Xerxes I was a somewhat effective leader of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Xerxes viewed
himself and his predecessors as mighty kings of all the known land. In actuality, Xerxes’
legacy is viewed as far inferior to past Persian kings and his reign is completely
overshadowed by the great glory of the Greeks. While Xerxes’ reign is mostly characterised
by his losses against the Greeks, many positive aspects of his internal management of the
empire are left mostly unnoticed. Xerxes was effective at crushing revolts in his empire, as
well as expanding the great Persian monument, Persepolis.

Xerxes was extremely ineffective at enforcing the imperialistic policies of the Persian
Empire. The most monumental event of his reign were his multiple failures in the Greek
campaign. A historical analysis of the Persian Empire reveals multiple facts about its
intentions, but none more important than the Imperialistic policy of the Persians. Every ruler
of the Achaemenid Empire had conquered territory during their reign. Xerxes had aimed to
continue the imperialistic policy of the Empire, lest he be criticised by the Persian people.
Xerxes was not reckless in his planning of the invasion of Greece, it was well orchestrated
and planned. Herodotus states in his work ‘The Histories’ that “Xerxes… in the process of
assembling his armies, had every corner of the continent ransacked.”i Even though his
preparations were immense, Xerxes won exactly one battle in the Greco-Persian wars. While
Xerxes did succeed in his plot to burn Athens in a vengeful rage and gain significant territory
into Greece, his effectiveness as a war-time and expansionist ruler was inconsistent.
Following a complete defeat at the Battle of Plataea (479 BCii), the Persian army fully left
Greece and allowed the Greeks to reclaim their territory. The immense implications of the
Persian invasion of Greece can still be seen today in popular culture (300, 2006) and
historical monuments (Serpent Column at Constantinople). Given the popularity and
notoriety of the Greco-Persian Wars, Xerxes’ reign is most commonly associated with his
ineffective imperialistic policies in the Greek campaigns despite his effectiveness elsewhere.

A less discussed facet of Xerxes’ rule over Persia was his effective stuffing of revolts in his
subject states. Throughout his reign, Xerxes inherited his father’s revolts when he took the
throne. Several other states also attempted to expel themselves from Persian rule and Xerxes
handled this in different ways, with varying levels of success. The Ionian Revolt was a major
rebellious revolt from the Persian controlled Greek city states of Ionia. The Ionian Revolt
greatly angered Darius and it was the penultimate event that led to the first Persian invasion
of Greece. While the Ionian Revolt was all but quelled by the time Xerxes took the throne in
486, its political fallout undoubtedly inspired several revolts within the empire. The most
notable of these was the Egyptian revolt in 486 BCEiii iv, spurred by the death of Darius. The
Egyptians, inspired by the actions of the Greek Ionians and hoping to expel themselves
during a time of political unrest. Herodotus places the Egyptian rebellion around ~484 in
book 7 of ‘The Histories’. While there is no clear date that outlines the end of the Egyptian
revolt, it can be safely assumed that Xerxes put down the rebellion before refocusing his
efforts on invading Greece. Another notable revolt in his empire was the Babylonian revolt
(484 BC). The Babylonians, which had been conquered 55 years previously, had grown
increasingly dissatisfied with Persian occupation. The Daiva Inscription which was found at
Persepolis states “when I (Xerxes) became king, there was among these countries one that
was in rebellion. Ahuramazda bore me aid. By the grace of Ahuramazda I smote that country
and put it down in its place.” v The Daiva Inscription does not name the country that Xerxes
is referring to, but it does provide a split context for the revolts of Babylon, namely religious
bigotry. The Babylonian revolt only lasted 3 months and Xerxes severely punished Babylon
for their rebellion by dividing the satrapy to harshly monitor each division of Babylon and
made worship of any gods other than Persian gods punishable. The speed and vigour in which
Xerxes controlled his subject states, as well as the general maintaining of the Persian
Empire’s borders show that Xerxes was an effective leader when not enforcing imperialistic
policies.

Xerxes was an effective maintainer and expander of his empire’s infrastructure, specifically
at Persepolis.
Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid empire, founded and built on
Persian soil. Its purpose remains unknown, likely as a lavish decoration to display the wealth
and reach of the Persian Empire. This was done for several reasons including his legacy,
those of whom who view his name on the many buildings of Persepolis will view him as a
great leader, and so as to impress or intimidate visitors of Persepolis. Xerxes was keen to
erect many buildings in his and his family’s honour, an action that was repeated by his
predecessors several times before. The Gate of All Nations, a massive double staircase
structure and entrance to a prominent building in Persepolis had Xerxes’s name written on it
in 3 different languages, as well as the following inscription “Much other good [construction]
was built within this [city] Persepolis, which I built and which my father built.” vi(R. Kent)
The immense expansion of Persepolis by Xerxes shows his clear desire for international
admiration. Moreover, it highlights how Xerxes administered his empire and his clear focus,
becoming a great ruler. Xerxes had a desire to match the greatness of his predecessors. The
building program at Persepolis elucidates the speed at which Xerxes can implement
infrastructure adding and expanding over 7 great buildings during his reign. The diplomatic
nature of the inscribing’s on every building show that Xerxes was an extremely effective
expander of the empire's infrastructure, especially at Persepolis.

Xerxes had a burning desire to match the legacy and greatness of his predecessors. This can
clearly be seen in his failed invasion of Greece, building programs at Persepolis and general
administration of his empire. Xerxes was a somewhat effective ruler of Persia, his control of
the empire and expanding of infrastructure was superior to that of his predecessors, but the
great failures in the Greek campaign severely scare his legacy and caused great historical
consequences for all nations involved.
SOURCE ANALYSIS
The Histories, written by Herodotus, is the most comprehensive and reliable primary source
that we have on Xerxes and the wider ancient Greek-Persian world. ‘The Histories’ is a
collection of books written by the great Greek historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus. It is
written in Ionian Greek and was written around 430 BC. It contains 9 volumes and they detail
every facet of Greek life, culture and conflict as well as conflicts in Ionia. Herodotus wrote
these books as a collection of interviews from Greeks after travelling extensively. Where
Herodotus differs from other ancient historians such as Plutarch, he often looks upon
neutrally or fondly on Persia and
other barbarians. Evidence of the
Histories publishing date such as
carbon dating and referencing from
other ancient historians places the
publication from 426-415 BC, the
same century as both Persian
invasions, formation of the Delian
league, the Ionian revolt and the
Peloponnesian war. Herodotus
wrote extensively about Xerxes,
including him as a central figure to
his narrative. Herodotus noted
Xerxes royal lineage, invasion of
Greece, retreat from Greece and his meticulous preparations for war. Furthermore, Herodotus
describes the character of Xerxes in Book VIII of the Histories. Herodotus characterises
Xerxes as impulsive, cruel and gullible, with this view being corroborated with his flogging
of the Hellespont and post victory actions at Thermopylae. Herodotus’s central work ‘The
Histories’ is the single most important primary source for our knowledge of Xerxes. His
method of collecting history as well as his proximity to the events portrayed make him a
reliable and effective primary source.

SECONDARY
R. Granger’s ‘Legacy: An Assessment of Xerxes’ reign’ viiis a comprehensive analysis of the
reign of Xerxes by modern day historian R. Granger. R. Granger does not make a judgement
on the effectiveness of his reign but rather composites several different sources both primary
from Persepolis and modern from fellow historical peers such as Immerwahr and Olmstead.
This leads to his work being a conversation piece and a medium for opinion rather than a set
in stone discursive text. This text is extremely effective in the discussion and decision
making regarding the reign of Xerxes. R. Granger references engravings at Persepolis,
supportive arguments about Xerxes from Young and opposing, negative views from George
Cannon. The offering of several perspectives allows the reader to make their own decisions
and digest information unobscured from bias. While R. Granger does not make a definitive
decision about the reign of Xerxes, his work ‘Legacy: An Assessment of Xerxes’s Reign’ is
an extremely effective secondary source for researching Xerxes and coming to an individual
conclusion about Xerxes’ reign.
PHYSICAL
Persepolis, the former capital of the Achaemenid Empire is
the most important physical evidence of Xerxes’s existence.
The massive upgrades and new additions to Persepolis show
how Xerxes spent his time after the defeat by the Greeks. Xerxes found it imperative to
preserve his legacy, this is shown from the many inscribing’s that describe Xerxes as the
‘king of kings, son of a king’. The ruins of Persepolis still show the engravings and
inscribing’s that mention not only Xerxes, but his father Darius. Various examples such as
the Palace of Xerxes and the gate of all nations depicted Xerxes. Furthermore, Persepolis also
houses the Daiva Inscription, 3 slabs of stone in which Xerxes states his religious policies,
including the ’smoting’ of a country (possibly Babylon) who disobeyed this policy.
Furthermore, Xerxes states his undying devotion to Ahuramazda. The Daiva Inscription also
possesses a comprehensive list of all subject states. Persepolis and the Daiva inscription are
the most important pieces of physical evidence for the proof and intentions of not just Xerxes,
but the entire Achaemenid Empire. The information it holds is central to our understanding of
Xerxes and how he governed Persia.
i
(Herodotus, The Histories, Book VII, 18).
ii
(Herodotus, The Histories, Book IX, 18).
iii
(Herodotus, The Histories, Book VII, 18)
iv
(Wijnsma, June 11, 2019)
v
(Kent, 1950)
vi
(Kent, 1950)
vii
(Granger, 2005)