MODULE 1

0 INORGANIC
PHARMACEUTICAL &
MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
0 ORGANIC
PHARMACEUTICAL &
MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
 GENERAL
CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC MEDICINAL
CHEMISTRY INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY INORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Chemistry � the study of matter
•Composition/Constituents:
Matter � anything that occupies space & has
mass
Matter
(1) composition
(2) structure
(3) changes that matter undergoes Pure Impure/ Mixture
(4) energy involved in such changes
* composed predominantly of atoms, molecules, Elements Compounds Homogenous Heterogenous
ions
* interconvertible w/ energy
▪ Mass � refers to the amount of matter present in the *Law of Definite Solution
material Proportion Suspension
▪ Weight = Mass x pull of gravity
*Law of Colloids
Units of Measurement
Fundamental Quantity SI Unit Multiple
- Length - Meter (m) Proportion
- Mass - Kilogram (kg)
- Time - Seconds (sec) •Classification of Matter:
- Temperature - Kelvin (K) ▪ Element �simplest form of matter
•Properties of Matter �1 kind of material or atom
(1) Intensive/ Intrinsic � mass independent
* has definite chemical composition
* are characteristics of any sample of the
* cannot be decomposed by simple physical/ chemical
substance regardless of the shape or size of
means into two or more different substances
the sample
▪ Compound � substance composed of two or more elements unites
Examples: *Density *Melting point
chemically in definite proportion
*pH *Freezing point
�cannot be changed into sipler substance under normal
*Color *Sublimation temperature laboratory conditions
*Concentration *Optical activity
*Law of Definite * Elements combined in fixed ratios of
*Boiling point
Proportions whole numbers to form compounds
(2) Extensive/ Extrinsic � mass
* states that the elemental composition of a
dependent Examples: *Volume
pure compound is always the same
*Weight regardless
*Pressure
� same w/ Law Constant Composition
*Heat content
*Law of Multiple �Elements combined in different ratios of
*Temperature
Proportions whole numbers to form different
compounds
•Changes that Matter undergoes:
(1)Physical Change � change in ▪ Mixture � composed of two or more elements/ substances which
phase are not chemically combined
(2)Chemical Change � in both intrinsic & extrinsic properties
Evidences of Chemical Change: •Classification of Mixture
*Evolution of Gas ▪ Heterogenous � two or more distinct phases
*Formation of a precipitate ▪ Homogenous �only one phase or single phase
*Emission of light -Solution �uniform mixture
*Generation of Electricity �composed of solute & solvent
*Production of Mechanical Energy �wherein atoms, molecules or ions of the substance
*Absorption/liberation of Heat become dispersed
-Suspension � homogenous dispersion insoluble in a liquid
•Physical State/ Phase �aka Coarse Mixture
a. solid � (lowest) * finely divided solid materials distributed in a
b. liquid liquid
c. gas � (highest) -Colloids �contain particles bigger than those in solutions but
d. Plasma � aka “Mesophase”, “Liquid Crystals” smaller that those in suspension
* has solid like properties �particle of solute are not broken down to the size of
* resemble those of a crystal in the formation of loosely the molecules but are small dispersed throughout
ordered molecular arrays similar to a regular the medium.
crystalline lattice & anisotropic refraction of light * exhibit the light scattering effect
-Crystal lattice � ordered arrangement of atoms Properties of Colloids
-flow properties 1. Tyndall Effect � light scattering effect
-LCD � liquid crystal display 2. Brownian Movement � zigzag movement of colloidal
*Two main types of Liquid Crystals: particles
-Smectic (soap- or grease-like) 3. Electrically charge
-Nematic (thread-like) *Electrophoresis � Gel-electrophoresis
*Six Distict Crystal System: �SDS-PAGE
1. Cubic (sodium chloride) (used to separate
2. Tetragonal (urea) protein & nucleic acids)
3. Hexagonal (iodofrom) -Cathode (-) reduction takes place
4. Rhombic (iodine) -Anode (+) oxidation takes place
5. Monoclinic (sucrose) 4. Adsorption
6. Triclinic (boric Acid)
•Other Laws of Chemical Changes: 5. Saponification � a reaction between an alkali & fats/ oils forming
*Law of soap & glycerol
Conservation of * In a chemical reaction, the total mass of 6. Fermentation � action of bacterial/ microorganism on organic
Mass reactant is equal to the total mass of substances resulting to the production of alcohol.
products or mass is neither created nor
destroyed in any transformation of xNuclear Change � chance in the structure of properties,
matter. composition of the nucleus of an atom
@Physical Changes/ Phase Transformation resulting I \n the transmutation of the
element into another element
Nuclear Fission � splitting of a heavy atom
Nuclear Fusion � union of 2 light atoms to form a bigger
molecule.

@Types of Chemical Reactions:

(a) Direct Union/ Synthesis/ Composition � involves the formation of
elements
*Combustion � chemical combination with oxygen
*Metal oxides = basic
Nonmetal oxides = acidic
(b) Decomposition/ Analysis � breakdown of complex substances into
simpler substance.
*Electrolysis � causing chemical change by passing electricity
through conducting solution
Ex: H2O -electrolysis� H2 + O2
(c) Single Replacement: A + BC -+ B + AC
Na + HCl -+ H2 1'- + NaCl
*Li � most reactive metal
Li + NaCl -+ Na + LiCl
Na + LiCl -+ ®
Au � least reactive metal
•Changes of State:
(d) Double displacement/ Metathesis: AB + CD -+ AD + CB
1. Melting � from solid to liquid, usually caused by heating.
Ex: NaCL + AgNO3 -+ AgCl + NaNO3
2. Solidification � from liquid to solid of a substance which is a solid
*Neutralization � the reaction between acid & a base
at room temperature & atmospheric pressure.
to form salt & water
3. Freezing � from liquid to solid, caused by cooling a liquid.
a. Acid + Base -+ Salt + Water
4. Boiling � from liquid to gaseous (vapor) at a temperature called
boiling point. b. Metal Oxide + Acid -+ Salt + Water
5. Evaporation � from liquid to gaseous (vapor) due to the escape c. Nonmetal Oxide + Base -+ Salt + Water
of molecule from the surface. d. Metal Oxide + Nonmetal Oxide -+ Salt
Vapor � refers to the gaseous phase of a substance, which e. Ammonia + Acid -+ Ammonium salt
is normally liquid or solid at room temperature. (e) Redox
6. Liquefaction � from gas to liquid at a substance which is gas at Oxidation Reduction
room temperature & pressure. It is caused by “VI LEORA” “VD LEORA”
cooling & increasing pressure. - Half reactive which - Gain of Electrons
7. Condensation � from gaseous to liquid, of a substance which is involve loss of
a liquid at room temperature & pressure. It is electrons
naturally caused by cooling. - 1'-oxidation state/ - • oxidation state/
8. Sublimation� from solid to gaseous on heating, & from valence valence
gaseous directly to solid on cooling. - Removal of - Removal of Oxygen;
9. Deposition � direct transition from vapor state to the solid state hydrogen; Addition Addition of Oxygen
of Oxygen
•Process of Separating Components of Mixture: - Reducing Agent - Oxidizing Agent
1. Decantation � Difference in Specific Gravity Ex: Na -+ Na + e- Ex: Cl2 + 2e- -+ 2Cl
2. Distillation � Evaporation & then condensation *MnO4 (violet/ pink) -acidic� Mn2+ (colorless/discoloration)
3. Magnetic separation � for metals -basic/ neutral� MnO2 • (brown ppt)
4. Sorting � mechanical separation; darbling
5. Filtration � solid to liquid
6. Centrifugation � speeding up of settling process of a precipitate
7. Functional Crystallization � lowering of temperature so that the
more insoluble component crystallizes
out first.
9. Chromatography � difference in solvent affinity

• Process involved in Chemical Change:

1. Combustion � chemical union of oxygen w/ another substance
2. Reduction � oxygen is removed from compound or H is added
3. Neutralization � acid reacts with a base to form salt & water
4. Hydrolysis � reaction of water on a salt forming an acid and base
*Rate of Hydrolysis depends on: pH of the solution
Temperature
@Structure of Atoms: •Electrons:
0 Democritus � “Matter composed of tiny particles called Atomos” * Electrons � are located in electron clouds or energy level.
*Atomos � Greek word , meaning-(not to be cut or to be divided) 1. Orbitals � region in space where the probability of finding
f} John Dalton � “atoms” an electron is greatest
* Theory: The Billiard Ball Model -1s - spherical Hybridization of Orbitals:
- Atom is a hard indestructible sphere. -3p - principal - Sp3 � hybrid orbital
- was disproved when - Sp2 � double bond
-5d - dumbed - Sp � triple bond
Subatomoc Particles discovered. -Quantum numbers
-Electron (-)� Thompson 2. Electron Shell � one or more orbitals of varying shapes
-Proton (+)� Goldstein 3. Electron Configuration � groups of numbers which shows the
-Neutron (neutral) � Chadwick & arrangement of the electrons in an atom.
Urey 4. Valence Electrons � electrons occupying the outermost shell
@ Thompson � Model: The Raisin-bread Model 6 2 10 nd
The Plum-pudding Model Ex: 2 2 6 2 3d �(Ve- -is from 2 to the last)
Zn =
30 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
* “An atom is a sphere of positive particles” ▪ Paramagnetic � unpaired electrons
6Rutherford � disproved the Thompson’s Theory (after 5 years) ▪ Diamagnetic � all the electrons are paired
* Experiment: The Gold Foil/ Film Experiment 5. Electron Energy level � are composed of sublevels, which in turn
-99% passed consist of orbitals
-<1% deflected •Quantum Numbers:
-According to him: (Proposal) Symbol Values
1. Principal
▪ Atom is mostly an empty space n 1, 2, 3, 4
(99& passed) n=1 K shell
▪ Most of its Mass & (+) particles are n=2 L shell
concentrated in the nucleus n=3 M shell
(<1% deflected) n=4 N shell
▪ Contains very small nucleus & in the
nucleus there is protons & 2.
Angular Ɩ 0-+ n=1 # of Total #
neutrons. Momentum/ of orbitals
▪ Electrons are scattered around the Azithmutal n=1; Ɩ=0 electrons
nucleus. n=2; Ɩ=0,1 possible
* Model: Nuclear Model n=3; Ɩ=0,1,2 Ɩ=0 -s subshell 1 2
@Niel Bohr � Model: Planetary Model Ɩ=1 -p subshell 3 6
Ɩ=2 -d subshell 5 10
Ɩ=3 -f subshell 7 14
“Electrons move around in the circular paths 3. Magnetic m/mƖ -1, 0, +1
called orbitals, wherein the energy of orbitals
is quantized.”
0Erwin Schrodinger � Model: The Quatum-Mechanical Model n=1 Ɩ=0; m=0
; Ɩ=0,1; m=0
“Electron moves in a 3D space/structure, n=2
which is called electron cloud (e- cloud).” m= -1, 0, +1
;
•Ion � charged Atom n=3 Ɩ=0,1,2; m=0
▪ Atomic Number � always equal to the number of protons ; m= -1, 0, +1
* always equal to the number of electrons (if neutral) m= -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
▪ Mass Number (Atomic Mass) � sum of Protons + Neutrons 4. Spin s/mS -½ or + ½
* Electrons + neutrons (if neutral)
2 2 6 2 6 2 10
* Atomic number + neutrons Ex: 30Zn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Neutral = #protons = #electrons n = 3; Ɩ=2; m= -2, -1, 0, +1, +2; s = = + ½
(+) = #protons > #electrons * main energy level/ shell -+ sublevel/subshell -+ orbitals
(-) = #protons < #electrons Functions
Charged = #protons + 1. Principal � Total energy of electron (1'-n ¢ 1'-energy)
#electrons * Size of electron cloud (1'- ¢ 1'-size)
* Main energy level or shell
(+) (-) * Describes the relative position of an energy level
Example: w/ respect to the other nergy level present
- Electron number (z) 2. Angular Momentum/ � Shape of electron cloud
- Electrons mass (A)
A * Subshell/sublevel
- Z Symbol Azithmutal
# Protons # Electrons # Neutrons different ways to form substances with different
23 properties.
11 Na 11 11 12
24 2+ 12 10 12
12 Mg
32 2- 16 18 16
16 S

*Isotopes � same elements, same 3 of protons,

different # of neutrons
* same atomic #; different mass number
* Classes: (1) Stable
(2) Unstable or Radioactive Isotopes
*Isobars � different elements, same mass #
*Isotones � different elements, same # of neutrons
*Negatron --- neutron converts to proton
*Positron --- protron changes to neutron
▪ Allotropism
Allotrope � atoms of different elements can link together in
3. Magnetic � Orientation of the space of electron cloud
* Orbitals
4. Spin � Direction of the spin or rotation

Principles:
+Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
* No two electrons can have the same set of quantum number
2
* Each atomic orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons (Ex: 1s )
+Aufbau/ Building Up Principle
* energy: Lower ¢ Higher (lower energy levels are filled up first)
* the higher the n value, the higher the energy level
* 4s: (n+Ɩ) = 4+0 = 4
(energy level)
+Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
* orbital are filled up singly before pairing up.
+Heisenberg Uncertainty
�It is impossible to determine simultaneously the momentum &
position of an electron.
@Periodic Table:
0Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
* Father of Modern Chemistry
* first true periodic table • Summary: Periodic Properties
*Base on classes: -Gases- -Metals- -Minerals- T¢B L¢R
Oxygen Fe Chalk 1. Atomic Size/ 1'- •
Nitrogen Co Silica Atomic Radius
Chlorine Cu 2. Ionization Energy Potential • 1'-
f}Dobereiner (Johann Dobereiner) 3. Electron Affinity • 1'-
* proposed the Law of ”TRIADS” based on physical & 4. Electronegativity • 1'-
chemical 5. Metallic Property 1'- •
properties of elements. Non-metallic Property • 1'-
Li, Na, K, * T¢B = 1'- Metallic Property & Atomic size
Ca, Ba, Sr, * L¢R = • Metallic Property & Atomic size
S, Sc, Tc
@Newlands (John Newlands) @Periodic Properties:
* “octaves” (set of eight) Atomic Size: w/ in Group (T¢B) = 1'-atomic size/ atomic radius
6Meyer & Mendeleev (Lothar Meyer & Dmitri Mendeleev) w/ in the Period (L¢R) = • atomic size/ atomic radius
�First Periodic Law Ionization Energy Potential � is amount of energy required
“The Physical & Chemical Properties to remove en electron from a neutral
are periodic functions of their atomic weight” atom to convert it to positively charge
@Moseley (Henry Moseley) ion.
* elements are arranged based on atomic numbers
- increasing atomic number
T¢B = • IPL
¢R = 1'- IP
*Noble Gases � very high IP
3. Electron affinity � is the amount of energy release when a neutral
atom accepts an electron in its outermost shell to
convert it to negatively charge ion.
* is the energy change that occurs when an electron is
added to a gaseous atom because it measures the
attraction of the atom for the added atom
T¢B = • EA L¢R
= 1'- EA
4. Electronegativity � the tendency of an atom to attract electrons to
itself when its chemically combined w/ another
atom.
T¢B = • EN L¢R
= 1'- EN
*Halogens � very high EN (F> O> N ≉Cl)
5. Metallic Property: T¢B = 1'- metallic property
st L¢R = • metallic property
(�4f�) -1 14 elements
= Lanthanoids/ Lanthanide series/ Rare Earth Metals Nonmetallic Property: T¢B = • nonmetallic property
th L¢R = 1'- nonmetallic property
= 57-70 element
nd *Metalloids � directly below the ladder
(�5f�) -2 14 elements
�are elment possessing both metallic & nonmetallic
= Actinoids/ Actinide Series/ Heavy Rare Earth
in character
Metals
th -Boron
= 89-102 element -Silicon
-Germanium
Group/ Family: Column; Top to Bottom (18 groups/families) -Arsenic
Period: Row; Left to Right (7 periods)
Family A Family B -Antimony
-Representative Elements -Transition Elements -Tellurium
-s & p blocks -d & f blocks -Polonium
-Group IA ¢ VIIIA -Group IB ¢ VIIIB

*Diagonal/Bridge Element - closely resembles the second member of

an adjacent group to the right
Example:
2 2 6 2 3
P = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
15
= period number (highest n value): 3
= p block
= Family A
= Group number (# of valence electrons): 5
 @Chemical Bonding:
Chemical bonds= stability= e- configuration as noble gas
Example: ◉ Forces of Attraction:
2
2He = 1s •INTRAmolecular � forces within a molecule
= noble gas: valence shell configuration a. Covalent Bond � made by sharing electrons
2 6
of ns np -stable octet, 7 valence electrons -Nonpolar [Cl2, CO2, CCl2] –no significant diff. of EN
L+ completely filled atomic orbitals -Polar [HCl, HCHO] –has significant dif. of EN
1. Electron Transfer � usually occur between a metal/ b. Ionic bond � affinity between oppositely charged particles
metalloid & a nonmetallic * present in salts/ ionic compounds
* metal/ metalloid + nonmetal * forces that hold ions together in the
Cation(+) + anion(-) = Ionic Bonding crystal lattice of a salt
2 2 6 1
Example: 11Na : 1s 2s 2p 3s •INTERmolecular� forces hold molecules together 1.
+ 2 2 6 VAN DER WAALS
Na : 1s 2s 2p = Ne
2 2 5 - 1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF)
9F -: 1s 2s 2p + e * aka Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole
F : 2 2 6 * bond between nonpolar molecules (no charges)
1s 2s 2p = Ne
2. Electron Sharing � nonmetal molecules * weakest bond
* Covalent Bonding 2. Dipole-dipole or Permanent Dipole
Example: H2 = 1H + 1H * aka Keesom Orientation FOrce
1 1
1s 1s * operate on polar or dipole molecules
*Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals ¢ Molecular Orbitals * stronger than LDF
1. head-on � sigma (a) m.o./ bond -lies along the line 3. Dipole- Induced Dipole
2. lateral sideways � pi(n) m.o./ bond -formed from overlap of p * aka Debye Induction Force
orbital * bond between a charged (dipole) and an uncharged
-anode � a region in space where there is a zero particles (induced dipole)
probability of finding an electron 2. Hydrogen Bonding
* a bond � single bonds * bond of Hydrogen with a highly electronegative atom of
n bond �multiple bonds another molecules
* special type of dipole-dipole interaction.
H � attached to highly electronegative (N, O, F)
Sigma bonds (a) - molecular orbitals are symmetrical
atoms H-bond ¢ D-D ¢ LDF
about
IL
the bond axes.
relative strength
Pi bonds (n) - subject to addition reaction (ex: 1-pentene)
3. Ion-ion, Ion-dipole, & ion induced dipole
-subject to addition nucleophilic (ex: Ethanal)
* (+) & (-) interaction in the solid sate
* strongest bond
* similar atoms
Non –polar * except for C-H (still belongs)
-
Covalent * equal sharing of e
Bond * dissimilar atoms -
Polar * unequal sharing or
e
* dipole
Solid Liquid Gas
Volume Definite Definite Indefinite
Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
Strength of IFA Strongest Strong Weakest
(Intermolecular *Ideal Gas:
forced of Attraction) No IFA
Molecular Motion Vibration Gliding Constant
random

*CCl4 *CHCl3
- molecule: non polar
- more polar than CCl4
- bond: polar @Kinematic Molecular Theory � explains the phases of matter based on
the movement (including direction) of
*H2O: Polar molecule molecules, ions, or atoms.
Polar Bond
@Solutions � homogenous mixture of single phase system of two or more
substances
-Solute � lesser amounts
* solid, liquid, gas
-Solvent � greater amounts
* liquid, solid, gas
*Alloys � an example of solid homogenous mixture

Factors affecting Solubility:

1. Nature of Solute & Solvent
(Polarity): Like dissolve like
•Solubility � maximum amount of solute expressed in grams that
can be dissolved in 100g of water •Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions:
•Miscibility � ability of one substance to mix with 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
another substance (ex: liquid-liquid; liquid- 1. %𝑤/𝑤 =
100𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
gas) 𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
2. Temperature 2. %𝑣/𝑣 = 100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1'temp: 1'sobility of solid in liquid 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
1'temp: "-- solubility of a gas in liquid 3. %𝑤/𝑣 =
100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
•Exothermic � "--solubility: 1'temperature
𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
•Endothermic � 1'solubility: 1'temperature 4. 𝑚𝑔 % = 100𝑚𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
*Standard Temp: 0°C (273K) 5. Molarity (M) HCl : f=1
3. Pressure (affects Gases only) 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 H2SO4: f=2 H2PO4: f=3 CH3COOH: f=1 NaOH
•Henry’s Law of Gas solubility � 1'solubility of gas: 1'pressure 𝑀= Mg (OH)2: f=2 AL(OH)3: f=3 NH3: f=1
2 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
•SI unit for pressure: Pascal (N/m )
𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊
4. Particle Size/ Surface Area = F=total positive/ total negative charges
"--particle size: 1'surface area: 1'solubility 𝐿 NaCl: f=1 MgO: f=2 Ca3(PO4)2: f=6 K3C6H5O
5. Presence of Salts 6. Molality (m) � more accurate
•Salting-out � presence of salt decreases solubility 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 Oxid-agent: f=3 of e- gained
𝑚=
* precipitation of an organic substance from a 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
saturated solution when highly soluble salts. 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊
•Salting in � presence of salt increases solubility =
𝑘𝑔
*Basic or Sub salt � is prepared by: 𝑤𝑡/𝑀𝑊
"Partial hydrolysis of a normal
salt
=
"Partial Neutalization of a 7. Normality (N)𝐿
hydroxide 𝑀𝑊
𝐹
𝑁 = 𝑀 × 𝐹 = 𝑤𝑡/
Types of Solution According to the Solubility of the Solute: 𝐿 + 2+
MnO4 -H �Mn
• Saturated Solution � solution achieved the maximum solubility F=5
• Unsaturated Solution � less solvent that solute
• Supersaturated Solution � more solvent that solute 𝑀𝑊
𝑀𝑒𝑞 𝑤𝑡/ 𝐹 -
𝑁= -OH �Mn2
𝐿 = 𝐿 F=3
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 Redu-agent: f=# of e lost
𝑁 = 𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2+
Fe �
3+

Fe
@Colligative Properties @Gas Laws (PV=nRT)
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering � the addition of a non-volatile solute 1. Boyle’s Law * Volume is inversely proportional to pressure
lowers * nonlinear relation for volume & pressure
the VP of the liquid 𝑃 1𝑉 1 = 𝑃 2𝑉 2
• A liquid in a closed container will established an equilibrium Constant: n, R, T
with its vapor. Variable: P, V
Relationship: Inverse
• When equilibrium is reached, the vapor exerts a pressure
2. Charle’s Law * Volume is directly proportional to temperature
(vapor pressure) (Kelvin), 273K-standard
• Volatile � exhibits vapor pressure 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
* most use Lower Temperature Zone 𝑇 𝑇
1 2
• Nonvolatile � no measurable vapor pressure Constant: P, n, R
Raoult’s Law � is applied in the determination of vapor pressure Variable: V, T
P= (1x Xsolute) P° Relationship: Direct
* lowering of a vapor pressure of a solvent is equal to 3. Avogadro’s Law * Volume is directly proportional to moles
𝑉1= 𝑉2
the product of the mole fraction of the solute & vapor
𝑛 𝑛
pressure of the solvent. 1 2
Constant: P, R, T
* follow ideal solution
Variable: V, n
• ?P=P° of pure solvent x mole fraction of the solute Relationship: Direct
23
2. Boiling Point Elevation *Avogadro’s Number: 6.02 x 10
Boiling Point � equilibrium between the liquid & the gas, point at 4. Combined/ * combination of Boyle’s, Charle’s, Avogadro’s
which the VP equals atmospheric P. Ideal Gas Law 𝑃 1𝑉 1 = 𝑃 2𝑉 2
3. Freezing Point Depression 𝑛 𝑇 𝑛 𝑇
1 1 2 2
•Presence of salt/ solute will cause lowering of freezing point *Ideal Gas � exist at STP
•Ice cream making T= O°C / 273 K
•?FP = kfm P= 1 atm
= 760 mmHg
•Freezing point of water is 0°C
N= 1 mol
•Kf= 1.86°C/m V= 22.4 L
4. Osmotic Pressure *Ideal Gas Constant: R
•Pressure needed to prevent osmosis R= 0.08205 L·atm/ mol k
•Osmosis � net movement of solvent molecules through a R= 8.314 J/mol k
semipermeable membrane from a more dilute solution to R= 1.987 cal/mol/k
a more concentrated solution 5. Dalton’s Law * State that the Pressure exerted by a mixture
of Partial Pressure of gasses (non-reacting gases) is the sum of
* lower to higher concentration of solute
the partial pressures that each gas in the
•Reverse Osmosis � move under high pressure from more mixture exert individually
concentrated to less concentrated * gaseous mixtures
* process of water purification 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑐 … 𝑃𝑥
6. Gay-Lussac’s law * Pressure is directly proportional to
or Amonton’s Law temperature, if V is constant
7. Clausius-Clapeyron 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃2 = ∆𝐻𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
𝑃 2.303 𝑅𝑇 𝑇
1 2 1
Where: P= Pressure
T= Temperature
�Hv = heat of vaporization
R= gas constant + 8.314 J/mol·K
* Latent heat � heat required for phase
transition to happen.
-Hf � heat of fusion (S⇌L)
-Hv � heat of vaporization (L⇌G)
-Hs � heat of sublimation (S⇌G)
8. Grahams Law * The rate of the effusion of two gases (&
diffusion) are inversely proportional to the
square roots of their densities providing the
temperature & pressure are the same for two
gases.
𝑅1 𝑀𝑊1
𝑅2 𝑀𝑊2
*Diffusion � gradual mixing of molecules
of one gas w/ the molecules of
another gas by virtue of their kinetic
properties
*Effusion � passage of a gas under
pressure through a small opening
@Acids & Bases •General Properties: ACIDS
Electrolytes � Allow conductase of electricity � sour taste
* WEAK electrolytes: Incomplete/PartiaI dissolution * Litmus: Blue to Red
Poor electric conductor * aqueous solutions conduct electricity
* STRONG electrolytes: Strong acids & bases * reacts with metal to produce Hydrogen gas
Complete dissolution �reacts with carbonate & bicarbonate
Best electric conductor to produce Carbon dioxide gas
Non-Electrolytes � will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity * turns colorless w/ Phenolphthalein
* do not ionized in water * turns pink w/ methyl orange indicator
Most common acids:
Acid-Base Theory Strong Acids Weak Acids
ACID BASE HCl HF
Arrhenius yield H+ yield OH Binary
HBr
Bronsted-Lowry proton donor proton acceptor Acids
HI
Lewis e- acceptor e- donor HNO3 H2SO4
Oxyacids HClO4 H2PO3
Arrhenius Theory � water ion theory of HOXO –halous acid
+
Acidity Bronsted-Lowry � H (hydronium ion) BASES � bitter taste
* conjugate acid-base pairs * Litmus: Red to blue
* protonic concept * aqueous solutions conduct electricity
+
�elaborated as HA <-> H + A * feel slippery
* natural direction of a bronsted-lowry acid-base * Pink to Violet color w/ Phenolphthalein
reaction: SA+SB -+WA+WB * Yellow w/ Methyl orange
+
* H30 � strongest acid in aqueous solution Most common bases:
Strong Bases
Lewis Theory � coordinate covalent bond
NaOH
*Heavy metals + chelating agents (2or more donor atoms) Alkali Metal
KOH
EDTA -^ donor atoms (hydroxides)
LiOH
*Chelates (cage-like structures) Be(OH2)
Alkaline Earth
*Coordinate Covalent Bond - interaction wherein both (metal hydroxides)
lectrons in
the bond arise from a single orbital * Weak Base - conjugate base of a strong acid
on one of the atoms forming the
bond.

SA + SB -+ neutral salt Neutralization �aka “acid-base reaction”

HCl + NaOH -+ NaCl +H2O �involve in determination of acidity or alkalinity of
SA + WB -+ acidic salt solutions.
HCl + NH4OH -+ NH4Cl + H2O �Acid + base = salt & water
WA + SB-+ basic salt * point when equal amounts of acid & base reacted;
CH3COOH + NaOH -+ NaCH3COO + H2O non-observable
WA+WB -+ neutral, acidic, basic salt *Titration � process of progressive addition of a solution of known
CH3COOH + NH4OH -+ NH4CH4COO + H20 concentration to a substance of unknown concentration
kA = kB -+ neutal kA>kB -+ acidic salt kA<kB -+ basic salt *Indicator � substance that changes color at the end point
*Equivalent Point�is the point in a titration where stoichiometrically
equivalent amounts of analyte & titrant.
*Stoichiometric point
*In a complex, the metal acts as a Lewis Acid (e- acceptor). *End point � is the point in a titration where we stop adding
titrant(VS).
* experimental approximate of neutralization point;
Observable
Basic Principles of Analysis
A. pH
* number of grams equivalent of H per liter of soln
* pH = -log [H]
or pH = log 1/[H]
pOH= -log[OH-]
pH + pOH =14
•acidic = pH < 7.0, pOH >7.0
•basic= pH >7.0, pOH <7.0
•neutral= pH=pOH=7.0
* (-) value of pH is possible
* > 14 value is possible as well.
* Protolysis --- a process whereby a proton is transferred from
one molecule to another.
* Autoprotolysis --- a process whereby there is a transfer of
a proton from one molecule to another identical
molecule.
* Amphoteric --- properly where a substance can act either as
acid or base.

Henderson- Hasselbalch equation

pH = pka h log [salt]/[acid] or
pH = pka=log [conjugate base]/[base]

•Isohydric --- a solution having the same pH as the standard solution.

B. Buffer Capacity
--- ability/ degree (magnitude) of a buffer solution to resist
changes in pH upon addition of acid/alkali
---depends on the amount of the acid & the base from which
the buffer can neutralize before pH begins to change to an
appreciable degree
Van slyke
• was responsible for a quantitative expression
• amount in g/l of strong acid or a strong base required to
be added to a solution to change its pH by 1 unit.
• higher buffer capacity, lower change in pH.

@Pearson’s HSAB principle:

“Hard acids are electron acceptor w/ high positive charges & relatively
small sizes while soft acids have low positive charges & relatively large
sizes. “
Thermodynamics � deals w/ energy transformation 0First Law of Thermodynamics
System � any part of the universe which is isolated from the rest by “Law of Conservation of Energy”
a boundary on a wall Energy is not created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed.
Surrounding � everything outside the system -The Energy of the universe is constant.
- �V = 9xw
Three Types of Thermodynamic System
1. Open � allow exchange of both matter & energy 0Second Law of Thermodynamics
-you can add/withdraw “Spontaneous Law”
2. Closed � allows exchange of energy but not of matter A process that occurs by itself must be increased in the entropy in
3. Isolated � does not allow the exchange of both matter & energy. order to be SPONTANEOUS!
*Adiabatic � doest not allow energy or heat flow -accompanied by an increase of entropy
*Diathermal � allows energy & heat flow �G = (-)¢ spontaneous
�G = (+)¢ non-spontaneous
�G = (0) ¢ equilibrium
Thermodynamic Functions: �G = �H -T�S
1. Internal Energy (U or E) � total energy content of a system, composed (-) (+) (-) ¢ spontaneous
of thermal energy & chemical energy (+) (-) (+) ¢ non-spontaneous
* is the heat content of a system evaluated at (+) (+) tJ, ¢ spontaneous
contant volume X X tJ, ¢ non-spontaneous Above 0
*Heat content = constant volume (isochoric) degree - melt spontaneously Below 0
L+ refers to the heat required to
degree - not melt spontaneously
increase the internal energy & to
perform work of expansion Exacly 0 - equilibrium
2. Enthalpy (H) � Energy of a reaction - solid & liquid –Physical State @ Freezing point
* heat content evaluated at constant pressure Triple Point � the condition of temperature & pressure
*Heat content = constant pressure ( Isobaric) where a
3. Entropy (S) � measure of degree of randomness or disorderliness of substance can exist solid, liquid & gas @ the same time
a system. Freezing Point � 0°C � matter @ solid
*If the Entropy is Zero, Boiling Point � matter @ liquid
the reaction is Spontaneous & Irreversible.
4. Gibb’s Free Energy (G) � expendable amount of energy 0Third Law of Thermodynamics
* combines enthalpy & entropy “The entropy of a pure crystalline solid at a zero Kelvin is zero.“
* determines spontaneity of a reaction * SOK = O
* when a reaction is at equilibrium
= Gibbs Free Energy is Zero
*G=H-TS (�G=�H-T�S)
5. Heat (q) � an energy transfer due to temperature •CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
difference q = (+) -+ endothermic 1. Endothermic Process � reaction wherein heat is absorbed by the
q = (-) -+ exothermic system, indicated by (+) change in enthalpy.
6. Heat Capacity (c) � the amount of heat required to raise the 2. Exothermic Process � a reaction wherein heat is released by the
temperature of an object or substance by one system, indicated by a (-) change in enthalpy.
degree. * tend to be spontaneous reaction
6. Work (w) � a form of energy transfer between a system & its
surroundings in the form of compression or expansion of
the gas. •Chemical Kinetics (reaction rates):
* movement of an object against some force 1. Collision Theory � result of molecular collision
w = work * rate & frequency of effective collisions
w= P2xt�Y * is effective if:
�V = 0 w= 0 Requirements:
*work done BY the system � occurs during the process of expansion a. Reactants must posses energy equal to or higher
(expansion) than minimum energy requirement (energy
�V = Vf - Vi barrier, activation of energy [Ea])
* sign is (-) b. Proper orientation � reaction
profile A=B � P
*work done ON the system � occurs during compression
tEa = J, rate
(compression)
J,Ea = t rate
* sign is (+)
#peaks = equal to the number of steps of reaction
*Converted Reaction/ Single Phase Reaction
A. State Function � path independent; not concern w/ the process * single step reaction
only in the initial & final state. * determining Endo or Exo
Ex: �H, �V, �G, �S * from graph
�H = Hf - Hi �H = H prod - H reactants
B. Non-state Function � path-dependent = (-)
= Endothermic
2. Transition State Theory � reactant (first form) to transition state &
dissociation to products
*reactants ¢ transition state ¢ products
*Rate � dependents on energy required for the formation of
transition state (TS)
tenergy TS =slow rate
J,energy TS = fast rate
*Intermediate � space occupied between two transition state (TS)
•Factors Affecting Reaction rate:
1. Nature of Reactants � reactivity, physical •Chemical Equilibrium
state
2. Temperature Kinetics � rate of forward reaction is equal to rate of backward reaction
* t temperature � tocEave � tmobility
* t frequency collision � t rate Homogenous Equilibrium � reactants & product are present
3. Surface Area in same phase.
* tSA ¢ J,particle size Heterogenous Equilibrium � the reactants & products are
* t rate in different phase
4. Concentration
* t conc. ¢ t rate
Except for zero order reaction Ionic Equilibria � involves Ionia
1. Weak Acid & Weak Base
Laws of Mass Action * will be equal if they are have 1 aqueous solution
* t reactant = t collision A -weak acid: Ka =acid ionization constant
B # collision O -weak base: Ka = base ionization constant
O 1 2. Insoluble Salts � happened if there saturated
O
solution Ksp = solubility product constant
O 2 3. Complexes: Kf = formation constant
O
O O
3
O O

Rate Law Expression = A=B � P @Le Chatelier’s Principles

X Y
* rate = K [A] [B] -when a stress is applied to an equilibrium
Where: K = specific rate constant - stress factors: �s in concentration: P, V, temp
= temp-dependent -will not cause any shift
[A][B] = molar concentration -addition of catalysy
X & Y = order of reaction Ex: �(g) = 2B9g) ⇌ P(a)
L+magnitude of the effects of the tP (J,V) - shift to directions lesser # of gaseous
changing concentration of reaction rate molecules
x=1 t temp = favors an endothermic reaction
y=2 } 3 J, temp = facvors an exothermic reaction
5. Catalyst � a substance that speed up the rate of reaction ttemp = +-
by providing a new reaction pathway for molecules J,temp = -+
* influences the speed of a reaction without itself being
altered chemically.
*Effects: a. Directly lower EA
b. Can make reaction proceed in a multistep process Common-ion Effects � suppresses the ionization of weak electrolytes
wherein each step has lower Ea compared to the usual + (the dissociation of a weak
Add of HCl ¢ H + Cl- = +- electrolytes is decreasing by
reaction Add of NaOH ¢ Na = OH = -+ adding to the solution a strong
J,H3O electrolytes that in common w/ the
Add of NaCl ¢ Na+Cl = No shift weak electrolyte)
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic Chemistry � branched of chemistry that deals with carbon – containing compounds with: C, H, O, P, S, X (halides – F, Cl, B, I)

Hydrocarbon � contain (C,H)

1. Aliphatic
2. Aromatic Compounds 3. Alicyclic or Carbocyclic
* single chain, no ring/s involve
* presence of ring/s, specifically Benzene Ring & its * they are chains that
a. Saturated � single bonds only,
derivatives form a ring & behave
0Alkane (parafins)
Examples: like aliphatics (single
* CnH2n+2 bond)
b. Unsaturated
Benzene Examples:
* has multiple bonds, -cyclopropane -cyclopropene
(1 ring)
0Alkenes (double bond)
Naphthalene -cyclobutane -cyclobutene
* CnH2n
(2 rings)
0Alkynes (triple bonds)
-polycyclic benzenoids
* CnH2n-2
-obtained from coal tar
-position (a, 1)
* Cycloalkanes: CnH2n

Anthracene
(3 rings)
-polyaromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs)
-for dyes
Phenanthrene
-isomer of anthracene

Hydrocarbon Derivatives � are hydrocarbons that bear other carbon & hydrogen atoms
& other elements such as Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, or Halogen, Phosphorus, etc

Oxygen-containing Nitrogen-containing Halogen- Phosphorus-containing Sulfur-containing

1. Aldehydes (RCHO) 1. Amines (amino group, -NH) containing 1. Phosphate groups 1. Thiols (-SH)
Ketones (RCOR) Primay Amines: RNH2 1. Alkyl 2. Organophosphate -sulfur analogue of
2. Ethers (ROR) Secondary Amines: R2NH Halides alacohols
-formed during Tertiary Amines: R3N 2. Aryl Halides -aka “Sulfhydryls”
dehydration of alcohol 2. Heterocyclic 2. Thioethers (R-S-R)
-CnH2n+20 3. Nitrogen-compounds
3. Alcohols (Phenol)

4. Carboxylic Acid
(Carboxyl, -COOH)

*Organic acid (RCOOH)

5. Carboxylic Acid
derivatives
-acid acyl
-anhydrides
-ester (RCOOR)
-amides
Isomerism � refers to the existence of two or more compounds having
the same molecular formula, but different structure
Isomer � compounds having the same Molecular formula, but
different structure. 2. Spatial Orientation � arrangement of atom in space
Stereochemistry � the branch of organic chemistry that is solely * “Stereoisomer”
dedicated to the study of isomers a. Geometric Isomers � double bond (alken3), cyclic
*Cis-Trans
Reasons: -Cis (means on the same side)
1. Order of Bonding Ex: Cis -2-butene
* “Structurally Isomer”
a. Chain – branching
- exhibited by alkanes
- differ in the arrangement of C -Trans (means across or on opposite sides)
atoms Ex: C4H10 � (butane) CH3-CH2- Ex: Trans-2-butene
CH2-CH3
� (isobutane) CH3-CH-CH3

CH3 b. Conformational Isomers

C5H12 � (pentane) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 (a) open chain/ acyclic � can be obtain in rotation
� (isopentane) CH3-CH-CH2-CH3 along a single bond
(b) cyclic-ring flipping
CH3 Ex:
�(neopentane) CH3 • Ethane

CH3-C-CH3 • Saw horse Projection:

CH3
b. position - position of multiple bond or differ in • Perspective Formula:
the position of substituent or functional -dash (back)
group. -wedge (front)
- differ in position of the substituent or
unsaturated bonds (C=C, C=C)
Ex: C4H8 –alkene w/ 1 double bond
� (1-butene) H2C=CH-CH2-CH3
� (2-butene) H2C-CH=CH2-CH3
C3H7Br
� (1-bromopropane) CH3- CH2-CH2-Br
� (2-bromopropane) CH3- CH-CH3 Newman Projection:
-eclipse conformation
Br
*Prefixes that designate positions in the benzene:
(a) Ortho � indicate substances on the
benzene ring in positions next to -staggered conformation:
each other -more stable

Dihedral angle�
Ortho-bromochlorobenzene
(b) Meta � substituents on the benzene • Cyclobutane
ring separated by one carbon -planar � not a stable conformation
atom. * are all eclipsing

Meta-bromochlorobenzene

(c) Para � subtituents separated by two -butterfly conformation � more stable

carbon atoms
Para-bromochlorobenzene

c. Functional Isomer - Functional

• Cyclopentane
Group
-planar � not stable
- differ in their functional groups
Ex: CH2-CH2-OH � ethanol (alcohol) -envelope conformation � more stable
CH3-O-CH3 � methyl ether (ether)

• Cyclohexane
-Chair � most stable

-planar � not stable

-boat conformation � more stable

* flagpole positions
�steric effect
Optical Activity �ability of a compound to rotate a polarized light either
to right or to the left
* can only be determined by POLARIMETER
• Dextrorotatory =d/ (+)
• Levorotatory= l/(-)
1. Chiral Center/ Chiral carbon/ Asymmetric chiral carbon
* aka Stereocenter
* is acarbon to which four different atoms
or group of atoms are attached
2. No symmetry element
• Enantiomers � mirror images but not superimposable
* also called as Optical Isomer since they rotate light in
the opposite direction
• Diastereomers � non-mirror images, not superimposable
• Mesocompounds � mirror images, superimposable
�same compounds
• Epimer � special type of diastereomers
* identical in all except in one chiral center
* differ only in configuration at one asymmetry carbon atom
▪ D-glucose/ D-mannose �Epimers at 2
▪ D-glucose/ D-galactose �Epimers at 4
• Anomer � differ only in configuration at Carbon #1
(carbonyl C or anomeric C)
Haworth Projection � presents a cyclic sugar structure
Biosostere � substituents or groups w/ similar physical or chemical
properties that in impart similar biological properties to a
chemical compounds
Purpose:
-Enhance the desired biological or physical properties of a compound
without making significant changes in chemical structure
-Increase Potency
-Decrease Side effects
-Increase duration of action by altering metabolism
-Isosteric analogs may act antagnonistically w/ the parent molecule
Example of Biososteric replacements:
-Fluorine vs Hydrogen
-Hydroxyl vs Amino Acids
-Hydroxyl vs Thiol Groups
-Methyl, Methoxyl, Hydroxyl, Amino groups vs Hydrogen
-Fluoro, Chloro, & Bromo, thiol, vs Methyl & other small alkyl groups
Types of Organic Reactions:
1. Addition: CH2 = CH2 + HBr -+ CH3CH2Br
2. Substitution: CH3CH2OH+Cl- -+ CH3CH2Cl
3. Elimination: CH3CH2OH -+ CH2 = CH2 +H2O
4. Re-arrangement: CH3CH2CH2Br -+ CH3CHCH3

Br
+
5. Propagation, Inititation, Termination: CH4 + Br -+ CH3* + Br
a-anomer 1-anomer
O
Ex: Tartaric Acid
6. Oxidation: CH3CH2OH + H2CrO4 -+ CH3C-OH + Cr +3
HOOC-CH-CH-COOH
7. Reduction: Nitrobenzene + Fe -+ Aniline + Ferric Hydroxide

OH OH
@Systems of Nomenclature:
= # stereoisomers (n=chiral center) 1. Common � uses the name given when it was discovered
n
=2
2
=2 * example: Formic Acid (Latin, formica=ants)
=4 �Uses prefixes: -n, -iso, -neo
2. Derived Names � derived from a parent compound
Fischer Projection Formula 3. IUPAC (international Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry)
* most systemic
* example: 2-methylhexane
* based on: A. longest continuous C chain or parent chain
B. use of numbers
C. use of C # prefixes
I II III IV * QSAR (Quantitative Structure & Activity Relationship)
I-II � mirror images IUPAC Rules:
Superimposable 1. Name by considering the longest carbon chain
�meso compounds ( compounds w/ stereocenters but are 2. Number C atoms consecutively from one end so that the branches
chiral)
or substituents are given the lowest position numbers
* optically inactive 3. Modify the Suffix based on the type of formula or the functional
II-III � non mirror images group
Non superimposable ROH (-ol)
* diastereomers RCHO (-al)
III-IV � mirror images RCOR (-one)
Non superimposable RCOOH (-oic acid)
* enatiomers 4. Identify the substituents & indicate the positions by using numbers
Meso Compounds � compounds w/ sterocenters but are chiral CH3 (methyl)
* are characterized by the presence of a plane of R (alkyl)
symmetry & are superimposable OCH3 (methoxy)
Racemic-mixtures (racemates) OR (Alkoxy)
* produced w/ mixtures of equimolar concentrations Cl (Chloro)
of dextro & levo isomers Br (Bromo)
* contain equal amounts of NH2 (Amino)
D & L isomers 5. If there is more than one of the same substituent/ alkyl group on
R & S isomers � determine by Cahn-Ingold- the chain, indicate the number of groups by using prefixes; di-
Prelog Example: Thalidomide � exist 2 chiral center two; tri-three; tetra-four; & so on.
r-thalidomide � sedative/
hypnotic s-thalidomide �
teratogenic
*Thalidomide syndrome � because of the
presence of s-thalidomide
-phocolmelia (short limb)
-amelia (no limb)
@Saturated Hydrocarbons 4. Hydration (addition of water/ H20)
•Alkanes: CnH2n+2 (-ane)
# of C Rootword + -ane Molecular formula Oxidation of Alkene: 1. Hydroxylation/ Glycol Formation
1 Meth Methane CH4 *Basis for: Baeyer’s Test (for unsaturated)
2 Eth Ethane C2H6 *Glycol (ex: 1,2-diols) � is the genral term
3 Prop Propane C3H8 tha is used to refer to compounds
4 But Butane C4H10
having two hydroxyl groups
5 Pent Pentane C5H12
6 Hex Hexane C6H14 attached to adjacent carbons
7 Hept Heptane C7H16 2. Oxidative cleavage
8 Oct Octane C8H18 Metabolism: More reactive than alkyl group
9 Non Nonane C9H20
10 Dec Decane C10H22 Hydration
*Substituents: R-alkyl = alkanes-1H atom Epoxidation
-yl = methyl: -CH3 Peroxidation
Ethyl: -CH2-CH3 Reduction
Propyl: -CH2-CH2-CH3 Alkadienes � contain 2 C=C
Isopropyl: CH3-CH-CH3 * name: Indicate the position of double bond +
prefix+ diene; CH2=CHCH=CH2
•Alkynes: CnH2n-2 (-yne)
Tertairy Butyl: CH3
Triple bond (one or more)
CH3-C-CH3 H-C=C-H: Ethyne/ Acetylene (simplest
alkyne) Reactive site occur in J,
-x (halo): -F: Fluoro C=C
-Cl: Chloro L+triple bond (e- rich)
-Br: Bromo •Aromatics � contain Benzene Ring that have multiple double bonds
-I: Iodo *Benzene: C6H6 (subject to Substitution Electrophilic)
-NO2: Nitro Toluene � methyl derivative of benzene
-C=N: Cyano Xylene � dimethyl benzene
*Alkyl groups *Aromaticity: (Criteria)
- Can participate in Van der Waals Interaction
1. Cyclic
& Hydrophobic Bonding. 2
- Metabolism: Oxidation 2. Flat/ Planar (sp C = double bond)
- Aryl Groups (Ar) � an aromatic (benzene ring) with 3. Conjugated double bonds - having alternating double bonds
a 4. Huckel’s Rule : 4n+2 rule
hydrogen atom removed
*Reactions to Consider:
- Combustion � a chemical reaction in which HC burns
(rapid oxidation) & produces CO2 & H20
*Cycloalkanes: (alkanes that exist in the shape of a ring) 6ne- 10ne-
- Cycopropane / Trimethylene 6=4n+2 10=4n+2
- Cyclobutane 4=4n n=2
- Cyclopentane n=1
cyclobutadiene: antiaromatic compound
@Unsaturated Hydrocarbons � have multiple bonds in their molecules 4=4n+2
•Alkenes: CnH2n (-ene) n= ½ (therefore, it’s not aromatic)
ethane/ ethylene:
furan: 6ne- (n=1)
propene: CH3-CH=CH2 �not benzene ring,
Reactive site occur in J, But Aromatic
C=C
L+double bond (e- rich) – has 1a, 1n Pyrole: 6ne- (n=1)
-react to something �not benzene ring,
positive But Aromatic
8 *Eletrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS)
Electrophile (E ) � e- poor / e- lovinf reagents
8
*Reactions:
(+) NUcleophile (N ) � e- rich reagent (-) 1. Nitration
Electrophilic Addition � alkene react w/ electrophiles 2. Halogenation
3. Friedel-Craft’s Alkylation
1. Catalytic hydrogenation (addition of H) – alkene-+alkane
4. Friedel-Craft’s Acylation
* used in production in Margarine 5. Sulfonation � only reversible EAS
Fixed oils (Unsaturated Fatty Acids) -+ saturated F.A •Other Functional Groups:
Liquids -+ solid Halides: Halogenation
2. Halogenation (addition of Halogen) Formation of an alkyl or aryl halide
Alkene -CHCl2/CCl4� Examples of Organic halides: -F, -Cl, -Br, -I
Functional Froup: R-X
Alkyldihalide
Alkyl & aromatic halides
-H2O� halohydrin �electron-withdrawing functional groups
3. Hydrohalogenation � (addition of HX, -hydrogen * used to “lock” a drug molecule in a desired conformation
halide) Alkene + HX -+ alkylhalide * decrease aromatic oxidation of the drug
* Markonicov’s Rules �only F can bind
* Ex: Diclofenac, Chloramphenicol
-H adds to C w/ the greater # of H substituents
-X adds to C w/ the lesser # of H substituents * Electron-withdrawing Groups � impart acid stability
- *Electrophilic Groups will most likely attach to 1-
pentene
 @Alcohols @Phenols
* OH groups can form ion-dipole & H-bonds -aka Phenolics
* OH groups enhance water solubility -class of chemical compounds, consisting of a hydroxyl group (-OH)
* esterified to form prodrugs attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon group.
* metabolism: Oxidation, Glucuronidation or sulfate conjufation -they have relatively higher acidities compared to alcohols
Functional group: R-OH -examples of phenols:
Classification: Ortho (catechol)
1. Based on the # of R bonded to the Carbon bearing the –OH Meta (resorcinol)
group Para (hydroquinone)
(C-OH, carbinol group) 1-naphthol (alpha-naphthol)
a. Primary alcohol � has only one R-group (1° 2-naphthol (beta-naphthol)
alcohol) Examples: -form ion-dipole & hydrogen bonds
Methyl alcohol: CH3-OH -enhance water solubility
Ethyl Alcohol: CH3-CH2-OH -esterified to form prodrugs
Propyl Alcohol: CH3-CH2-CH2-OH -susceptible to oxidation
b. Secondary Alcohol �two R-groups (2° Air
alcohol) Example Ferric ions
Isopropyl: CH3-CH-CH3 -Metabolism:
Sulfation
OH Glucuronidation
c. Tertiary Alcohol �has three R-groups Aromatic Hydroxylation
Example: O-methylation
Tertairy Butyl: CH3 •Important Alcohols & Phenols:
1. Methanol � aka “Wood Alcohol” (because it was formerly obtained
from destructive distillation)
CH3-C-CH3 * used to produce formaldehyde, a starting material for
OH many plastics
2. Based on the # of hydroxyl groups * a good denaturant for ethyl alcohol (makes ethyl
a. Monohydric � 1 OH alcohol unfit for drinking) because of its taste &
b. Dihydric � 2 OH (ethylene glycol) poisonous properties.
c. Trihydric � 3 OH (glycerol) 2. Ethanol � aka “Grain Alcohol”, “wine Sprit”,
d. Polyhydric ”Spiritus vini rectificatus”
(carbohydrates) Nomenclature of * alcohol present in alcoholic beverages
Alcohols: * obtained from fermentation of sugars & starch
A. Common names are often used * used as antiseptic (70% solution of ethanol)
- name of alkyl group + alcohol * used as solvent in medicinal preparations (tinctures)
- CH3OH (methyl alcohol) * unfit for use in intoxicating beverages by addition of
B. Derived names from Carbinol (an old name of metyhanol) Denatured alcohol (contains Methanol & Benzene)
-Eg. CH3CH2OH 3. Isopropyl Alcohol � component of rubbing alcohol
-Methyl carbinol * solvent
C. IUPAC Rules: similar to alkanes * intermediate in the production of acetone
1. Parent chain has the –OH 4. Cholesterol � a complex alcohol that occurs in nature, a sterol
2. –OH is given the lower number found in a cell membrane of animal cells; used as
3. Name ending in –ol precursor for the synthesis of sex hormones & bile
Qualitative Test for Alcohols: acids
1. Lucas Test 5. Glycerol � used in the manufacture of certain plastics
-Reagent: Zinc Chloride (catalyst) in concentrated HCl (reactant) * used as solvent in liquid medications being nontoxic
-involves in double displacement * ingresient in cosmetics formulation due to its moisturizing
-differentiate alcohols by forming an insoluble layer property
-Tertiary alcohols are the most reactive towards this test * main constituent of suppositories
*Reactivity: 3°>2°>1°>CH3OH 6. Ethylene Glycol � antifreeze for automobiles
-Primary alcohols do not undergo the reaction easily & needs heat * solvent
-Visible result: Two immiscible layers * humectants -aids in retaining moisture
2. Dehydration –usually undergone by Methanol & Ethanol 7. Phenol � aka “Carbolic Acid”
-removal of H2O * used as disinfectant for surgical instruments & utensils ets.
3. Oxidation – reagent: K2Cr2O7 * starting material in the manufacture of aspirin, detergents,
- depend on type of alcohol dyes, herbicides, explosives, etc.
1° -+ aldehyde (oxidized to Carboxylic acid) 8. Cresol � saponated cresol (aka “Lysol”) – used as disinfectant which
2° -+ Ketone is better & less toxic than phenol
3° -+ no reaction 9. Resorcinol � also used as antiseptic but not as good as phenol
4. With Active Metal (ex: Na) 10. Hexyl Resorcinol � a much better antiseptic & germicide,
*williamsons reagent � for synthesis of ethers commonly used in mouthwash
Reactivity: CH3OH > 1°> 2°> 3° 11. Menthol � from oil of Peppermint
12. Geraniol � from Rose Oil
•Methanol � formaldehyde � formic acid � metabolic acidosis 13. Glucose � a carbohydrate basic unit
(blindness) Antidote: ethanol/
ethyl alcohol *Ideal Antiseptic
•Ethanol � acetaldehyde � acetic acid � liver damage * has a low surface tension
•Ethylene Glycol � oxalate + CA2+ � hypocalcemia * should also be non-irritating to tissue & non-allergenic
J, * retain activity in the presence of body fluids
CaC2O4 (kidney stones) * rapid & sustained lethal action against microorganisms
@Et hers ◉ Amines � organic compounds that are derived from ammonia by
-aka Organic Oxides replacing 1, 2, or 3 H’s w/ alkyl or aryl (Ar)
R-O-R Primary Amines: RNH2
Ar-O-Ar Secondary Amines: R2NH
Ar-O-R Tertiary Amines: R3N
-glycosidic bond formed in glycoside Quaternary Amines � not basic, no lone pair of electrons
Nomenclature fro Ethers *amino group: -NH
1. IUPAC Rules *R-group: e- donor
-use alkoxy as a prefix �causes: sterric effect (“crowding”)
-position is indicated by number *basicity: 2°>3°>1°> NH3 (more groups, more basic)
-“OXY” *Heterocyclic Amines � cyclic compounds that contain N atom as
-CH3OCH3 part of the ring
2. Derived Name * occur widely in biological systems
-alkyl groups + Ethers
-CH3OCH3 "Classification based on the Group attached to N:
Aliphatic Amine Aromatic Amine
Classification of Ethers: CH3-NH2
1. Open-chain
a. Symmetrical � contains similar R groups -aniline
Ex: Methyl ether (Methoxy methane): CH2-O-CH3 Basicity: Aliphatic Amine > Aromatic Amine
Ethyl Ether (Ethoxy ethane): CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 "Classification based on the number of group attached to
b. Mixed � contains different R groups N(1°, 2°, 3° & Quaternary Ammonium Compounds)
Ex:Ethymethyl ether (Methoxy ethane):
CH3-CH2-O-CH3 •Important Amines:
2. Cyclic Ethers 1. Aniline � used to commercially in the preparation of many dyes
a. Epoxides/ Oxiranes/ Oxacyclopropane & drugs
* cyclic ethers in which the ether oxygen is a part of a 2. Choline � found in egg yolks, meats,& fish, essential for growth
3-membered ring system 3. Adrenaline/ Epinephrine/ Norepinephrine � a neurotransmitter
Ex: Ethylene Oxide � gas sterilant 4. Amphetamine � a psychomimetic drugs Causes low
* alkylation of essential 5. Methamphetamine pH urine or
metabolism of bacteria 6. Pseudoephedrine alkaline
7. Phenylpropanolamine urine
b. More than 3 members included in the ring 8. Barbituric Acid � parent compound of barbiturates (sedatives)
system furanose ring: * an addictive drug
* has both an amino & an acid group
9. Saccharin � artificial sweetener, (disadvantage: bitter after taste)
pyranose ring: 10. Other amino-containing compounds: 1-blockers
1-agonists
•Important Ethers:
1. Ethyl Ether � once widely used as general anesthetic because it
is safe even in long surgical procedures
* NH2 � recentl discovered compound w/ a composition
* ADR: Irritation of mucous membranes, nausea &
of 87.5%N & 12.5% H
vomiting
* dangerous because it is explosive
* solvent for waxes & fats
2. Ethylene oxide � gas sterilant
* used to fumigate textiles & grains
* raw material in the synthesis of other organic
compound
3. Monobenzone � depigmenting agent in cases of excessive melanin
formation
- reduce melanin formation
- can be seen in whitening preparation
4. Eugenol � from Clove Oil
* when mixed with ZNO forms a cement used by dentist as
temporary fillings
5. Naproxen � NSAID
6. Gembrozil
@A ldehydes (RCHO) @Ketones (RCOR) �IUPAC: Parent chain has the –C=O group,
Its is given the lower number w/
* undergone Change –e to –one
Cannizaro Reaction
* are oxidized to carboxylic acids, * product of oxidation of Secondary alcohol
& reduced to primary alcohols * non terminal functional group
�IUPAC: Parent chain contains the –CHO, * Example:
same pattern as alkane, Propanone (acetone)
change –e to –al - a substrate can be
�terminal functional group used to synthesize
�Example: tertiary alcohol
Methanal (formaldehyde) - simplest Ketone

Ethanal (acetaldehyde) Butanone

-Other example:
*Reactions of Aldehyde: Acetone � used as a solvent & nail polisher remover
1. Reaction w/ 2,4-DNPH Testosterone � a male sex hormone, steroidal ketone
-forms highly colored 2,4 –DNP Hydrazones Muscone � odorous principle of musk (sex attractants)
which range from yellow to deep red Pheromones � produce by musk to attracts sex ;
2. Oxidation: (Scents) Muscaline � pheromone produce by house flies
(a) Benedicts Test� traditional test forn glucose in the urine Chloracetophenone � lacrimator (tear gas)
*Basis: reduction of cupric ions to cuprous Pipper spray � contain capsaicin (sili)
oxide Metabolism of Ketones:
* brick red ppt (for Aliphatic only; Ketones are very stable
also for ketones) Primary route of metabolism: reduction to alcohol
2+
RCHO + -+ R-COOH + Cu2OJ,
Cu •Important Ketones:

(b)Tollen’s Test -rgnt: Ammoniacal AgNO3 (Silver Nitrate)

* form Silver mirror w/
Aliphatic & Aromatic Aldehyde
2+
RCHO + Ag -+ R-COOH + Ag°
(c)Iodofrom Test � reaction w/ I2 – K2 (test for methylketones)
�yellow; fowl smell
3. Reduction to Alcohols
4. Addition of Alcohols/ Acetals Formation
5. Addition of Grgnard Reagents
(a)Formaldehyde will give primary alcohols
(b)Higher Aldehydes will give secondary alcohols
(c)Ketones will give tertiary alcohols
(d)Esters will give tertiary alcohols

•Important Aldehydes:
1. Formaldehyde � preservative for anatomical specimens because it
causes skin hardening
* effective disinfectant used in hospital
* embalming fluid –(FORMALIN)
* creates a “silver mirror” on the walls of a test
tube w/ Silve Nitrate
2. Acetaldehyde � intermediate in the manufacture or acetic, ethyl
acetate, vinyl acetate which in turn are used on
the production of synthetic rubber & water-based
paints.
3. Chloral � starting material for the manufacture of insectides -DDT
*Chloral Hydrate � “knockout drops”
* dissolves Starch, Resins, Proteins
* metabolite: Trichloroacetic Acid
4. Butanal � a constitutent of the aroma of fresh bread
5. Benzaldehyde � once called “Oil of Bitter Almond” because of its
presence in almond seed
* used as Flavoring Agent
* intermediate in the manufacture of drugs, dyes, &
other organic products
6. Cinnamaldehyde � chief constituent of the oil of cinnamon
bark 7.Vanillin � fragrant component of vanilla beans
* flavoring agent
8. Citral � major component of lemon grass oil
1. Acetone � used as a solvent for such products as paints, lacquers,
& cellulose acetate because of its miscibility with both
water & non polar
�nail polisher remover
2. Testosterone � makor constituent of the male sex hormone
* responsible for the development of the secondary
sex characteristics
* steroidal ketone
3. Muscone � odorous principle component of musk (sex attractants)
* valued for its ability to enhance fragrances even
when present in minute amounts
* present in many of the expensive perfumes as fixative
*Musk - natural substance w/ a strong sweet smell
4. Pheromones � produce by musk to attracts sex ; (Scents)
5. Muscaline � pheromone produce by house flies
6. Chloracetophenone � lacrimator (irritates eye)
�is used as a Tear Gas (produce stinging pain
in the eyes &
streaming from the
eyes & nose)
7. Pipper spray � contain capsaicin (sili)
8. Acetophenone � has been used as a hypnotic but newer &
safer drugs are now available
9. Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) � solvent for lacquers, paints, plastics
@Hydro carbons with Carbonyl Functional Group 3. Others
-Carbonyl Group � is a functional group composed of a carbon •Monobasic/ Monoenoic Acid/ Monocarboxylic acid
atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom. �unsaturated fatty acids, with one double bond
�9
▪ Palmitoleic Acid (16:1 ) � contains 16C w/ 1 double bond
@Carboxylic Acids � R-COOH/ Ar-COOH
(cis-9-hexadecanoic acid)
* terminal functional group �9
�product of hydrolysis of anhydrides ▪ Oleic Acid (18:1 ) � at position between 9&10
* product of further oxidation of Primary Alcohol (cis-9-octadecanoic acid)
�9
�N omenclature of Acids ▪ Elaidic Acid (18:1 ) � (trans-9-octadecanoic Acid)
�15
1. Common name � Uses Greek letters to indicate the positions ▪ Nervonic Acid (20:1 ) � (cis-15-tetracosanoic Acid)
of substituents
�C-C-C-C-C-COOH •Polyunsaturated (Polyethanoid; Polyenoic Acid)
Alpha=next to COOH + Dienoic Acids (2 double bonds)
�9,12
Beta ▪ Linoleic Acid (18:2 ) � (9,12-octadecanoic Acid)
Gamma + Trienoic Acid (3 double bonds)
Sigma �9,12,15
▪ Linolenic (18:3 ) � (9,12,15-ocatadecatrienoic Acid)
Epsilon + Tetraenoic Acid (4 double bonds)
* Often derived from Latin Greek name indicating �5,8,11,14
▪ Arachidonic Acid(20:4 )
the original source of the acid
�(5,8,11,14-Eicosatetranoic Acid)
2. IUPAC � Parent chain contains the –COOH, carboxy C is #1
�can be synthesized through the bne
* Change –e to –oic
* Ex: methane? –methanoic acid
*Palmitoleic, Oleic, Linolenic,Linoleic & Linolenic
eactions: 1. Acid/ Salt Formation
�R �are the most abundant unsaturated fatty acids in animal
2. Conversion into functional derivatives lipids
(a) conversion into acid chlorides *Linoleic, Linolenic, Arachidonic
(b) conversion into an ester * are the three essential fatty acids
(b) conversion into amides *Omega � refers to VH3 Methyl group
3. Reduction *Fatty Acids� are aliphatic carboxylic acids
* occur mainly as esters in natural fats & oils but do
�Kinds of Acids: (based on the number of carboxyl group –COOH) not occur in the unsterified from as free fatty acids, a
1. Monocarboxylic acids � saturated fatty acids, transport form found in the plasma.
one carboxylic acid group * are usually straight-chain derivatives containing an
#C Formula even number of carbon atoms.
Common Name Systematic Name * the chain may be saturated or unsaturated
CnH2n+1COOH
Formic Acid 1 Methanoic Acid HCOOH
Acetic Acid 2 Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH •Important Acids:
Propionic Acid 3 Propanoic Acid CH3CH2COOH 1. Salicylic Acid � Monoprotic Acid
Butyric Acid 4 Butanoic Acid CH3(CH2)2COOH * used for treatment of fungal infection & removal of
Valeric Acid 5 Pentanoic CH3(CH2)3COOH warts & corns
Caproic Acid 6 Hexanoic Acid CH3(CH2)4COOH * used as a keratolytic agent (for the removal of
Caprylic Acid 8 Octanoic Acid CH3(CH2)6COOH dead skin cell)
Capric Acid 10 Decanoic Acid CH3(CH2)8COOH * Whitfield’s Ointment ® (antifungal)
Lauric Acid 12 Dodecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)10COOH = Benzoic Acid + Salicylic Acid
Myristic Acid 14 Tetradecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)12COOH 2. Acetylsalicylic Acid � (ASPIRIN)
Palmitic Acid 16 Hexadecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)14COOH * analgesic, antipyretic, treatment of colds,
Stearic Acid 18 Octadecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)16COOH
headache, minor aches & pains
Arachidic Acid 20 Eicosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)18COOH
3. Acetaminophen USP(Paracetamol BP)� substitute for aspirin
Behemic Acid 22 Docosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)20COOH
4. Citric Acid � found in citrus fruits
Lignoceric Acid 24 Tetracosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)22COOH
* Triprotic Acid
5. Lactic Acid � foud in sour milk
Dicarboxylic Acids � saturated acids with two –COOH group
* formed during fermentation of milk sugar, lactose,
2. & responsible for souring of spoiled milk
oh
#C Name * product of fermentation milk sugar
my
2 Oxalic Acid 6. Tartaric Acid � found on several fruits particularly grapes
such * salt of tartaric acid
3 Malonic Acid
good * Diprotic Acid
4 Succinic Acid
apple *Potassium Hydrogen Tartarate (Cream of Tartar)
5 Glutaric Acid
6 Adipic Acid pie -used in making baking powder
7 Pimetic Acid sweet *Potassium Sodium Tartrate -used as a mild cathartic
8 Suberic Acid as 7. Benzoic Acid � Monoprotic Acid
9 Azelaic Acid sugar * used as Antifungal Agent
10
*Azelaic Sebacic
acid Acid
� anti-pimple * its sodium salt, sodium benzoate,
*Oxalic Acid � product of the oxidation of Ethylene Glycol -is used as a food preservative
8. Para-aminobenzoic Acid � used in suntan lotions to prevent
the dangerous UV rays from reaching the skin
9. Acetic Acids � vinegar, spermatocidal
* considered as a universal precursor for fatty acids,
lipids, & other organic plant products
*Glacial Acetic Acid � Ethanolic Acid
@Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

1. Acid/ Acyl chloride

Oic -+ oyl chloride

Ex:
Ethanoyl chloride
(acetyl chloride)

2. Esters �product of the reaction between a Carboxylic Acid & Alcohol

* Formula: RCOOR
* ends in –oate
* most ester have fragrant odors
& contribute to the flavors of fruits
* Common characteristics: pleasant odor
Ex: Isoamyl ethanoate Reactivity: most -+ least
Methyl salicylate *acid/acyl chloride -+ anhydrides -+ esters -+ amide
* R – CO – OR + H2O -+ R – COOH + R – OH
Reactions: Hdrolysis � acidic, unpleasant
odor
• Lipids � esters of glycerol & high molecular weight of fatty acids •Important Amides:
• Saponification � reaction of lipids w/ a strong inorganic base
* alkali hydrolysis of an ester (RCOOR)
* products: Glycerol + Soap

3. Anhydrides
* composed of two molecules of carboxylic acids
* hydrolysis yield two molecules of carboxylic acid

* -oic acid -+ -oic anhydrides

Example: ethanoic acid -H2O� acetic anhydrides

4. Amide � formed by the condensation of a carboxylic acid & an amine

�Reactions: Hydrolysis (requires an acid catalyst & heat

products are Carboxylic Avid &
Ammonia Gas)

* -oic acid -+ amide

Example:
-Ethanamide:

-N-methylethanolamide:
1. Acetanilide � has been used as an Antipyretic & as an analgesic
2. Niacinamide � amide of niacin, a form of Vitamin B3
3. Nicotinamide (nicotinic acid) � only form can treat pellagra or
classical deficiency
4. Sulfanilamide � sulfur analogue of an amide
* parent compound of sulfonamides
�discovered in 1936 to have a definite therapeutic
effect against such diseases as pneumoria,
diarrhea, & streptococcal infections
* ADR: Nausea, Dizziness, Anemia
ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
Organic Medicinal Chemistry -+ Physicochemical properties of a drug that
affect its biological action.
-+ the practice of medicinal chemistry is
devoted to the discovery & development
@Local Anti- Infectives or Germicides
of new drugs
Antiseptic � compounds that kill (-cidal) or prevent the growth of (–
Drug -+ an agent intended for use in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment,
static) microorganisms when applied to living tissue
cure, or prevention of disease in humans or another animals
Disinfectant � agents that prevent infection by the destruction of
Receptor -+ a substance to which a drug needs to interact with to elicit a
pathogenic microorganisms when applied to inanimate
pharcological response
objects
Affinity -+ ability of a drug to bind to the receptor
I. Alcohol & Related Compounds
Intrinsic -+ ability of a drug to exert a pharmacologic action
* t# of carbons, t antibacterial property
Four Fundamental Pathways:
(but up to carbon 8 only)
1. Absorption
tbranching tend to + Antibacterial property (except
2. Distribution
to isopropyl)
3. Metabolism
(a) Alcohol USP (Spiritus vini recticatus)
4. Excretion: Glomerular Filtration
�”Grain Alcohol”; “wine spirit”
Active Tubular Secretion
* the most widely abused of all recreational drugs.
Passive tubular –reabsorption
* undergo a series of Oxidation reaction in vivo
Enterohepatic Recirculation -+ drugs emptied via the bile duct
�manufacture from:
into the small intestine can be
"Fermentation of grain
reabsorbed in the intestinal
"Hydration of Ethyl
lumen back to the systemic
* Denatured Alcohol
circulation (LIver-+ intestines -+
* ethanol that has been rendered unfit for use in
Liver)
intoxicating beverages by the addition of other
substances
Isosterism � describes the selection of structural components, the steric
* completely denatured alcohol contains added
electronic & solubility characteristics of a drug which make it
methanol (wood alcohol) & benzene & is
interchangeable with drugs of the same pharmacologic class
unsuitable for either internal or external use
*Diluted Alcohol > 49/50 %
Isosteres -+ compounds or groups of atoms having the same number &
*Rubbing Alcohol > 70%
arrangement of electrons
*Absolute Alcohol > 95%
-+ group of atoms that impart similar physical & chemical
*Dehydrated Algohol > 99%
properties to a molecule, because of similarities in the size,
*Isopropy alcohol � primarily used to disinfect the skin &
electronegativity, or stereochemistry
surgical instruments
-+ compounds may be altered by isosteric replacements of
�rapidly bactericidal in the
atoms or groups, to develop analogues with select biologic
concentration range of 50% to 95%
example: replacement of the hydroxyl group of folic acid by
* a 40% concentration is considered to
an amino group.
be equal in antiseptic power to a
60% ethanol concentration
*Formic Acid ¢ blindness
*Ethanol ¢ act competitive inhibition
(b) Ethylene Oxide � gas sterilant
* used to sterilized temperature-sensitive
medical equipment & certain
pharmaceuticals that cannot be
autoclaved
* MOA: alkylation of functional groups in
nucleic acids & proteins
* carcinogenic

(c) Thermodent® � Formaldehyde USP (formalin)

* disinfectant; embalming fluid
* contains not less than 37% of formaldehyde
w/ methanol added to retard polymerization
* MOA: Direct & nonpecific alkylation of
nucleophilic functional groups of
proteins
(d) Cidex® � Glutaraldehyde/ Glutarol
* sterilizing solution for equipment & instruments
that cannot be autoclaved
 II. Phenols (Carbolic Acid)
�standard to compare germicide
* was introduced as a surgical antiseptic
by Sir Joseph Lister
* antiseptic; disinfectant
Liquefied Phenol, USP (phenol containing 10% water)
Phenol Coefficient � ration of the dilution of a
disinfectant to the dilution of phenol
required to kill S. typhi.
*the greater the Phenol Coefficient,
the greater the Antibacterial property.
SAR � substitution of alkyl, aryl, halogen at
p- position increase antibacterial property.
0Straight chain alkyl group
are > than branches
*Phenol � for Protein precipitation
*Cresol � a mixture of three isomeric cresols
*Eugenol � clove oil
* toothache drop
* anesthetic; antiseptic
*Thymol � metacresol (m-cresol)
* antifungal; used for the treatment of tinea inf.
*Resorcinol � CRH (Dihydroxy benzene)
* antiseptic; keratolytic
OH (Cathecol) / (o-hydroxyphenol)
OH (Resorcinol) / (m-hydroxyphenol)
OH (Hydroquinone) / (p-hydoxyphenol)
Oxidizing Agents
•Primary Mechanism of Action:
Liberation of nasent oxygen (nasent � alone)
-Free radical
2. Denature of Proteins
*Panoxyl® (Hydrous Benzoyl Peroxide) -2.5%, 5%, 10%
-Keratolytic & keratogenic agent
-MOA: Induces proliferation of epithelial cell
-Increases cell turnover
-most effective topical OTC agent for the control of acne
*Carbamide Peroxide � a stable complex of urea & hydrogen
peroxide
�releases hydrogen peroxide when mixed
w/ water
*Hydrogen Peroxide � particularly active against anaerobic
bacteria & find use in the cleansing of
contaminated wounds.
* effectiveness is somewhat limited by its
poor tissue penetrability & transient
action
* the stability is increased in Acid Medium
*Hydrogen Peroxide (0.03%) � has Acetanilide to
increase its stability by
catalytically retarding its
decomposition
*Vincent’s Stomatitis (Hairy Tongue) � result in
continued use of
Hydrogen Peroxide as
mouthwash
*Volume Specifications: mL of Oxygen measured at
standard temperature &
pressure. Thus, a 20-
volume solution is 6% &
has 20mL oxygen
IV. Halogen-containing Compounds
a. Chlorine (Cl) � NaOCl --+ bleaching agent
* Halazone --+ water disinfection
M.O.A : chlorination of amide in CHON &
oxidation of –SH group
*Halazone � chlorine-containing
* used to disinfect drinking water
*Chlorides � may be precipitated from solution by the Silver
Nitrate reagent
b. Iodine (I) � one of the oldest known germicides in use today
* produces blue color w/ Starch & Dextrin
* Iodine preparations official in USP:
- Iodine Tincture (2% solution of iodine in
50% alcohol w/ NaI)
-Strong Base (Lugol’s Solution)- (5% I in water w/ KI)
-Iodine Solution (2% iodine in water w/ NaI)
*Sodium & Potassium � iodine Stabilizer
*Povidone Iodine (Betadine ®)
L+ used as an antiseptic for skin application
before surgery & injection
L+ a complex w/ the nonionic surfactant
polymer, Polyvinylpyrrolidone
L+ has 10% Iodine (approximately)
L+ a water-soluble complex that release
Iodine Slowly
L+ provides a nontoxic, non-irritating,
nonvolatile & nonstaining form of Iodine
*Iodides � only ion that used for expectorant in cough
syrup
nd
�2 bet expectorant (next to Water vapor)
*Iodophor � complexes of iodine
& nonionic surfactants
* such complexes retain the germicidal
properties of iodine & also reduce its
volatility & essentially remove its irritant
properties
PVP : non-ionic Surfactant complexes of I2
Less irritating
More washable
Less volatile I2
M.O.A : Iodination of amide in CHON &
oxidation of –SH group
V. Cationic Surfactant (cationic�positive charge)
--- Refers to quaternary ammonium component
--- Have surface active property
-Causes absorptioninto the cell wall
-Causes distortion of the cell (lysis)
a. Benzalkonium Chloride � used as detergent, emulsifying, &
wetting agent
* used w/ parabens as a preservative
* is germicidal surfactant which
render inactive in the presence of
Soaps
•Sodium Lauryl Sulfate � deactivate the
cationic surfactant
•Span - w/o
Tween - o/w nonionic
b. Methyl benzythonium Chloride: Diaperene®
L+for Diaper rash
�Cause by Bacterium ammoniagenesis
(causes liberation of ammonia in
decomposed urine)
L+liberates ammonia from
decompose wine
c. Cetyl Pyridinium Chloride
* used as a general antiseptic
* available form: Throat lozenges & mouthwashes
* FDA approved for the treatment of Gingivitis
d. Chlorhexidine (Bactidol®)
* used as irrigation solution & as mouthwash
* not absorbed through skin or mucus membrane & does
not cause systemic toxicity
e. Hexidine � mouthwah
VI. Dyes (cationic) � positively charge
L+Effective against gram (+) & fungi
a. Gentian Violet (Methyl Violet)/ (Crystal Violet)
(p-rosanilline)
�Vaginal suppository (Anti-candida, yeast infection)
�Helminths (Strongyloides spp.)
�is also used a 1% to 3% solution for the treatment
of tinea & yeast infections
* also used orally as an antihelminthic for
strongyloides & oxyuriasis
b. Basic Fuchsin � ingredient of Carbol-fuchsin solution
(Castellani’s paint), used topically in the
treatment of fungal infections, such as
ringworm & athlete’s foot
c. Methylene Blue � antidote for Cyanide Poisoning
* in high concentrations, it promotes the
conversion of hemoglobin to
Methemoglobin, which because of its high
affinity for cyanide ion diverts it from
inactivating hemoglobin
* in low concentration, it is used to treat
drug0induced methemoglobin
VII. Heavy metals
L+w/ Oligodynamic Properties
L+ has few concentration, they are able to inhibit
microorganisms
a. Ag � AgNO -for ophthalmia neonatorum
3
-may cause conjunctivitis
New alternative: Erythromycin Ointment
* Ag Sulfadiazine (Flammazine®)
- burn ointment
b.
Hg � quicksilver
* MOA: reacts with sulfhydryl (SH) groups in enzymes &
other proteins
* this is reversible by thiol-containing compounds such as
Cysteine & DImercaprol
*Hg1Cl2 --+ Calomel (Mercurous Chloride)
* HgCl2 --+ Corrosive sublimate (Mercuric Chloride)
*Ammoniated mercury --+ White precipitate;
used for skin infections
*Organic Mercurials: Merthiolate (Thimerosal)
L+preservative for vaccines
MOA: reaction w/ -SH of CHON
*Chlormerodin Hg-197 --+ used for scintillation
scanning of brain for
suspected tumors
VIII. Preservatives
* used to prevent microbial contamination
* IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS: effective at low
concentration against all possible
microorganisms, notoxic, compatible w/ other
constituents used in the preparation, stable for
the shelf life of the preparation
a. Paraben (esters of p-hydroxy benzoic acid)
L+for liquid dosage form
L+antifungals
L+ preservative effect tends to increase w/ molecular
weight
Methylparaben � molds
Propylparaben � yeasts
* more oil-soluble so it is prepared for oils &
fats
Butylparaben � cause endocrinologic abnormalities
b. Chlorobutanol � employed as a bacteriostatic agent in
pharmaceuticals for injection, ophthalmic
use & intranasal administration
c. Benzyl alcohol � for dermal/ topical preparation
* commonly used as a preservative in vials of
injectable drugs in concentrations of 1% to
4% in water or saline
d. Benzoic Acid � for topical preparation
* Very effective in acidic pH/low pH
e. Sorbic Acid � for sugar-containing preparation like elixir
* an effective antifungal preservative
*Syrup, NF � self-preserving
 @Antifungal Agents:
General MOA: inhibition of ergosterol; synthesis injury to cell membrane
Amphotericin B (Fungitone®) S.nodosus
Nystatin (Mycostatin ®) S.norsei by Hazen&Brown
Natamycin (Natacin®) S. natalensis
Griseofulvin P. griseofulvin
*Fatty Acids-+all fatty acids & their salts have fungicidal properties
a. Propionic Acid -+ present in sweat in low concentrations (around
0.01%)
b. Undecylenic Acid -+ obtained from the destructive distillation of
Castor Beans (Ricinus communis)
I. AGENTS FOR SUPERFACIAL MYCOSES
a. Griseofulvin (P. griseofulvin)
-+No established MOA: Inhibitor of microtubule assembly
(antimitotic)
II. AGENTS FOR LESS SERIOUS SYSTEMIC MYCOSES
-+accumulates in the stratum corneum of the skin, acts as a
a. Ketoconazole
protective barrier
-+potent enzyme inhibitor
-+ is recommended for the systemic treatment or refractory
-+Inhibits testosterone -+antiandrogenic effects
ringworm infections
"gynecomastia
-+is supplied in “microsize’” & “ultramicrosize” forms
"low sperm count
-+ its bioavailability is notoriously poor
"low libido
-+ is used in the treatment of Tinea corpuris, tinea unguium,
b. Fluconazole -+preferred for resistant candidiasis
Tinea capitis, & tinea pedis, caused by various species of
-+ has excellent penetrability into the CSF
dermatophyte fungi, including Trichophyton,
C. Itraconazole
Microsporum, & Epidermophyton. nd
-+2 best systemic antifungal next to Amphotericin B
-+ is very lipophilic compound w/ vey low water solubility
-+ lacks the endocrinologic effects of ketoconazole
-+higher BA w/ ingestion of fatty foods
-+Uses: Blastomycosis
-+Uses: Ringworm Infections
Histoplasmosis
b. Nystatin (Mykinac®, Mucostatin®, Nilstat®)
-+Polyene Antifungal: binds to ergosterol, Paracoccidioidomycosis
resulting in holes/ pores in the Coccidiodomycosis
fungal cell membrane III . AGENTS FOR SERIOUS SYSTEMIC MYCOSES
-+the aglycon portion of nystatin consisting of 38-membered a. Amphotericin B
ketone ring w/ a single tetracene & diene chromophores -+Gold Standard, Best organ, DOC
isolated from each other by a methylene group, one -+Polyene antifungal -+ creates pores in fungal cell
carboxyl, one keto & eight hydroxyl groups membrane
-+Use: Candidiasis of Esophagus/GIT -+Side Effects: Revesible Azotemia (former name of uremia)
*Patient should be monitored (BUN, Creatinine
C. Topic Azoles Clearance)
-+MOA: Inhibition of c14 lanosterol demethylase �Febrile Reaction
Lanosterol ¢ Ergosterol Inhibition of ergosterol �Anemia
synthesis �Thrombophlebitis
Imidazole b. Itraconazole
Clotrimazole C. Caspofungin -+inhibits 1-3 1-glucan synthase
Toconazole
Miconazole : glucan (cell wall)
Triazole d. Voriconazole
Fluconazole e. Flucytosine -+ inhibits thymiditate synthase
Itraconazole by replacing uracil in nucleic acid
Ketoconazole synthesis (DNA&RNA)
-+always given w/ Amphotericin B for the treatment of
systemic mycoses & meningitis caused by
d. Terbinafine Cryptococcus neoformans & candida
allylamine, inhibition of squalene epoxidase
e. Naftifine
f. Whitfield’s Ointment -+ Benzoic + Salicylic
g. Selenium Sulfide (Selsum Blue) -+antidandruff
@Antitubercular Agents: @Antiscabies & Antipedicular Agents
1. Isoniazid (Isonicotinic acid hydrazide) •Scabicides � compounds used to control the mite, Sarcoptes scabei,
�MOA: Inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acid, an important an organsm that thrives under conditions of poor
component of the cell walls of mycobacteria personal hygiene.
�principal adverse effect: Peripheral neuropathy due to 1. Benzyl Benzoate� obtained from Peru balsam & other resins
the competition of isoniazed w/ pyridoxal phosphate for * immediate relief from itching
the enzyme apotryptophanase �is a clear colorless liquid ester w/ faint
�coadminististration of Vit B6 (Pyridoxine) , prevents the aromatic odor
symptoms of peripheral neuritis 2. Crotaminon
2. Pyrazinamide (Pyrazinecarboxamide) •Pediculocides � used to eliminate head, body & crab lice
�used in combination w/ other agents because resistance 1. Pyrethrin � derived from Chrysanthemum plants
develops rapidly * MOA: nerve poisoning
�first line drug for short term treatment 2. Piperonyl Butoxide � enhances the pediculicide effects of
* adverse effect: Hepatotoxicity pyrithrins
* must be enzymatically hydrolyzed to pyrazinoic (active form) 3. Permethrin � exerts a lethal action against lice, ticks, mites, &
3. Ethambutol (2,2’-Ethylenediiminno-di-1-butanol dihydrochloride) fleas
* is remarkably stereospecific * a pediculicide w/ a single application of a 1%
* adverse effect: Optical neuritis solution is known to effect cures in more
* loss of ability to discriminate between red & than 99% of the cases
green (color blindness) * *Pruritus � most frequent Side Effects
�*Toxicities of its isomers are about equal but their activity vary 4. Lindane ( Kwell®, Scaben®, Kwildane®)
considerably. The afctors that have pronounced effect on the * gamma-benzene hexachloride
activity are: * ADR: Neurotoxiciity
-Length of the alkaline chain * threefold actions:
-Nature of the branching e/ the alkyl substituents in the -direct contact poison
nitrogens -a fumigant effect
-Extent of N-alkylation -stomach poison
4. Ethionamide
* has two substitution differs from IHN series
* structural analogue ofIsoniazed
* used in the treatment of Isoniazid-resistant tuberculosis
* adverse effects: Gastric irritation, hepatotoxicity, peripheral
neuropathies, optic neuritis @Antimalarials
5.Para-amnio salicylic acid * Antimalarials have one common structure – a quinolone ring ,
* acts as a competitive inhibitor for p-aminobenzoic acid in folate or a “quinolone w/ an additional benzene addede” (an acridine
biosynthesis ring)
* adverse effect: Severe gastric irritation * non except the cinchona alkaloids has a quinuclidine ring
6. Clofamine •Cinchona Alkaloids
* basic red dye used in the treatment of leprosy, including Quinine � reserved for malarial strains resistant to other agents
dapsone-resistant forms * major adverse effect: Cinchonism ( a sundrome causing
nausea, vomiting, tinnitus & vertigo)
•7-chloro-4-aminoquinolines
Chloroquine � drug of choice in the treatment of erythrocytic
falcifarum malaria
Antitubercular Antibiotics �anti-inflammatory action rxplains its occasional use
1. Rifampin (Rifampicin; Rifamycin) in Rheumatoid Arthritis & discoid lupus
* the most effective agent erythematosus
* obtained from S. mediterranae •8-aminoquinoline
�a class of antibiotics that contain a macrocyclic ring Primaquine � effective only against the exoerythrocytic stage
bridged across two non-adjacent positions of an aromatic of malaria
nucleus & called Ansamycin * only agent that can lead to radical cures of
�high risk of military cramps Plasmodium Ovale, & Plasmodium vivax malarias.
* Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors * gametocidal for all 4 plamodia species,
* Adverse effect: Red orange of body secretions transmission of the disease can be prevented
2. Cycloserine •9-aminoacridine
* isolated from Streptomyces: Quinacrine � primarily used in the treatment of giardiasis, but is
S. orchidaceus, also effective against tapeworm & malaria, &
S. garyphalus, topically against leishmaniasis
S. lavendulus * should not be given w/ Primaquine because
3. Capromycin � isolated form Streptomyces capreolus of increased toxicity
4. Streptomycin � only aminoglycoside used for tuberculosis Mefloquine � effective single agent for suppressing & curing
* the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis multidrug-resistant forms of Plasmodium falciparum
(1944 by Waksman)
Leprosy: Dapsone, Rifampicin, Clofazimine
@Antibacterials
•A substance is classified as an Antibiotic
�if its is a product of Metabolism (although it may be
duplicated or even have been anticipated by chemical
synthesis)
* its is synthetic product produced as a structural analogue
of a naturally occurring antibiotic
�it antagonizes the growth or the survival of one or more
species of microorganisms
�it is effective in low concentrations
Bactericidal
-Aminoglycoside
-Cell wall synthesis inhibitors
-Cell membrane disrupting agents
-Nucleic Acid synthesis inhibitors
Bacteriostatic

-Protein synthesis inhibitors except aminoglycosides

-Antimetabolites when given alone

Kanamycin Streptomyces kanamyceticus

Clavulanate S. clavuligerus
Erythromycin S. erythreus
Griseofulvin P. griseofulvin
Polymixin B. polymixa
Bacitracin Bacillus subtilis
Nystatin S. noursei by Hazen & Brown
Antifungal Chemotherapy
Chloramphenicol S. venezuelae
1. For Superficial Mycoses
Cephalosporins Acremoium Chrusogenum
• Griseofulvin Grisactin®, Grifulvin,V®, Fulvicin®
Aztreonam Chromobacterium violaceum
Chlortetracyclin S. aureofaciens • Nystatin Mycostatatin®, Nilstat®
Linezolid E. faecium • Clotimoxazole Lotrimin®
Ivermectin S. avemitilis • Miconazole Monistat®, Micatin®
LIncomycin S. lincolnensis • Econazole Spectazole®
Carbapenems: Thienamycin S. cattleya • Oxiconazole Oxistat®
Rifampicin S. mediterranei • Sulconazole Exelderm®
Amphotericin B S. nodosus • Ketoconazole Nizoralv®
Daptomycin S. roseosporus • Butenafine Mentax®
Cycloserin S. orchidaceus • Haloprogin Halotex®
S. garyphalus • Terbinafine Lamisil®
S. lavendalus • Ciclopirox Penlac®
Vancomycin S. orientalis • Naftipine Naftin®
Neomycin S. fradiae • Whitfield’s ointment
Steptomycin S. griseus by Walksman
Muciprosin Pseudomonas fluorescens • Salicylic acid
Gramicidin B. brevis • Tolnaftate
Natamycin S. natalensis • Selenium sulfide
D-cycloscrine S. garyphalus 2. For Less Serious Systemic
Streptogrannins: S. pristinaespirals Mycoses
Quinopristin & Dalfupristin • Ketoconazole
• Fluconazole Diflucan®
• Itraconazole Sporanox®
3. For Serious Systemic
Mycoses
• Amphotericin B Fungizone®, Ambisome®,
Abelcet®, Amphotec®
• Itraconazole
• Caspofungin Cabcidas®
• Vorconazole Vfend®
• Flucytosine Ancobon®
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
@Flame Test:

Metals Non-Luminous Flame Under Cobalt Glass @Groups of Cation:

Sodium (Na) Persistent golden yellow Nil
Potassium (K) Violet Crimson
Group
Lithium (Li) Carmine Red Purple Members Characteristics
#
Calcium (Ca) Brick Red Light green +2
Strontium (Sr) Crimson Purple I Pb +2 Form precipitate w/ dilute HCl
+2 Ag
Barium (Ba)-1 Yellowish Green Bluish-green Hg Insoluble chloride
Borate (BO group
3 ) + +3
Copper (Cu) II Hg Sb Do not react w/ HCl,
Green + +5
but form ppt. w/ H2S,
Thallium (Tl) Bi Sb
+2
Phosphorus (P) 3
Sn dilute mineral acid medium.
+2
Bismuth (Bi) Cu +4 However, they
+2 Sn
Lead (Pb) Cd form precipitates w/ (NH4)2S
acid insoluble
Arsenic (As) Blue Yellow
+3 in neutral & ammoniacal
As sulfide
+5
Cobalt (Co) As solution.
Antimony (Sb) - +2 +2
Ammonium (NH 1 III Fe CO Do not react w/ either HCl nor
Colorless +3
Fe Mn
+2 H2S in dilute mineral acid
4 ) +3
Al medium, however, they
+7
+3
Mn+2 form precipitates w/ (NH2)2S
Cr
+6 Zn in neutral or ammoniacal
Cr solution
+3 Base insoluble
Ni
sulfides
+2
@Groups of Anion: IV +2 Sr Do not react w/ HCl, H2S &
Ba+2
Ca Sulfate insoluble (NH4)2S.
groups Form precipitate w/ NH4Cl in
Group Members Precipitated formed & Visual Result
# neutral or slightly acidic
medium
w/ 1M AgNO3 + 6M HNO3 w/ 1M BaCl2 + HNO3
V +2 + Do not react w/ any of the
Cl AgCl -(white) Mg+
I Br AgBr -(cream) Na
K
NH4 reagents stated,
No ppt. Soluble group Na- yellow ppt w/ cobalt
I AgI -(yellow)
uranyl acetate
insoluble in HNO3
- K- white ppt w/ sodium
II NO2 AgS (black)soluble in HNO3
2 bitartrate,
-2 NO & C2H3O2 -(no ppt) No ppt. NH4- alkalinized vapors turns
S
C2H3O4 - red litmus paper to blue
III SO3 White ppt. soluble in HNO3 White ppt of BaSO4, *Mg � only Group V cation that will
-2 CaSO4, BaC2O4 yield a precipitate w/ sodium biphosphate
CO3 2
-
C2O4 soluble in HNO3
-3
PO
VI 3 -3 Ag3PO4 -(yellow) BaCrO4 -(yellow)
AsO Ag3AsO4 -(brown) Ba3(PO3)2 -(white)
4 -2
CrO Ag2CrO4 -(red) Ba3(AsO4)2 -(white)
4
all ppt. soluble in HNO3 all ppt. soluble in @Radiopharmaceuticals & their uses:
HNO3
-
V NO3 No ppt. Radiopharmaceutical Uses
No ppt.
ClO-2 Technetium 99m-Phytate - Liver imaging & potency studies
-
SO White ppt.
VI 4 No ppt. soluble in HNO3
Technetium 99m-Heptagluconate - Kidney imaging,
- determining renal function
Technetium 99m-IDA - Hepatobiliary studies
Techetium 99m-Elidronate - Bone imaging
Technetium 99m-Injection - Brain Scanning
Tc 99m Albumin Aggregated - Lung Scanning
Injection
Tc 99m Pyrophosphate - Cardiac Infarct Imaging
I-131-Human Serum Albumin - Blood plasma volume/
- cardiac output determination
Iodohippurate I 131 Injection - Cardiac infarct imaging
NaI- 1125 - Localization of ocular tumors
Sodium Phosphate Serum Albumin - Thyroid Function
Cyanocobalamin 57 Capsule - Pernicious Anemia
*Unit for Radioactivity:
Becquerel - new unit (named after Henry Becquerel)
- 1Bq= 1dps10
Curie - old unit (3.7 x
10 dps)
@Color Reactions

Unknown Tests
Acetate C2H3O2 Sulfuric acid+ ethanol � fruity odor of ethyl acetate
Ferric chloride TS � brownish red or reddish brown ppt of basic acetates
Aluminum Al Ammonium TS � gelatinous ppt. w/c dissolves in excess of ammonium TS
Aluminon reagent � red lake
Ammonium NH4SCN Acidic cobalt solution � intense blue colored complex at interfeface
Thiocyanide Co(CNS)4 Ferric salts � blood red ferric thiocyanate
Arsenates AsO4 Silver nitrates TS � chocolate brown soluble in nitric acid
Ammonium molybdate� yellow ppt
Arsenites AsO3 Silver Nitrate test � yellow ppt soluble in nitric acid
Magnesia Mixture � no reaction (differentiating test for arsenates & arsenite)
Borates -3
BO3 Sulfuric Acid + methanol � green bordered flame
Turmeric paper (curcumin) � orange + sodium hydroxide � olive green
Turmeric paper when dipped into a solution of borate acidified w/ HCl � produce reddish brown/ orange-
red
Bromine Br Carbon tetrachloride � orange color
Carbonate CO3 -2 In acidic aqueous solution � effervescence
Chloride Cl Silver nitrate test � white curdy precipitate ppt soluble in ammonia, insoluble in nitric acid
Citrate C6H5O2 Silver mirror test
CaCl2 or Ca(OH)2 (in excess) � no ppt � white ppt w/c dissolve on cooling
Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1)/ Denige’s reagent (distinguishing test for citrate & tartrates)
� Citrates produces Carmine Red
� Tartrates produces Emerald Green
Chromium Cr Sodium hydroxide � grayish green slug dissolves in excess reagent (turn to yellow upon addition of Na
Peroxide)
Cobalt Co Sodium hydroxide � blue ppt of CO(OH)2 (boiling) � olive green
� rose red Potassium nitrite + acetic acid Fernando Gabriel Reyes
yellow ppt
a-nitroso-1-naphthol �brown ppt soluble in HCl
Nickel Ni Dimethylglyoxime � bright red crystalline ppt insoluble in ammonia
a-nitroso-1-naphthol �reddish brown ppt soluble in HCl
Copper Cu Fe+ HCl � deposit of red film on iron
Potassium ferrocyanide � green ppt. forming a blue solution w/ ammonia
Iodide -1 Chlorine water or potassium permanganate solution� violet
I
color Sulfuric acid+sodium bisulfate (cold) � decolorized
Sulfuric acid+oxali acid (hot) � decolorized
Cyanate CNO Cobalt acetate +acetic acid � azure blue crystal
Phosphate PO -3 Silver test � yellow ppt in nitric acid & ammonia
4
Ammonium molybdate � yellow ppt. soluble in nitric acid & ammonia
Potassium K Flame test � violet or iliac color
Tartaric acid � white ppt of potassium bitartrate (only insoluble compound of potassium)
Salicylate Ferric chloride � violet color
Acid � white ppt of salicylic acid
Silver Ag HCl � white curdy ppt. insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in ammonia
Sodium Na Flame test � intense golden yellow flame
Cobalt uranyl acetate � golden yellow ppt
Tartrate C4H4O6 Silver mirror test
Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1) � emerald green
Thiosulfate S2O3 HCl � white ppt turning yellow; SO2
Zinc Zn Hydrogen sulfide � white ppt (only white sulfide)
Saccharin (Fluorescein Test)- Resorcinol+ sulfuric acid + excess NaOH � Fluorescent green liquid
◉ Common Names of Inorganic Compounds

Common Name Chemical Name Formula

Alcohol, grain Ethyl Alcohol / Ethanol C2H5OH Brimstone Sulfur (S)
Alcohol, wood Methyl Alcohol/ Methanol CH3OH Quicksilver Mercury (Hg)
Alum Potassium Aluminum Sulfate K2SO4•Al(SO4)2•24H2O Benzol Benzene (C6H6)
Ammonia water Ammonium Hydroxide Solution NH4OH Carbolic Acid Phenol (C6H5OH)
Agua Fortis Conc. Nitric Acid HNO3 Cane Sugar Sucrose (C12H22O11)
Agua Regia Mixture of Conc. Nitric Acid & Hydrochloric Acid HNO3/ 3HCl Marsh Gas Methane (CH4)
Baking Soda Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3
Baryte Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Bauxite Impure Aluminum Oxide Al2O3
Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride or Chloride of Lime CaOCl2
Blue Vitriol Copper Sulfate CuSO4•5H20
Borax Sodium Tetraborate Na2B4O7•10H2O
Brine Sodium Chloride Solution NaCl
Calomel Mercurous Chloride Hg2Cl2
Carbona Carbon Tetrachloride CCl4
Carborundum Silicon Carbide SiC
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Chalk Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
Limestone Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
Chile Saltpeter Sodium Nitrate NaNO3
Chloroform Trocloromethane CHCl3
Cinnabar Impure Mercuric Sulfide HgS
Corrosive Sublimate Mercuric Chloride HgCl2
Cream of Tartar Potassium Bitartrate KHC4H4O6
Cryolite Sodium Aluminum Fluoride Na3AlF6
Deuterium Oxide Heavy Water D2O
Dry Ice Solid Carbon Dioxide CO2
Epsom Salts Magnesium Sulfate MgSO4•7H2O
Flourspar Calcium Fluoride CaF2
Galena Lead Sulfide PbS
Glauber’s Salt Sodium Sulfate Decahydate Na2SO4•10H2O
Gypsum Hydrated Calcium Sulfate CaSO4•2H2O
Hematite Ferric Oxide Fe2O3
Iodoform Triiodomethane CHI3
Laughing Gas Nitrous Oxide N2O
Limewater Calcium Hydroxide Solution Ca(OH)2
Litharge Lead Oxide PbO
Lunar Caustic Silver Nitrate AgNO3
Lye Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Milk of Magnesia Magnesium Hydroxide MG(OH)2
Muriatic Acid Hydrochloric Acid HCl
Nitroglycerine Glyceryl Nitrate/ Glyceryl Trinitrate C3H5(NO3)3
Oil of Vitriol Concentrated Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Phosgene Carbonyl Chloride COCl2
Plaster of Paris Hydrated Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4)2• H2O
Prussian Blue Ferric Ferrocyanide Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
Prussic Acid Hydrocyanic Acid HCN
Pyrite/ Fool’s Gold Iron Sulfide FeS2
Quicklime Calcium Oxide CaO
Rochelle Salt Sodium Potassium Tartrate NaKC4H4O6
Sal Ammoniac Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl
Salt (Table) Sodium Chloride NaCl
Saltpeter Potassium Nitrate KNO3
Sand Silicon Dioxide SiO2
Slaked Lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Turnbull’s Blue Ferrous Ferricyanide Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2
Vinegar Diluted Acetic Acid C2H4O2
Washing Soda (Sal Soda) Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3
Water Glass Sodium Silicate Na2O3Si
Zinc Blende Impure Zinc Sulfide ZnS
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
@GROUP I-A (1): ALKALI METALS 3. Sodium Acetate (NaCH3COO)
-+ react vigorously w/ water to form hydrogen gas & the metallic * Diuretic, Urinary alkalinizer, Antacid,
hydroxides * Alkalinizing agent in Benedicts Solution
-+ has the greates alkalinity in nature w/ alkalinity increasing as
-(test for ketones, aldehydes &
the ionic readily increase
1 reducing sugars)
-+has only 1 valence (ns ); has a single positive charge Cations in Triple Acetates of Sodium are:
-+most reactive of all metallic elements -Co
-+hydroxides give alkaline solutions (increase w/ atomic number) -Zn
-+ ALL Group IA have icreasing oxidation potentials w/ increasing -Mg
ionization potentials except LITHIUM.
4. Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
-+ activity 1', alkalinity 1' w/ atomic #
* aka “Baking Soda”
-+ degree of solution "-- w/ 1' atomic #
* Systemic Antacid
-+ Members: Hydrogen (H)
* antidote for Zinc Poisoning
Lithium (Li)
* Carbonating Agent for effervescent prep.
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K) -liberating CO2, to enhance palatability
Rubidium (Rb) * SE: Rebound Hyperacidity, Systemic Alkalosis, Edema
Francium (Fr) –highest activity among Group 5. Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) � Antacid, Carbonating Agent
IA * source of Carbonate Ion
Ammonium (NH4) 6. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
* aka “Rock salt”, “Table Salt”, “Solar Salt”
�used for a more rapid elimination of iodine in cases of
0 Hydrogen (H) � “Inflammable Air”. “Flammable Air”
iodism
* lightest element
* Electrolyte replenisher, Preservative, Condiment
* has no therapeutic use
* Examples: NSS; Ringer Solution (Na, Ca, K)
* Uses: Inflating Balloons
�Isotopes: 7. Sodium Citrate (Na3C6H5O7)
(a) Protium � most abundant �Anticoagulant (due to Citrate), Diuretic,
(b) Deuterium � heavy hydrogen Chronic Acidosis, Buffer, Alkalinizer, , expectorant
(c) Tritium � radioactive isotope * can cause bleeding
*Water Vapor � best expectorant 8. Sodium Fluoride (NaF) � Anticariogenic(prevent dental caries)
*Messerschmidt process � can obtain 99% purity gydrogen 9. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) � aka“Caustic Soda”, “Lye”, “Sosa"
8 Lithium (Li) � aka “Earth” * Saponifying agent
* Lightest metal *Saponification –rxn
* lowest density between inorganic &
* most reactive lement organic acid
* the only alkali metal that melts * NaOH TS, -reagent to
above the boiling point of water differentiate mercurous salts
* bridge elemnt (Li resembles Mg, to some extent Ca, from mercuric salts.
more closely than Na) 10. Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO)
* Pharmacologic Action: * aka “Chlorox®”, “Bleaching Powder”
"Depressan * Oxizing Agent, Bleaching Agent
t " Diuretic * *Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite:
Nonpharmacologic Action: Modified Dakins Solution: Antiseptic
" Heat exchanger in aircon Dakins Solution: Disinfectant
•Important Compounds of Lithium: * 0.025% Concentration for Sodium Hypochlorite
1. Lithium Bromide (LiBr) � Depressant Topical Solution
11. Sodium Iodide (NaI)
2. Litium Carbonate (LiCO3) � DOC for Mania
* Expectorant, Iodine Solubilizer, Antifungal
@ Sodium (Na) � aka “Natrium” (Latin word, from nature)
* most abundant Extracellular Fluid Cation 12. Sodium Lactate (NaC3H5O3)
* cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical * Antiketogenic, Eletrolyte Replenisher,
utility of organic medicaments Antacid, Diuretic
* used w/ caution in the treatment of cardiac & renal 13. Sodium Metaphosphate � Graham’s Salt
condition in w/c edema is a problem (Na-H20 reten.) 14. Sodium Nitrite (NaNO2)
* Triple Acetates w/ Sodium (forms insoluble salts) * Vasodilator , Antidote for Cyanide Poisoning
-Zinc Uranyl Acetate 15, Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3) � aka “Chile Salt Peter”
-Mg Uranyl Acetate * Meat Preservatives
-Cobalt Uanyl Acetate � most stable 16. Sodium Sulfate (NaSO3) � aka “Glauber’s Salt” ; Cathartic
* Pharmacologic Action: Fluid Retention 17. Sodium Tartrate (Na2C4H4O6)
Benedict’ Reagent contains: * primary standard for Karl Fischer Reagent
-Na2CO3
(Method I - Water Determination)
-Na2C6H5O7
Feling’s Solution contains: 18. Sodium Thiocyanate (NaSCN) � Hypotensive agent
-NaKC4H4O6 19. Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S2O4)
-NaOH * aka “Hypochlor”, Photographer’s Hypo”
* Treatment of Cyanide Poisoning w/ Sodium Nitrate
•Important Compounds of Sodium: 20. Disodium Calcium EDTA � stabilizer used for silver protein
1. Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NaH2PO4) compounds
* aka “Fleet Enema” 21. Sodium Metabisulfite � used when Sodium bisulfate is
* Cathartic, Urinary Acidifier specified.
2. Sodium Bisulfite (NaHSO3) � water soluble Antioxidant
0 Potassium (K) � aka “Kalium” (latin
@ Cesium (Cs)�Catalyst in polymerization of resin forming material
word)
* first element discovered by means of Spectroscope
* most abundant & predominant Intacellular cation
•Important Compound of Cesium:
* Deficiency: Hypokalemia (if severe, lead to
1. Cesium Chloride (CsCl) � used in density gradient
Muscular
centrifugation
Paralysis)
* *Avocado -Highest Potassium Level
* Pharmacologic Action: 0Ammonium (NH4) � Hypothetical Alkali Metal
"Diuretic * salts show a striking resemblance to K & Rb
" Muscular Contraction salts (Isomorphous)
•Important Compounds of Potassium: * Synthesis: Haber’s Process
1. Potassium Acetate (KCH3COO) * Pharmacologic Action:
* Diuretic, Urinary alkalinizer, Antacid, " Diuretic
2. Potassium Arsenite � aka “Fowler’s Solution " Buffer
" Expectorant (like Iodide)
3. Potassium Aluminum Sulfate (KAl(SO4)2)
�aka “Potassium Alum “, “Potash Alum”, “Tawas” " Anti-cariogenic (like Fluoride)
•Important Compounds of Ammonium:
4. Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3)
1. Ammonium Bromide (NH4Br)� Depressant, Sedative
* Systemic Antacid
* Carbonating Agent for effervescent prep. 2. Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]
* source of Bicarbonate ion �aka “Sal Volatile”, “Hart’s horn”, “Preston Salt”,
“Ammonium Sesquicarbonate”
5. Potassium Bitartrate (KC4H5O6)
* aka “Cream of Tartar”, “Creamor” �used as “smelling salts” when combined w/ Strong
* Laxative ammonia solution
6. Potassium Bromide (KBr) �Depressant �Expectorant (am, Respiratory Stimulant, Antacid,
* used for IR Analysis Ingredient of Aromatic Ammonia Spirit
7. Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) 3. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl)
�aka “Potash, “Salt of Peter”, “Pearl ash” * aka “Muriate of Hartshorn”
* Antacid, Carbonating Agent, Carbonate source * Expectorant, Diuretic, Urinary Acidifier
* when reacted w/ Caustic Pencil,
8. Potassium Chlorate (KClO3)
White Ppt will be the positive result.
Aka “Bertholate Salt”
4. Ammonium Iodide (NH4I) � Source of iodide, Expectorant,
* oxidizing agent
Antifungal
* Component in Toothpaste, Gargle, Mouthwash
-due to deodorant action 5. Ammonium Acetate (NH4CH3COO)
9. Potassium Chloride (KCl) � Electrolyte Replenisher * aka “Spiri of Minderesus”
* Buffer component
-note: SLOW PUSH
6. Aromatic Ammonia Spirit
* IV Push: Lethal Injection
* aka “Spirit of Sal Volatile”, “Spirit of Hart’s Horn”
10. Potassium Citrate (K3C6H5O7) �Diuretic, Expectorant,
* Respiratory Stimulant
DIaphoretic
7. Ammoniated Mercury (HgNH2Cl) � aka “White Precipitate”
11. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
* Topical Anti-infective
* aka“Caustic Potash”, “Lye Potash”
8. Ammonium Hydroxide � used to separate Bismuth frome
* Saponifying agent (produces liquid/soft soap)
copper & cadmium
12. Potassium Iodide (KI)
* Ammonium Complexes:
* Expectorant, Iodine Solubilizer, Antifungal
*Copper -Blue
13, Potassium Nitrate (KNO3)
*Cadmium - Colorless
* aka “Salt Peter”, “Salt Prunelle”, “Salitre”
*Bismuth - white hydroxide
* Meat Preservatives
14. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
* aka “Mineral Chameleon”
* Oxidizing Agent,
Antidote for Strychnine Poisoning
* * Primary Standard for KMnO4 VS: Sodium Oxalate
* Secondary Standard: Oxalic Acid
15. Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4) � Cathartic
16. Potassium Sodium Tartrate (KNa2C4H4O6)
* aka “Rocehlle Salt”, “Sal Signette”
* Cathartic, Sequestering Agent
17. Potassium Thiocyanate (KSCN) � Hypotensive agent
18. Sulfurated Potash[K2SO4/(K2Sx)2] � aka “Liver of Sulfur”
* used in the treatment
of Psoriasis
16. Potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) (K2HgI4)
* aka “Nessler’s Reagent”
* an alkaline solution used to detect Ammonia

Reagents that will precipitate Poatssium:

-Sodium Cobaltinitrite
-Tetraphenylboron
-Perchloric Acid
@GROUP I-B (11): COINAGE ELEMENTS 8Silver (Ag) � aka “Argentum”, “Shining”, “Bright”
-+occur free in the metallic state * black ppt w/ Marsh’s Test
nd
-+ coinage metals * 2 most malleable metal
nd
-+ easy to recover from ores * 2 best conductor of electricity
-+ very malleable * Pharmacologic Action:
-+ Complexes/ Chelates "Oligodynamic Property (Germicidal Action)
-+ Members: Copper (Cu) "Bone replacement for temporary braces
Silver (Ag) of long bones & to close opening of the
Gold (Au) skull
Roentgenium (Rg) "Styptic (causes constriction of
vessels) Toxicity: Argyria
0Copper (Cu) � aka “Cuprium” L+Antidote: NSS
* only reddish metal L+or can be removed by Sodium Thiosulfate
rd
* 3 most malleable metal Potassium
rd
* 3 best conductor Ferricyanide
* component of hemocyanin (respiratory pigment)
& cytochrome oxidase •Important Compounds of Silver:
* essential trace element Soluble Compounds
* each element of this group has a core w/ an outer 1. Silver Nitrate (AgNO3)
shell of 18 electrons together w/ a single valence * aka “Lapiz infernulariz”, “Lunar Caustic”,
electron in the outermost shell “Indellible Ink”, “Caustic Pencil”
* *Copper (II) � is an example of acid insoluble �for removal of Warts
2
sulfide * once used as eyewash for newly born babies of
*Cu � blue in solution mothers w/ gonorrhea (gonococcal opthalmitis)
* Pharmacologic Action: * 0.5% Concentration as wet dressing for prsons
"Protein Precipitant suffering from third degree burn
"Enhances physiological utilization of Iron 2. Ammoniated Silver Nitrate [Ag(NH3)2NO3]
(Fe) * aka “Howe’s Solution”
Toxicity: Wilson’s Disease * Dental Protective, Ingredient of Tollen’s Reagent,
L+Antidote: Penicillamine Desensitizing Agent
•Two important Alloys: 3. Silver Trinitophenolate
(a) Brass: Cu + Zn(Zinc) � aka “Metal of Magynoeci” * treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis
(b) Bronze: Cu + Sn(Tin) & Monilia albicans
(c) Devarda’s Alloy: contain Cu + Al + Zn * extended use, may result to Argyria & Nephritis
•Important Compounds of Copper: Insoluble Compounds:
1. Copper Sulfate (CuSO4) 4. Silver Iodide (AgI) � Poisonous
* aka “Blue Vitriol”, “Blue Stone” * germicide; disinfectant
* used in preparation of Benedict’s, Barfoed’s & 5. Silver Proteinates/ Silver Proteins
Fehling’s Solution (a) Mild Silver Protein � aka “Argyrol”
� + Iron: Increase hematinic Activity * Antiseptic for the eye
* Antidote for Phosphorus Poisoning * 19-23/25%
* Emetic (b) Strong Silver Protein � aka “Protagrol”
* component of Bordeux Mixture * stronger antiseptic/ germicide for
L+ an algicide/ fungicide in ears, nose, & throat
swimming pools �contains 7.5%-8.5% of Ag
2. Copper Acetoasenate [Cu2(AsO3)2•Cu(C2H3O202] (c) Collodal Silver Protein � aka “Collargol”
* aka “Paris Green” * general germicide
* Insecticide * 18-22%
3. (Cu)3(C6H5O7)3 6. Colloidal Silver Chloride � “Lunosol” (prototype)
* Astringent in 8% concentration
4. Cupric Hydrogen Arsenite � Scheele’s Green @Gold (Au) � aka “Aurum’, “Shining dawn”, “King of all Metal”
5. Blister Copper � obtained from furnace covered w/ black * most malleable & ductile
blisters * best conductor of electricity
6. Cuprous Citrate � “Hatchett’s Brown” * also for NONdisseminated Lupus Erythematosus
* Dissolved by: a. Aqua Regia (3parts HCl+1part HNO3)
b. Selenic Acid � only single acid that can
dissolve gold
* Antidote: BAL (Dimercaprol)
•Important Compounds of Gold:
1. Aurothioglucose (IM) � treatment of Gout
& Rheumatoid Arthritis
2. Gold Sodium Thiomalate (IM) � treatment of Gout &
Rheumatoid Arthritis
3. Auronofin (PO) � only Oral Gold Preparation
* treatment of Gout & Rheumatoid Arthritis
* also for Glossitis
L+(inflammation of the tongue)
4. *Colloidal Gold � aka “Purple of Cassius”
* stannous chloride w/ metallic gold slowly
turns down precipitate in weakly acidc
solution
@GROUP II-A (2): ALKALINE EARTH METALS
-+ All Alkaline Earth Metals reduce water w/ the liberation of
hydrogen & the formation of an alkaline solution except
Beryllium(Be)
-+Members: Beryllium (Be)
Magnesium (Mg)
Calcium (Ca)
Strontium (Sr)
Barium (Ba)
Radium (Ra)
0Beryllium (Be) � Most toxic metal
* can cause lung carcinoma, chronic granuloma.
@Calcium (Ca) � 2 most abundant Extracellular Cation
* Fluorescent Lamp
8Magnesium (Mg)� Lightest of all structurally important metal
nd
* 2 most abundant Intracellular Cation
* Chlorophyll component (Photosynthesis)
* Compound of Grignard’s Reagent
* cofactor of Phosphate transferring enzymes
* also a constituent of bones & teeth
* produces a Violet-red Color w/
Diphenycarbazide
* give Yellow ppt w/Oxine (8-hydroxyquinoline)
* creates Blue ppt (or Corn flower blue)
w/ Quinalizarin Reagent
* Pharmacologic Action:
"Laxative
"Depressant
"Natural Calcium-channel
Blocker Other Use: Flares
* Antidote for Mg Poisoning: Ca Gluconate
* Natural Sources:
"As Silicates: (Talc, Asbestos)
"As CO3: (Magnesite, Dolomite
" As So4: (Keiserite)
* Magneson I (p-nitrobenzene resorsinol)
�dyestuff to detect magnesium
ion forming a blue lake
•Important Compounds of Magnesium:
1. Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) � aka “Magnesia”
* Antacid, Laxative
2. Magnesium Hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]
* aka “Milk of Magnesia”, “Magnesia Magma”
�causes Diarrhea
* Antacid, Laxative
* packed w/ Blue Bottle (for aesthetic purposes)
3. Magnesium Oxide (MgO) � aka “Calcined Magnesia”
* Antacid, Laxative
* component of Universal Antidote
4. Magnesium Trisilicate [2MgO•2SiO2•nH2O]
* Antacid (Advatage: has prolong effect due to
gelatinous consistency of preparation)
5. Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4) � aka “Epsom Salt”
* Anticonvulsant
(IM) Cathartic (PO)
Antidote for Barium Toxicity
6. Hydrated Magnesium Silicate
* aka “Talc”, “Soapstone”, French Chalk”
* Softest mineral
* Adsorbent, Filtering Aid,
Clarifying Agent, Dusting powder
7. Magnesium Citrate [Mg3(C6H5O7)2]
* aka “Lemoda Purganti”, “Purgative Lemon”
* Cathartic
8. Magnesium Stearate � Lubricant
9. Magnesium Nitrate Reagent � solution containing Mg(NO3)2,
NH4Cl,
& a little ammonia
10. Magnesia Mixture (MgCl2 + NH4Cl + Ammonia)
* is used to test Arsenic
* *Arsenate will form White Ppt w/ magnesium
Mixture
*compared w/ arsenate, arsenite do not form
white precipitate w/ Magnesia Mixture. Thus,
this is used as a differentiating test between
Arsenate & Arsenite
11. Flash Light Powders � mixtures of Potassium Chlorate or
Barium Peroxide & Powdered
Magnesium
nd
* Vitamin D is needed for its maximum absorption
* cause permanent hardness of water
* an ion plays a significant role in neurotransmitter release
* Pharmacologic Action:
"Blood Coagulation
"Important Muscle Contraction
"Important Release of Neurotransmitter
"Cation of Hydroxyapatite (Primary Element of
bones & teeth - 98-99%)
Deficiency State:
☹ Osteoporosis (J,bone density)
☹ Osteomalacia(adults)
☹ Ricketts (Infants/ Children)
☹ Hypocalcemia (tetany -tonic spasm ofmuscles)
•Important Compounds of Calcium:
1. Calcium Bromide (CaBr2) � Sedative Depressant
2. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
* aka “Precipitated Chalk”, “Prepared Chalk”
* made by the process called Elutriation
* Antacid, Carbonating Agent,
Ingredient of tootpaste, dentrifices
* Primary standard for EDTA
3. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
* aka “Muriate of Lime”
* Calcium replenisher (Electrolyte Replenisher)
4. Calcium Guconate
* Calcium Supplement & Replenisher
* Antidote for Magnesium Poisoning
5. Calcium Hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
* aka “Slaked Lime”, “Milk of Lime”, “Calcium Hydrate”
* Antacid; Saponifying Agent
* used in infant’s milk formula to prevent the curlding
of milk to improve the digestibility of it.
6. Calcium Lactate [Ca(C3H5O3)2]
* Calcium Supplement
7. Calcium Phosphate monobasic (CaHPO4•2H2O)
* source of Ca & PO4
8. Dibasic Calcium Phosphate (CaHPO4)
* the recommended calcium salt as electrolyte
replenisher because it provides an optimum ratio of
1:1 Calcium to Phosphorus.
9. Calcium Phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2]
* aka “Bone Ash”, “Phosphate Rock”
* Antacid
10. Calcium Oxide (CaO) � aka “Lime”, “Quicklime”, “Calx”
* Component of Bordeaux mixture
* Insecticide
11. Calcium Hypochlorite [Ca(ClO)2]
* aka “Chlorinated Lime”, “Chloride of Lime”
* Bleaching Agent, Disinfectant
12. Calcium Sulfate [CaSO4• ½ H2O or 2H2O)
* aka “Plaster of Paris”, “Gypsum”, Terra Alba”
* Rodenticide,
Preparation of surgical casts & Dental Impression ,
Dentrifices
0Strontium (Sr) � aka “Brass Yellow” metal
* can replace Calcium in bone formation
* radioactive used in diagnostic to scan &study bones
* used to hasten bone (mineralization in diseases
such as Osteoporosis)
* salts are used in Red Pyrotechniques (Flares)
•Important Compound of Strontium:
1. Strontium Chloride (SrCl2)
* temperature desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®)
2. Strontium Lactate � used in treatment of osteoporosis
@Barium (Ba) � aka “Heavy”
* salts are used in Green Pyrotechniques
�is an insoluble phosphates
* Toxicity: Baritosis
L+Antidote: Magnesium Sulfate
(Epsom Salt)
•Important Compound od Barium:
1. Barium Sulfate (BaSO4)
* radiopaque substances used for GIT imaging
* causes Constipation
2. Barium Hydroxide [Ba(OH)2] � CO2 absorbent

0Radium (Ra)� most soluble hydroxide salt

* first radionuclide 1901/ radioactive substance
discovered by Marie Curie
* used for:
"Cancer Radiotherapy
"Diagnostic Purpose
@GROUP II-B (12): VOLATILE METALS
-+ exhibit Autocomplexation
-+Members: Zinc (Zn)
Cadmium (Cd)
Mercury (Hg)
Copernicium (Cn)

0Zinc (Zn) � metal present in Insulin @Mercury (Hg) � aka “ “Messenger of Gods”,
* as container for batteries & dry cells Quicksilver”, “Liquid Silver” by Theophrastus
* protective coating of galvanized iron * can be removed by Sulfur when it falls into Crack
* forms a White ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent & difficult to clean places
* essential component of Carbonic Anhydrase & many * Pharmacologic Actions:
other enzymes "Diuretic
* w/ Dithizone Test: Red Color Extractable "Antiseptic
* Pharmacologic Actions: "Cathartic
"Astringent "Treatment of Syphilis
"Antiseptic "Parasiticidal/
"Antiperspiran Fungicidal Industrial Uses:
t "Protectant ~Manufacture of Thermometers
Defficiency: Parakeratosis -(have space
Antidote for Zinc Poisoning: NaHCO3 (Baking Soda) containing
•Important Compounds of Zinc: Nitrogen)
1. Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2) ~Formation of Amalgams (dental cement)
* aka “Burnette’s Disinfectant Fluid” * Toxicity:”Minimata Disease”
* Antiseptic/ Disinfectant (found in mouthwashes), L+Antidote:
Topical Protectant, Dentin Desesitizer, Corrosive *EDTA
2. Zinc Oxide (ZnO) *Sodium Formaldehyde Sulfoxylate NF
* aka “Zinc White”, “Lassar’s Paste”, “Chinese White” (best Antidote –particulary the
�Mild Antiseptic, Astringent, Topical Protectant bichloride)
*Ladd’s paste � comprises Zinc Oxide, Liquid *Egg Albumin (used in mergency)
Petrolatum, -1 egg white for each 250
& Aluminum Powder 1/3 by weight Mercuric Chloride, to induce
3. Zinc Peroxide (ZnO2) � Antiseptic emesis,
4. Zinc Sulfate (ZnSO4•7H2O) � aka “White Vitriol” •Important Compounds of Mercury:
Emetic, Astringent, 1. Mercurous Chloride (Hg2Cl2) � aka “Calomel”
Ingredient of White Lotion, USP w/ Sulfurated potash * Cathartic, Local Antiseptic
2. Mercuric Chloride (HgCl2) � aka “Corrosive Sublimate”
5. Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) � aka “White Lotion”, “White Sulfide” * also as Mercury Bichloride
* active component of White Lotion * Disinfectant
* Parasiticide, Topical Protectant, 3. Mercurous Iodide (HgI) � Anti-syphilis
Antiseptic 4. Mercury (II) Iodide (HgI2) � stimulant of Indolent Ulcers
6. Hydrated Zinc Silicate 5. Potassium Mercuric Iodide (K2HgI4) � Antiseptic
* aka “Natural Calamine” * component of Mayer’s
* Topical Protectant, Anti-itch Reagent
* makes Calamine pink 6. Ammoniated Mercury (HgNH2Cl) � aka “White Precipitate”
7. Zinc-eugenol Cement � Dental protective, Dentrifices * Topical Antiseptic/
Anti-infective
8Cadmium (Cd) � Pharmacologic Actions/ Uses: 7. Mercuric Oxide (HgO) � aka “Yellow Precipitate”
"Astringent * Ophthalmic Antiseptic/ Anti-infective
"Treatment of Seborrheic Dermatitis 8. Red Mercuric Iodide � w/ Potassium Iodide produces a
Other Use: Manufacture of Stink Bomb solution known as Valser’s Reagent
Toxicity: “Itai-itai Disease” 9. Water-soluble Mercury � solid preparation containing
L+Antidote: BAL Mercury (10-20%), Cetyl Alcohol (70%), Sodium Lauryl Sulfate, Dioctyl
•Important Compounds of Cadmium: Sodium Sulfosccunate, Glycerin & Water.
1. Cadmium Chloride (CdCl2) � Emetic,
Treatment of Tinea Infection
2. Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) � aka “Yellow Sulfide” 2+ 2+
* Anti-Seborrheic Dermatitis/ Differentiation of Hg 2 from Hg
Anti-dandruff Reagent Hg2
2+ 2+
Hg
3. Cadmium Sulfate (CdSO4) � Ophthalmic Antiseptic NaOH Hg2O (Black ppt) HgO (Yellow ppt)
KI Hg2I2 (Green ppt) HgI2 (Scarlet ppt)
Excess KI Hg (Black ppt) + K2HgI4 K2HgI4 (Dissolution)
NH3 Hg(NH2)Cl + Hg (Black ppt) Hg(NH2)Cl (White ppt)
HCl HgCl2 (White ppt) HgCl2 (Clear Solution)
@GROUP III-A (13): BORON
GROUP 7. Aluminum Magnesium Silicate (Hydrated Al Mg Si )
-+ +3 oxidation state * aka “Fuller’s Earth”, “Floretin”, “Floridin”
-+ *Hydroxides of this group of elements – tend to show * is a low of plasticity, clay-like material, which, when,
amphoteric properties except those at the top & bottom heated, exhibits an increase in its adsorptive
elements of this group properties.
-+ Alum = double salts 8. Aluminum Magnesium Hydroxide Sulfate � aka “Magaldrate”
-+ Members: Boron (B) 9. Aluminum Acetate (AlCH3COO)
Aluminum (Al) 10. Aluminon Reagent � tri-ammonium aurine-tricarboxylate
Gallium (Ga) 11. Aluminum Silicate
Indium (In) x (a) Kaolin � aka “China Clay”,
Thallium (Tl) x “Native Hydrated Aluminum Silicate”
“White Bole”
0Boron (B) � bridge element, resemble silicon * Intestinal adsorbent in diarrhea, Demulcent,
* Used in Vulcanizing Rubber Clarifying agent, Excipient for inorganic salts,
•Important Compounds of Boron: Dusting Powder
1. Boric Acid (H3BO4) � aka “Sal Sativum”, “Sal Sedativum” (b) Bentonite � aka “Soap Clay”, “Mineral Soap”,
* burns with a Green bordered Flame “Swelling Clay”
when mixed with methanol & the mass “Native Colloidal Hydrated Silicate”
ignited “Wilhinite”
* Buffer component * Suspending agent
* Eyewash (2% Boric Acid) * Bentonite Magma (5% Bentonite)
* Antiseptic (c) Pumice � porous rock of volcanic origin
* Toxicity: “Lobster Appearance” same * complex of Al, Na, K
w/ * dental abrasive
Sodium Borate *Fine Pumice � powder form of pumice
2. Boron Trioxide � produces by heating Boric Acid to (d) Clay � contain impurities of calcium, magnesium,
temperature over 160°C iron oxides, fragment of quartz etc.
3. Sodium Tetraborate (Na2B4O7•10H2O)
�aka “Borax”, “Dobell’s Solution” @Gallium (Ga)�aka “eka-aluminum”
* Antiseptic, Eyewash, Wet Dressing for wounds * substitute for mercury in the manufacture Arc Lamps
* except for Mercury, has the lowest melting point
8Aluminum (Al) � most abundant metal of the metals (29.75°C)
rd
* 3 most abundant element * appears in transferring, an iron transport CHON, &
* is a base-insoluble sulfide appears to be useful in treating cancer related
* Pharmacologic Actions: hypercalcemia
67
"Constipation � as Diagnostic Aid ( GA)
"Astringent •Important Compound of Gallium:
"Antiperspiran 1. Gallium Nitrate � for the treatment of cancer-
t "Deodorant related hypercalcemia
"Thin Foil is used to treat burns
* Toxicity: Shaver’s Disease 111 113
0Indium (In) as Diagnostic Aid ( In, In)
•Important Compounds of Aluminum:
1. Aluminum Chloride (AlCl3•6H2O) � Astringent, Antiseptic,
0Thallium(Tl)� aka “Green Twig”
Antiperspirant,
* Defacqz Reaction (test)
Deodorant
* most toxic, similar to Arsenic (Toxic Effects)
2. Aluminum Hydroxide [Al(OH)3] * rodenticides
* aka Amphogel®, Cremalin Gel® * Poisoning causes Green
201 Tongue & Alopecia
* Antacid, Protectant * as Diagnostic Aid )
* can interfere w/ phosphate absorption
* DIsadvatage: Constipation
( Tl
Phosphate Deficiency * Treatment of Poisoning w/ Thallium:
3. Aluminum Phosphate (AlPO4) -Trihexyphenidyl
* aka Phosphagel® -Dimercaprol
* Antacid, Astringent, Demulcent
* Advantage: Do not interfere w/ PO4 @GROUP III-B (3)
absorption -+ “Rare Earth Elements”
4. Aluminum Carbonate [Al2(CO3)3] -+are the first elements that are large enough to permit the
�causes constipation addition of electrons to the d orbitals, beginning w/ the third
�treatment of Phosphatic Calculi principal quantum number
* Phosphate Fecal Route -+ Members: Scandium (Sc) � “eka-boron”
5. Alum [AlNH4(SO4)2•12H2O] – NH4 salt Yttrium (Y)
[AlK(SO4)2•12H2O] – K salt
* aka “Tawas”
* Astringent, Antiperspirant, Deodorant
6. Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) � aka “Alumina”, “Bauxite”
* Treatment of Silicosis
* GEW: MW/6
@GROUP IV-A (14): CARBON
FAMILY
-++4 oxidation state
-+ predominantly exhibit covalent bonding, owing to the small
size & high charge on the tetravalent ions.
-+ Oxides of Carbon(C) & Silicon(Si) are acidic, those of other
elements of the group are Amphoteric
-+ Members: Carbon (C)
Silicon (Si)
Tin (Sn)
Lead(Pb)
Germanium (Ge)

0Carbon (C) � non metal

* can form multiple bonds w/ itself (Catenation)
* Properties: Catenation –ability to bond w/ another
carbon froming chains
Hybridization
Isomerism
Stability
* produces in various forms, such as Coke, Lampblack, or
Charcoal
*Coke � an impure form of carbon when coal is
heated strongly in the absence of air
* Manifestation: (a) Crystalline – graphite, diamond
(b) Amorphous – coal, anthracite 4. Carbonates/ Bicarbonates � Antacid, Carbonating agent
*Soft Coal (Bituminous) � 70% of carbon (a) Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3) �aka “Baking Soda”
*Hard Coal (Anthracite) � 90% carbon & * gastric antacid
6% volatile matter (b) Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3)
•Important Compounds of Carbon: * source of K ion in electrolyte replenisher
1. Activated Charcoal (c) Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]
�Adsorbent, Component of universal antidote * effective reflex stimulant & expectorant
* are prepared from ligneous material by (d) Sodium Carbonate Dehydrate � aka “Soda Crystals”
carbonization in the absence of air, followed by (e) Anhydrous Sodium Carbonate � aka “Soda Ash”
heat &/or chemical treatment to increase surface
area & porosity
* residue from a destructive distillation of various
organic materials treated to increase it
* Soluble Carbonate group:
adsorptive power. -K
* Two forms: -Na
"Finely Powdered – use in liquid media -NH +
4
- official use in USP is * Bicarbonate - cause temporary hardness of water
treatment of Diarrhea 5. Diamond � purest native form of uncombined carbon
"Coarse, Hard, Porous Particles - gas
absorption
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) � aka “Carbonic Acid, “Dry Ice”
* most potent respiratory
stimulant (Best Respiratory
Stimulant)
* treatment of persistent Hiccups
* Dry Ice: Treatment of Acne,
Corns, Calluses, Moles,
Warts, Eczema
* toxicity dur to suffocation
* Absorbers: Soda Lime &
Barium Hydroxides
3. Carbon Monoxide (CO)� toxic Gas
* 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin
than oxygen leading to
asphyxia/hypoxia then death
* toxicity due to interaction w/
Hemoglobin (cherry red blood)
�systemic poison
* Colorless, odorless, tasteless,painless
* major source: Automotive
exhaust(Car)
* Treatment: (a) 100% O2
(b) Artificial Air
(He 80%+O2 20%)
(c) Hyperbaric O2
 nd
8Silicon (Si) � 2 most abundant element @Tin (Sn) �aka “Stannum”
•Important Compounds of Silicon: * used in manufacture of tin cans, household utensils
1. Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) � aka “Sand”, “Flint”, “Silica” * Alloys:
* Adsorbent, Clarifying Agnet, a. Solder Metal � 50% Tin + 50% Lead
Filtering Agent, Insulator b. Pewter Metal � 80% Tin + 20% Lead
�Toxicity: Silicosis (along condition
c. Gun Metal � 10% Tin + 90% Copper
resembling chronic
tuberculosis, develops d. Rose Metal � 25% Tin + 25% Lead + 50% Bismuth
after long exposure •Important Compounds of Tin:
(7years or more) to 1, Stannous Fluoride (SnF2) �Anticariogenic (8% solution)
respirable air) 2. Stannic Oxide (SnO2) � Germicide against Staphylococcal inf.
Antidote: Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)
-forms coat on silica 0Lead (Pb) � aka “Plumbum” (latin word)
particles * most metallic alement of Group IVA
(a) Silica Fume � prepared by condensation of silica * is added to Phosphorus to render it black
from its vapor phase * forms a Black ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent
2+
* Colloidal Silicon Dioxide NF � Pb (Plumbous)
4+
(b) Silica Gel � prepared by hydrolysis of inorganic Pb (Plumbic)
or organic orthosilicates * Pharmacologic Action:
* Silicon Dioxide NF "Astringent
2. Purified Siliceous Earth NF "Protein
* aka “Diatomaceous Earth” “Fuller’s Precipitant
Earth”, “Kieselgurh”, “Celite” * Cumulative Poisoning: Plumbism
* act as excellent inert, non-adsorbent filter aids. *Effect: Lead Encephalopathy
* used as Mild Abrasive -Irritability
3. Simethicone � aka “Polymeric Dimethyl Siloxane”, -Memory Loss
“Dimetylpolysiloxane”, -Projectile Vomiting
” Activated Dimethicaone”, Lead Palsy
“Dimethicone” -degenerative changes in motor
* Antifoaming agent, neurons
Antiflatulent in gastric bloating & -Wrist drop/ foot drop
postoperative gaseous Antidote: EDTA; Ca Versenate
distention in Gastrointestinal �Sources of Poisoning: Lead Pipes
tract. Paints
4. Attapulgite [Mg5(Si8O20)(OH)2•8H2O] Crayons
* aka Polymagma®, Diatabs®, Quintess® Batteries
* adsorbent Automobile exhausts (Car)
* for diarrhea •Important Compounds of Lead:
5. Talc [Mg3(OH)2Si4O10] � Hydrated Magnesium Silicate 1. Lead Acetate [Pb(CH3COO)2] � aka “Sugar Lead”,
* softest mineral known “Burrow’s Solution”
* formerly used as dusting powders * Astringent, Antiseptic
& lubricant fro surgical gloves 2. Basic Lead Acetate � aka “White Lead”
* filtering aid 3. Lead Subacetate [Pb(CH3COO) � aka “Goulard’s Extract
*Purified Talc � has been freed of iton & other * Astringent, Antiseptic
impurities *Goulard’s Cerate � Lead Subacetate + Ointment base
�made by boiling very finely 4. Lead Oxide (PbO) � Letharge® (Lead monoxide)
powdered talc w/ water containing * used in cementing pipes & ingredient in
2% of Hydrochloric Acid Lead Subacetate Solutions
*Most Frequent Impurities of Talc: 5. Plumber’s Solders � 67% Pb, 33% Sn
-Aluminum Oxide * low melting point
-Calcium Oxide & used in soldering joints
-Ferric Oxide
6. Potassium Aluminum Silicate(KAlSi3O8) 0Germanium (Ge) � aka “eka-silicon” by Mendeleev
�aka “Feldspar” * is purported to have immune system-enhancing
* most common rock & antitumor effects
7. Glass � generic term used to identify vitrous silicate
* found in bis-1-carboxyethyl germanium
material prepared by fusing a base, such as Na2CO3
sesquioxide
&CaCO3, w/ pure silica
*Germanium Dioxide � has been used to increase the formation
�appearance and characteristics of glasses can be
of RBC & for treatment of anemia
modified by the addition of:
(a) Manganese Dioxide (MnO2) � mask the blue green
color of iron, usually
present in silica
(b) Boron (as Borate) � decrease the coefficient of
expansion of the glass
* to render Heat Resistant
properties
(c)Potassium � to render light resistance property &
makes the glass amber (brown color).
(d) Lead � to increase the refractive index of a glass
8. Silanes (SiH4) � covalent SI-Si bonds
@Group IV-B (4)
-+All members of the group possess amphoteric properties, &
their cations readily form complexes.
-+Members: Titanium (Ti)
Zirconium (Zr)
Hafnium (Hf)
Rutherfordium (Rf)

0Titanium (Ti) � aka “Titans” (Sons of the Earth)

* powerful reducing agent
•Important Compound of Titanium:
1. Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) � solar ray protectant
(sun block preparation)
*TiO2: reflect UV rays
*PABA: absorbs UV rays
* Opacifying agent
* has high refracrtive index that
contributes to its opacity

8Zirconium (Zr) � same with Aluminum but banned due to

Granuloma formation (skin cancer)
* Former Official Compounds:
*Oxide
*CO3
-both are used as Antiperspirant
& for Athlete’s Foot

@Hafnium (Hf) � occurs in small quantities in Zirconium ores

@GROUP V-A (15): NITROGEN FAMILY
-+ Members: Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Arsenic (As)
Antimony (Sb)
Bismuth (Bi)
-+*Oxides of Nitrogen(N) & Phosphorus(P): Acidic
Arsenic(As) & Antimony(Sb): Amphoteric
Bismuth(Bi): Basic
0Nitrogen (N) �aka “Mephitic Air”, “Azote”, “Without Life”
* occurs free in atmosphere
* Most Abundant gas in Air (71% N2; 29% O2)
* prepared primarily by the fractional distillation of
liquid air
* cause fatal bend in deep sea divers due to
accumulation in the blood
* provide an atmosphere to retard oxidation of cod
liver oil, olive oil & multiple vitamin preparation.
* most stable diatomic molecule
•Important Compounds of Nitrogen:
1, N2 � very stable because of 3 covalent bonds
�Since Stable –used as Inert Atmosphere for readily
oxidizable substance
�Liquid N2 –used as Refrigerant
�Container: Black
2. Nitrous Oxide (N2O) � aka “Laughing Gas”
* inhalational anesthetic
* SE: Diffusion Hypoxia
* Container: Blue
3. Nitric Oxide (NO) � causes Vasodilation
* an important neurotransmitter produced
by neurons & other cells,
* associated w/ the Mechanism of Action
of Drugs like Sildenafil & Nitroglycerin
4. Nitrite (NO2) � Vasodilator; For Cyanide Poisoning
* *all nitrite are soluble in water,
except for Silver Nitrite (sparing soluble)
* forms red color w/ Giess-Ilosvay Test
(sulpahnilic acid- 1
naphthylamine reagent)
5. Nitrate (NO3) � preservative
* ion when warmed with concentrated
sulfuric acid & metallic Cu, evolved brown
gas; (=) result w/ Brown ring test; & no
visible reaction w/ diluted sulfuric acid.
�gives white crystalline precipitate w/ the
presence of Nitron Reagent ( diphenyl-endo-
anilo-dihydrotriazole)
* *Lunge test – most sensitive test for nitrate
*Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate - longest acting
nitrate
6. Nitric Acid, NF 30 � is an aqueous solution containing not
less
than 69% & not more than 71% by
weight of HNO3
8Phosphorus (P) � aka “Light Carrier”, “St. elmo’s Fire”
* Two Forms:
(a) Red Phosphorus � non-poisonous &
non- flammable in air, except at
high temperature.
(b) Yellow Phosphorys (White Phosphorus)
* has a distinctive, disagreeable,
ozone-like odor.
* ignites spontaneously when expose
to air or when heated at about
50°C.
* insoluble in water,
soluble in chloroform, benzene, or
carbon disulfide
* Allotropic Modifications:
(a) Scarlet P (PbBr w/ Hg @240°C)
(b) Violet P (white w/ Na @ 200°C)
(c) Black/Metallic (P w/ Pb @ 530°C)
•Important Compound of Phosphorus:
1. Phosphate (PO4) � Antacids; Cathartics
* *Insoluble Phosphates: -Mg
-Sr
-Ba
-Ca
2. Phosphoric Acid NF � used to form soluble salts of
insoluble medicinal base.
* GEW: MW/3
3. Hypophosphorous Acid � used as an antioxidant in Hydriodic
Acid Syrup & Ferrous Iodide Syrup
* powerful reducing agent
4. Diphosphate Trisulfate (P2S3)
@Arsenic (As) � aka “Lewisite Metal”
* component of Salvarsan (Antisyphilis)/ Asphenamine
* binds to –SH (Keratin -nails& hair)
* Identification Test: Gutzeit’s Test
L+is the modified version of
Marsh Test
* Poisoning: Arsenic Poisoning (Mee’s Lines)
* Antidote: BAL
* elements that resembled arsenic in action:
-Selenium
-Tellurium
•Important Compounds of Arsenic:
1. Arsenic Trioxide � Insecticide; Antileukemic
* Pimary standard for I & Ce(SO4)2
2. Potassium Arsenita Solution � aka “Fowler’s Solution”
* antileukemic
3. CopperAceto Arsenate � aka “Paris Green”
* insecticide
4. AsI2 � aka “Donovan’s Solution”
* red solution
* primary standard in the preparation of cerric sulfate
0Antimony (Sb) � aka “Stybium”
* in the presence of Rhodamine B w/ HCl
@GROUP V-B (5)
0 Tantalum (Ta) � for implants
forms Violet Precipitate
* used in recent years in the surgical repair of
* Principal Source: Antimony Glance (Stibnite)
large abdominal hernias
* Pharmacologic Action:
* unaffected by body fluids, used in sheet form
"Expectorant
for surgical repair of bones, nerves, & tissues.
"Emetic
"Anti-helminthic
* *Amorphous form of Antimony – explosive
form
antimony
•Important Compund of Antimony:
1. Antimony Potassium Tartrate (SbKOC4H4O6)
* aka “Tartar Emetic”, “Brown Mixture”
�Emetic, Expectorant,
Treatment of Schistosomiasis (Liver Fluke)
* no longer use as emetic because it is Toxic
2. Antimony Black � a black metallic antimony, obtained by the
action of zinc upon solutions of antimony
trichloride
3. Alloys:
a. Babbit Metal � is 80% tin & 20% antimony
b. Antifriction Metal � is 75% tin, 12.5% antimony,
12.5% copper

0Bismuth (Bi) � aka “Beautiful Meadow”

* will not react with acids to produce Hydrogen
* Pharmacologic Actions:
"Astringent
"Antiseptic
"Internal Protective for Ulcer
*Insoluble Bismuth � 30% concentration as
Ointment
* Causes: Dark Stool
Blue-black gums
* Antidote: BAL/ DImercaprol
•Important Compounds of Bismuth:
1. Bismuth Subcarbonate � Antacid, Astringent, Antiseptic
2. Bismuth Subgallate �
same 3, Bismuth Subnitrate
� same
4. Milk of Bismuth � aka “Bismuth Cream”
* component: Bi Subnitrate + Bi Hydroxide
* Primary Use: Antacid,
Internal protective especially
for gastric patient,
Inhibit growth for H. pylori
5. Colloidal Bismuth Subcitrate � Tx of Peptic Ulcer
@GROUP VI-A (16): CHALCOGENS (OXYGEN FAMILY)
-+ lower oxi state –basic 8Sulfur (S) � aka “Brimstone”, “Shulbari”, “Enemy of Copper”
-+ higher oxi state –acidic * * a-silfur � most stable allotropic form of sulfur
-+ *The relationship between the oxidation number & acidity of
* obtained by Frasch Process (Sulfur Mining)
the oxyacids of a given element in the case of the elements in
�Pharmacologic Use/s:
Group VI is Directly Proportional
"In preparation of Scabicidal & Keratolyic
-+Members: Oxygen (O)
ointment
Sulfur (S)
"Stimulant
Selenium (Se)
Cathartic
Polonium (Po)
"Depilatory Agent
"Fumigant
0Oxygen (O) � aka “Acid Former”, “Yne” , "Anti-dandruff
“Empyreal Air” by Priestly, *Forms of Sulfur:
“Dphlogisticated Air” by Schelle, (1) Precipitated Sulfur Lac � Sulfur; Milk Sulfur
* most abundant element (then Si & Al) * Scabicide
* > 1/5 of Air �fine particles
* Treatment of Hypoxia / Asphyxia (2) Sublimed Sulfur � Cathartic
* Container: Green * coarse particles
*The Three Allotropes: * used in the preparation of
(a) Nascent Oxygen Vleminckz’s Solution
(b) Atmosphere/ Molecular Oxygen w/ Calcium Oxide (Lime) by boiling
(c) Ozone � allotropic form of oxygen/ poisonous gas (3) Elemental Sulfur � Fungicide
*Ozonides � is formed when ozone dissolves & unites (4) Plastic Sulfur � resembles rubber & is insoluble in
w/ the double bonds of substances such as Carbon Disulfide
oil of turpentine, oil of cinnamon & olive (5) Liquid Sulfur � is obtained by heating sulfur at a
oil. temperature of 160°C until about 180°C,
*Ozonized Gas � result when oxygen covert to ozone then the product become dark brown &
* used in various disinfecting & has reach the maximum viscosity
bleaching operations *Calcarone � a crude furnace where Sulfur can be obtained/
*Conditions based on Oxygen Requirement: recovered in Sicily
(a) Anoxic – inadequate oxygen *Sulfides:
(b) Anemic – red blood/ hemoglobin shortage -Black Sulfide: CuS
(c) Stagnant HgS
(d) Histotoxic – poisonous to tissue FeS
•Important Compound/s of Oxygen: -Pink Sulfide: MnS
1. Hydrogen Peroxide (Thenard’s “Oxygenated Acid”)
-Orange Sulfide: Antimony Sulfide (Sb2S3)
-stability increase in Acid Medium -Yellow Sulfide: Cadmium Sulfide
� 3% H2O2 � 10 volumes (powerful oxidant) -White Sulfide: Zinc Sulfide
� 6% H2O2 � 20 volumes (common bleach for air)-
USP •Important Compounds of Sulfur:
1. Vlemickx’s Solution � is a mixture prepared by boiling lime
& sublimed sulfur.
2. Norhausen Acid � Fuming Sulfuric Acid
3. Sulfurated Potash[K2SO4/(K2Sx)2] � aka “Liver of Sulfur”
* used in treatment of
Psoriasis
4. Lithopone � 70% Zinc Sulfie & 30% Barium Sulfide
5. Thiosulfates � decolorizes potassium permanganate
&iodine solutions
6. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) �has a suffocating odor
* antioxidant
�turns filter paper moistened w/
acidified Potassium Dichromate gree.
7. Sulfur Ointment � has 10% Sulfur
8. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)� most common dehydrating agent used
in chemical reactions

@Selenium (Se) � aka “Selena”, “Moon”

* essential trace element
* promotes absorption of Vitamin E
(Synergistic of Vit E)
�used in making “red glass” & in rubber industry
* Pharmacologic Use: "Antioxidant
•Important Compound of Selenium:
1. Selenium Sulfide (SeS2) � aka “Selsun Blue”
* 2.5 % suspension in topical
treatment of Seborrheic Dermatitis
* Antidandruff/ Antiseborrheic Agent
2. Selenic Acid � only single acid to dissolve Gold
6Polnium (Po) � first radioactive element dixcovered by Curie
@GROUP VI-B (6)
-+ Members: Chromium (Cr)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Uranium (U)
Tungsten (W)
0Chromiun (Cr) �Essental trace element
�Glucose tolerance factor
* Deficiency: Hyperglycemic
•Important Compound of Chromium:
1. Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7) � powerful oxidizing agent
2. Chromate � yellow in solution
*Chromate ion- yellow
*Dichromate ion- orange
8Molybdenum (Mo) � essential trace element
* cofactor of flavin dependent enzymes
* important constituent of xanthine oxidase &
aldehyde oxydase
* involved in bacterial fixing of
atmospheric nitrogen
•Important Compound of Molybdenum:
1. Molybdenum Oxide � + FeSO4 (use: Hematinic
Brand name: Mol-Iron®
@Uranium (U) � discovered by Becquerel
* radioactive element used for manufacture of atomic
bombs
* No pharmaceutical use
6Tungsten(W) � aka “Wolfram” because it is found in nature as
Wolframite or as Wolfram Ocher
* is most desirable in making filaments in lectric bulbs
* imparts great hardness to steel
@GROUP VII-A (17): HALOGENS
-+ Salt-forming elements
-+ Electronegativity: F > O> N � Cl
-+ Decreasing Acidity: HI > HBr> HCl >HF
-+Members: Fluorine (F)
Chlorine (Cl)
Bromine (Br)
Iodine (I)
Astatine (At)
0Fluorine (F) � aka “Superhalogen”
* strongest oxidizing agent
* most electronegative element
* except Glod(Au) & Platinum(Pt), it attack all metals at
ordinary temp.
* Poisoning: Fluorosis
Principal Manifestation: Mottled Enamel
Abnormal Bone Growth
* * Fluoride � anticariogenic Agent
* is one of the metabolites of Methoxy
flurane responsible for the
Nephrotoxicity associated w/ thic
inhaltional anethetic
•Important Compounds of Fluorine:
1. Sodium Fluoride (NaF) � Anticariogenic(prevent dental
caries)
at 2% solution.
2. Stannous Fluoride (SnF2) �Anticariogenic (8% solution)
3. Sodium Fluoride Phosphate (Na2FPO3) �also cariogenic
4. Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) � aka “Freon”
* Refrigerant;
Aerosol Propellant
8Chlorine (Cl) � aka “Dephlogisticated Muriatic Acid” by Scheele
* most abundant Extracellular Anion
* used as Water Disifectant
* is added into a solution of an Iodine which
liberates color Brown
* “Greenish Yellow” Halogen (Chloros)
•Important Compound of Chlorine:
1. Hypochlorite (Na, K) � Bleaching Agent
2. Chloride (Na, K, Ca) � electrolyte replenisher
* cause perment hardness of water
3. Potassium Chlorate � antiseptic
* present in mouthwashes, vaginal
douche, & othe local cleansing prep.
4. Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2) � will form an acid when reacted w/
water
5. Hydrochloric Acid �toilet bowl cleaner.
�neutalizing, stabilizing, / solubilizing
agent
�* Diluted HCl – treatment of Achlordria
- expressed in %w/v
* Concentrated HCl - expressed in
%w/w
* is used to differentiate Group I cations
6. Hypochlorous Acid (HClO)
7. Chlorous Acid (HClO2)
8. Chloric Acid (HClO3)
9. Perchloric Acid (HClO4)
@Bromine (Br) � Dark reddish brown fuming liquid with a suffocating
odor
* powerful caustic & germicide
* if in contact w/ skin wash immediately w/ a solution
of NaHCO3 & treated w/ glycerin
or Ammonia Water
* Three Bromide Elixirs: Na, K, & Ammonium
* added to Quinalizarin Reagent to differentiate
magnesium & berylium
* Pharmacologic Action:
"Sedative
"Depressant
* Poisoning: Bromism (Antidote: NaCl & NH4Cl)
Principal Manifestation: Skin Eruption
Psychosis
Weajness
Headache
•Important Compound of Bromine:
1. Kopperchaar’s Solution � Bromine, Tenth Normal Solution
* solution of K Bromate & K Bromide
* 0.10N Bromine Solution
* Used in the assay of Phenol
0Iodine (I) � most metallic of all halogen (except Astatine)
* present in thyroid gland
�a radioactive isotopes which ha a wide use in diagnosis &
therapy.
�*1:5000 (0.02%) –iodine concentration effective to
combat many common bacteria in distilled water
* *its Oxosalts (are very stable)
* Antidote for Iodine Poisoning: Cornstarch &
Sodium Thiosulfate
•Important Preparations of Elemental Iodine:
1. Stong Iodine Solution � aka “Lugol’s Solution”
2. Iodine Tincture � Disinfectant
3. Povidone-Iodine � Betadine® (10% Iodine)
4. Iodophor � complex of Iodine
5. Boulton’s Solution � Phenolated Iodine Solution
6. HI � most acidic among the acid of halogen
0Astatine (At) �synthetic radioactive element(only synthetic halogen)
* resembles Iodine, but more metallic
* has no pharmaceutical applications
*Pseudohalogen (Halogenoids -resemble halide anions)
-CN
-CNS
@GROUP VIIB (7)
-+are colored
-+are metallic in character
-+Members: Manganese (Mn)
Technetium (Tc)
Rhenium (Re)
0Manganese (Mn) � essential trace element
* necessary for activation of a variety of enzymes
such as Pyruvate Carboxylase
* forms a Pink ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent
* Cofactor involved in:
-Protein Synthesis
-Phosphorylation
-Fatty Acid & Cholestrerol Synthesis
Poisoning: Parkinson-like
•Important Compound of Manganese:
1. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
* aka “Mineral Chameleon”
* Oxidizing Agent, Antiseptic
* 0.02% Strength as Antimicrobial
8Technetium (Tc) � aka “Technetos”, “eka-Manganese”
* first element produced artificially
* used in Preparation of Radiopharmaceuticals
99
( Tc)
@Rhenium (Re) � very rare element
* catalyst for dehydrogenation
@GROUP VIIIA / O (18): NOBLE GASES/ INERT GASES
-+All Group 0 elements except radon occur in the atmosphere
-+ are all monatomic & unreactive
-+Members: Helium (He)
Neon (Ne)
Argon (Ar)
Krypton (Kr)
Xenon (Xe)
Radon (Rn)
nd
0Helium (He) � 2 lightest gas/ air
* Container: Brown
�Inhalation of pure Helium produces a
“Donald Duck-like Sound” or “Chipmunk-like Sound”
�Pharmacologic Uses:
" Used to prepare
synthetic airs (20% O2 +
80% He)
"Carrier/ Diluent of Medically important gases
8Neon (Ne) � for advertising purposes
@Argon (Ar) � most abundant noble gas
* substitute to nitrogen as an inert atmosphere for
pharmaceutics
�by-product of the fractionalization for possible use as
anesthetics
0Krypton (Kr) � least abundant noble gas
�anesthetic(investigated for possible use as anesthetic)
* *Ramsay & Travers (isolated Krypton from Argon)
0Xenon (Xe) � is a virtually ideal anesthetic inert gas sufficiently
potent to provide rapid induction of & emergence
from surgical anesthesia
0Radon (Rn) � aka “Niton” by Ramsay
* synthetic & radioactive noble gas
* treatment of cancer (Cervical Cancer)
* Recognize by Dorn
* *Rutherford & Soddy (succeeded in liquefying the
emanation of Radon)
*Ramsay & Collie (demonstrated the characteristic
spectrum of Radon)
@GROUP VIIIB 12. Iron Pyrite � aka “Fool’s Gold”
-+consists of e elements (TRIADS) 13. Ferri Ferrocyanide, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]2 � aka “Prussian Blue”
-+First Triad: Second Triad: Third Triad: * blue print dye
•Iron (Fe) •Ruthenium (Ru) •Osmium (Os)
14. Ferro Ferricyanide, Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2 � aka “Turnbull’s Blue”
•Cobalt (Co) •Rhodium (Rh) •Iridium (Ir)
* blue print dye
•Nickel (Ni) •Palladium (Pd) •Platinum (Pt)
15. Cast Iron/ Pig Iron � is the crude metal obtained from blast
furnace contains 92 to 94% iron
0Iron (Fe) �essential trace element 16. White Cast Iron (Cementine) � is a solid solution of hard
* present in Tyrosine Hydroxylase which catalyzes the rate- brittle iron carbide formed
limiting step in catecholamines when molten iron ir rapidly
* Present in: Hemoglobin cooled.
Transferrin 17. Gray Cast Iron (Graphite Scales) � are formed when liquid
Ferritin iron is run into sand molds &
Cytochrome Oxidase Enzyme allowed to cool
* Enhance Absorption of: Vitamin C 18. Wrought Iron � is obtained from removing most of the
Copper impurities from cast iron.
�most important element in engineering * contains from 99.8% to 99.9% of pure iron.
* Alloy: Steel (Iron + 35 Carbon) * very malleable & ductile, very tough &
* *Mucosal Block postulation by Hahn possesses a high tensile strength
- best known of the three hypotheses on iron 19. Reduced Iron � is made from ferric oxide w/ the addition of
absorption Hydrogen
-suggests that dieatary or administered iron is
reduced to the ferrous form which diffuses into 8Cobalt (Co) � essential in development of erythrocyte & hemoglobin
the mucosal cell where it is reoxidized & combined *used in manufacture of beer
w/ apoferritin to form stable ferritin *pink in appearance
* *Misch Metal - is 70% Cerium & 30% Iron *Component of Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
- pyrophoric alloys ** Vogel’s Reaction(test for Cobaltous ions w/
- alloy of copper-nickel resulted from ammonium thiocyanate
removing sulfur from malte produce Beautiful blue)
2
*Fe � green in solution * Deficiency: Megaloblastic Anemia
* Use: Hematinic •Important Compounds of Cobalt:
* Toxicity: GIT Distress 1. Cobalt Chloride (CoCl2) � “Cobaltous Chloride”
Cardiac Collapse * aka “Lover’s Ink”,
Antidote: Deferoxamine “Sympathetic Ink”
•Important Compounds of Iron: * indicator in silica gel beads
1. Ferrous Sulfate (FeSO4) � aka “Green Vitriol” (dessicator)
* Hematinic Agent 2. Cobalt Zincate � aka “Rinmann’s Green”
* most economical & most 3. Cobalt meta-aluminate � aka “Thenard Blue”
satisfactory form of iron 4. Cobaltous � used as indicator in silica gel beads & other
preparation in the market dehydrating agents
* SE: Constipation @Nickel (Ni) � aka “Old Nick’s Copper”
2. Ferrous Subsulfate Solution � aka “Monsel’s Solution” * found in fossil fuel combustion
3. Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate � aka “Mohr’s Salt” * metal in Fancy Jewelries
* most important double salt of * specified by Dimethylglyoxime Reagent, form Red ppt.
2
ferrous sulfate w/ alkali sulfate *Ni � green in solution
4. Ferric Ammonium Sulfate [FeNH4(SO4)2] *Nickel Pectinate � Tomectin
* aka “Ferric Alum” * is utilized for the treatment of diarrhea
* indicator used in precipitation method of analysis *Raney Nickel � alloy of nickel & aluminum
5. Ferrous Gluconate � FERGON® (Hematinic Agent) *Nickel Hydroxide � Green
�less gastric irritating *German Silver � Nickel + Zinc + Copper
6. Ferrous Fumarate � TOLERON® (hematinic agent)-1957 *Constantan � alloy of Copper & Nickel
* more stable than ferrous sulfate * Dimethylglyoxime Reagent � precipitating agent of Nickel
* most tolerable form of iron
* less irritating to the GI tract than
0Osmium (Os) � heaviest & densest metal
any other iron preparations
•Important Compounds of Osmium:
7. Ferrous Carbonate (FeCO3) � aka “Chalybeate Pills”, 1. Osmic Acid
“Ferrunginous Pills”, 2. Osmium Tetroxide
“Blaud’s Pills” *Both used in staining microorganism for microscopic study
* Hematinic Agent especially electron microscopy
8. Ferric Chloride (FeCl3) � astringent, styptic, 0Palladium (Pd) � catalyst in finely divided steel
detection(test) of tannins & phenols 0Platinum (Pt) � catalyst in finely divided steel
* will react with: * called as “Noble Metals” because
-Morphine (blue) it shows low oxidation potential
-Benzoic Acid (flesh) & low reactivity
-Resorcinol (violet) �Cisplatin � treatment of Prostate Cancer
9. Iron + Ammonium Acetate � aka “Basham’s Mixture” * aka Platinol
* Astringent, Styptic * a platinum complex
10. Iron Dextran Injection � IM only * antineoplastic agent prepared by treating
11. Iron Oxide � use as pigment potassium chloroplatinate w/ ammonia
+Artificial Atmosphere:
-Five Gases are
Official:
Activity Series - list od metals arranged in order of decreasing ease of
"Nitrogen
oxidation
"Oxygen
"Helium Active Sites - are places in the reacting molecules where they can
"Carbon be absorb
Dioxide Reaction Mechanism - information on how reaction occurs in step by
"Nitrous step
Oxide process.
Coordination Number of the Metal Ion - is the number of donor atoms
+Barium, Strontium, Nickel to
�placed higher than hydrogen in the electromotive which is boded.
series * Metal-ion Indicators:
- Murexide
- Calmagite
- Pyrocathecol Violet
Nuclide - is the nucleus of a specific isotope of an
element Nucleon - particle found im the nucleus of an
atom
Node - a locus of points in an atom in which the electron density is
zero. Limiting Reactant - reagent that leads to the smallest amount
of product Ewens-Bassett system - is an element nomenclature that
gives/sites the
charge of the complex ion rather than the
oxidation state of the central unit

Monel Metal - used for wire, screen, sheet metal

Thorium Oxide - obtained from Monazite contains Cerium

Metals are:
- ductile
- lustrous
- malleable
- some are liquid (Gallium & Mercury)

Radiactive Substances: Unstable Nucleus

Emits Radiation
Low proton-neutron ration

Softening - is the method used to render hard water into a more

purified form by removal of dissolved salts by precipitation
as either carbonates or hydroxides
Geiger Counter - used to detect & measure
radioactivity Rem - unit of radiation damage used in
medicine
Rad & Gray - commonly used to measure the amount of exposure to
radiation
Radiation: 1. Alpha - least penetrating
- weighs almost the same as a helium atom
2. Beta
3. Gamma - have been speed of light
Particle Accelerators - “Atom Smashers”, “Cyclotron”, “Synchroton”
- are used to accelerate charge particles
using strong magnetic & electrostatic
fields

Ionic Hydrides - are formed by alkali metals & by the heavier

alkaline earths
Molecular Hydrides - are formed by nonmetals & semi-metals
Metallic Hydrides - are formed when hydrogen reacts w/ transition
metals

Universal Antidote (Component):

-Magnesium Oxide (Calcined Magnesia)
-Activated Charcoal
-Tannic Acid
Hydroxyurea - is antineoplastic drug active against rapidly more potent than its erythro-racemate form
proliferating cells in the synthesis phase.
Pipobroman - used primarily for treating Polycethemia vera
- antineoplastic agent prepared from PABA (Para-aminobenzoic Acid)
Piperazine & 3-Bromopropioniyl bromide used as Ultraviolet sunscreen
*Polycythemia Vera - aka Erythremia enhancer of Serum Salicylate
- is a bone marrow disease that leads to should not be taken concurrently w/ sulfonamides because it interferes w/ the Antimicr
an abonormal increase in the number Sulfonamides - are assayed by using NaNO2 & KI
of blood cells Vitamin B17 (Amygadalin) � convert to Cyanide w/ Enzyme Emulsin
Testolactone, USP - D-homo-17a-oxaandrosta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione
- prepared by microbial transformation Bordeaux Mixture - CuSO4 + CaO
of progesterone - algicide in swimming pools White Lotion - ZnSO4 + Sulfurated Potash
Interferons - are secreted by cells in response to viral infections or - active ing: ZnS
other chemical or biologic inducers
- Major Classes: Alpha - a
Beta - 1
Lambda - 11
Interferon alfa-2a - othernames: RIFN, IFLrA, Roferon-A
- a highly protein containing 165 amino acid
amufactured from a strain of E.coli bearing a
genetically engineered plasmid containing an
interferon alfa-2a gene from human leukocytes
Tertiary Amino Alkyl Ether - Drowsiness (most common)
Viomycin - causes toxic effect that are primarily associated w/ damage
to the eight cranial nerve & to the kidney
- exerts bacteriostatic action against the tubercle bacillus
by a mechanism that has not been determined
- is less potent than streptomycin, & its toxicity is
greater Emetine (antiprotozoan) - Indications:
-Balantadial Dysentery
-Fascioliasis
-Paragonimiasis
Pentamidine - principal indication: Pneumocystis carinii (Pneumonia)
Suramin - high molecular weight bisurea derivatives containing
six sulfonic acid groups as their sodium salt
Glycobiarsol - available in the form of vaginal suppositories for
the treatment of trichomonal & monilial vaginitis
- also been used orally for the treatment of intestinal
amebiasis
Stibogluconate - pentavalent antimonial drugs intended primarily for
the treatment of various froms of leishmaniasis
- has low therapeutic index
- px should be monitored for sighs of heavy
metal poisoning
Diethylcarbamazepine - a higly water-soluble compound that is
effective against various forms of filariasis,
including Bancroft’s onchocerciasis & laviasis
Iopanoic Acid, USP - designed for the visualization of gallbladder
Monmorillonite - Smectite
Selenomethionine Se 75 Injection, USP - used in the diagnosis of
Pancreatic tumors & growths
White Lotion, USP - Sulfurated Potash + Zinc Sulfate
Alkaline Water - usually contain appreciably quantities of
sodium & Magnesium Sulfates together w/
some Sodium bicarbonates
Glycerin - sequestering agent of Haine’s Reagent for Copper salts
Citrate - sequestering agent for Benedicts Solution
- acts as a blood coagulant in vivo & an anticoagulant in
vitro Polydentate Ligands - used for improving solubility &/or to
stabilize a
metal ion by chelation
-sequestering agent
Catecholamines - are phenylethylamine w/ orthodihydroxy
substitutions in the phenyl ring.
Two Carbons - can separate the amino from the phenyl ring that
will produce maximal sympathomimetic activity
Beta-1 receptor agonist selectivity - is conferred in beta
phenylethylamine structure.
Metthylphenidate - useful for ADHD commercially available as the
threo-racemate from, which is about 400 times
 Barbiturates (Intravenous Anesthetics)
*Phenobarbital - most water soluble
among 3-ethyl-4-hydrocypentanal
Barbiturates Functional Group: Carbon 2

Penicillin

Phenothiazine - for seizure disorder

*C2 position - is the position in the structure when
substituted, will bring about the greatest
effect on Antipsychotic Activity
*Thioridazine - has an alkyl piperidyl side chain at the N-10
position of the phenotiazine structure.
*Thioxanthene - resemble the ring structure (ring
analogues) of the Phenothizines only that
the N-10 position of the Phenothiazine is
replaced by a carbon.

Amphetamine
*Methamphetamine
differs in the presence of N-methyl substituent
(+)-N, alpha-dimethyl phenthylamine

Phenytoin- anticonvulsant
- contains the structure -NH in the R’’
position of the structure

Amiodarone

Aspirin
 59
Atomi Atomi Name Symbol
c c chemic 140.907 Praseodymiu Pr
al 7 m
numbe Mass 60 144.24 Neodymium Nd
elemen
r 61 145 Promethium Pm
t
62 150.36 Samarium Sm
1 1.0079 Hydrogen H 63 151.964 Europium Eu
2 4.0026 Helium He 64 157.25 Gadolinium Gd
3 6.941 Lithium Li
4 9.0122 Beryllium Be 65 158.925 Terbium Tb
3
5 10.811 Boron B 66
6 12.0107 Carbon C 162.5 Dysprosium Dy
7 14.0067 Nitrogen N 67 164.930 Holmium Ho
8 15.9994 Oxygen O 3
68 167.259 Erbium Er
9 18.9984 Fluorine F
69 168.934 Thulium Tm
10 20.1797 Neon Ne 2
11 22.9897 Sodium Na 70 173.04 Ytterbium Yb
12 24.305 Magnesium Mg 71 174.967 Lutetium Lu
13 26.9815 Aluminum Al 72 178.49 Hafnium Hf
14 28.0855 Silicon Si 73 180.947 Tantalum Ta
15 30.9738 Phosphorus P 9
16 32.065 Sulfur S 74 183.84 Tungsten W
17 35.453 Chlorine Cl 75 186.207 Rhenium Re
19 39.0983 Potassium K 76 190.23 Osmium Os
18 39.948 Argon Ar 77 192.217 Iridium Ir
20 40.078 Calcium Ca 78 195.078 Platinum Pt
21 44.9559 Scandium Sc
79 196.966 Gold Au
22 47.867 Titanium Ti 5
23 50.9415 Vanadium V 80 200.59 Mercury Hg
24 51.9961 Chromium Cr 81
25 54.938 Manganese Mn 204.383 Thallium Tl
26 55.845 Iron Fe 3
28 58.6934 Nickel Ni 82 207.2 Lead Pb
27 58.9332 Cobalt Co 83 208.980 Bismuth Bi
29 63.546 Copper Cu 4
30 65.39 Zinc Zn 84 209 Polonium Po
31 69.723 Gallium Ga 85 210 Astatine At
32 72.64 Germanium Ge 86 222 Radon Rn
33 87 223 Francium Fr
74.9216 Arsenic As 88 226 Radium Ra
34 78.96 Selenium Se 89 227 Actinium Ac
35 79.904 Bromine Br 91 231.035 Protactinium Pa
36 83.8 Krypton Kr 9
37 85.4678 Rubidium Rb 90 232.038 Thorium Th
1
38 87.62 Strontium Sr 93 237 Neptunium Np
39 88.9059 Yttrium Y 92 238.028 Uranium U
40 9
91.224 Zirconium Zr 95 243 Americium Am
41 92.9064 Niobium Nb 94 244 Plutonium Pu
42 95.94 Molybdenum Mo 96 247 Curium Cm
43 98 Technetium Tc 97 247 Berkelium Bk
44 101.07 Ruthenium Ru 98 251 Californium Cf
45 102.905 Rhodium Rh 99 252 Einsteinium Es
5 100 257 Fermium Fm
46 106.42 Palladium Pd 101 258 Mendelevium Md
47 107.868 Silver Ag 102 259 Nobelium No
2 104 261 Rutherfordiu Rf
48 112.411 Cadmium Cd m
49 114.818 Indium In 103 262 Lawrencium Lr
50 118.71 Tin Sn 105 262 Dubnium Db
51 121.76 Antimony Sb 106 266 Seaborgium Sg
53 126.904 Iodine I 107 264 Bohrium Bh
5 108 277 Hassium Hs
52 127.6 Tellurium Te 109 268 Meitnerium Mt
54 131.293 Xenon Xe 110 Darmstadtium Ds
55 132.905 Cesium Cs 111 272 Roentgenium Rg
5 112 Ununbium Uub
 Name Molecular
formula
Aluminum Al
Aluminum bromide AlBr3
Aluminum chloride anhydrous AlCl3
Aluminum oxide Al2O3
Aluminum powder Al
Ammonum aluminum sulfate NH4Al(SO4)2
Ammonium bromide NH4Br
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl
Ammonium ferric sulfate NH4Fe(SO4)2
Ammonium ferric sulfate NH4Fe(SO4)2
Ammonium ferrous sulfate FeSO4(NH4)2SO4
Ammonium fluoride NH4F
Ammonium iodide NH4I
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
tri-Ammonium orthophosphate (NH4)3PO4
Ammonium perchlorate NH4ClO4
Ammonium phosphate dibasic (NH4)2HPO4
Ammonium phosphate monobasic NH4H2PO4
Ammonium sodium hydrogen NaNH4HPO4
orthophosphate
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium thiocyanate NH4SCN
Antimony oxide Sb2O3
Antimony pentoxide Sb2O5
Antimony tribromide SbBr3
Antimony(lumps) Sb
Arsenic As
Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2
Barium carbonate BaCO3
Barium chlorate monohydrate Ba(ClO3)2.H2O
Barium chloride BaCl2
Barium fluoride BaF2
Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Barium oxide BaO
Barium perchlorate Ba(ClO4)2
Barium permanganate Ba(MnO4)2
Barium peroxide BaO2
Barium sulfate BaSO4
Bismuth metal Bi
Bismuth nitrate Bi(NO3)3
Bismuth subnitrate BiNO3
Bismuth trioxide Bi2O3
Borax crystals Na2B4O7
Boric acid H3BO3
Cadmium carbonate CdCO3
Cadmium chloride CdCl2
Cadmium fluoride CdF2
Cadmium granule. Cd
Cadmium metal, mossy Cd
Cadmium nitrate CdNO3.4H2O
Cadmium selenide CdSe
Cadmium sulfate CdSO4
Calcium Ca
Calcium fluoride CaF2
Calcium hypochlorite(~35%Cl) CaCl2O2
Calcium orthophosphate Ca3(PO4)2
Calcium oxide CaO
Calcium pentahydroxide triphosphate Ca5(PO4)3OH
Calcium peroxide CaO2
Calcium phosphate dibasic CaHPO4
Calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2
Calcium phosphate monobasic Ca(H2PO4)2
Cerium sulfate anhydrous Ce2(SO4)3
Cesium chloride CsCl
Chromium(III)chloride CrCl3
Chromium potassium sulfate CrK(SO4)2
Chromium trioxide Cr2O3
Chromium(III)nitrate Cr(NO3)3
Cobalt carbonate CoCO3
Cobalt metall powder Co
Cobalt sulfate CoSO4
Cobalt(II)sulfate CoSO4.7H2O
Cobaltic oxide Co2O3
Cobaltous Co
Cobaltous bromide CoBr2
Cobaltous chloride CoCl2
Cobaltous chloride CoCl2
Copper metal Cu
Copper oxide CuO
Copper(I)iodide CuI
Copper(I)bromide CuBr
Copper(I)chloride CuCl
Copper(II)chloride CuCl2.2H2O
Copper(II)hydroxide carbonate CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Copper(II)sulfate anhydrous CuSO4
Cupric bromide CuBr2
Cupric dichromate CuCr2O4.4H2O
Cupric oxide CuO
Cuprous cyanide CuCN
Ferric oxide red powder Fe2O3
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3.nH2O
Ferrous bromide FeBr2
Ferrous chloride FeCl2
Ferrous orthophosphate Fe3(PO4)2
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4
Ferrous sulfide FeS
Fluoboric acid (50% in water) HF
Germanium(IV)chloride GeCl4
Iodic acid HIO3
Iodine I2
Iodine pentoxide I2O5
Iron Fe
Lanthanium oxide La2O3
Lead bromide PbBr2
Lead carbonate PbCO3
Lead chloride PbCl2
Lead chromate PbCrO4
Lead dioxide PbO2
Lead fluoride PbF2
Lead iodide PbI2
Lead metal Pb
Lead oxide yellow PbO
Lead sulfide PbS
Lithium carbonate Li2CO3
Lithium chloride LiCl
Lithium fluoride LiF
Lithium hydroxide LiOH
Lithium iodide LiI
Lithium nitrate LiNO3
Magnesium bromide MgBr2
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3
Magnesium chloride MgCl2
Magnesium chloride anhydrous MgCl2
Magnesium ferrocyanide Mg2Fe(CN)6
Magnesium fluoride MgF2
Magnesium oxide MgO
Magnesium perchlorate Mg(ClO4)2
Magnesium silicate MgO,SiO2,Na2SiO4
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4.H2O
Manganese dioxide MnO2
Manganese hydroxide Mn(OH)2
 Sodium fluoride

Manganese metal Mn
Manganous chloride MnCl2
Mecurous chloride HgCl2
Mercuric iodide HgI2
Mercuric nitrate HgNO3
Mercuric thiocyanate Hg(CSN)2
Mercurous fluorude Hg2F2
Mercurous iodide Hg2I2
Mercurous nitrate HgNO3.H2O
Mercury(II)chloride HgCl2
Mercury(II)iodide HgI2 NaF
Mercury(II)nitrate Hg(NO3)2 Sodium hydrogen phosphate Na2HPO4
Molybdenium trioxide MoO3 Sodium hydrogen sulfate NaHSO4
Nickel carbonate NiCO3 Sodium hydrogen sulfite NaHSO3
Nickel chloride NiCl2.6H2O di-Sodium hydrogenphosphate Na2HPO4.2H2O
Nickel fluoride NiF2 Sodium iodate NaIO3
Nickel oxide green NiO Sodium iodide NaI
Nickel sulfamate Ni(SO3NH2)2.4H2O Sodium meta-periodate NaIO4
Nickel sulfate NiSO4.6H2O Sodium methaborate NaBO2.2H2O
Perchloric acid HClO4 Sodium perchlorate NaCl3O4
Phosphormolybdic acid H3[P(MoO3O10)4]aq Sodium peroxide Na2O2
Phosphorus in water P Sodium persulfate Na2S2O8
Phosphorus pentasulfide P2S 5 Sodium polyphosphate (NaPO3)12-13.Na2O
Phosphorus wite P Sodium pyrophosphate Na4P2O7
Potassium antimonate(pyro) KSb(OH)6 Sodium silicate Na2Si3O7
Potassium biiodate KH(IO3)2 Sodium sulfate Na2SO4.10H2O
Potassium bisulfate KHSO4 Sodium sulfite Na2SO3
Potassium bisulfite KHSO3 di-Sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7
Potassium bromate KBrO3 Sodium tungstate Na2WO4.2H20
Potassium bromide KBr Stannic chloride SnCl4
Potassium chlorate KClO3 Stannous chloride SnCl2
Potassium cyanate KCN Stannous chloride SnCl2.2H2O
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate KH2PO4 Stannous fluoride SnF2
Potassium disulfate(pyrosulfate) K2S2O7 Stannous oxide SnO
Potassium ferro(III)cyanide K4Fe(CN)6 Strontium carbonate SrCO3
Potassium metabisulfite K2S2O5 Thallium wire Tl
Potassium nitrate KNO3 Thallous nitrate TlNO3
Potassium nitrite KNO2 Tin Sn
Potassium perchlorate KClO4 Tin gran. Sn
Potassium persulfate K2S2O8 Titanium carbide TiC
Potassium phosphate monobasic KH2PO4 Titanium hydride TiH2
Potassium pyrophosphate K4P2O7 Vanadium boride VB2
Potassium selenocyanate KSeCN Vanadium carbide VC
Potassium thiocyanate KSCN Vanadium oxide V 2 O4
Selenium metall Se Yttrium nitrate Y(NO3)3
Silicic acid SiO2.aq Yttrium oxide Y2 O3
Silver nitrate AgNO3 Zinc Zn
Silver sulfate Ag2SO4 Zinc carbonate ZnCO3
Silver sulfate Ag2SO4 Zinc chloride ZnCl2
Sodium bismuthate NaBiO3 Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2
Sodium bromide NaBr Zinc selenide ZnSe
Sodium chlorate NaClO3 Zinc sulfate ZnSO4.7H2O
Sodium cobaltinitrile CoN6Na3O12 Zirconium boride ZrBo
Sodium dithionite Na2O4S2 Zirconium hydride ZrH2
Zirconium(IV)oxide ZrO2
VALENCES OF COMMON ELEMENTS & RADICALS

I.Elements of Fixed Positive Valence III.Elements of Variable Valence

+1 +2 +3 +4 ous ic
H Ba Al C ANTIMONY Sb +3 +5
Li Ca B Si ARSENIC As +3 +5
K Bd Fe BISMUTH Bi +3 +5
Na Mg Cr CHROMIUM Cr +2 +3
Ag Ra Ni COBALT Co +2 +3
Cu Sr Co COPPER Cu +1 +2
Zn Bi GOLD Au +1 +3
Cu As IRON Fe +2 +3
Fe Sb LEAD Pb +2 +4
Pb MANGANESE Mn +2 +4
Hg MERCURY Hg +1 +2
Ni NICKEL Ni +2 +3
Co NITROGEN N +3 +5
Cd PHOSPHORUS P +3 +5
Mn PLATINUM Pt +2 +4
Sn TIN Sn +2 +4

II.Elements of Fixed Negative Valence

-1 -2 -3 -4
Br O As C
Cl S N Si
F P
H
I

IV.Common Radicals
-1 -2 -3
ACETATE C2H3O2 CARBONATE CO3 ARSENATE AsO4
ALUMINATE Al(OH)4 CHROMATE CrO4 ARSENITE AsO3
BICARBONATE HCO3 DICHROMATE Cr2O7 BORATE BO3
BROMATE BrO3 MANGANATE MnO4 CITRATE C6H5O2
BROMIDE Br MOLYBDATE MoO4 FERICYANIDE Fe(Cn)6
CHLORATE ClO3 OXALATE C2O4 PHOSPHATE PO4
CHLORIDE Cl OXIDE O PHOSPHITE PO3
CYANATE CNO PEROXIDE O2
FLOURIDE F HYDROPHOSPHATE HPO3 -4
HYDROXIDE OH SILICATE SiO3 PYROARSENATE As2O7
HYPOCHLORITE ClO SULFATE SO4 PYROPHOSPHATE P2O7
IODATE IO3 SULFIDE S ORTHOSILICATE SiO4
IODIDE I SULFITE SO2
METABORATE BO2 STANATE SnO3 +1
MEATAPHOSPHATE PO3 TARTRATE C4H4O6 AMMONIUM NH4
NITRATE NO3 TETABORATE Br4O7 COPPER (I) Cu
NITRITE NO2 THIOSULFATE S2O3 MERCURY (I) Hg2
PERCHLORATE ClO4 ZINCATE ZnO7
PERMANGANATE MnO4
THIOCYANATE SCN