STUDY / IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS IN HANDSPECIMEN

1. Background Introduction
1.1 Rocks
There are many definitions of rocks, according to Ehlers and Blatt (1997) rocks as stuff which the earth
is made off. A more acceptable scientific definition of rocks is that; a rock is a natural occurring solid
cohesive aggregate of one or more mineral or mineral materials. Rocks are broadly classified into three
groups based on their process of formation. The three major rock types are:
1) Igneous rocks
2) Sedimentary rocks
3) Metamorphic rocks
Sedimentary rocks makes up to 66% of the earth’s crust, with 34 % being the igneous and the
metamorphic. Igneous rocks however, forms the majority of 34 % (Ehlers and Blatt, 1997).The reason
why sedimentary rocks accounts for most of the rocks on the earth’s surface is because they are
mainly found ocean floor basins which accounts to 70% of total area of the earth. The three rock
types are further classified based on chemistry, environment of formation and how they are formed.

1.2 Rock Cycle

Rocks are broadly classified into three groups: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic, the simplest
diagram below shows the "rock cycle" that puts these three groups in a circle with arrows pointing from
"igneous" to "sedimentary," from "sedimentary" to "metamorphic," and from "metamorphic" to "igneous"
again. There is some sort of truth that the most part, igneous rocks break down at the Earth's surface
to sediment, which in turn becomes sedimentary rock. And for the most part, the return path from
sedimentary rocks back to igneous rocks goes through metamorphic rocks.

Figure1.1: Rock cycle

1.3 Classification of Rocks
1) Igneous rocks: Igneous comes from word “ignis” meaning fire, it is therefore not surprising that
igneous rocks are associated with volcanic activity and their distribution is controlled by plate
tectonics. One of the appealing aspects of the plate tectonics is that it accounts for reasonably well
for the variety of igneous rocks and their distribution (Carlson et al, 2008). Igneous rocks are formed
from solidification and cooling of magma. This magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-
existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one
or more of three processes namely; an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change
in composition. Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories Plutonic (intrusive) rock and
volcanic (extrusive). Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly
within the Earth's crust. A common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks
result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, forming rocks such
as pumice or basalt (Eloska, 1920).
2) Sedimentary rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's
surface and (or) within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that
cause mineral and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate
from a solution. Sediments can be detrital, chemical or organic sediments. Detrital sediments are
mechanically eroded from pre-existing rocks. Chemical sediments on the other hand are fluid
precipitates or evaporates deposited in various environments. Sedimentary rocks are important in
regard to resources like limestone deposits, coal and oil. They are also important geologically in
interpretation of earth’s history (Carlson et al, 2009). Some common sedimentary rocks which
include; sandstone, limestone, shale, conglomerate, and gypsum. There are three basic types of
sedimentary rocks: clastic, chemical, and organic. Debris from mechanical weathering, or the
process of rocks breaking down from larger to smaller pieces, forms clastic sedimentary rocks. For
example breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale etc. When dissolved minerals come out
of water, they form chemical sedimentary rocks. Examples of chemical sedimentary rocks are:
Castile evaporite, chalk, chert, flint, gypsum, and iron ore. The accumulation of animal and plant
debris forms organic sedimentary rocks. Example includes coal, coquina, and fossiliferous
limestone.
3) Metamorphic rocks: Metamorphic rocks are basically rocks that have experience change due to
high pressure and temperature below zone of diagenesis. Protolith refers to the original rock, prior
to metamorphism. In low grade metamorphic rocks, original textures are often preserved allowing
one to determine the likely protolith. As the grade of metamorphism increases, original textures are
replaced with metamorphic textures and other clues, such as bulk chemical composition of the rock,
are used to determine the protolith (Winter, 2001). There are two main types of metamorphic rocks:
foliated and non-foliated. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks are appear to be banded, or layered, which
is caused by directed pressure and heat. Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are: gneiss,
phyllite, schist, slate etc. Non-Foliated Metamorphics rocks are those that don’t appear banded are
non-foliated. Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks are: amphibolite, hornfels, marble,
novaculit, quartzite, soapstone etc.
2. Objectives
1) To Study the igneous rocks in hand specimen and interpretation of formational and environmental
history.
2) To Study the sedimentary rocks in hand specimen and interpretation of depositional environment.
3) To Study the metamorphic rocks in hand specimen and interpretation of uses for environmental
protection and development.

3. Methodology
For the study different types of rock’s hand specimens were taken from laboratory and their physical
properties such as color, texture, grain size, specific gravity, transparency, fracture, cleavage, mineral
composition, reaction with acid, occurrence, diagnostic properties, identification, uses, economic
importance, depositional environment, and environmental significance were studied. The following
properties of the minerals specimens are key to the identification. <Explain these properties separately>.
Color: the most common rock colors- black, gray, brown, red, and green, tan, dark brown, or rust,
depending on where you look.
Texture: the texture of a rock is the size, shape, and arrangement of the grains (for sedimentary
rocks) or crystals (for igneous and metamorphic rocks), which is rock microstructure refers to the
relationship between grain and minerals of which a rock is composed. The broadest textures are:
crystalline, fragmental, aphanitic, phaneritic, porphyritic, clastic, and glassy.
Grain size: coarse, medium and fine- grain size (or particle size) is the diameter of individual grains of
sediment, or the lithified particles in clastic rocks. The term may also be applied to other granular
materials. This is different from the crystallite size, which refers to the size of a single crystal inside a
particle or grain.
Specific gravity: is the density of a substance relative to water. e.g., magnetite has a specific gravity
of 5.2. This means the weight of magnetite is 5.2 times that of an equal volume of water.
Tenacity: is the resistance of a mineral to breaking, crushing, or bending. Tenacity can be
described by the following terms. Brittle - Breaks or powders easily. Malleable - can be hammered into
thin sheets.
Transparency: is the transparent, translucent, and opaque. The amount of light able to be passed
through a mineral determines its transparency. Light is able to pass through transparent minerals;
translucent minerals partially let light pass through; and opaque minerals do not let any light through.
Fracture: If rocks on one side of the break shift relative to rocks on the other side, then the fracture
is a fault. If there is no movement of one side relative to the other, and if there are many other fractures
with the same orientation, then the fractures are called joints.
Cleavage: is the tendency of minerals to split along crystallographic planes as a result of structural
locations of atoms and ions in the crystal, creating planes of relative weakness. Types- continuous,
slaty, spaced, crenulation, disjunctive, and transposition cleavage.
Mineral composition: About 200 minerals make up the bulk of most rocks. The feldspar mineral family
is the most abundant. Quartz, calcite, and clay minerals are also common. Some minerals are more
common in igneous rock (formed under extreme heat and pressure), such as olivine, feldspars,
pyroxenes, and micas.
Reaction with acid: The rock acid test is used by geologists to identify carbonate minerals. They place
a drop of diluted hydrochloric acid on a rock or mineral and look for bubbles. The bubbles are carbon
dioxide being released by a chemical reaction between the carbonate material and acid.
Occurrence: Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools, either on Earth's surface or beneath it,
though some may form by fragmentation of solidifying magma. Typical occurrences of igneous rock
bodies on the surface include lava flows, lava domes, necks and spines, and pyroclastic deposits.
Sedimentary rocks are formed on or near the Earth's surface, in contrast to metamorphic and igneous
rocks, which are formed deep within the Earth. The most important geological processes that lead to
the creation of sedimentary rocks are erosion, weathering, dissolution, precipitation, and lithification.
Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids
or, more commonly, some combination of these factors. Conditions like these are found deep within
the Earth or where tectonic plates meet.
Diagnostic properties: Properties that help geologists identify a mineral in a rock are: color, hardness,
luster, crystal forms, density, and cleavage. Crystal form, cleavage, and hardness are determined
primarily by the crystal structure at the atomic level. Color and density are determined primarily by the
chemical composition.
Identification: The first step to identify a rock is to try to categorize the rock into one of the three main
types or groups of rocks. These include igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic types- origin,
composition and texture.
Uses: They help us to develop new technologies and are used in our everyday lives. Our use of rocks
and minerals includes as building material, cosmetics, cars, roads, and appliances. In order maintain a
healthy lifestyle and strengthen the body, humans need to consume minerals daily.
Economic importance: Almost all types of building materials used for paving roads, floors or building
walls of houses come from rocks. They are a source of precious metals like gold, platinum, etc.
Depositional Environment: Depositional environment is part of earth surface that has certain
chemical, biology, and physics characteristics where sediments are laid on. There are 3 kinds of
depositional environments, they are continental, marginal marine, and marine environments.
Environmental significance: Rocks, particularly the types created by volcanic activity, play a critical
role in keeping Earth's long-term climate stable and cycling carbon dioxide between land, oceans and
the atmosphere.
Igneous rocks are also very important because their mineral and chemical makeup can be used to learn
about the composition, temperature and pressure that exists within the Earth's mantle. They can also
tell us much about the tectonic environment, given that they are closely linked to the convection of
tectonic plates.
They are important for: Earth history. Sedimentary rocks contain features that allow us to interpret
ancient depositional environments, including the evolution of organisms and the environments they
lived in, how climate has changed throughout Earth history, where and when faults were active, etc.
Metamorphic rocks provide a record of the processes that occurred inside Earth as the rock was
subjected to changing physical and chemical conditions. This gives the geologist literally “inside
information” on what occurs within the Earth during such processes as the formation of new mountain
ranges, the collision of continents, the subduction of oceanic plates, and the circulation of sea water
into hot oceanic crust. Metamorphic rocks are like probes that have gone down into the Earth and come
back, bringing an record of the conditions they encountered on their journey in the depths of the Earth.
4. Results
A. Igneous Rocks
Study and identify the following hand specimen of the Igneous Rocks by analyzing their physical
properties.
STUDY / IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS IN HAND-SPECIMEN
1) Granite
Color: ………………………………………………..

Texture: ………………………………………………

Grain size: ……………………………………………..

Specific Gravity: ……………………………….

Transparency: ………………………………….

Fracture: ………………………………………….

Cleavage: …………………………………………

Mineral Composition: …………………………………..

Reaction with acid: ………………………….

Occurrence: …………………………………………

Diagnostic properties: …………………………..

Identification: ……………………………………….

Uses: …………………………………………………

Economic importance: ………………………………………………………………

Depositional Environment: …………………………………………………………

Environmental Significance: …………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Other specimens: Pegmatite, Diorite, Gabro, Tonalite, Leucogranite..

B. Sedimentary Rocks
Study and identify the following hand specimen of the Sedimentary Rocks by analyzing their physical
properties.

STUDY / IDENTIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS IN HAND-SPECIMEN

2) Conglomerate
Color: ………………………………………………..

Texture: ………………………………………………

Grain size: ……………………………………………..

Specific Gravity: ……………………………….

Transparency: ………………………………….

Fracture: ………………………………………….

Cleavage: …………………………………………

Mineral Composition: …………………………………..

Reaction with acid: ………………………….

Occurrence: …………………………………………

Diagnostic properties: …………………………..

Identification: ……………………………………….

Uses: …………………………………………………

Economic importance: ………………………………………………………………

Depositional Environment: …………………………………………………………

Environmental Significance: …………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Other specimens: Sandstone, Mudstone, Shale, Siltstone, Claystone, Chert, and Limestone.
C. Metamorphic Rocks
Study and identify the following hand specimen of the Metamorphic Rocks by analyzing their physical
properties.

STUDY / IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS IN HAND-SPECIMEN

3) Slate
Color: ………………………………………………..

Texture: ………………………………………………

Grain size: ……………………………………………..

Specific Gravity: ……………………………….

Transparency: ………………………………….

Fracture: ………………………………………….

Cleavage: …………………………………………

Mineral Composition: …………………………………..

Reaction with acid: ………………………….

Occurrence: …………………………………………

Diagnostic properties: …………………………..

Identification: ……………………………………….

Uses: …………………………………………………

Economic importance: ………………………………………………………………

Depositional Environment: …………………………………………………………

Environmental Significance: …………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………

Other specimens: Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss, Marble, Quartzite, Amphibolite.

5. Discussion

6. Conclusion

References