Unit – I: - Basic Electrical Parameters

 D.C current:- D.C current is the one which does not change its value or polarity
with respect to time (see fig:-a)
 A.C current:- A.C current is the one which changes its value as well as direction
(polarity) with respect to time (see fig:-b)

 Differences between Direct current and Alternating current:

Particulars Direct Current Alternating Current
1. Waveform See fig :a See fig :b
2. Definition It is the current whose It is the current whose
magnitude and direction do magnitude and direction
not change with respect to continuously changes with
time. respect to time.
3. Use of
Not possible Possible
transformer
4. Design of
Complicated Simple
machines
5. Frequency Zero It is 50 Hz or 60 Hz depending
upon country.
6. Source Battery, Cell and DC Alternator
Generator
7. Passive Resistance only Resistance, Inductance,
parameters Capacitance.
8. Applications DC machines, HVDC system, AC machines, Domestic and
electroplating, Battery Industrial supply.
charging, Traction.

 Energy Sources:-For the working of the electric circuits a source of power or

energy is required.
 Basically there are two types sources available 1) Voltage Source and 2)
Current Sources
o The term voltage source is used to describe a source of energy which
establishes a potential difference across its terminals.
o Most of the sources encountered in everyday life are voltage sources e.g.,
batteries, d.c. generators, alternators etc.
 o The term current source is used to describe a source of energy that provides a
current e.g., collector circuits of transistors.
o Voltage and current sources are called active elements because they provide
electrical energy to a circuit
 Ideal Voltage Source:- An ideal voltage source (also called constant-voltage
source) is one that maintains a constant terminal voltage, for all values of output
current.(see fig:c)
 It has zero internal resistance
Fig:b and c shows symbol & characteristic of ideal Voltage Source

 Practical Voltage Source:- A Practical voltage source has low but finite
internal resistance(Rse) A voltage source whose terminal voltage falls with
the increase in the output current due to the voltage drop in the internal
resistance (see fig: e)
Fig:d and e shows symbol & characteristic of Practical Voltage Source

 Ideal current Source: - An ideal current source or constant current source is one
which will supply the same current to any resistance (load) connected across its
terminals.
It has infinite internal resistance.
 Fig:-e and d shows symbol & characteristic of ideal Current Source

 Practical current Source: - A Practical current source has high but finite internal
resistance (Ri). Therefore, the load current (IL) will change as the value of load
resistance (RL) changes.
Fig:-f and g shows symbol & characteristic of Practical Current Source

 Electric Current :- Current is defined as the flow of electrons inside a conducting

material
It is denoted by “I “and measured in ampere
To understand the current or flow of
electron let us recall atomic structure of
matter
 As per law positive charges (protons)
attract negative charge (electrons)
 Due to this, electrons are always attracted
and attached to nucleus
 But as the distance of shell increases from
nucleus as shown in fig force of attraction
between electron and proton decreases
  Because of this the electron in last orbit or shell is loosely attached to nucleus, it
is free to rotate across the periphery of shell. This free electron are called as
valence electron. This free electron is source of current. As shown in fig
Note: - Free electron only moves around the shell or orbit – automatically
electrons don’t move from one point to another point unless there is external
force or energy & external force is nothing it is E.M.F

 Relation between charge and current:-

o Current is defined as the flow of electrons. Higher the number of flowing
electron, higher the value of current. But each electron carries a constant
charge on it.
o Hence we can define the current as flow of charge per unit time OR
current is defined as the rate of change of charge with respect to time
Mathematically the charge-current relation can be defined as:-
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
Where,
I = average current in amps Q = Total charge flowing
t = time in seconds required for the flow of charge

 Definition of 1 ampere:-
 Current of 1 ampere is said to be flowing if a charge of one coulomb passes
any given time point in a conductor in one second
 As each electron carries a charge of 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb, 1 coulomb charge
corresponds to 6.25 x 1018 (6250000000000000000) electrons.

 As when 6.25 x 1018 electrons pass by a point ( A to B) in a conductor in a 1

second, current of 1 ampere is said to be flowing through the conductor as
shown in fig.b
 1 ampere current corresponding to flow of 6.25 x 1018 electrons

 E.M.F :- Is defined as the energy or force exerted on each coulomb of charge or

electrons
  E.M.F is short-
form of electro-motive
force
All metals contain a
large number of free
electrons which move
randomly in all
directions, inside the metal piece as shown in fig.1
If a battery or emf/voltage source is connected across a metal piece as
shown in fig.2

 Then the free electrons will move in particular direction as shown in fig.3

 E.M.F is also called as voltage or Potential difference. It is denoted by “ V “

IMP :- negative charged Free electron get attracted to positive end of battery that
means electron move from negative to positive but actually in practice we say that
current flows from positive to negative or higher potential to lower potential

 Concept of Electric potential :-

 When a body of mass “m” is raised above the ground level, work is done
against the force gravity.
  This work done is stored in the
body of mass “X” as a potential
energy (mgh).
 Hence, due such potential
energy, it is said that the body
of mass “m”, when raised
above the ground level has
gravitational potential.
 Such potential of body of
mass “m” depends upon the
position of the body of mass
“m” with respect to the ground.

 An electric charge gives rise to an electric field around it as(see fig:-c) it is

similar to gravitational field around the earth. If any charge is introduced in this
field, it gets attracted or repelled depending on the nature of the charge
 At the time of movement of this charge, work is done against or by the force
acting on the charge due to the electric field.
 This depends on the position of the charge in the electric field and is
analogous to the potential of mass due to gravitation field, when lifted
upwards.

 Now, consider a small isolated positive charge 'q' placed at infinity(∞) with
respect to another isolated positive charge 'Q' as shown in the Fig:-d
 Theoretically, the electric field of
charge 'Q' extend upto infinity but has
a zero influence at infinite where ‘q’ is
placed.
 When charge 'q' is move towards
'Q', work is done against the force of
repulsion between these two like
charges.
 Due to this work done, when
charge 'q' reaches position A, it acquires a potential energy.
 If charge 'q' is released, due to force of repulsion, it will go back to infinity i.e
position of zero potential.
 So, at point A, charge 'q' has some potential exactly equal t work done in
bringing it from infinity to the point A, called electric potential.
 Definition: - Electric Potential can be defined as the work done in joules, in
moving a unit positive charge from infinity (position of zero potential) to the
point against the electric field.
It is denoted by symbol V and is measured in joule/coulomb or
volt.
 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒(𝑊)
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉 =
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 (𝑄)

 Concept of potential difference :- Consider two points A and B in an electric field

as shown in Fig:-e
 The positive charge '+q' is moved from point A
to B in an electric field.
 At point A, charge acquires certain electric
potential say VA
 Some additional work is done in bringing it to
point B. so at point B, it has an electric potential
say VB.
 Key Point: The difference between these two potentials per unit positive
charge is called Potential difference
 Definition: the potential difference between the two points in an electric
field is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge from the
point of lower potential to the higher potential.
𝑊𝐴 − 𝑊𝐵
𝑖. 𝑒 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 =
𝑞

 Electrical Work:- Electric work is defined as the work done by the electric field on
a charged particle.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

The SI unit is joule or N/m

 Electrical Power:- Electrical Power is the rate at which work is done in an electric
circuit is called its electric power
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑃) =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

The basic unit of electric power is joules/sec or watt.

The power consumed in a circuit is 1 watt if a p.d. of 1 V causes 1 A current to
flow through the circuit.
Power in watts = Voltage in volts × Current in amperes
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑥𝐼
The bigger units of electric power are kilowatts (kW) and
megawatts (MW).
1 kW = 1000 watts; 1 MW = 106 watts or 103 kW

 Electric Energy :- The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy i.e.
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
 𝑉2
∴ 𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝑡 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅. 𝑡 = .𝑡
𝑅
The unit of electrical energy will be watt-sec

 If power is expressed in kilowatts and time in hours, then unit of electrical

energy will be kilowatt-hour (kWh) i.e.
Energy in kWh = Power in kW × Time in hours
 It may be pointed out here that in practice, electrical energy is measured in
kilowatt-hours (kWh). Therefore, it is profitable to define it.
 One kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electrical energy is expended in a circuit if 1 kW
(1000 watts) of power is supplied for 1 hour.

 Resistance: - It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it

opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e., electrons) through it.
 Concept of resistance:-
 The concept of resistance is analogous to the friction involved in the
mechanical motion.
 Every metal as a tendency to oppose the flow of current higher the
availability of the free electrons lesser will be the opposition to the flow of
current the conductor due to high number of electrons offer less resistance to the
flow of current
 The opposition to the flow of current and conversion of electrical energy into heat
energy can be explained with the help of atomic structure as below
 When the flow of electron is established in the metal the ions gets formed which
are charged particles
 Now free electrons are moving in specific direction when you connected to
external source of EMF so such irons always becomes abstraction for the flowing
electron.
 so there is collision between ions and free electron this not only reduces the speed
of electron but also produces the heat the effect of this is nothing but the
reduction of flow of current does the material oppose is the flow of current.
 The Unit of Resistance :- The practical unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
The symbol for ohm is Ω.
 One ohm: - A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it permits
one ampere current to flow through it when one volt is
impressed across its terminals.
 For insulators whose resistances are very high, a much bigger unit is
used
i.e. Mega-ohm (MΩ) = 106 ohm
(The prefix ‘mega’ meaning a 10 lac)
or kilo-ohm (KΩ) = 103 ohm (kilo means thousand).
 In the case of very small resistances, smaller units like
Milli-ohm (m.Ω) = 10−3 ohm or micro-ohm (µ.Ω) = 10−6 ohm are used.
 Laws of Resistance or factors affecting the resistance
1) Length of the material: The resistance of a material is directly proportional to
the length. The resistance of longer wire is more. Length is denoted by l.
2) Cross-sectional area: The resistance of a material is inversely proportional to
the Cross-sectional area of the material. More cross-sectional area allowed
the passage of more number of free electrons, offering less resistance.
Cross sectional area is denoted by 'a'.
3) It depends on the nature and type of the material.
4) Temperature: The temperature of the material affects the value of the
resistance. Generally the resistance of the material increases as its
temperature increases.
Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that
𝑙
𝑅 ∝
𝑎
𝑜𝑟
𝑙
𝑅= 𝜌 − − − − 𝑒𝑞 − 1
𝑎
Where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the material of the
conductor and is known as its specific resistance or resistivity.
 Resistivity or Specific resistance:-
The Resistivity or Specific resistance or specific resistance of a material depends
on nature of material and denoted by ρ (rho) from the above eq:-1 the
expression of Resistivity ρ can be expressed as
𝑅𝑎 Ω 𝑚2
𝜌= 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒 Ω. m
𝑙 𝑚
It is measured in Ω-m
Definition: - the resistance of a material having unit length and unit cross-
sectional area is known as its resistivity or specific resistance.
The Table gives the value of resistivity of few common materials.
Name of material Resistivity ρ in Ω-m
Standard Copper 1.72 x 10-8
Aluminum Cast 2.6 x 10-8
Bronze 3.6 x 10-8
Iron- Wrought 10.7 x 10-8
Carbon Graphite 4.6 x 10-8
Gold 2.36 x 10-8
Silver Annealed 1.58 x 10-8
Lead 22 x 10-8

 Conductance and Conductivity: -

 Conductance (G): is reciprocal of resistance. Whereas resistance of a
conductor measures the opposition which it offers to the flow of
 current, the conductance measures the inducement which it offers to
its flow.
 It is measured in Siemens
1 𝑎 1 𝑎
𝑠𝑜 … … … 𝐺 = = =
𝑅 𝜌𝑙 𝜌 𝑙
𝑎
∴ 𝐺=σ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 σ = conductivity
𝑙
 Conductivity: - is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity (1/ρ). It represents a
material's ability to conduct electric current. It is denoted by the Greek
letter “σ” (sigma).
 It is measured in Siemens/m
 Effect of Temperature on Resistance: -
The resistance of the material increases as temperature of a metal increases.
Let us see the physical phenomenon involved in this process.
Atomic structure theory says that under normal temperature when the metal is
subjected to potential difference, ions i.e. unmovable charged
particles get formed inside the metal.
The electrons which are moving randomly, get aligned in a particular direction as
shown in the Fig.h
 At low temperatures, the ions are almost
stationary. But as temperature increases,
the ions gain energy and start oscillating
about their mean position.
 Higher the temperature, greater is the
amplitude. Such vibrating ions cause
obstruction to the flowing electrons.
 Due to collision and obstruction due to
higher amplitude of oscillations of lons,
the resistance of material increases as
temperature increases.
But this is not true for all materials. In some cases, the resistance decreases as
temperature increases.

 Key Point: So effect of temperature on the resistance depends on nature of

material

- Let us see the effect of temperature on resistance of various category of

materials.
1) Effect of temperature on resistance of metals: - the resistance of all pure metals like
copper, iron, tungsten, aluminium etc, increases linearly with temperature. For
copper its resistance is 100 ohm at 00 C then it increases linearly upto 100o C. at a
temperature of -234.50 C it is almost zero such variation is applicable to the pure
metals in the range of 00 C to 1000 C. this is shown in fig given below.

2) Effect of Temperature on Carbon and Insulators: - The effect of temperature on

carbon and insulators is exactly opposite to that of pure metals. Resistance of
carbon and insulators decreases as the temperature increases

3) Effect of Temperature on alloys: - The resistance of alloys increases as the

temperature increases but rate of increase is not significant. In fact the alloys like
Manganin (alloy of copper, manganese and nickel), Eureka (alloy of copper and
nickel) etc. show almost no change in resistance for considerable change in the
temperature. Due to this property alloys are used to manufacture the resistance boxes. (all
3 effects are shown in below fig.)
Numerical:-1) The rating of electric geyser is 250 V, 3 kW. How much current does it
take and what is its hot resistance? Also calculate the energy consumed by it in one
hour.
Solution:- Given V = 250 V Power(P) = 3 kW= 3000 watts I = ? R = ?
Energy = ? for t = 1h
𝑠𝑜, 𝑃=𝑉𝐼
𝑃 3000
∴𝐼= = = 12 𝑎𝑚𝑝
𝑉 250
𝑉 250
∴𝑅= = = 20.83 Ω
𝐼 12
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉 𝐼 𝑡 = 250 x 12 x 1 = 3000 𝑊ℎ 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Numerical:-2) A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-sectional area of 0.8 mm2.
The mean length per turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of copper wire is 0.02 micro-ohm-meter. Find the
resistance of the coil and the power adsorbed by the coil when connected across 110V D.C suppl.
Solution:- Given –1) N(turns) = 2000 2) l = 80 cm/turn = 0.8m/turn, 3) a = 0.8 mm2 = 0.8 x 10-6 m2
4) V = 110 dc 5) 𝜌 = 0.02 µ.Ω.m = 0.02 x 10-6 Ω.m) R =? 6) P =?
Total length of copper wire (l) in meter =0.8 x 2000 = 1600 m
𝑙
𝑅= 𝜌
𝑎
1600
𝑅 = 0.02 x 10−6 ( ) = 40 Ω
0.8 x 10−6

𝑉 110
𝐼= = = 2.75 𝑎𝑚𝑝
𝑅 40

∴ 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 = 110 𝑥 2.75 = 302.5 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

 Resistance Temperature coefficient:- Let us consider a conductor, the resistance

of which increases with temperature linearly.
 Let,
R0 =Initial resistance at 0 °C
R1 = Resistance at t₁ 0C
R2 = Resistance at t₂ °C

As shown in the Fig:j

, 𝑅2 > 𝑅1 > 𝑅𝑜

Key Point: - The change in

resistance with temperature is
according to the factor called
resistance temperature coefficient
(R.T.C denoted by ∝

Definition of R.T.C(∝):- The resistance temperature coefficient at t 0C is the ratio

of change in resistance per degree Celsius to the resistance at t 0C

0
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 0 𝐶 ∆𝑅 / 0 𝐶
𝑅. 𝑇. 𝐶 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 𝐶 = (∝𝑡 ) = =
𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑡
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔: 𝑗 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1

𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

𝑅2 − 𝑅1
∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑠 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

Hence according to the definition of R.T.C we can write at t1 0C as

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 0 𝐶 (𝑅2 − 𝑅1 /𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

∝1 = =
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡1 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶 𝑅1

 Unit of R.T.C :- we know

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 0 𝐶 Ω/ 0 𝐶

∝1 = = = / 0𝐶
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡1 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐶 Ω
Thus unit of RTC is per degree celcius i.e / 0C

Use of RTC in calculating Resistance at t 0C

𝛼0 = 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑎𝑡 0 0 𝐶
 𝑅0 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 0 0 𝐶 𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡1 0 𝐶
(𝑅1 − 𝑅0 /𝑡1 − 0) (𝑅1 − 𝑅0 )
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛼0 = =
𝑅0 𝑡1 𝑅0
∴ 𝑅1 − 𝑅0 = 𝛼0 𝑡1 𝑅0
∴ 𝑅1 = 𝑅0 + 𝛼0 𝑡1 𝑅0 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼0 𝑡1 )
Thus resistance at any temperature can be expressed as
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼0 𝑡)
So knowing R0 and 𝛼0 at 0 0C the resistance at any 𝑡 0C can be obtained.
Alternatively this result can be expressed as below,
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑅1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡1 0 𝐶
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 0 𝐶
(𝑹𝒕 − 𝑹𝟏 /𝒕 − 𝒕𝟏 )
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, ∝𝟏 =
𝑹𝟏
∴ ∝1 𝑅1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅1
∴ 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 [1 + ∝1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 )] ----------- Eq: X
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑡1 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑡
Key point: - Thus knowing resistance and RTC of the material at any one
temperature the resistance of material at any other temperature can be
obtained

 Effect of temperature on R.T.C:- From the above discussion, it is clear that value of
RTC also changes with the temperature. As the temperature increases, its value
decreases. For any metal its value is maximum at 0 0C
From the above eq: X we can write,
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [ 1 + ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ] − − − − − 𝑒𝑞. 1
Where 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∝1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑇𝐶 𝑎𝑡 𝑡1 0 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡2 0 𝐶
If same resistance is cooled from t2 to t1 0C and if ∝2 is RTC at t2 0C then,
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 [ 1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) ] − − − − − 𝑒𝑞. 2
Dividing eq.1 by R2 ,
𝑅1
∴ 1= [1 + ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )]
𝑅2
𝑅2
∴ = 1 + ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) − − − − − 𝑒𝑞. 3
𝑅1
Dividing eq.2 by R1,
𝑅2
∴ 1= [1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )]
𝑅1
 𝑅1
∴ = 1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
𝑅2
𝑅2 1
𝑜𝑟 = − − − −𝑒𝑞. 4
𝑅1 1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
Equating eq.3 and 4 we can write,
1
1 + ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) =
1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
1 1 − 1 −∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
∴ ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = −1=
1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) 1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
−∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) ∝2 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
∴ ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = =
1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) 1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 )
∝2 1
∴ ∝1 = =
1 + ∝2 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) 1
(𝑡 )
∝2 + 1 − 𝑡2
∝1 1
𝑜𝑟 ∝2 = =
1 + ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) 1
(𝑡 )
∝1 + 2 − 𝑡1

Using any of the above expression if ∝ at any one temperature t1 0C is known

then ∝ at any other temperature t2 can be obtained
If starting temperature is t1 = 0 0C and ∝ at t 0C i.e ∝𝑡 is required then we can write
∝0 ∝0
∝𝑡 = =
1 + ∝0 (𝑡 − 0) 1 + ∝0 𝑡
This is very useful expression to obtain R.T.C at any temperature t 0C from ∝0
 Example:- 1 A certain winding made up of copper has a resistance of 100 Ω at
room temperature. If resistance temperature coefficient of copper at 0 0C is
0.00428 /0C, calculate the winding resistance if temperature is increased to 50 0C.
Assume room temperature as 25 0C.
Solution:- 𝑡1 = 25 0 𝐶, 𝑅1 = 100 Ω, 𝑡2 = 50 0 𝐶, 𝛼0 = 0.00428 /0 𝐶
∝0
𝑁𝑜𝑤 ∝𝑡 =
1 + ∝0 𝑡
∝0 0.00428
∴ ∝1 = = = 0.003865 /0 𝐶
1 + ∝0 𝑡 1 + 0.00428 x 25
𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [ 1 + ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ] = 100[1 = 0.003865(50 − 25)
𝑅2 = 109.6657 Ω … … … … Resistance at 500 𝐶

 Example:-2 The resistance of copper coil increases from 70 Ω at 12 ºC to 95.5 Ω at

60 ºC. Find temperature coefficient of material at 0 ºC.
Solution: Given 𝑅1 = 70 Ω 𝑡1 = 12 0 C 𝑅2 = 95.5 Ω 𝑡2 = 60 0 C
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [ 1 + ∝1 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ] =
95.5 = 70[1 + ∝1 (60 − 12)]
𝑖. 𝑒 1.36 = 1 + ∝1 (48)
∴ 48 ∝1 = 1.36 − 1 = 0.36
0.36
∴ ∝1 = = 0.0075 /0 𝐶 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡1 = 12 0 C
48
∝0 ∝0
𝑁𝑜𝑤 ∝𝑡 = 𝑖. 𝑒 ∝1 =
1 + ∝0 𝑡 1 + ∝0 𝑡1
∝0
∴ 0.0075 =
1 + ∝0 x 12
𝑖. 𝑒 1 + 12 ∝0 = 133.33 ∝0
∴ 121 ∝0 = 1
1
∴ ∝0 = = 0.00826 /0 𝐶
121

 Types of Resistor and their Application:-

1) Carbon composition resistor: Carbon composition resistors (CCR) are fixed
value resistors. They are made out of fine carbon particles mixed with a binder
(for example clay).as shown in fig.1) after baking, it has a solid form. Although
carbon composition resistors are widely applied in circuits, the majority of
resistors today are made by deposition o f a metal or carbon film over a
ceramic carrier.

 Applications of carbon composition resistor:-

1) Potential divider 2) Welding control circuits 3)Power supplies
4) H. V and high impulse circuits 5) Radio/TV receiver circuit
6) Transistor amplifier circuits 7) Zener voltage regulator.

2) Metal film resistor: - Metal film resistors have a thin metal layer as resistive
element on a non- conducting body. he thin film is usually deposited on a ceramic
body.(see fig:2) They are among the most common types of axial resistors.
Fig:-2
  Applications of Metal film resistor:-
1) Transmitter circuits 2) Oscillator 3) Telecommunication circuits
4) Testing circuits 5) Measurement circuits 6) Audio amplifier circuits
7) Modulator and Demodulator circuits.

3) Wire wound resistor: A wire wound resistor is an

electrical passive component that limits current. The
resistive element is an insulated metallic wire that is
wound around a core of non-conductive material.
See fig :3 The wire material has a high resistivity, and is
usually made of an alloy such as nickel-chromium
(Nichrome) or a copper-nickel-manganese alloy
called Manganin. Common core materials include
ceramic, plastic, and glass. Wire wound resistors are the oldest type of resistors that
are still manufactured today. They can be produced very accurately and have
excellent properties for low resistance values and

 Applications of Wire wound resistor:-

1) Power amplifiers 2) Zener voltage regulators
3) Radio / TV receiver circuit 4) Measurement circuits.
5) High power resistance in DC power supplies
4) H V Ink Film type resistor:- These types of resistors are made by coating a special
resistive ink in a helical band above a ceramic
base. These resistors can withstand very high
voltage of up to one thousands of kilo voltages
and usually have high resistance too ranging
from on kilo ohms to one hundred thousand
mega ohms.

 Applications of H V Ink Film type resistor:-

1) C R O circuits
2) Radar
3) Medical electronics

5) Carbon film resistors:- are a type of fixed value resistor. They are constructed out
of a ceramic carrier with a thin pure carbon film around it. See fig given below. This
carbon film functions as the resistive material.


 Applications of Carbon film resistors : used for electronic circuits

6) Cermet resistors: A cermet resistor is a type of resistor that is made by depositing a

conductive paste of ceramic and metal onto an
ceramic substrate. They get their name from the
ceramic ‘cer’ and metal ‘met’ in their composition.
Cermet resistors are a type of film resistor, similar to
metal, carbon, or metal oxide film resistors. Cermet
resistors are available in a wide range of resistances,
including very high resistance values that are difficult to
achieve with other methods of resistor construction.

 Applications of Cermet resistors:-

1) Printers 2) Automotive 3) Computers
4) Cell phones 5) Battery chargers.
 Effects of electric current:-

1. Heating effect: When an electric current flows through a conductor, the flow of
electron
is opposed by the resistance of conductor and heat is produced.
The heat (H) produced is directly proportional to:
 i) Square of the current (I) ii) Resistance of the conductor(R) iii) Time of flow of
current (t)
∴ 𝑯 ∝ 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 𝒕
 Examples of heating effect of electric current
a) Electric iron b) Water heater c) Hot plates d) Electric lamp
e) Electric cooker f) Hair dryer g) Room heater h) Electric oven
i) Electric furnace j) Electric fuse k) Electric heat treatment process etc.

2. Magnetic Effect: Whenever a conductor carries electric current, the magnetic

field is produced round the conductor. If the conductor is a straight conductor,
the magnetic field is produced round the conductor itself. If the conductor is in
the form of coil or winding (solenoid) wound over the core, the magnetic field is

produced in the core. See figs given

below

 Examples of Magnetic effect of electric current

a) Electric motor b) Electric bell c) Electromagnet d) Measuring instrument
e) Alternator f) Various electric appliances g) Electric hoist etc

3. Chemical effect: Whenever a DC current is passed through a chemical solution,

the solution is decomposed into its constituent substances. The passage of an
electric current through a conducting solution causes chemical reactions. As a result,
bubbles of a gas may be formed on the electrodes. Deposits of metal may be seen
on electrodes. Changes of colour of solutions may occur
 Examples of Chemical effect of electric current
a) Electro-plating b) Battery charging c) Electro-refining d) Fuel cells e)
Production of chemicals g) Electro-typing h) Electrolytic process