) is
Here, F(v) is the
the wall
wallslip resistance;kkisisthe
slipresistance; theslip
slipcoefficient,
coefficient,taking
takingthe
thevalue
valueofof1 × 1066;
1 ×10
; e is ea is
dimensionless
a dimensionless number; number; v is vthe velocity
is the of rubber
velocity of rubbermelt at the
melt wallwall
at the surface.
surface.
3. Interface: Surface tension is neglected, and
3. and there
there isis no
no slip
slipatatthe
theinterface.
interface.Dynamic
Dynamic
conditions: ffsIsI == ffsIIsII =
= ffssIII
III
conditions: vvnn =
Kinematic conditions:
; Kinematic = 00..
4. Free surface: Dynamic conditions: ffnn =
4. = fss ==00; conditions: vvnn ==00..
Kinematic conditions:
; Kinematic
5.
5. Symmetry
Symmetry plane:
plane: Dynamic
Dynamic conditions: conditions: ffss == 0;0 ;Kinematic conditions:vvnn == 0.
Kinematicconditions: 0.
6. Outlet: Setting traction speed vz .
6. Outlet: Setting traction speed vz.

Table2.2.Process
Table Processparameters.
parameters.

Rubber
Rubber Inflow
InflowRate
Rate (m(m3/s)
3
/s) vz (m/s)
vz (m/s)
TC 2.5 × 10−4−4 0.51
TC 2.5 × 10 0.51
TB TB 5.7
5.7 ××10
−5
10−5 0.510.51
TW TW 2.1 10−5−5
2.1 ××10 0.510.51

2.5. Calculation
2.5. Calculation Strategy
Strategy
Thepolymer
The polymersimulation
simulationsoftware
softwareAnsys
AnsysPolyflow
Polyflowestablishes
establishesaanumerical
numericalsimulation
simulation
model. Due to the use of the PTT viscoelastic constitutive model and
model. Due to the use of the PTT viscoelastic constitutive model and relatively complexrelatively complex
geometric structure, the numerical calculation may be difficult to converge
geometric structure, the numerical calculation may be difficult to converge [20], so [20], so itit isis
necessary to set up the appropriate numerical algorithm. To improve convergence, aa
necessary to set up the appropriate numerical algorithm. To improve convergence,
progressive calculation
progressive calculation model
model isis established,
established, and
and aa progressive
progressive algorithm
algorithm is is set
set for
for the
the
relaxation time
relaxation time parameter of of the
thePTT
PTTmodel.
model.The Theinterpolation
interpolation scheme
scheme selects DEVSS
selects DEVSS SU
[21][21]
SU andandmini-element
mini-element to solve the stress,
to solve velocity
the stress, and pressure
velocity field.field.
and pressure In addition, the mesh
In addition, the
deformation
mesh of each
deformation of interface and free
each interface andsurface in theinfree
free surface the extrusion area area
free extrusion of theofwall may
the wall
cause
may the mesh
cause to betotoo
the mesh large,
be too so the
large, Optimesh-3D
so the Optimesh-3D remeshing
remeshing technology
technology [22]
[22]is is
used
used to
continuously reset and optimize the
to continuously reset and optimize the mesh. mesh.
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3. Results and
3. Results and Discussion
Discussion
3. Results
3.1. and Discussion
Model Verification
3.1. Model Verification
3.1. Model Verification
To verify the validity of the numerical simulation model, a tri-screw extruder [23] was
To verify the validity of the numerical simulation model, a tri-screw extruder [23]
used toTo carry
verifyout
thethevalidity
co-extrusion
of theexperiment
numerical under actualmodel,
simulation production conditions. Figure 5
was used to carry out the co-extrusion experiment under actuala production
tri-screw extruder
conditions.[23]
illustrates
was used the experimental
to carry the process.
out experimental First,
the co-extrusion when
experimentthe shape
under of the extruded tread is stable,
Figure 5 illustrates process. First, when theactual
shapeproduction conditions.
of the extruded tread
tools are used to cutthe a piece of treadprocess.
from theFirst,
production line quickly. The cut tread is
is stable, tools are used to cut a piece of tread from the production line quickly. Thetread
Figure 5 illustrates experimental when the shape of the extruded cut
shown in Figure
is stable, tools in5b.used
are Then a cut
section analyzer is used
fromto scan the profileline
of the tread The
section
tread is shown Figure to
5b. Thena piece of tread
a section analyzer isthe production
used quickly.
to scan the profile of the treadcut
and
treadrecord
is the dimensional
shown in Figure 5b.data
Then atakey positions.
section analyzer is used to scan the profile of the tread
section and record the dimensional data at key positions.
section and record the dimensional data at key positions.

Figure 5. Co-extrusion experiment (a) Extruder; (b) Extruded tread; (c) Section analyzer.
Figure 5. Co-extrusion
Figure5. Co-extrusion experiment
experiment(a)
(a)Extruder;
Extruder;(b)
(b)Extruded
Extrudedtread;
tread;(c)
(c)Section
Sectionanalyzer.
analyzer.
Figure 66 shows
Figure shows thethe profile
profile of
of extruded
extruded tread
tread obtained
obtained byby simulation.
simulation. TheThe navy
navy blue
blue
and Figure
red lines6are
shows
the theoutlet
die profile of extruded
and extrudedtread
treadprofiles,
obtainedrespectively.
by simulation.
It The
can be navy blue
observed
and red
and red lines are the die outlet and extruded tread profiles, respectively. It can be observed
that
that the lines
the
areofthe
profile
profile of the
the
dieextruded
outlet and
extruded
extruded
tread
tread extends
extends
tread profiles,
outward
outward
respectively.
significantly
significantly
It can be observed
compared
compared with the
with the
that
profilethe
ofprofile
the die of the
outlet. extruded
The tread
phenomenon extends
is outward
called die significantly
swelling. compared with the
profile
profileof
ofthe
thedie
dieoutlet.
outlet.The
Thephenomenon
phenomenonisiscalledcalleddie
dieswelling.
swelling.

Figure 6. Simulated extruded tread profile.

Figure6.
Figure 6. Simulated
Simulated extruded
extrudedtread
treadprofile.
profile.
The comparison between the simulation and the experimental extruded tread profile
The comparison
The
is shown comparison
in between
between
Figure 7. Table the simulation
the
3 shows simulation and the
and
the size deviation the experimental
experimental
rate extruded
of the keyextruded tread
positionstread profile
of theprofile
tread
is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 7.
7. Table
Table 33 shows
shows the
the size
size deviation
deviation rate
rate of
of the
the key
key
and die swell rate deviation. It can be seen from Figure 7 and Table 3 that the simulation positions
positions of
of the
the tread
tread
and
and die
die swell
swell rate
rate deviation.
deviation. It
It can
can be
be seen
seen from
from Figure
Figure 7
7 and
and Table
Table
results are in good agreement with the experimental results, and the errors are both lower 3
3 that
that the
the simulation
simulation
results
results
than 6%,are
soin
are in good
thegood agreement
modelagreement with
with
is effective. the
The experimental
thereasons for theresults,
experimental results, and
and the
error include the(1)errors
errors are both
both lower
areerror
The size lower
when
than 6%, so the model is effective. The reasons for the error include
using laser scanning equipment to map the profile of the die; (2) the rheological testwhen
than 6%, so the model is effective. The reasons for the error include (1)
(1) The
The size
size error
error when
and
using
using laser
laser scanning equipment to map the
the profile
constitutive scanning
model fittingequipment
error; (3) toThe
mapinfluence of of
profile of the
the die;
die; (2)
temperature the
the rheological
(2)variation
rheological
on rubber test and
testflow
and
constitutive
constitutive model fitting error; (3) The influence of temperature variation on rubber flow
which is not model fitting
considered inerror; (3) The influence of temperature variation on rubber flow
the simulation.
which
whichisisnot
notconsidered
consideredin inthe
thesimulation.
simulation.
 Materials
Materials 2023,
2023, 16, 16, PEER
x FOR 3301 REVIEW 7 of 17 7 of 17

FigureFigure
7. Comparison of simulated
7. Comparison and experimental
of simulated tread profile.
and experimental tread profile.

Table Table
3. The3.geometric error of
The geometric simulation
error tread profile.
of simulation tread profile.
H1/mmH1 /mm W1/mmW1 /mm H2/mmH2 /mm W2/mmW2 /mm W3/mm
W3 /mm Die Swell Rate/%
Die Swell Rate/%
Experimental
Experimental
6.38 6.38 39.1 39.1 75.9 75.9 8.27 8.27 102.4102.4 26.2 26.2
Simulation
Simulation 6.28 6.28 37.3 37.3 73.8 73.8 8.45 8.45 102.1102.1 24.9 24.9
Deviation rate/%rate/% 3.2
Deviation 3.2 5.9 5.9 5.5 5.5 4.3 4.3 1.3 1.3 5.8 5.8

The die
Theswell rate [24]
die swell ratecan
[24]becan
calculated by Equation
be calculated (5): (5):
by Equation
(S − S0 )
B= (S −×S100%
0) (5)
B = S0 × 100% (5)
S0
Here, B is the die swell rate; S is the sectional area of extruded tread; S0 is the area of
Here,
the die outlet B is the die swell rate; S is the sectional area of extruded tread; S0 is the area of
surface.
the die outlet surface.
3.2. Die Swell Analysis
3.2. Die Swell Analysis
Figure 8 shows the results obtained from the co-extrusion simulation. The red and
Figure 8 shows the results obtained from the co-extrusion simulation. The red and
blue zones represent the highest and lowest velocity, pressure and shear rate, respectively.
blue zones represent the highest and lowest velocity, pressure and shear rate, respectively.
Figure 8a represents that the velocity is higher in the die and gradually decreases after
Figure 8a represents that the velocity is higher in the die and gradually decreases after
leaving the die. Figure 8b shows that the pre-die internal pressure of the crown rubber is
leaving the die. Figure 8b shows that the pre-die internal pressure of the crown rubber is
the largest because the crown rubber flow rate is significantly higher than the other two
the largest because the crown rubber flow rate is significantly higher than the other two
rubber compounds. When the rubber is extruded from the die, the pressure drops rapidly
rubber compounds. When the rubber is extruded from the die, the pressure drops rapidly
to zero. Figure 8c clearly shows that the shear rate in the die’s entrance and exit wall areas
to zero. Figure 8c clearly shows that the shear rate in the die’s entrance and exit wall areas
is the highest, which indicates that the flow fluctuation of rubber at the entrance and exit
is the highest, which indicates that the flow fluctuation of rubber at the entrance and exit
areas areas
of theof die is die
the veryis violent.
very violent.
FigureFigure
9 shows
9 showsthe the
leftleft
view ofofthe
view thevelocity
velocity streamlines obtainedby
streamlines obtained bynumerical
numerical simula-
simulation,
tion, from which we can observe the die swell phenomenon of the rubbermelt
from which we can observe the die swell phenomenon of the rubber meltafter
after it is
it is extruded
extrudedfromfromthethedie.
die.As
Asshown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 10, the formation
10, the formation mechanism
mechanismof ofdie
dieswell
swellcan be
can beexplained
explainedasasthethefollowing
followingtwotwopoints:
points:one oneisisthat
thatafter
afterthe
therubber
rubber is extruded
is extruded from fromthe die,
the die, the velocity is redistributed due to the loss of wall shear and constraint;
the velocity is redistributed due to the loss of wall shear and constraint; the other is that the the other
is thatrubber
the rubber meltform
melt will will convergent
form convergent flowentering
flow after after entering
the die the
from die
thefrom the pre-die,
pre-die, which can be
whichobserved
can be observed
from Figure from 9. Figure 9. At time,
At the same the same time, the originally
the originally entangled
entangled rubber rubber
macromolecular
macromolecular chains are elongated by shearing and stretching, thus
chains are elongated by shearing and stretching, thus accumulating the normal stress accumulating the [25].
normal stress [25]. When the rubber is extruded from the die, the normal
When the rubber is extruded from the die, the normal stress will gradually release. The stress will
gradually release. The chain
macromolecular macromolecular
will return chain
to thewill return
original to the original
entangled entangled
state, forming thestate,
die-swell
forming the die-swell
phenomenon on phenomenon
the macro level.on the macro level.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 1

Materials 2023,16,
Materials2023, 16,3301
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of 17
17
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Figure 8. Countor results (a) velocities; (b) pressure; (c) shear rate; (d) streamline velocity.
Figure 8. Countor results (a) velocities; (b) pressure; (c) shear rate; (d) streamline velocity.
Figure8.8.Countor
Figure Countorresults
results(a)
(a)velocities;
velocities;(b)
(b)pressure;
pressure;(c)
(c)shear
shearrate;
rate;(d)
(d)streamline
streamlinevelocity.
velocity.

Figure 9. Simulation results of velocity streamlines.

Figure 9. Simulationresults
resultsof
ofvelocity
velocitystreamlines.
streamlines.
Figure9.9.Simulation
Figure Simulation results of velocity streamlines.

Figure 10. Forming mechanism of die swell.

Figure 10. Forming mechanism of die swell.

Figure
Figure
Figure 11 shows the variation of the die swell rate of the three rubber materials with
10.Forming
10. Forming mechanism
mechanism of swell.
of die die swell.
Figure 11 shows the variation of the die swell rate of the three rubber materials with
the distance from the die. It can be seen from the figure that the die swell rate of the crown
the distance from the die. It can be seen from the figure that the die swell rate of the crown
rubber TC and
Figure
Figure1111 the
shows
showsbase rubber
the variationTBofincreases
the
ofdie rapidly
theswell rate after
theextruding
ofrate three from
therubber the die.
materials The
with
rubber TC and the basethe variation
rubber TB increases die swell
rapidly of
after extrudingthree
fromrubber materials
the die. The with
increasing
the distancetrend
from gradually slowed,
the die. It can andfrom
be seen the the
die figure
swell that
rate the
reached stability
die swell atthe
rate of nearly 80
crown
the distance
increasing from
trend the die. slowed,
gradually It can beand
seen from the figure that thestability
die swell at rate of 80
the crown
rubber
mm. OnTCtheand the
other base the
hand, rubber ratethe
TB increases
die-swell die swell
rapidly
of the wing rate extruding
after
rubber reached
TB variesfrom the nearly
die. The
significantly. The
rubber
mm. On the other hand, the die-swell rate of the wing rubber TB varies significantly. Thedie. Th
TC and the base rubber TB increases rapidly after extruding from the
increasing trend gradually slowed, and the die swell rate reached stability at nearly 80
mm. On the other hand, the die-swell rate of the wing rubber TB varies significantly. Th
Materials 2023, 16, 3301 9 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

increasing trend gradually slowed, and the die swell rate reached stability at nearly 80 mm.
On the other hand, the die-swell rate of the wing rubber TB varies significantly. The die
swell rate rate
die swell decreases rapidly
decreases within
rapidly 10 mm
within 10 after leaving
mm after the die,
leaving thethen increases
die, then slowly
increases and
slowly
reaches a stable die swell rate of nearly 100 mm. The special variation process
and reaches a stable die swell rate of nearly 100 mm. The special variation process of wing of wing
rubber
rubbermaymaybe becaused
causedby bythe
theswelling
swellingofofthe
thecrown
crownrubber
rubberafter
afterrelease
releasefromfromthethedie
diehas
has
aasqueezing
squeezing effect on the wing rubber. The finally stabilized die swell rates of thethree
effect on the wing rubber. The finally stabilized die swell rates of the three
rubber
rubbermaterials
materialsarearequite
quitedifferent,
different,which
whichare 28.7%,−−7.8%
are28.7%, 7.8% and
and 15.3%,
15.3%, respectively.
respectively.This
This
isis because the rheological properties of the three rubber compounds and
because the rheological properties of the three rubber compounds and the structure of the structure
of
thethe pre-dieand
pre-die anddie
diethrough
throughwhich
whichthey
theyflow
flow are
are different,
different, resulting
resulting in in different
different flow
flow
characteristics of the compounds, leading to different die swell
characteristics of the compounds, leading to different die swell profiles. profiles.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Variation
Variationofofdie
dieswell
swellrate
ratewith
withdistance
distancefrom
fromthe
thedie.
die.

3.3.
3.3.Co-Extrusion
Co-ExtrusionInfluencing
InfluencingFactors
Factors
3.3.1. Process Parameters
3.3.1. Process Parameters
The main process parameters that can be adjusted in co-extrusion production are
The main process parameters that can be adjusted in co-extrusion production are
inflow rate and traction speed. The inflow rate is controlled by adjusting the screw rotating
inflow rate and traction speed. The inflow rate is controlled by adjusting the screw rotating
speed, and the traction speed is controlled by adjusting the motor speed of the traction
speed, and the traction speed is controlled by adjusting the motor speed of the traction
device. To explore the influence of inflow rate and traction speed on the co-extrusion
device. To explore the influence of inflow rate and traction speed on the co-extrusion
process, as shown in Table 4, five plans were set up, among which plan 3 is the original
process, as shown in Table 4, five plans were set up, among which plan 3 is the original plan.
plan. Plans 1, 2 and 3 are to keep the traction speed unchanged and change the inflow rate;
Plans 1, 2 and 3 are to keep the traction speed unchanged and change the inflow rate; Plans
Plans 3, 4 and 5 are to keep the inflow rate unchanged and change the traction speed.
3, 4 and 5 are to keep the inflow rate unchanged and change the traction speed.
Table 4. Process parameters plan.
Table 4. Process parameters plan.
Plan
Plan 1 1 2 2 3 3 44 55
Inflow rate
Inflow rate 0.8 Q 0.8 Q 1.2 Q 1.2 Q 1.0 Q
1.0 Q 1.01.0
QQ 1.0
1.0 Q
Traction speed
Traction speed 1.0 v 1.0 v 1.0 v 1.0 v 1.0 v1.0 v 0.80.8
vv 1.2
1.2 v

Figure12
Figure 12shows
showsthe
theprofiles
profilesof
of the
the extruded
extruded treads
treads under
under different
different process
process parameters.
parameters.
It can be seen from 12a that with the increase of the inflow rate, the
It can be seen from Figure 12a that with the increase of the inflow rate, the treadtread profile uniformly
profile
uniformly expands outward, indicating that the die swell rate increases with the rise inrate;
expands outward, indicating that the die swell rate increases with the rise in the inflow the
In Figure
inflow rate;12b, the tread
In Figure 12b,profile shrinks
the tread inward
profile with
shrinks the increase
inward with theof increase
the traction speed,
of the this
traction
indicates that increasing the traction speed will reduce the die swell rate.
speed, this indicates that increasing the traction speed will reduce the die swell rate.

Figure 12. Extruded tread profile under different process parameters (a) inflow rate; (b) traction speed.
 Traction speed 1.0 v 1.0 v 1.0 v 0.8 v 1.2 v

Figure 12 shows the profiles of the extruded treads under different process parameters.
It can be seen from 12a that with the increase of the inflow rate, the tread profile uniformly
Materials 2023, 16, 3301
expands outward, indicating that the die swell rate increases with the rise in the inflow rate;
10 of 17
In Figure 12b, the tread profile shrinks inward with the increase of the traction speed, this
indicates that increasing the traction speed will reduce the die swell rate.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Figure 12.
Figure 12.Extruded
Extrudedtread profile
tread under
profile different
under process
different parameters
process (a) inflow
parameters (a) rate; (b) traction
inflow rate; (b)speed.
trac-
tion speed.

Figure13
Figure 13isisthe
thevelocity
velocitycontour
contourof ofthe
thedie
dieoutlet.
outlet.ItItcan
canbebeobserved
observedthat thatthe
thevelocity
velocity
distribution on the outlet of the die shows a trend of gradually
distribution on the outlet of the die shows a trend of gradually increasing from the left increasing from theand
left
and right
right sides sides
to theto the inside,
inside, and the and the maximum
maximum velocity velocity
appearsappears in the
in the area area
near thenear the left
left side of
sidetire
the of shoulder.
the tire shoulder. In addition,
In addition, the velocity
the velocity of thetip
of the wing wing
areatipisarea is significantly
significantly lower lower
than
thanofthat
that otherof other
areas,areas, indicating
indicating that thethat the fluidity
fluidity of theof the rubber
rubber in thisinarea
thisisarea
veryispoor.
very poor.
This
isThis
dueistoduethetoexcessive flow resistance
the excessive caused
flow resistance by itsby
caused relatively narrow
its relatively flow channel.
narrow The
flow channel.
wing
The tip
wing is where
tip is extruded tread quality
where extruded treadproblems such as shark
quality problems such skin
as and
sharkmelt fracture
skin and [25]
melt
often occur. Comparing Figure 13a–c, it can be analyzed that the
fracture [25] often occur. Comparing Figure 13a–c, it can be analyzed that the inflow rate inflow rate has a more
obvious
has a moreinfluence
obvious on influence
the velocity ondistribution
the velocityon the die outlet.
distribution As the
on the die inflow
outlet.rate increases,
As the inflow
the
ratevelocity
increases,alsothe
increases;
velocityHowever, by comparing
also increases; However,Figure 13a,d,e, itFigure
by comparing can be13a,d,e,
noticeditthat
can
the
be traction speed
noticed that the has little effect
traction speedonhas thelittle
velocity
effectdistribution
on the velocitybecause the traction
distribution speedthe
because is
controlled by theistraction
traction speed device,
controlled by thewhich is located
traction device,at awhich
certainisdistance
located from the die.distance
at a certain Hence,
the
frominfluence
the die.on rubber
Hence, theflow in the die
influence is limited.
on rubber flow in the die is limited.

Figure 13. Velocity contour of die outlet (a) 1.0 Q, 1.0 v; (b) 0.8 Q, 1.0 v; (c) 1.2 Q, 1.0 v; (d) 1.0 Q, 0.8
Figure 13. Velocity contour of die outlet (a) 1.0 Q, 1.0 v; (b) 0.8 Q, 1.0 v; (c) 1.2 Q, 1.0 v; (d) 1.0 Q, 0.8 v;
v; (e) 1.0 Q, 1.2 v.
(e) 1.0 Q, 1.2 v.

Inthe
In theprocess
processof ofco-extrusion,
co-extrusion,thetheuniformity
uniformityofofrubber
rubberflow
flowwill
willaffect
affectthe
theuniformity
uniformity
ofthe
of thematerial
materialdistribution
distributionof
ofthe
theextruded
extrudedtread,
tread,and
andthe
theuniformity
uniformityof ofthe
thetread
treadmaterial
material
distribution is related to the performance of the finished tire [26]. Therefore,
distribution is related to the performance of the finished tire [26]. Therefore, the flow the flow
uniformity of rubber compounds is taken as an evaluation index of extruded
uniformity of rubber compounds is taken as an evaluation index of extruded tread quality, tread quality,
andthe
and thevariance
varianceofofvelocity
velocityisiscalculated
calculatedbybythe
theFormula
Formula(6).
(6).
N
 (v − v ) 2
σ 2 = N i = 0 −i v)2
2 V ∑ i =0 ( v i N
(6)
σV = (6)
N
Here, σ V 2 is the velocity variance, N is the number of points taken, vi is the velocity
Here, 2 is the velocity variance, N is the number of points taken, v is the velocity
σVi-th
value of the point, and v is the velocity mean. i
of the i-th
value Figure point, and v is the velocity mean.
14 shows the variation of velocity variance at different sections inside and
Figure
outside the 14
dieshows
along the
the variation
extrusion of velocityThe
direction. variance at different
sections of z = −25sections
and z = inside and
0 represent
outside the die along the extrusion direction. The sections of z = − 25 and z =
the inlet and outlet of the die, respectively. It can be observed that the overall velocity0 represent
the inlet and
variance alongoutlet of the die,
the extrusion respectively.
direction It can
presents be observed
a gradual downwardthat the overall
trend. velocityis
The decline
variance along the extrusion direction presents a gradual downward trend. The decline
relatively rapid in the die, and the downward trend slows down after leaving the die. This
is relatively rapid in the die, and the downward trend slows down after leaving the die.
indicates that the flow uniformity of the rubber melt increases gradually along the
This indicates that the flow uniformity of the rubber melt increases gradually along the
extrusion direction. The fluctuation of the velocity variance was observed in the 10 mm
extrusion direction. The fluctuation of the velocity variance was observed in the 10 mm
area from the inlet of the die, which is caused by the convergent flow of the rubber melt
when it enters the die from the pre-die. Figure 14a represents that with the increase of the
inflow rate, the flow uniformity of the rubber melt decreases. Unexpectedly, Figure 14b
indicates that traction speed weakly influences the flow uniformity of the rubber to melt
inside and outside the die.
Materials 2023, 16, 3301 11 of 17

area from the inlet of the die, which is caused by the convergent flow of the rubber melt
when it enters the die from the pre-die. Figure 14a represents that with the increase of the
inflow rate, the flow uniformity of the rubber melt decreases. Unexpectedly, Figure 14b
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
indicates that traction speed weakly influences the flow uniformity of the rubber to11melt
of 17

inside and outside the die.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Variation
Variationofofvelocity
velocityvariance
variancealong
alongextrusion
extrusiondirection
direction(a)
(a)flow
flowrate;
rate;(b)
(b)traction
tractionspeed.
speed.

During the
During the flow process
processof ofthe
therubber
rubber melt, thethe
melt, shear raterate
shear is positively correlated
is positively with
correlated
with the shear stress [27]. If the shear rate at the die wall is too high, the rubber melt
the shear stress [27]. If the shear rate at the die wall is too high, the rubber melt will break will
break through
through the wall
the wall adhesion
adhesion limit,
limit, andandslipslip [28]
[28] willoccur,
will occur,resulting
resulting in
in surface quality
quality
problems
problemsof ofextruded
extrudedtread,
tread,such
suchas assharkskin
sharkskin[29] [29]and
andmelt
meltfracture
fracture[30].
[30].Therefore,
Therefore,the
the
average
averageshear
shearrate
rateat
atthe
thewall
wallisisselected
selectedas asanother
anotherevaluation
evaluationindex
indexfor
forthe
thequality
qualityof
ofthe
the
extruded
extrudedtread.
tread.The
Theaverage
averageshear
shearrate
rateisiscalculated
calculatedby bythe
theFormula
Formula(7).(7).
N i =γ0 γ i
N
∑
γ =γ = i=0 (7)
i
(7)
NN
whereγγisisthe
where themean
meanvalue
valueofofthe
theshear rate,NNisisthe
shearrate, thenumber
numberof of points
points taken, and γγ i isisthe
taken, and the
i
shearrate
shear ratevalue
valueof ofthe i-thpoint.
thei-th point.
Figure15
Figure 15shows
showsthe thevariation
variationofofthe
themean
meanshear
shearrate
rateon
onthe
thewall
wallat
atdifferent
differentpositions
positions
alongthe
along theextrusion
extrusiondirection.
direction. OnOn the
the whole,
whole, itit can
can be
be seen
seen from
from the
the figure
figurethat
thatthe
thewallwall
shear rate shows
shear rate shows a a gradual downward trend along
along the extrusion direction. However,a
the extrusion direction. However,
asharp
sharpincrease
increaseininshear
shearrate
ratewas
was observed
observed in in the
the range
range ofof 5 mm from the the die
die outlet,
outlet,
correspondingto
corresponding tothat
thatshown
shownin inFigure
Figure8c.8c.The
Thesharp
sharpincrease
increasein inshear
shearrate
ratemay
maybebecaused
caused
byincreased
by increasedvelocity
velocity caused
caused byby stress
stress release
release when
when thethe rubber
rubber isis extruded
extruded from
from the
the die.
die.
Figure
Figure15a
15aindicates
indicatesthat
thatthethewall
wallshear
shearrate
rateincreases
increasesas asthe
theinflow
inflowrate
rateincreases.
increases. Thus,
Thus,
the
thepossibility
possibilityofofquality
qualityproblems
problemswithwiththetheextruded
extrudedtreadtreadwill
willalso
alsoincrease.
increase.Observing
Observing
Figure 15b, it can be found that the traction speed has very little effect on the shear rate,
which is consistent with the law observed in Figure 14b.
Materials 2023, 16, 3301 12 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15b, it can be found that the traction speed has very little effect on the shear12rate,
Figure of 17
which is consistent with the law observed in Figure 14b.

Figure15.
Figure 15.Variation
Variationof
ofaverage
averageshear
shearrate
ratealong
alongextrusion
extrusiondirection
direction(a)
(a)flow
flowrate;
rate;(b)
(b)traction
tractionspeed.
speed.

In
In actual
actual production,
production, to to ensure
ensure that
that the
the size
size of
of the
the extruded
extruded tread
tread isisconstant,
constant, the
the
inflow rate and the traction speed are adjusted synchronously. According
inflow rate and the traction speed are adjusted synchronously. According to the influence to the influence
of
ofthetheabove-mentioned
above-mentioned inflow
inflow rate andand
rate traction speed
traction on the
speed onquality of theof
the quality extruded tread,
the extruded
ittread,
can beitconcluded that the excessively
can be concluded high inflow
that the excessively rate
high will lead
inflow ratetowill
a decrease
lead to in the quality
a decrease in
of
thethe extruded
quality tread,
of the and a tread,
extruded decreaseandina the inflowinrate
decrease themeans
inflowarate
decrease
meansinaproduction
decrease in
efficiency.
production Therefore, it is necessary
efficiency. Therefore,toitreasonably formulate
is necessary process parameters
to reasonably formulate to obtain
processa
balance between production quality and production efficiency.
parameters to obtain a balance between production quality and production efficiency.

3.3.2.
3.3.2. Die
DieStructure
Structure
To
To explorethethe
explore influence of the
influence of die
thestructure on the on
die structure extrusion process, the
the extrusion die thickness
process, the die
and convergence angle were modified, respectively, as shown in Figure 16 and Table 5. Plan
thickness and convergence angle were modified, respectively, as shown in Figure 16 and
a is the initial die structure, the thickness T = 25 mm, and the convergence angle α = 3◦ ;
Table 5. Plan a is the initial die structure, the thickness T = 25 mm, and the convergence
Plan b and c keep the convergence angle constant and change the thickness; Plan d and e
angle α = 3°; Plan b and c keep the convergence angle constant and change the thickness;
keep the thickness constant and change the convergence angle.
Plan d and e keep the thickness constant and change the convergence angle.
Table 5. Die structures plan.

Plan b c a d e

Thickness T/mm 15 35 25 25 25
Converge angle α/◦ 3 3 3 13 23

Figure 16. Die structure design (a) T = 25 mm, α = 3°; (b) T = 15 mm, α = 3°; (c) T = 35 mm, α = 3°; (d)
T = 25 mm, α = 13°; (e) T = 25 mm, α = 23°.
 3.3.2. Die Structure
To explore the influence of the die structure on the extrusion process, the die
thickness and convergence angle were modified, respectively, as shown in Figure 16 and
Materials 2023, 16, 3301
Table 5. Plan a is the initial die structure, the thickness T = 25 mm, and the convergence
13 of 17
angle α = 3°; Plan b and c keep the convergence angle constant and change the thickness;
Plan d and e keep the thickness constant and change the convergence angle.

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17

Table 5. Die structures plan.

Table 5. Die structures plan.
Plan b c a d e
Plan T/mm
Thickness b
15 c
35 a
25 d
25 e
25
Figure 16. Die angle
Thickness
Converge structure
T/mm α/° design (a)15
3 T = 25 mm, α35 3= 3°; ◦(b) T = 1525
mm, α = 3°; (c)
3 ◦25T = 35 mm, α25
13 = 3°; (d)◦
23
Figure 16. Die structure design (a) T = 25 mm, α = 3 ; (b) T = 15 mm, α = 3 ; (c) T = 35 mm, α = 3 ;
T =Converge
25 mm, α = 13°; (e) T = 25 mm, α = 23°.
(d) T = 25 mm,angleα = 13α/°
◦ ; (e) T = 253mm, α = 23◦ . 3 3 13 23
Figure 17 is the extruded tread profile under different die structures. Figure 17a
showsFigure
that 17 17isis
the diethe
the extruded
thickness
extruded has tread
treadlittle profile
effect
profile onunder
under the different
profile
different of the
die dieextruded
structures.
structures. Figure
tread.
Figure 17aWith 17a
showsthe
shows
that thethat
increase of the
die die die
thickness thickness
thickness, thehas
has little winglittle
effect oneffect
rubber on the
the area
profile profile
slightly
of of the extruded
the expands
extruded outward, tread.
tread. With andthe With
the the
crown
increase
increase
of
rubber of die
die thickness,
area thickness,
the wing
shrinks inward. theFigure
wing
rubber arearubber area
slightly
17b slightly
expands
indicates expands
outward,
that the outward,
and
convergence theangle and
crown ofrubber crown
the die area
has
shrinks
rubber inward.
almost area shrinks
no effect Figure
oninward. 17b
the profileindicates
Figure that the
17bextrusion
of the convergence
indicates section, angle
that the convergence of the
and only the angle die has
profileofof almost
thethe
diewingno
has
effect
rubberon
almost no
TW the profile
effect
area of the
on the
shrinks extrusion
profile
slightly thesection,
ofinward with and
extrusion only the
thesection,
increaseand profile
of only
the of
the
die the wingof
profile
convergence rubber
the TW
wing
angle. In
area
rubbershrinks
TW
contrast, the slightly
area inward
shrinks
profile with
slightly
of other the
inward
areas increase
remains with of the
the die convergence
increase
unchanged. angle. In contrast,
of the die convergence angle.the In
profile ofthe
contrast, other areasofremains
profile unchanged.
other areas remains unchanged.

Figure 17. Extrusion profile under different die structures (a) die thickness; (b) die to converge
angle. 17. Extrusion profile
Figure profile under
under different
differentdie
diestructures
structures(a)
(a)die
diethickness;
thickness;(b)
(b)die
dietotoconverge angle.
converge
angle.
Figure
Figure 1818 isis the
thecontour
contourof ofthe
theupper
upperwall
wallofofthethedie.
die.ItItcan
canbebeseen
seenfromfromFigure
Figure18a–c
18a–
that with
c that the18
Figure
with increase
the is increasein die
the contour in thickness,
of the
die the wall
upper
thickness, shear rate
the of theat
shear theItdie
die.
rate atcan exit area
bedie
the seen decreases
from
exit slightly.
Figure
area 18a–
decreases
cBy comparing
that with
slightly. By the Figure
increase
comparing 18a,d,e,
in die
Figureit can be noticed
thickness,
18a,d,e, that
the shear
it can with
ratethe
be noticed increase
atthat
thewith of
thethe
die exit convergence
area decreases
increase of the
angle of the
slightly.
convergenceBy die, theof
comparing
angle area of high
theFigure
die, shear
18a,d,e,
the rate
area of shifts
ithigh
can befrom
shear theshifts
noticed
rate die’s entrance
that from
with to
the die’s
the theentrance
increasedie’s
of exit.
the
to
The exit
convergenceof the wing
the die’s exit.angle
The exit rubber
of the is
of die, always
the area
the wing a high
of high
rubber shear rate area,
shear rate
is always and
shifts
a high the
from
shear wing
the
rate rubber
die’s
area, is also
entrance
and the
the wingto
area
the
rubberwhere
die’s quality
isexit.
also The
the areaproblems
exit of the often
where wing
qualityoccur
rubber inisactual
problems always production.
often aoccur
high in shear rateproduction.
actual area, and the wing
rubber is also the area where quality problems often occur in actual production.

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Shear
Shear rate
rate contour
contour of
ofdie
dieupper
upperwall
wall(a)
(a)TT==25
25mm, ◦ ; (b)
mm,αα== 33°; (b) TT == 15 mm; (c) T == 35 mm;
(d) α
Figure = 13°;
(d) α = 18.◦ (e):
13 Shear α = 23°.
; (e): αrate ◦
= 23contour
. of die upper wall (a) T = 25 mm, α = 3°; (b) T = 15 mm; (c) T = 35 mm;
(d) α = 13°; (e): α = 23°.
The variation
The variation of of velocity
velocity variance
variance at at different
different positions
positions along
along the the extrusion
extrusion direction
direction
is The variation
is presented
presented in Figure
in of velocity
Figure 19. It
19. is variance
It is evident from
evident at different
from Figure 19a
Figure positions
19a that along
that the
the the extrusion
increase
increase in the
in direction
the thickness
thickness of
of
is
the
the presented
die leadsin
die leads toFigure
to 19. Itin
aa decrease
decrease inisthe
evident
the from
velocity
velocity Figure 19a
variance,
variance, that thethat
indicating
indicating increase
that the flow
the in the
flow thicknesshas
uniformity
uniformity of
has
the die leadsThis
improved.
improved. to aisdecrease
becauseinthe theincreased
velocity variance,
thicknessindicating
of the diediethat
gives
gives the flow
the
the uniformity
rubber
rubber melt more
melt has
more
improved.
time This the
time totostabilize
stabilize isthe
because
flow. the
Figure
flow. Figureincreased
19b19b
shows thickness
showsthat that ofthethe
the change die gives
in the
change theconvergence
convergence
in the rubberangle meltcauses
more
angle
apparent
time
causes fluctuations
to apparent
stabilize the in theFigure
flow.
fluctuations variance
in the 19b ofshows
the velocity
variance that
of the inside
the and
change
velocity inoutside
inside theand the die. With
convergence
outside the the
angle
die.
increase
causes
With the of the
apparent convergence
increasefluctuations angle of the
in the variance
of the convergence die,
angle ofof the variance
thethedie,velocityof the flow
insideofand
the variance velocity
theoutside in the inlet
the die.
flow velocity in
area
With of
the inletthe
the die of
increase
area decreases
of the
the obviously,obviously,
die convergence
decreases and the variance
angle of and theofvariance
the die, thevariance
the flowof velocity
of the
the flowinflow
the outletinarea
velocity
velocity in
the
of
the the
outlet die
inletareaincreases
areaofofthe slightly.
thedie This isslightly.
dieincreases
decreases due to the
obviously, Thisdifferent
and the convergence
is due variance of the
to the different angle
flow designs
velocity
convergence resulting
in the
angle
in a large
outlet
designs area difference
of the in
resulting in
die the flow
increases
a large characteristics
slightly.
difference ofisthe
Thisflow
in the due rubber
to themelt
characteristics when
different itrubber
enters and
of theconvergence meltleaves
angle
when
the die. resulting
designs
it enters and leaves in the
a large
die. difference in the flow characteristics of the rubber melt when
it enters and leaves the die.
Materials
Materials2023, 16,16,
2023, 3301
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of14
17 of 17
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

Figure 19.
Figure 19. Variation
Variation of
of velocity
velocityvariance
variancealong extrusion
along direction
extrusion (a) (a)
direction die die
thickness; (b) die
thickness; (b) to
die to
converge
converge angle.
Figure 19. Variation of velocity variance along extrusion direction (a) die thickness; (b) die to
angle.
converge angle.
Figure 20
Figure 20 shows
showsthe thevariation
variationofofthe themean
mean shear
shear rate at at
rate different positions
different positionsalong the the
along
extrusion direction. Figure 20a indicates that as the thickness of
extrusion direction. Figure 20a indicates that as the thickness of the die increases, thethe
Figure 20 shows the variation of the mean shear rate at the die
different increases,
positions the
alongshear shear
rate of the
extrusion
rate of thedirection.
die wall
die wall decreases
decreases
Figure 20ato to aa certain
certainthat
indicates extent,
as theindicating
extent, thickness that
indicating of increasing
the
that the
thethickness
die increases,
increasing the shear of
thickness
of
the the
rate ofdie
die thecan
can die improve thethe
wall decreases
improve surface
surface qualityof
to aquality
certain ofthe
theextruded
extent, extruded
indicating tread. From Figure
that increasing
tread. From the20b,
Figure ititcan
thickness
20b, can be
be found
of the that that
die can the influence of the die convergence angle on the wall shear rate is
found the improve
influencethe ofsurface
the die quality of the extruded
convergence angle on tread.
the wall From Figure
shear rate 20b, it can
is significant:
significant:
be found with the increase
that theofinfluence of the die convergence
of the die convergence angle, the
angle on mean shear
therate rate at
wallatshear the wall
rate of is the
with the increase the die convergence angle, the mean shear the wall
of the die entrance
significant: area decreases thesignificantly, fromangle,
132−s1−1theat α = 3° decreases to the36 s−1 at
die entrancewith areathedecreases
increase of die convergence
significantly, from 132 s at α mean
= 3◦shear rate at
decreases to 36wall s−1 at
α =the
23°, while the meanarea shear rate at the exit wallfrom
of the dies−1increases
= 3°significantly to from
36 s−135
αof = 23◦die entrance
, while the mean decreases
shear rate significantly,
at the exit wall of 132 the dieat αincreases
decreases
significantly at
from
sα−1=at
− 1 α
23°, = 3°
while tothe
◦ 93 s
mean
−1 at α = 23°. Because the surface quality of the extruded tread is
−shear
1 rate at◦the exit wall of the die increases significantly from 35
35 s at α = 3 to 93 s at α = 23 . Because the surface quality of the extruded tread is
ultimately determined
to 93 s−1 by
s−1 at α = determined
3° at the= flow state of the rubber in the die outlet thearea, increasingtreadthe
ultimately byαthe 23°.
flowBecause
state of the surface
the rubber quality
in the dieofoutlet extruded
area, increasing is the
die’s convergence
ultimately determined angle bywill
thegreatly
flow reduce
state of the
the surface
rubber inquality
the die of the
outlet extruded
area, tread.
increasing the
die’s convergence angle will greatly reduce the surface quality of the extruded tread.
die’s convergence angle will greatly reduce the surface quality of the extruded tread.

Figure 20. Cont.

Materials 2023,
Materials 16,16,
2023, 3301
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of15
17of 17

Figure 20. Variation of mean shear rate along extrusion direction (a) die thickness; (b) die to
Figure 20. Variation of mean shear rate along extrusion direction (a) die thickness; (b) die to con-
converge angle.
verge angle.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
In this study, co-extrusion experiments established and verified a viscoelastic
In this study, co-extrusion experiments established and verified a viscoelastic numeri-
numerical simulation model of a tri-composite tread co-extrusion process. In addition, the
cal simulation model of a tri-composite tread co-extrusion process. In addition, the influence
influence of process parameters and die structure on the co-extrusion process was
of process parameters and die structure on the co-extrusion process was investigated. The
investigated. The outcome of the study is summarized as follows:
outcome of the study is summarized as follows:
1 The size error of the extruded tread profile between simulation and experiment is
1. The
less size
thanerror of the indicates
6%, which extrudedthat treadtheprofile between
numerical simulation
simulation and experiment
technology can be used is less
than
to predict the profile of the extruded tread, provide theoretical guidance for the to
6%, which indicates that the numerical simulation technology can be used
predict thedesign
structural profileof ofthe
thedieextruded tread, provide
thus improve theoretical
the efficiency of theguidance
die design. for the structural
2 design of the die thus improve the efficiency of the die design.
The difference between the rubber’s rheological properties and the die structure
2. The
makes difference betweenprocess
the die swelling the rubber’s
and flow rheological properties
characteristics and the
of the three die structure
rubbers quite
makes theTherefore,
different. die swelling process and
it is necessary flow characteristics
to reasonably design the of diethe three rubbers
structure to preventquite
different.
the rubberTherefore,
melt’s pooritfluidity
is necessary to reasonably
and excessive design the die structure to prevent
flow fluctuation.
3 the Therubber melt’srate
die swell poor is fluidity
directlyand excessive flow
proportional fluctuation.
to the inflow rate and inversely
3. The die swell to
proportional rate
theistraction
directlyspeed.
proportional to the
Increasing theinflow
inflowraterateand
willinversely
lead to aproportional
decrease
to
in the
the traction
uniformity speed. Increasing
of rubber flow andthe inflow rate will
the surface leadoftothe
quality a decrease
extrudedintread,
the uniformity
so it is
necessary
of rubber to control
flow andthe theinflow
surface rate within of
quality a reasonable
the extruded range. Die structure
tread, has little to
so it is necessary
effect onthe
control theinflow
extruded ratetread profile,
within and increasing
a reasonable range.theDie die structure
thickness can has moderately
little effect on
the extruded tread profile, and increasing the die thickness can moderately of
improve the flow uniformity of the rubber compound and the surface quality the
improve
extruded tread. However, increasing the convergence angle
the flow uniformity of the rubber compound and the surface quality of the extruded of the die will cause the
shear rate at the die outlet to increase significantly, resulting
tread. However, increasing the convergence angle of the die will cause the shear in a decrease in therate
surface quality of the extruded tread and, at the same time, bringing
at the die outlet to increase significantly, resulting in a decrease in the surface quality a slight negative
impact
of on the uniformity
the extruded tread and,ofatthe therubber
same flow.
time,Hence,
bringing theadie needs
slight to be designed
negative impact on as the
flat as possible.
uniformity of the rubber flow. Hence, the die needs to be designed as flat as possible.
Overall, the numerical simulation model can be utilized to visualize the flow
Overall, the numerical simulation model can be utilized to visualize the flow charac-
characteristics in the co-extrusion process and predict the extruded tire shape, which can
teristics in the co-extrusion process and predict the extruded tire shape, which can provide
provide theoretical guidance to improve the design efficiency of the die plate and
theoretical guidance to improve the design efficiency of the die plate and optimize the
optimize the design of process parameters and die structure, thus improve the production
design of process parameters and die structure, thus improve the production efficiency and
efficiency and quality of composite tire tread production line.
quality of composite tire tread production line.
Author Contributions: Writing—original draft, H.-J.Z.; Writing—review & editing, G.-L.W., H.-
Author Contributions:
C.Z. and Writing—original
C.L. All authors draft,toH.-J.Z.;
have read and agreed Writing—review
the published version of &
theediting, G.-L.W., H.-C.Z.
manuscript.
and C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
52072156, This
Funding: research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
No. 52272366).
52072156, No. 52272366).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Informed ConsentStatement:
Data Availability Notapplicable.
Statement:Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Materials 2023, 16, 3301 16 of 17

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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