Chapter One

MAJOR EUROPEAN STATES BEFORE 1870

Background

Before 1870, most European states were small and had no proper leadership. A few bigger and industrialized states that existed practiced
imperialism. They competed for colonies overseas and political dominance in Europe. The Map below shows some major European
states by 1870.

The Map Of Europe (1870)

As shown on the map above, some of the states that dominated European affairs before 1870 were:

(i). Germany

Before 1971, there was no nation called Germany. Instead, there were 39 small German speaking states, each with its own government.
In 1870, the strongest state, called Prussia, had united them all under its leadership to form the German Empire. The Empire’s ruler was
Kaiser William ll. Germany developed a strong army, which made her fight many wars in Europe.

(ii). Britain

Britain was one of the greatest European powers, ruled by a monarch. Most of its people worked in factories making goods for sale
overseas. Britain was the world’s richest trading nation and rules an empire containing a quarter of the human race. The British battleships
patrolled the oceans to protect the colonies which provided her with food and raw materials for industries. Being an island, Britain did
not regard herself as being part of Europe. Up to 1914, she followed a policy of Splendid Isolation, a policy which she abandoned again
by 1914.

(iii). France

France was one of the most powerful states in Europe, ruled by Napoleon. She had a strong, which influenced Napoleon to wage a series
of devastating Napoleonic wars in Europe. France was a traditional enemy of Britain because of competition.

(iv). Austria
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Austria was an empire headed by Emperor Franz Joseph l. He ruled over people of many nationalities such as the Germans, Czechs,
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Poles, Slovaks, and Serbs. Most of the Empire’s power and wealth was in the hands of the Germans and Hungarians.
(v). Russia

Russia was the biggest European country in terms of size. She was ruled by an autocratic family with the title of Tsar. Most of the People
in Russia were backwards and illiterate because of suppression from the ruling family. Russia had no sea outlet, as such she desired to
control some of the Balkan states to have access to sea. This brought her into the Balkan region and brought her into conflict with Britain
and Austria over the control of the Mediterranean Sea and the Balkans respectively.

(vi). The Balkan States

The Balkan states were collectively known as the Ottoman Empire. These were small states that were ruled by the Ottoman family. It
stretched from the borders of Austria to include Hungary, Russia, Turkey and North Africa. Other states in the Ottoman Empire were
Denmark, Yugoslavia, Sweden, Bulgaria, Poland and Czechoslovakia.

The Ottoman Empire was made of different areas, with people of different languages and religions (Christians and Moslems) under the
control of the Turks who were Moslems. As a result, the Empire was weakened because of internal conflicts. Many races broke away and
became independent states. The remaining small states came under the control of the big European states. At this point, the Ottoman
Empire (Turkey) became commonly known as the ‘Sick man of Europe.’ Russia wanted to control the Balkan states so as to have a sea
outlet. Britain and France had commercial interests in the Balkans. Austria depended on the Balkans for survival of her Empire. After
Germany was unified, Bismarck feared that the Balkans would join France against Germany. Due to these factors, the Balkan region
became a sensitive area, which led to the outbreak of the First World War.

(vii). Italy

Before 1870, Italy was just composed of small states that were ruled by Austria. The people were poor, backwards and illiterate. One
man called Mazzini rose up and united the small Italian states through war into one country called Italy.

(viii). Other Countries

Europe also had other notable states by 1870. These were Holland, Spain and Portugal. These did not have much conflicts with the
other European Countries. They concentrated on Trade, voyages of discovery and the exploration of other continents of the world.

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 Chapter Two

GERMANY

Background

Germany was finally unified as a state in 1871. Before then, Germany was a confederation of thirty-nine (39) states. By 1815, Prussia
emerged as the largest and most powerful of the German States. When Kaiser William I became the King of Prussia in 1861, he was in
favor of unifying Germany. To make his plans work, he appointed two people to work with. He appointed General Helmut Von
Moltke as chief of staff of the Prussian army while Count Von Roon was appointed Minister of War. This team decided to expand the
army, using the money which was to be raised through tax. However, parliament suspended the tax collecting exercise within a year.
This frustrated King William which made him almost resign. Von Roon then advised King William to appoint Bismarck as chancellor
of Prussia. In 1862 Bismarck who was in Russia serving as an ambassador was called back and appointed chancellor of Prussia. Bismarck
then went round collecting tax money to expand the army.

Otto Von Bismarck

Otto Von Bismarck was born on April 1, 1815. He was a Prussian Junker (Junkers were
Prussian land owning aristocrats). After obtaining a University degree, he worked as a civil
servant in the Prussian Government before joining politics.

In 1847, Bismarck was elected member of the Prussian parliament. In Parliament, he

opposed the liberal views which wanted a united Germany under democratic rule. As an
aristocrat and an authoritarian, Bismarck was against democracy. He spoke violently
against the domination of Prussia by Austria. To prevent Bismarck from causing
confusion in the Confederate Parliament, the reigning King Frederick William IV of
Prussia sent him to serve a Prussian ambassador in Russia and later France from 1859 to
1862. In 1862, King Kaiser William I called back Bismarck by telegram from Foreign
Service and appointed him chancellor. Kaiser William l and Bismarck had the same views
of uniting all Germany speaking states. Bismarck fought aggressively to unite all Germany
states, and was therefore nick-named as the Iron Chancellor. Otto Von Bismarck

The Unification Of Germany

The unification of Germany was made possible with the appointment of Bismarck. As chancellor, Bismarck believed that nothing could
be done without the use of force. He believed in Realpolitik, which meant that “wrong must sometimes be committed in the interest of
the States,” particularly if the state is Prussia. Bismarck believed that the unification of Germany would only be achieved through war.
He therefore fought three (3) major wars to make that unification possible.

Germany Wars Of Unification

Bismarck fought the following wars to make Germany’s unification possible:
(a) The Danish-Prussian War (1864): This war was fought in 1864 between Prussia (helped by Austria-Hungary) and Denmark over
two German speaking territories of Holstein and Schleswig. Bismarck fought this war to assess the strength of the Prussian army.
Denmark wanted to take over these territories constitutionally. In this war Denmark was defeated. Austria-Hungary who fought
on the side of Prussia was given Holstein while Schleswig went to Prussia.

(b) The Austro-Prussian War (1866): This war was fought in 1866 between Prussia and Austria-Hungary as a result of their
misunderstandings over Holstein. Bismarck considered Austria-Hungary as a stumbling block to the unification of Germany, and
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was looking for a chance to expel her from the confederation of Germany states. He therefore incited the Germans in Holstein
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(which was under Austria) to demand to be part of Prussia. When the Austrian government refused to meet the people’s demands,
 Bismarck declared war on Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary was defeated at the Battle of Sadowa. She then surrendered Holstein
to Prussia, and was expelled from the confederation of deities. The war was fought in seven weeks and therefore became known as
the Seven Weeks War. States north of river Marne joined together to form North-Germany confederation of states.

(c) The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): This war between Prussia and France was fought between 1870 and 1871. The cause of
the war involved the appointment of a Prussian Prince Leopold of Belgium to the Spanish throne. France felt threatened by this
and decided to protest the appointment. The French sent a telegram to King Kaiser William I who was on holiday at a place called
Ems. This telegram was politely requesting the Prussian King to advise Prince Leopold not to accept the Spanish throne. The
Prussian King also politely turned down this request. Unfortunately, this telegram which became known as the EMS Telegram
passed through Bismarck’s office on its way to France. Bismarck deliberately changed the contents of the Telegram to make them
sound as if King William had insulted the French ambassador and the French people. This was a deliberate move by Bismarck to
draw France into a war with Prussia. As a result, the tension between the two countries increased and the French were finally
manipulated into declaring war on Prussia. France was finally defeated at the Battle of Sedan in 1871, and made peace by signing
the Treaty of Frankfurt in 1871. In this treaty the following the provisions were made:
 French Industrial provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were annexed to Germany.
 France was told to pay war damages in terms of money and coal.
 Germany troops were also supposed to occupy eastern France until the indemnity of 200 million franks was paid.

With the defeat of Austria and France, German was finally united and the new Germany Empire was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors
at the Palace of Versailles, Paris in France in 1871.

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 Chapter Three

GERMANY UNDER BISMARCK

Background

After the unification, Bismarck ruled Germany from 1871 up to the time he resigned in 1890. During this period, he dominated both
Germany and international politics. He put in place policies that were aimed at consolidating his power and ensuring the unity of
Germany as well as dominating affairs in Europe.

Bismarck’s Home/Domestic Policy

Between 1871 and 1890, Bismarck’s aims in his home policy were:

(a) To consolidate power to himself.

(b) To eliminate all opposition in Germany.
(c) To ensure Germany unity.
(d) To achieve economic development for Germany.

Bismarck introduced a number of policies to solve the many problems that Germany faced. The major problems faced were from the
Catholics and the Socialists.

(i). Bismarck And The Roman Catholic Church

The Catholic Church was one obstacle of the power of the state under Bismarck. The Pope (Head of Catholic Church) became so
influential in state affairs of Germany. For example, in 1864, the Pope condemned civil marriage and secular education. In 1870 the
Vatican council came up with the dogma of Papal infallibility, meaning the pope does not make a mistake on issues of faith and morals
and that his direction should be taken without questions. However, a minority of Germany Catholics did not take this doctrine and they
were ex-communicated. Some teachers and professors who opposed the pope also lost their jobs. Bismarck did not agree with this because
the church was interfering in the state control of education system. There was not going to be a state within a state. The church then
launched a campaign against Bismarck.

In order to solve this problem with the Catholic Church, Bismarck decided pass the May Laws against the church in 1872. By these laws
he expelled the catholic Jesuits of Germany. The laws prevented Jesuits from inspecting schools. Schools were to be inspected by
government officials. All schools and colleges were to be owned by the state and civil marriages were made legal. Priests who contradicted
these rules were imprisoned. The conflict (struggle) between Bismarck and the church was called Kulturkampf (struggle for civilization),
that is, struggle for civilization against the Catholic Church which was said to be backward. In 1878, however, the Pope died and was
replaced by another Pope who compromised with Bismarck and most of the May Laws were removed.

(ii). Bismarck And The Socialists

Bismarck looked at socialists as independent in the empire which had connections with other socialists in other countries. These socialists
influenced the workers’ interest by propagating Karl Marx’s ideas which aimed at overthrowing property owners so that the society can
be organized under communist principles. These ideas threatened Bismarck.

In order to deal with the socialists, Bismarck passed the Exceptional Laws. These laws banned the socialist movement. The socialist
newspaper was also suppressed and known supporters were either jailed or exiled from Germany.

Further, in order to win support of the workers, he introduced industrial benefits such as insurance against accidents at their places of
work. In 1889, the old age pension schemes were introduced. In society, the sick, old and disabled were provided with social aid.

(iii). Economic Problems

German industries also faced a lot of problems as a result of stiff competition from outside. Cheap foreign goods flooded the Germany
market. In order to deal with this problem and ensure economic and industrial development, Bismarck introduced the Triple Law of
1879. Under this Law, Bismarck imposed high tariffs on all imported goods so that Germany could depend on local industries. This was
5

done to protect the main German industries against outside competitors.

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(iv). Lack Of Colonies

Since Germany initially never took part in the colonial race, there developed a problem of lack of colonies to supply raw materials and
markets. In order to deal with the problem of lack of colonies, Bismarck called for the Berlin Conference 1884-1885 so that European
powers could share Africa among themselves peacefully. Germany acquired many colonies in Africa after this conference.

(v). The Presence Of Non-Germany Racial Minority

Bismarck was that the racial minorities were an obstacle to complete Germany unity. There were a few million non-German-speaking
people like the Poles, Danes and the French within the Germany Empire. In order to deal with these small racial groups, Bismarck
introducing the Policy of Prussianization/Germanization, where he made sure that German language was the only language used in all
sectors by all the people.

(vi). Nationalization Of The Transport System

Bismarck faced many problems in the transportation industry whose transportation rates were very high. In order to deal with the
transport problems, the railway system became state owned so that the low transporting rates would be introduced to benefit the local
industries. The Government also subsidized the shipping lines to enable them compete with other countries such as Britain. These
measures led to the development of the Germany industries.

(vii). Bismarck’s dispute with Kaiser William ll

Bismarck differed with Kaiser William ll over socialist questions and colonies. Kaiser wanted Bismarck to be friendly with the socialist
and Germany to compete with other powers like Britain in acquiring colonies overseas. Kaiser also wanted a more liberal and democratic
government in Germany, all of which Bismarck did not like. In order to deal with this dispute, Bismarck his chancellorship to mark the
end of his political career.

Bismarck’s Foreign Policy

The aims of Bismarck’ foreign policy were:

(a) To isolate France in Europe so that she does not wage a war of revenge on Germany.
(b) To maintain peace for new Germany so that she develops politically and economically.
(c) To dominate European diplomacy in the interest of Germany.
(d) To avoid fighting war on two fronts.
(e) To consolidate Germany’s power in Europe.

To achieve his aims, Bismarck created a system of alliances with other countries and held the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885.

Bismarck’s Alliances

Bismarck signed a number of alliances to help him achieve his aims. These alliances were:

(i). The Dreikaiserband (1872)

The Dreikaiserband was also called the Three Emperor’s League. It was a 1872 verbal understanding by Germany (Kaiser William l),
Russia (Tsar Alexander) and Austria-Hungary (Franz Joseph). The three members of this alliance agreed to renew this alliance every
after three (3) years. In this alliance, the three powers agreed on the following terms:
(a) To isolate France.
(b) To crush socialism and republicanism in the three Empires.
(c) To consult each other on international matters especially over the Balkan states.

However, this alliance soon collapsed because two of its members, Russia and Austria-Hungary had conflicting interests in the Balkan
6

states.
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(ii). The Dual Alliance (1879)
The Dual Alliance was a secrete treaty signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1979. This was after Russia and Austria-
Hungary quarreled over the Balkan States. In trying to resolve this conflict, Bismarck sided with Austria and this offended Russia which
made her leave. The two that remained, Germany and Austria signed the Dual alliance in which they agreed on the following terms:
(a) To isolate France.
(b) To assist each other in case one of them is attacked by Russia.
(c) To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or more countries but to remain neutral if attacked by only one.

(iii). The Renewal of The Dreikaiserband (1881 and 1884)

In 1881, the Dreikaiserbund was revised into a definite treaty, after the new Tsar of Russia, Alexander III had ascended to the throne
following the assassination of his father. In this renewed treaty, most of the earlier terms of the Dreikaiserband were retained. What was
added was that Russia would not support France if she (France) decided to attack Germany.

(iv). The Triple Alliance (1882)

The Triple Alliance was signed in 1882 by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. It was formed when Italy decided to join the Dual
alliance. Italy formed this alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary after she was offended when France occupied Tunisia, which Italy
considered as her territory. Bismarck had diplomatically encouraged the French occupation of Tunisia. By signing this alliance, the
members agreed on the following terms:

(a) To isolate France.

(b) To assist Italy if attacked by France.
(c) Italy agreed to help Germany if attacked by France, but pledged not to be involved in any war against Britain.

(v) The Secrete Re-Insurance Treaty (1887).

The Secrete Re-Insurance Treaty was signed in 1882 between Germany and Russia. Bismarck was still determined to prevent an alliance
between France and Russia. He also wanted to avoid fighting war on two fronts in case of an outbreak of war. After the end of the
Dreikaiserband, Bismarck thought that Russia could easily join France to attack Germany. As a result, Bismarck secretly approached
Russia to sign the Re-Insurance Treaty to reinsure Germany against any attack from France. The terms of the alliance were:

(a) Germany recognized the Russian influence in the Balkans.

(b) Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany would remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria-
Hungary. The two would help each other if attacked by two or more countries.
(c) Both agreed to isolate France so that she does not join Russia and attack Germany.
(d) Both agreed to renew the (Reinsurance) treaty every three (3) years.

Dismissal/ Resignation Of Bismarck

Bismarck was dismissed in 1890 by Kaiser William ll. Kaiser William I who had supported Bismarck’s policies died in 1888 and he
was succeeded by Fredrick. Fredrick hated Bismarck because he wanted a more liberal and democratic government. Fredrick died from
cancer three months after ascending to the throne. A 28-year-old Kaiser William II succeeded him. By 1890, Bismarck resigned
because:

(a) Kaiser William II wanted to be kind to socialists in Germany while Bismarck wanted to crush all socialists by introducing strict
anti-socialist laws in Germany.
(b) Kaiser William II wanted a policy of Colonial Expansion for Germany by acquiring colonies while Bismarck wanted to confine
German expansion to Europe.
(c) Kaiser William II wanted to challenge the British naval supremacy while Bismarck did not want to compete with Britain
militarily.
(d) Kaiser William II did not support Bismarck’s system of alliances. For example, he favored giving support to Austria to acquire
some territories in the Balkans openly while Bismarck wanted it done secretly.
7

After all these differences, Kaiser William ll asked Bismarck to draw an order restricting the chancellor’s power. Bismarck refused and
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simply decided to resign in 1890.

 Chapter Four

BRITAIN
Background

Britain was one of the greatest European powers, ruled by a monarch. Most of its people worked in factories making goods for sale
overseas. Britain was the world’s richest trading nation and ruled an empire containing a quarter of the human race. The British battleships
patrolled the oceans to protect the colonies which provided her with food and raw materials for industries. Being an island, Britain did
not regard herself as being part of Europe. Up to 1914, she followed a policy of Splendid Isolation, a policy which she abandoned again
by 1914.

THE BRITISH POLICY OF SPLENDID ISOLATION

The British Policy of Splendid Isolation was a policy that Britain followed in the 19th Century of not involving herself in the affairs of
mainland Europe. This was at time that she was under the Conservative Prime Ministers of Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury. Britain
did not regard herself as being part of Europe and so she did not bother to have alliances with other countries. She was the greatest naval
power who could defend herself without any problems.

Why Britain Adopted/Followed The Policy

Britain followed the policy of Splendid Isolation due to the following reasons;

(i). Britain’s geographical Position: Britain is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel. Therefore, she was apparently
safe in her island Kingdom which had not suffered any invasion for many years. Besides, Britain could easily defend herself against any
invasions since she had the best Navy in Europe at the time.

(ii). Britain was too pre-occupied (busy) with her overseas expansion: Britain wanted a peaceful Europe so that she could continue to
expand without interruption. At that time the British Empire comprised of a quarter of the world population. Therefore, Britain was
pre-occupied with her overseas expansion. As such, she saw no need of taking part in European quarrels, so she isolated herself.

(iii). Britain was economically Self-Sufficient: Britain enjoyed her commercial and industrial Supremacy. She was the first country to
industrialize. She was the center of world trade and Banking. Half of the World Merchant shipping was British. In the 1880s, she was
still producing more coal and steel than any other country. She wanted to remain a dominant world status without European interruption.

(iv). Britain had the strongest navy in the world: Militarily, Britain had the strongest Navy in the world. With this monopoly, Britain
saw no need of involving herself in European affairs since she did not face any challenge from other European countries.

(iv). Britain wanted to preserve her monarch: Britain also wanted to preserve her Monarch after the French Revolution of 1879, which
brought an end to the Monarch in France. Britain wanted to avoid a similar revolution by isolating herself.

(v). The bitter experiences of the Crimean War of 1854-1856: The Crimean War involved Russia and Turkey over the Balkan Region.
In this war, Britain fully supported Turkey. The bitter experiences of death and misery caused by the War forced the British Politicians
and the public to urge the British government to limit Britain’s costly commitments outside Britain especially in Europe.

Why The Policy Was Abandoned

The events that were happening outside Britain between 1893 and 1902 forced Britain to abandon the policy of Splendid Isolation.
These events threatened the British Naval supremacy and the entire British Empire. The following forced the British to abandon the
policy;
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(i). The alliances system in Europe: As European powers kept on signing alliances, Britain was made aware that she would be on her own
if war broke out. Britain was especially threatened when her two enemies Russia and France signed the Dual Entente in 1894. This made
her move out of isolation to seek alliances with other powers too.

(ii). The provocative Foreign Policies of Kaiser William II threatened Britain: From 1890, when Kaiser William II became the Germany
Emperor, his foreign policies provoked Britain as follows;
 Kaiser William ll started challenging the British Naval, colonial and industrial supremacy. In 1906, for example, the British
introduced an advanced heavier and faster battleship with guns called the Dreadnought, which was the first of its kind in naval
history However, in 1907, Germany started producing an imitational Dreadnought called the U-Boat. This was a direct
provocation to Britain.
 Kaiser William also sent a congratulatory message to Paul Kruger of the Transvaal for successfully crushing of the attempted
Jameson Raid in 1895. This was also a direct provocation that contributed to the abandoning of the policy.
 The Germany government also gave moral and material support to the Boers during the 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902.
The British felt threatened by Germany’s indirect involvement in this war on the side at the Dutch.

(iii). The 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 -1902: The defeat of the British during the 2nd Anglo-Boer war was a direct challenge to Britain’s
military supremacy. It revealed the weaknesses of the British Army. The British suffered a series of defeats by the ill equipped Boer army
and the prolonged Guerrilla warfare.

(iv). Britain faced many colonial rivalries: Britain faced colonial rivalries in North Africa (over Morocco and Egypt) from France, in South East Asia
(over Tibet, Afghanistan and Persia) Britain had differed with Russia and in the Middle East from Germany because Kaiser William wanted to build
a railway line from Berlin to Baghdad. In addition, Germany also challenged Britain as a world leading colonial power at the Berlin Colonial Conference.

(v). The Armenian Massacre of 1896: This was an eye opener to Britain. The Turkish government carried out persecution of the Amiens minority,
killing 6000 in Constantinople. This violated the contents of the Berlin Congress of 1878 where it was agreed to protect the rights of the minority.
The British Prime Minister, William Gladstone campaigned against the Turkish but there was no response from the other countries. As such, the
British felt the disadvantages of isolation and abandoned the policy.

(vi). Resignation of Lord Salisbury: Lord Salisbury supported the policy of isolation. However, the policy was abandoned after his
resignation.

(vii). Commercial and trade competition: Traders from other countries began to compete with British traders. Also trade barriers that
Britain introduced to protect her trading rights made other countries to react the same. When other countries introduced high tariffs on
imported goods, Britain decided move out of isolation and corporate with other countries in order to remain in international trade.

How The Policy Was Abandoned

Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid Isolation through signing of various alliances with other countries. Some of these were:

(i) The Anglo-Japanese Alliance-1902: The first step that Britain took to abandon the policy was to sign the Anglo-Japanese alliance
with Japan in 1902. In this alliance, Japan agreed to protect British possessions in South East Asia against German and Russian
Imperialism. Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries attacked one of them.

(ii). The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale-1904: The second way Britain abandoned the policy was by signing the Entente Cordial with
France in 1904. This treaty ended the long period of friction between the two countries especially over the colonies in Africa. In this
treaty, Britain was to recognize the French occupation of Morocco while France would recognize Britain in Sudan and Egypt. Both
countries agreed to hold regular consultations on economic and military issues. They also agreed to assist each other against German
aggression.

(iii).The Triple Entente-1907: Thirdly, Britain signed the Triple Entente with France and Russia in 1907. Britain and Russia settled
9

their differences over Persia, Tibet and Afghanistan. It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked. The members also pledged
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to work together to counteract the effects of the Triple Alliance of 1882.

 Chapter Five

IMPERIALISM

Background
Imperialism is the policy of building up of an empire by seizing territories overseas. It is also the policy of extending a country’s rule and
influence over foreign nations. Generally speaking, Imperialism is when a superior country controls another country politically, socially
and economically. It was started in the 16thcentury when major European Countries such as Britain, France and Germany started to
acquire the underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia to benefit Europe. However, between 1870 and 1914, other European countries
rushed to acquire colonies especially in Africa in what commonly became known as the Scramble for Africa’ or ‘Race for Africa’. The
Scramble for Africa was a period of rapid occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers.

Reasons For The Low Demand Of African Colonies Before 1870

Before 1870, European Countries were not so interested in acquiring colonies in Africa. They were committed in the Far East and Latin
America where economies were booming. Africa was referred to as the Dark Continent because little information was known about the
interior part of it. There was low demand of African countries before 1870 due to the following reasons:

(a) Africa had no economic incentives for European countries: Most European governments saw the acquisition of colonies as an
expensive venture. This was because they knew very little about the existence of abundant wealth resources. Therefore, Europeans
had no economic interest in Africa.
(b) Europeans had no Knowledge of the African Continent: They considered Africa as a “Dark Continent”.
(c) Europeans lacked reliable means of Transport to come to Africa: They had not developed and advanced means of transport to
move to other continents.
(d) Africa had thick forests and bad climatic conditions: Some African areas such as the Niger, Congo and Zambezi Valleys were hot
with jungles and thick forests. This hindered early colonialists from acquiring colonies in Africa.
(e) Tropical diseases such as Malaria, bilharzias, sleeping sickness prevented colonialists from coming to Africa before medicines were
discovered.
(f) Africa was believed to have unnavigable rivers: The swamps, rapids and waterfalls made most rivers of Africa not to be navigable.
This made most colonialists to believe that it was impossible to penetrate the interior of the African continent using boats.
(g) Europeans feared hostile African tribes: Some tribes could not welcome white missionaries while others had the reputation of
being cannibals.
(h) Some colonialists were afraid of wild beasts such as dangerous snakes, lions, biting insects such as mosquitoes in the jungles of
tropical Africa.
(i) Geographical barriers such as mountains and deserts further hindered the colonization of Africa before 1870.

Reasons For The Increased Demand For African Colonies After 1870 (Why European Powers Acquired Colonies In Africa)

After 1870, there was a general increase for demand of colonies in Africa. Europeans scrambled for and partitioned Africa for economic,
political and social reasons:

Economic Reasons

The economic reasons why European powers rushed for colonies in Africa were as follows:
(a) European powers wanted to open fresh markets where to sell their industrial manufactured product: They could not sell their
manufactured goods in Europe because of protective tariffs which raised prices of imported goods.
(b) European powers needed to gain and control the source of raw materials: They needed sources of such raw materials as rubber,
palm oil to increase their production capacity in Europe.
10

(c) They also wanted places where to invest surplus profit: This was because investment opportunities were declining in Europe due
to stiff competition.
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 (d) The Europeans needed trading bases where trade could be conducted: This was because of industrial trade competition in Europe
after 1870.
(e) They wanted to explore minerals: The discovery of diamonds and gold made the colonizers to scramble for such areas to explore
these minerals. Closely connected to this is the fact that European countries had acquired colonies in Africa in order to protect
their traditional companies like the British South Africa Company and Imperial British East Africa Company.

Political Reasons

The political reasons for European colonization of Africa were as outlined below:
(a) They wanted to acquire colonies as a symbol of prestige and power: For example Germany and Italy, ‘Germany wanted a place
in the sun.’
(b) They wanted colonies to establish naval bases: Egypt for example was colonized by Britain to enable her have effective control
of the Suez Canal where a military base was established for defense.
(c) They wanted Sources of cheap labor and troops: Other European countries looked at colonies as a source of troops to boost the
armies. France colonized Senegal in order to get cheap labor to use during wars.
(d) Some European powers acquired colonies as compensations for territorial losses: Some colonies were got to compensate for lost
territories in Europe. This was the case of France’s loss of Lorraine and Alsace.
(e) The political ambitions of some men in Europe made their countries to acquire colonies: People like John Cecil and king Leopold
of Belgium played an important role due to personal ambitions while working for their colonial countries.
(f) Some European powers acquired colonies after being invited by African chiefs: Some parts of Africa were colonized following
invitations from some African chiefs such as Khama of Bechuanaland and Lewanika of Barotseland who invited the British to
give them protection.
(g) Some African areas were acquired due to their strategic location: They were located in areas which Europeans could easily locate
and easily take control of. They also provided better places for establishment of European settlements.

Social Reasons

The social reasons for European colonization of Africa were as outlined below:
(a) They wanted to acquire colonies to settle excess unemployed population displaced by the Industrial revolution: Britain acquired
Zimbabwe and Kenya to settle her excess population. This surplus population wished to migrate and yet remain under one colonial
power’s flag.
(b) The European explorers and adventurer wanted to explore various areas Africa. De Brazza’s exploration of Equatorial Africa,
Stanley Morton Henry in Congo, and Karl Peters of Germany in East Africa all influenced the partition of Africa.
(c) They wanted colonies so as to easily spread Christianity and western civilization: Early missionaries appealed to their home
governments to impose colonialism so that they could easily spread Christianity and the so called western civilization. This is
because Africa was regarded as a Dark Continent because not much was known about it.

Humanitarian Reason

The main humanitarian reason why some European powers acquired colonies in Africa was that:
(a) Some European humanitarians wanted to end slave trade in Africa: They wanted to improve the moral standards of the Africans.
They also wanted to teach literacy and hygiene.

Factors That Facilitated The Scramble For Africa After 1870

The Scramble for Africa was facilitated by a number of factors. These factors include:
(a) The exploration works of missionaries: Through the exploration works of David Livingstone who explored most of central Africa
and De-Brazza who explored the Congo basin, Europe became knowledgeable about African Continent.
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(b) The knowledge of transport: The development of Steamship was another factor that contributed to the Scramble for Africa. It
facilitated fast movements across continents.
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 (c) The discovery of medicines: Such medicine as quinine, used to cure tropical diseases also made it easier for Europeans to colonize
Africa
(d) Men of enterprise: Men such as Cecil Rhodes and his BSA Company also facilitated the Scramble for Africa. They influenced
their mother countries to acquire parts of Africa.
(e) The discovery of modern weapons: Weapons such as the Maxim gun also made it easier to colonize Africa because resistant
African Chiefs could easily be defeated.

The Berlin Conference 1884-1885

The Berlin Conference was held in 1884-85 in Berlin (the capital of Germany). It was organized and chaired by Bismarck. It was held
by European powers in order to make rules for the division of Africa into colonies without crushes. The division of Africa among
European powers was referred to as the “Partition of Africa”. Some of the rules during the partition were as follows:
(a) River Niger and Zaire were to be made international water ways.
(b) Notice had to be given to other powers when claiming new territories.
(c) Territorial claims were to be backed by effective control.

The results of the Berlin Conference were:

(a) Africa was partitioned among European Countries.
(b) European countries agreed to settle all border disputes between the countries involved.
(c) All European Countries accepted the freedom of trade on all the major rivers and water ways.
(d) Areas already proclaimed as protectorates before 1884 were accepted and recognized.
(e) The European countries agreed to sign treaties with African Chiefs.
(f) The Congo Free State was to be given to King Leopold of Belgium.
Despite this partition, Liberia and Ethiopia were not colonized by any European country. Liberia was declared a place to resettle freed
slaves from Europe.

At the end of the Berlin Conference, European powers agreed to share the African continent as shown in the map below:

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Map Of Africa After The Partition At The Berlin Conference

How Colonial Rule Was Imposed On Africans

There were two main ways through which colonial rule was imposed on Africans:

(a) Through treaties: Trading companies and missionaries were used to sign treaties with African chiefs. Lewanika of the Lozi and
Khama of the Bamangwato signed treaties with the missionaries.

(b) By force: Europeans used force to impose colonial rule where chiefs refused to sign treaties. For example, force was used to bring
Lobengula of the Ndebele and Mpezeni of the Ngoni under colonial rule.

Colonial Conflicts (Clashes) In Africa By European Powers

The Partition of Africa came with some clashes in some part of Africa, especially over certain areas of interest. Some of the common
clashes include:

Examples Of Colonial Conflicts North Of The Equator

(a) The Suez Canal Incident (1875)

The Suez Canal Incident happened during the occupation attempt of Egypt. The conflict was between Britain and France. France
was the first to declare interest in Egypt. She financed the building of the Suez Canal and assigned Ferdinand De Lesseps to design
and construct it. It was completed and opened in 1869. The Egyptian Ruler Khedive Ishmael acquired 50% of the canal shares
while France got the other half. However, in 1875, Khedive Ishmael went bankrupt and decided to sell his 50% of the shares to
France. However, France hesitated to buy the shares. Khedive then approached Britain. The British Prime Minister at the time
Benjamin Disraeli quickly bought the shares. Britain therefore controlled the other part of Egypt. This created enmity between
Britain and France. When Khedive Ishmael died, his son Tewfik became the ruler. Arabi Pasha rebelled against him to gain his
independence. Tewfik asked for help from France but France hesitated again because it did not want to be drawn into a war.
Tewfik was forced to turn to Britain for help which was given. Arabi Pasha was defeated and Britain finally occupied Egypt. The
French fleet was then ordered to leave Egypt. This worsened the enmity between Britain and France.

(b) The Fashoda Incident Of 1898

This was a dispute between France and Britain in 1898 at Fashoda in Sudan. The British colonized Sudan in 1885. They were
however attacked and driven out by a religious fanatic called Madhi. In the process the British leader General Gordon was killed.
This left the British with a spirit of revenge. The British then assigned Lord Kitchener to help reoccupy Sudan. Kitchener was also
given instructions to lay down a railway line from Egypt to Sudan. While Britain wanted to link Cape Town in South Africa to
Cairo in Egypt, France wanted to link French West Africa with French Somaliland. As the two countries were trying to achieve
their objectives, they met at Fashoda in Sudan. The French were under Jean Merchand while the British were under Lord
Kitchener. The two parties almost fought but instead referred the matter to their home governments. France decided to withdraw
and Fashoda was occupied by Britain. The Anglo-French convention was held in March 1899 which drew a line down to the
Congo River limiting each county’s expansion. Britain had to exercise her influence to the east of the line while France to the west.
Fashoda was changed to Kodak in order to kill French memories.

(c) The Tangier Crisis (The First Moroccan Crisis) Of 1905

This was a dispute between France and Germany over Morocco because of its strategic position and alleged presence of iron ore
deposits. In 1905, Kaiser William ll landed at Tangier and openly proclaimed Germany support for Morocco independence. He
encouraged the people of Morocco to revolt against France. Though Morocco was under the control of the Sultan, France was in
the process of colonizing it. The Kaiser protested against this and declared the sovereignty of Morocco. This dispute was sent to
an international conference called Algeciras Conference, held in Spain in 1906 where Italy, Spain, and Russia supported the French
control over Morocco but allowed Germany trade rights. This was a serious diplomatic defeat for Germany who wanted to test
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the strength of the Entente Cordiale of 1904 signed by France and Britain.
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 (d) The Agadir Crisis (The Second Moroccan Crisis) Of 1911
The Second Moroccan crisis took place in 1911. Kaiser William II of Germany sent a gunboat called the panther to the Moroccan
port of Agadir, a Moroccan Sea port hoping to pressurize the French into giving Germany some compensation and protect her
interest in Morocco. This was done after the French troops occupied Fez, the Moroccan capital to put down a rebellion against
the Sultan Abdul Aziz, with a seemingly French occupation of Morocco. However, Britain was not happy with German’s move
and therefore warned Germany of terrible consequences. This warning was offered through the famous Mansion House Speech
by Lloyd George. Because of this strong stand by Britain, Germany withdrew her troops and recognized France in Morocco. In
return France recognized Germany in French Congo (Cameroon) and war was averted and the dispute finally ended.

Examples Of Colonial Conflicts South Of The Equator.

(e) The First Anglo-Boer War (The Battle Of The Majuba Hill) (1880-1881)
This was a War of Independence for the Boers from the British who wanted to colonize the whole of South Africa. The British
accepted defeat and signed the Pretoria Convention in 1881.

(f) The Second Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902)

This was a political struggle between the British and the Boers. The British were determined to create their Cape to Cairo dream
while the Boers were equally determined to maintain their independence and had their own imperialist ambitions. In this battle,
the Boers were defeated and the Vereeniging Peace Treaty was signed in 1902.

Consequences/Significance Of Imperialism

Imperialism had a number of positive and negative effects, particularly on Africa. Some of these effects are that:

Positive Effects/Results

Imperialism/Scramble of Africa brought about the following positive effects:

(a) It helped end slave trade which had brought about misery, tribal wars, loss of lives and separation of families.
(b) It led to the development of social infrastructure like schools, hospitals, roads and communication systems.
(c) Imperialism brought about skills like carpentry, Bricklaying, and Hygiene among Africans.
(d) It also brought Christianity which helped pacify war like tribes like the Masai.
(e) It led to urbanization which led to the development of various social, economic and political institutions.
(f) It led to the introduction of new cash crops like cotton, and coffee.
(g) It brought about a whole change of the economy from the barter system of trade to the money economy.

Negative Effects/Results

Imperialism had the following negative effects too:

(a) It made African chiefs lose power to the White colonialists.

(b) It made Africans lose land to the colonial masters.
(c) It led to over exploitation of Africa’s resources especially minerals, land, labour and rubber that were important for European
industries.
(d) It led to the Introduction of foreign disease like syphilis.
(e) It changed the African traditions and culture due to the coming of western civilization.
(f) It led to population increase after colonialists brought their excess unemployed people.
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 Chapter Six

THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918

Background
The First World War was the first war which was fought on an international scale. It started in 1914 and ended in 1918. The war was
started by the two European military camps, that is:
(i) Triple Alliance (Central Powers) comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
(ii) Triple Entente (Allied Powers) comprising France, Russia and Britain.
These two military camps had been in existence from 1907. Since then, they provoked each other and created international tension that
finally led to the outbreak of the War. Germany, particularly Kaiser William II was to blame for causing the war. Therefore, at the end
of the First World War, Germany was found guilty of causing the war and was punished at the Versailles Peace Treaty in 1919.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War was caused by a number of factors. The prominent ones were as follows:

(i). The alliance system brought by Bismarck: The system of alliances divided Europe into two heavily armed hostile camps, thus, the
Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia). By 1907, these two camps became
hostile to each other and eventually brought tension and mistrust in Europe which led the First World War.

(ii). Arms Race/Militarism among European countries: Militarism or Arms Race refers to the competition in the manufacturing of
weapons. The arms race was started by Britain who first made the Dreadnought, which was a very powerful battleship with heavier guns
and moved with great speed. To compete with Britain, Germany also made an imitational Dreadnought called the U-boat, and later
developed her own type of battleship known as Long-Barrel Bertha. The competition to construct battleships was known as a naval race.
Other European countries also increased their military hardware, as a way of getting ready for war. Britain and Germany increased the
number of soldiers through compulsory military recruitment called conscription. Fearing for their safety and security, the other countries
soon joined the arms race. The arms race led to suspicion and tension among European countries which increased the chances for war.

(iii). Growing nationalism in Europe: Nationalism is the wish by people with common origin and traditions to be united and exist as
independent units among other nations. There was growing nationalism among nations in Europe. For example Serbia, the most powerful
of the new states in the Balkans was determined to free her fellow Slavs from Turkish rule and was also anxious to drive Austria from
land inhabited by the Slavic people. Austria on the other hand wanted to block Serbia from uniting Slavs which she feared would prove
a disaster to her own multinational state. Hence, there were conflicts between Austria-Hungary and Russia on the one hand who wanted
to dominate Balkans and gain control of the straits leading to the black sea and between Austria-Hungary and Serbia on the other as the
latter (Serbia) wanted to unite all Slavs. This state of affairs brought tension in the Balkan Peninsular which resulted into the world war.

(iv). European Imperialism: During the second half of the 19th century, there was fierce competition among European powers for raw
materials for the booming factories in Europe. These nations began to extend their power by acquiring colonies in Africa in order to get
cheap labour, raw materials and food for factory workers. They experienced many colonial disputes which contributed to the outbreak
of the First World War such as the Moroccan crisis of 1905–1906 which left Germany with bitter feelings.

(v). International crises: From 1907 onwards Europe was characterized by clashes of interest among its powers, mostly Britain, Russia,
Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy. They crashed over territories in Africa and over the Balkans. These conflicts mainly resulted from
the nationalism of monarchies (in the Balkans) and economic advantages that some areas offered. The most defining of these conflicts
were:

(a) Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913

The first Balkan war was in 1912. Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria formed The Balkan League in 1912 and attacked
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Turkey (Ottoman Empire) and seized most of her territories. A peace conference was called and the former Turkish land was
shared among the Balkan League. However, Bulgaria was not happy with what she was given. She had wanted to get Macedonia
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(because it controlled the sea port of Seronika), which were given to Serbia. Albania was to remain independent. In 1913, she
 attacked Serbia but Greece, Romania, and Turkey helped Serbia. Bulgaria was defeated and lost all the territories she got from
the first Balkan war according to the Treaty of Bucharest.

(b) The Bosnian crisis of 1908.

The Bosnian crisis was started by Serbia and Austria. Serbia wanted to bring all Slavic people under her rule. These people were
mostly found in two Slavic states of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fearing a strong Serbia, Austria–Hungary annexed the two Slavic
states of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia was outplayed as the Austrian move blocked her hopes of creating a large Serbian
Kingdom to include most of the Southern Slavs. As a result, Serbia complained to Russia with the desire to protect their fellow
Slavs, and their own desire to gain access to the Eastern Mediterranean. Russia supported the Serbs and opposed Austria. With
this support Serbia prepared for war against Austria Hungary. Germany readily supported Austria Hungary and asked Russia
to accept Austrian move or face war with Germany. Weakened from their defeat in the Russo–Japanese War of 1904 -1905,
Russians were afraid to go to war. As a result, they backed down but vowed to revenge. Russia called for an international
conference hosted by Germany. In attendance were the British, French, Germany, Austrians and the Serbs. Russia requested for
British and French assistance in dealing with Austria–Hungary. Fearing a war with Germany which supported Austria, Britain
and France refused to assist Russia deal with Austria Hungary, as a result Russia went away disappointed and prepared for war
next time Serbia came asking for assistance.

These Balkan crises heightened tension among the great powers, especially Germany and Russia that fueled the First World War.

(vi). International Anarchy: Before 1914, there were no statesmen who could mediate among European states and international
organization to which countries would refer their disputes. This caused anarchy at international level. As a result, some small countries
were at the mercy of bigger countries.

(vii). Propaganda (Newspaper press): The media and European newspapers intensified conflicts among great powers. The newspaper
press poisoned the public minds through propaganda messages that were published in all countries. For example, they exaggerated world
events and conflicts which drew other powers into tension. This contributed to world tension that led to the war.

(viii). The Sarajevo Incidence (The Murder at Sarajevo): The Sarajevo incident involved the murder of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand
at Sarajevo on the 28th June, 1914. This was the immediate cause of the First World War. The Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the heir
to the Austrian Throne. He, with his wife Sofie were paying an official visit to the newly acquired Austrian territory of Bosnia. When he
reached Sarajevo, the Capital of Bosnia, he and his wife were shot dead by a Serbian Nationalist named Gavril Princip, a member of the
secret society called the Black Hand Organization. Austria blamed Serbia for the murder and sent a 48 hours ultimatum to Serbia with
the following conditions:

1. Serbia was to suppress all societies organizing anti-Austrian propaganda.

2. Serbia was to dismiss all officials to whom Austria objected.
3. Austrian police and officials were to enter Serbia to ensure that these two demands were carried out.
Serbia agreed to comply the first two demands and refused to comply with the third. As a result, Austria declared War on Serbia on 28th
July, 1914. This marked the beginning of the First World War.

EVENTS OF THE FIRST WEEK OF THE WAR

Austria declared War on Serbia on 28th July, 1914. On 29th July 1914, Russia started mobilizing to assist Serbia, Germany asked Russia
to demobilize but this was ignored. On 1st August, 1914 Germany, Austria’s ally declared war on Russia. On 3rd August 1914, France
declared war on Germany. On 4th August 1914, Britain declared war on German because of violating the Belgium neutrality according to
the London Treaty of 1839.

When war broke out, Italy did not join the war immediately. She only joined the war in 1915 and on the side of the Allied Powers
instead of the Triple Alliance according to the alliances that were signed. This was because Italy signed the Secret Treaty of London in
1915 with Britain and France. By this treaty, Italy was promised the two territories of Trieste and Trentino after the defeat of Germany
and Austria. These two territories belonged to Austria-Hungary. However, at the end of the war, Italy was not given the two territories
16

at the Versailles Peace Treaty.

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COURSE OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War was fought on several fronts:

(1)The War On The Western Front

The war on the western front was fought between German and France. The Germany planned to fight this war using the Schlieffen Plan.

The Schlieffen Plan

The Schlieffen Plan was the basis of the German war plan. It was a plan that had been formulated in 1905 by the German Chief of Staff
Count Alfred Von Schlieffen. It was designed to prevent Germany from fighting war from two fronts, that is, the western Front against
France and the Eastern front against Russia. The plan meant to knock out France within weeks, before the slow-moving Russian army
was ready. The plan was modified in 1911 and implemented by General Helmut Von Moltke in 1914. The plans entailed attacking
France through Belgium and then capture Paris within six weeks before turning to the East to attack the slow moving Russians.

Reasons For The Schlieffen Plan

Germany wanted to attack France through Belgium (using the Schlieffen Plan) because:

(a) The boarder of France and Germany had many hills and mountains.
(b) The border between the two countries was also heavily guarded.
(c) Germany wanted to give France a surprise attack.
(d) Belgium was also a flat country which would ensure the easy and faster movement of troops and supplies unlike the mountainous
and hilly Franco-German border.
(e) Germany wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts, the Western Front with France and the Eastern Front with Russia.

Schlieffen Plan

Failure Of The Schlieffen Plan

The Schlieffen plan was designed to give Germany a quick victory against France. However, the plan failed due to the following reasons:

(a) The Belgian army fought very bravely and delayed the Germany advance at Liege.
(b) The British expeditionary force slowed the Germany advance at the Battle of Mons.
(c) Russia had mobilized her forces quicker than Germany had expected. This made Germany fight war on two fronts, thus transferring
some troops from the western front to the eastern front to fight Russia.
17

(d) The Germany commander Von Kluck decided to turn his forces south rather than encircle Paris. This was because as the troops
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went deeper into France, communication with its Headquarters in Berlin became increasingly difficult. Distance from Berlin also
 made it difficult to supply equipment and food to German armies in France. This made Britain continue sending troops ashore
since the channel ports were not attacked.
(e) Germany did not receive adequate help from Austria because the Austrian troops were still at war with Serbia.

(2) The War On The Eastern Front

On the Eastern front, the war was between Germany and Russia. Russia had mobilized faster than the Germans had anticipated. This is
what led to the failure of the Schlieffen Plan, because Germany was now forced to divide her troops and supplies. However, Russia was
not ready to continue fighting, especially upon the coming of the Bolsheviks to power after the 1917 Russian Revolution. She therefore
called on Germany to sign a treaty to end the war. The treaty, called treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed in 1917.

(3) The War On The Southern Front

In south-eastern Europe, the British attacked the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). In 1915, Winston Churchill organized the Gallipoli
Campaign, which was designed to strike at the Germans and Austrians through the Dardanelles and the Balkans. Churchill wanted to
provide Russian troops with supplies through the Black Sea. The campaign was a failure and Churchill resigned. In 1918, an Allied force
won back much of the Balkans and an Italian offensive compelled the surrender of The Austrian-Hungarian Empire.

(4) The War At Sea

At sea, the British maintained their supremacy at the beginning of the war. However, Germany also put up strong resistance. Throughout
the war, the Germans controlled the Black Sea with their two battleships the Ciebien and Breslev. These caused serious damages to the
British fleet. The first decisive British naval victory against the Germans was at the Battle of the Falklands in September, 1915 off the
coast of Argentina in the pacific. The German fleet was completely destroyed. The Germans retaliated by developing submarines that
put them at an advantage over the British. Britain started suffering heavy losses. To make matters worse for Britain, Germany declared
the waters surrounding Britain as a war zone. Thus Britain was blockaded from the rest of Europe and could not receive any war supplies
especially from the USA. Germany also declared unlimited Submarine Warfare and warned that any ship approaching Britain would be
sunk. Several ships belonging to the USA were sunk as a result of this declaration. This violation of American neutrality is what forced
the USA to enter the First World War.

ENTRY OF THE USA INTO THE FIRST WORLD WAR

When the First World War broke out, the then USA president Woodrow Wilson urged the American people to be neutral. America
did not join the war at the beginning because:
(a) The USA was not involved in the System of Alliances in Europe.
(b) The USA preferred to trade with the countries at war, Britain and France.
(c) The American populations comprised of third and fourth generation European immigrants from countries at war. To avoid a civil
war, the USA preferred to be neutral in the beginning.

However, later in 1917 the USA joined the First World War on the side of the allied powers.

Why The USA Entered Into The First World War.

There are many reasons why the USA entered the war. Some of them are as outlined below:

(i). To protect her economic investments: The American industrialists had lent vast sums of money to the nations at war in order to
supplement their war efforts. The USA feared that her loans may not be paid back if Germany won the war. This made the USA join
the on the side of the allied powers.

(ii). To safeguard (protect) world democracy: The USA president Wilson feared that if Germany won the War she would rule the whole
world and introduce dictatorship. The USA therefore entered the war to defend world democracy.
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(iii). To counter the German declaration of Unlimited Submarine Warfare: The increased Germany submarine warfare posed a big threat
to America’s security especially on the sea. Germany’s submarines had increased rapidly and on 4th February, 1914, Kaiser William II
announced that any ships approaching Britain would be sunk without warning. Woodrow Wilson responded by warning Germany that
America would attack Germany if any harm was done to the People and Property of America. Despite the warning, Germany went ahead
and sunk passenger and trade ships from America. The “Lusitania ship” was sunk in 1915 and the “Sussex ship” in 1916. Hence America
joined the War on the side of the Allied Powers in 1917.

(iv). It was a reaction to the Zimmerman Telegram: German Foreign Minister Zimmerman sent a telegram message to the German
ambassador in Mexico to persuade the Mexican government to claim for the lost states of Arizona and Texas from the USA. He was to
assure the Mexican Government that if Mexico went to war with the USA, Germany would offer military assistance to Mexico. The aim
of sending this telegram was to ensure that America was occupied elsewhere instead of interfering in the European War. Unfortunately,
this telegram was intercepted by the British intelligence who sent the telegram to the American government. The US viewed this telegram
as a threat to her security. She thought it was not good to wait any longer when the enemy was on her doorstep. Hence America joined
the war.

Why Germans Scored Early Successes

Germany scored early success in the First World War due to the following reason:

(a) Her geographical position put her at an advantage as she was centrally located: This made her easily and quietly transport troops
and supply to the east and west battle fronts as compared to her opponents, the allied nations.

(b) Germany had the best trained army in Europe: The Germany troops used advanced weapons such as artillery launchers and machine
guns. They used effective military tactics, the enemies found it difficult to counteract in early stages of the war.

(c) Germany was self-sufficient economically when she declared war: The developed economy enabled her to support her soldiers in
war. Germany industries produced enough materials to supply forces.

(d) Germany had a fully developed communication system in forms of roads, railway to meet the demands of the war: Troops and
other wars supplied were transported to the fronts of a much faster rate than it was the case with allied powers.

(e) The armies of the central powers fell under one command: This was an advantage over the Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia
and later Italy) and the USA who entered the war as individual countries.

(f) Germany had experienced and competent army officers: The Generals like Helmut Von Moltke, Von Hindenburg and Ludendorff
were experienced war veterans, some of whom helped German during her wars of unification.

(g) The Allied Powers were not prepared for the war: Germany had well in time developed the Schlieffen plan to help her during the
war.

Why Germany Lost The First World War

Despite scoring quick victories during the early stages of the war, Germany lost the war due to the following reasons:

(a) Germany had underestimated the strength of their enemies and this led to the failure of the Schlieffen plan: The Belgian army put
up some strong unexpected resistance and so delayed the advance of German forces and brought in the British ground forces.

(b) The German advance was checked by the French and British forces: The German forces failed capture Paris due to the battle of
Marne.
19

(c) Germany had weak allies such as Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Romania: Besides, the fall of Greece and Turkey was a great blow
to Germany as the route to the Mediterranean was closed. As a result, Central powers troops were outnumbered and overpowered.
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(d) German was fighting the war on two fronts due to the failed Schlieffen plan: This weakened the Germany army.
 (e) The German population was no longer in support of the war: The War brought misery and the population experienced starvation,
diseases, destruction of cities, loss of lives and the crime rate was high. This put Germany in a difficult situation to continue the
war.
(f) The Germany infrastructure was destroyed by the Britain’s Royal air force: This air force engaged in air raids over Germany and
destroyed industries, roads, bridges and railway lines. As a result, Germany could no longer produce goods to meet the needs of
the troops. Shortages of war materials led to indiscipline and mutiny among the soldiers.

(g) The Germany Coast was blockaded: The control of the seas by the British Navy staged a blockade of the Germany ports and
supply lines. Even the Battle of Jutland in 1916 did not break the blockade. This meant that Germany was out of international
trade. This trade blockade meant that Germany and her allies were slowly experiencing starvation in food and war materials.
(h) The entry of the USA with vast resources into the War: The USA entered the war with 2 million fresh soldiers, new and advanced
weapons and financial assistance. As a result, Germany who was already exhausted was finally defeated.

Effects/Results Of The First World War

The effects of the First World War are in three categories. These were social, political and economic results.

Social effects

(i).The war led to loss of life for both civilians and soldiers: Millions of people were affected in one or another. More than two million
people died in Europe. People were angry and blamed Germany for the war.

(ii). It also led to widespread starvation and displacement of people: People were starved. They lacked social and health services. In
addition to that people were left homeless. For example in Russia people left homes for fear of being killed by the advancing Germany
soldiers. This situation led to violence and disorder in many European countries.

Economic Results

(i). It led to reduced production of consumer goods: There was destruction of property and infrastructure during the war. Germany
troops targeted industries of enemy countries and factories to weaken them. Hence production went down and eventually led to
unemployment. Europe found herself in economic crisis.

(ii). It led to huge debt burdens: To sustain the war, European countries like Britain, France and Germany started borrowing money.
Europe was no longer the economic giant of which the USA emerged the new economic giant of the world.

(iii). It led to inflation in some countries: The financial crisis forced some countries to print more money and that led to inflation. For
example the Germany currency depreciated by ninety percent.

(iv). It led to the Economic Depression of 1929: After the war, many countries failed to finance their economies. They borrowed money
from the USA with high interest. When the USA demanded for a repayment, the economic depression came about.

Political Results

(i).The First World War led to the failure of the Habsburg Empire and the creation of new countries: The following countries were
created from the fallen Habsburg Empire: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The following countries were created from
Germany and Russia: Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Finland and Lithunia.

(ii). It led to revolutions in some parts of Europe: For example in Russia a revolution took place in March, 1917 that over threw the
20

Monarch rule of Tsar Nicholas II. In October 1917, another revolution took place which overthrew the provisional government of
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Kerensky. In another development, Kaiser William II of Germany abdicated and went to live in Holland. This paved the way for a new
democratic government formed by the Weimer Republic and the Monarch rule came to an end in Germany.

(iii). It led to the signing of the 1919 Versailles Treaty and other treaties: After the war, many treaties were signed between the Allied
powers and the defeated powers. This was a way of dealing with the central powers for having caused the war.

(iv). It led to the formation of the League of Nations in 1920: The War paved way for the signing of the League of nations which was
formed to prevent the outbreak of other world wars in future.

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 Chapter Seven

PEACE TREATIES AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR

After the First World War, the victorious (allied) powers -USA, Britain, and France met to discuss how they would deal with the defeated
(Central) powers -Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria. They signed treaties with each of the defeated powers. These treaties
were as discussed below:

1. The Versailles Peace Treaty (1919)

The Versailles Peace Treaty was held on 28th June 1919 in France, .
Paris at the Versailles Palace in the Hall of Mirrors. Four leaders
attended the conference to represent the victorious (allied) powers.
These were:

(a) Woodrow Wilson (President of U.S.A).

(b) George Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France).
(c) Vittorio Orlando (Prime Minister of Italy).
(d) Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain).

However, before the end of the conference, Vittorio Orlando

walked out of the conference because his demands for territories
(Trentino and Triesse) that Italy was promised in the Secrete
Treaty of London of 1915 were not met. He therefore did not
contribute much to the outcomes of the conference. The three that
remained became commonly known as the ‘Big Three’.
At this treaty, the three met to discuss how to punish Germany
and her allies for the damages caused during the War, and then,
try and create an international organization that would ensure
world peace and security and prevent the reoccurrence of another
war. The defeated central powers, thus, Germany and her allies
were not invited. Germany was only called to sign what had been The Big Three
agreed upon. The Germany politicians who went to sign the
(George Clemenceau, Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson)
armistice at the Versailles Treaty on behalf of Germans became
known as November Criminals by Hitler.

Views Of The “Big Three” At The Versailles Treaty

(i). George Clemenceau

George Clemenceau was the Prime Minister of France. France had suffered a lot of damage during the war. Large areas of land had been
devastated and factories were destroyed. Millions of people had been killed during the war. Clemenceau was now under pressure to make
Germany suffer. The French wanted revenge on Germany. He was now forced to punish and ruin Germany economically and military so
that she could never again threaten French frontiers. He wanted to make Germany weak by forcing her to:

 Pay huge fine for all of France’s war damage and debts.
 Give up large sections of land and industry like Alsace and Loraine.
 Disarm completely.
22

Clemenceau was nicknamed ‘The Tiger’ because of his aggressive political beliefs.
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(ii). Lloyd George

Lloyd George was a British Prime Minister. Although the people in Britain were bitter toward Germany and wanted Germany punished
harshly, George personally was in favor of a less severe settlement to enable Germany recover quickly so that she could continue her role
as a major customer for British goods. He however, did not want Germany to revenge in the future and so he advocated for the punishment
of Germany through loss of navy. He wanted to enlarge the British Empire by taking Germany’s colonies. He therefore settled for a
compromised position between Clemenceau and Woodrow Wilson. He partly supported Clemenceau but again did not fully support
Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points.

(iii). Woodrow Wilson

Woodrow Wilson was the US president and chairman of the conference. Before becoming the President, Wilson was not a politician.
He had been a lawyer and historian and had spent most of his time in Universities. As an idealist democrat, Wilson wanted a fair and
just settlement for all. He did not believe that Germany was to blame for the war. His view was that if Germany was treated harshly,
someday she would recover and wage another world war. The two important points that Wilson put forward at the conference those of:

1. Self-determination: That is, People should rule themselves, not by a foreign power.
2. International Corporation: That is, settling disputes by all countries working together.

His views on how to achieve these aims were based on his famous 14 points. These 14 points provided the Agenda for the discussions
at the peace settlement.
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points.

1. No secret alliances between countries

2. Free access to the seas for all countries.
3. Free trade between countries.
4. Disarmament by all countries.
5. Overseas colonies owned by European powers to have a say in their own future.
6. Germany troops to leave Russia.
7. Independence for Belgium.
8. France to regain Alsace and Lorrain.
9. Frontier between Austria and Italy to be adjusted.
10. Self-determination for the people of Eastern Europe.
11. Serbia to have access to the sea.
12. Self-determination for the people in the Turkish Empire.
13. Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea.
14. A League of Nations to settle disputes between countries by peaceful means.

Summary of the Big Three

LEADER COUNTRY VIEWS AT THE PEACE TREATY

George -Wanted Germany to be punished harshly by:

Clemenceau France
 Paying huge fine for all of France’s war damage and debt.
 Give up large sections of land and industry, particularly Alsace and Loraine.
 Disarming almost completely so that she does not threaten France again.

Lloyd -Wanted Germany punished through loss of navy and colonies only, but not severely.
George Britain -He Wanted Germany to be spared economically so that she begins to trade with Britain again.
23

Woodrow USA -Wanted a treaty that would promote self-determination and international corporation.
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Wilson
Terms/Provisions Of The Versailles Treaty
The Versailles treaty outlined a number of political, economic, military and territorial terms as shown below:

Political Terms:

 Germany was charged with the “War Guilty” Clause article 231 of the Versailles Treaty. The Allied Powers forced Germany to
accept responsibility for starting the War. This was because Germany violated Germany Neutrality when the war started. In
addition, Germany is said to have encouraged her ally Austria to attack Serbia.
 Anschluss (Germany joining with Austria) was forbidden.
 Germany was not invited to be a member of the League of Nations.
 A democratic Government known as the Weimar Republic was imposed on Germany.

Economic Terms:

Germany accepted the War Guilty Clause, and was thus forced to make reparations for all the damages done during the War. Reparations
were compensations that Germany had to pay for the damage caused during the war. The reparations were that:
 Germany was supposed to pay £6,600 million in cash.
 A fixed number of cattle were to be paid to Belgium as compensation for violating her neutrality.
 The German merchant Navy was to be handed over to Britain.
 A fixed number of coal from the Saar Region of Germany was to be handed over to France.
 Trade restrictions were imposed on Germany

Military Terms:

Germany was completely disarmed as follows:

 The Germany army was to be reduced to only 100,000 men.
 Conscription (compulsory military service) was forbidden.
 All war time Guns and other weapons were to be melted into scrap metal.
 The Germany navy was cut down to only 6 light battleships and Germany was not allowed to have Submarines, aircraft or armored
vehicles.
 The Rhineland (area between Germany and France) became a ‘demilitarized zone’ in order to protect France against Germany
attack.

Territorial Terms:

Territorial terms made German lose territories both in Europe and outside Europe.

German Territorial Loses In Europe

 Alsace and Lorraine were given back to France.

 The Saar Coal fields which were part of Germany were to be governed by the League of Nations for 15 years. During this time,
France was to mine the coal fields as compensation for the destruction caused by the retreating Germany soldiers during the war.
After 15 years, the inhabitants of the region were to vote whether to remain part of France or go back to Germany.
 In the North East of Germany, more territorial loses occurred as a result of the creation of Poland as an independent state. Poland
had been under Russia for a Century. Poland had a special corridor (the Polish Corridor) through Germany territory which got
24

it an outlet to sea. The reappearance of Poland led to Germany losing over 3million citizens of whom about 1/3 or more were
German. The Polish Corridor separated East Prussia from Germany.
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 Other loses were as a result of the Creation of Czechoslovakia as an independent nation which was formerly under part of Austria.
  Port Danzig, an important Germany port was declared an international Free City to be administered by the League of Nations.
The Poles were to use the Port facilities.
 Port Memel was to be given to Lithuania.
 North Schleswig and Holstein which were seized after the Prussian-Danish war of 1864 were to be given back to Denmark.
 The Rhineland (most industrialized part of Germany) remained under Germany but was to be permanently demilitarized to
protect France against Germany attack and was to be occupied by the allied forced until 1935.
 Eupen and Malmedy were to be given to Belgium.

Germany Territorial Loses Outside Europe

The League of Nations gave Germany’s territories in Africa to the Allied Nations to administer as Mandated Territories:
 Germany East Africa (Tanzania) went to Britain.
 German South West Africa (Namibia) was given to South Africa.
 Togo and Cameroon were shared between Britain and France.

Territorial loses in the Far East were:

 German territories in the Far East were shared among Japan, Austria and New Zealand.
 German Samoa Islands went to New Zealand.
 Palestine, Jordan and Iraq were given to Britain, Syria and Lebanon.

Summary Of Germany Territorial Loses

Territory Lost From Germany Went To

Alsace And Lorrain France

Eupen, Moresnet, Malmedy Belgium
North Schleswig Denmark
West Prussia and Posen Poland
Danzig League Of Nations
Memel Lithuania
Saar Coal Fields France
Germany Colonies France And Britain Under League Mandates
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Became Independent States.

Germany’s Reaction To Versailles Treaty

The German people were angered by the Versailles Peace Settlement. They considered it to be unfair and unjust, as such;
 They refused to accept the War Guilty clause arguing that Russia had mobilized first and should be responsible for the war.
 The Treaty was also considered to have been a Diktat (a dictated peace treaty). The Germans had not been invited to the
conference; they were just called to sign the Treaty. The German army officers refused to sign the treaty. A civilian politician
Matthias Erzberger who signed was later shot dead.
 Germany also complained that the Economic terms were too harsh and impossible to fulfill.
25

 The Germans also hated the Democratic government that was imposed on Germany. They were used to being ruled by strong
Monarchs.
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 The Germans also found the military and territorial terms extremely humiliating.
Therefore, the Germans started looking for an opportunity when they would get rid of the humiliating Versailles Treaty. This
opportunity came with the rise of Hitler and the NAZI Party.

2. The Treaty of St. Germain-1919

This Treaty was signed between Austria and the Allies on 10th September1919. The treaty separated Austria from Hungary. It stopped
Austria from joining with Germany and deprived her of her sea ports. It also forced Austria to disarm. After signing this treaty, Austria
recognized the complete independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia. Most of Austrian industries went to
Czechoslovakia. As a result of this Treaty, Austria was reduced to a small republic, no longer a leading European power. She lost the
following territories:

Territory From Austria To

Bohemia And Moravia New State Of Czechoslovakia
Bosnia And The New Herzegovina New State Of Yugoslavia

3. The Treaty of Nuilley-1919

This Treaty was signed between Bulgaria and the Allied powers on the 27th November 1919. The treaty disarmed Bulgaria and her navy
was abolished. She was to pay reparations while she lost territories too. The western part of Bulgaria was given to Yugoslavia. Western
Thrace and the Aegean coasts were given to Greece. By this treaty, Bulgaria became the Weakest of the Balkan States.

4. The Treaty of Trianon-1920

This treaty was signed between Hungary and the allieson20th June, 1920. The treaty disarmed Hungary. She was also to pay reparations
to all the allies. By this treaty, Hungary lost one-third of her territory, for example:
Territory From Hungary To
Ruthenia, Slovakia Czechoslovakia
Slovenia, Croatia Yugoslavia
Fiume Italy

5. The Treaty of Sevres-1920

This treaty was signed on 20th August 1920 between Turkey and the Allies. Under this treaty Turkey disarmed with her navy and air
forces disbanded. She also lost control of the Black Sea. She lost a number of territories too, for example:

Territory From Turkey To

Smyrna Greece
Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan, Mesopotamia League Mandates Under British control
Syria League Mandates under French control

The Turks, however, were not happy by the terms of the Sevres treaty. The Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal challenged its
terms by driving Greeks out of Smyrna. The result was the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) which returned Smyrna to Turkey.
26 Page
 Chapter Eight

GERMANY AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR

After the First World War, Germany economy was left torn apart, with huge debts to pay and many other social problems. This created
general discontent among the people. This led to the Germany Revolution of 1918 which aimed at overthrowing the government of
Kaiser William II. Kaiser William II then decided to abdicate his thrown on 19th November, 1918. This marked the end of the Monarch
in Germany. Germany now became a republic, and became known as the Weimar Republic.

THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC

The Weimar Republic was the name given to the new democratic republic born in 1919 out of war-torn Germany. After the death of
Kaiser William II, socialist politicians led by Friedrich Ebert met in a rural town called Weimar to avoid the noise and chaos of Berlin.
They came up with a constitution to bring about democracy to Germany. Many political parties were formed and elections were held in
January, 1919. It was here that the new democratic government, the Weimar Republic was created. Fredrick Erbert, leader of the Social
Democratic Party (SDP) became the President and Philip Scheidenman became the Chancellor. By August 1919, the new democratic
constitution was approved to help govern the Weimar Republic.

Terms Of The Weimar Constitution

The following were the terms of the Weimar Constitution which came into effect on 19th November, 1918.
 Term of office for an elected president was fixed at seven (7) years.
 The Chancellor and his Cabinet held real power.
 The Chancellor and the Cabinet were held responsible by the Reichstag (parliament).
 Germans of twenty years and above were to take part in electing the Reichstag.
 The Chancellor was elected by popular vote.
 Representation in the Reichstag was by proportional vote by all political parties whether big or small.
 Political parties to campaign in the general election were formed.
 The President could suspend the constitution and rule by degree in case of national emergency.

Problems And Weaknesses Of The Weimar Republic

The new government was unpopular among the German people and it was not strong enough to cope with serious economic and political
problems. As a result, people lost confidence in the Weimar Government. This led to its down fall in 1933, with the rise of Hitler and
the Nazi party. The problems that the Weimar faced were as follows:

(i) It had a weak foundation and unpopular among the Germans: The status of the Government was affected by the inferior town of
Weimar where it was created. As such, many Germans looked at the Weimar Republic with inferiority.

(ii) It lacked public support as it was seen as a government of traitors: The Germany people believed that Germany lost the First
World War because of political betrayal by the leaders of the Weimar Republic. This was because it was a politician, Matthias
Erzberger who signed the Versailles Peace Settlement with the war guilty clause and the humiliating terms. The Germany public
believed that Germany would have won the war if the government had not signed the treaty. So the Weimar Republic was seen as
a government of traitors. As such, the government lacked support from the public.

(iii) It lacked outstanding leadership: The leaders of the Weimar Republic were seen as only theorists who could not inspire or organize
27

the people. This made the government very weak.

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 (iv) It also failed to deal with terrorism: The Weimar could not deal with a group of assassins who were targeting some of the
Government leaders especially those who were responsible for the signing of the Versailles Treaty. The Chancellor Scheidenman
was almost assassinated in 1921. Matthias Erzberger, the Chairman of the committee that signed the treaty was shot dead in 1922.
Another government official, Walter Rutherman the Foreign affairs Minster was murdered. These acts of terrorism and the
inability of the Government to deal with the culprits effectively weakened the republic.

(v) It failed to handle Economic problems: The Republic inherited economic problems like inflation, unemployment, low wages, food
shortages, and burdens of the reparations to the allied powers. This was worsened by the loss of the Ruhr region, Alsace and
Lorraine to France.

(vi) It was unable to deal with opposition parties effectively: The Weimar Republic failed to handle a number of protests effectively.
Some of these protests that it failed to handle included:
 The Spartacist Revolt: This was led by Rosa Luxembourg with the support of karl Liebnecht. Rosa Luxembourg was
murdered by some army officer with the collaboration of the Weimar Republic. This angered the Germany people.
 The Kapp Putsch of March, 1920: This was an attempt by Dr. Wolfgang Kapp and General Von Luthwitz to overthrow
the Weimar Republic. The Situation was so bad that the president and his had to leave Berlin. For 4 hours only, Dr. Kapp
became the Chancellor. However, this rebellion failed.
 The Beer Hall/Munich Putsch of 1924: This was started by Hitler and his NAZI Party. This revolt also failed and Hitler
was imprisoned for 5 years but only served for 9 months.

(vi). The republic also faced with the Problem of incompetent and a corrupt civil service that could not implement its policies effectively.

Successes Of The Weimar Republic

Between 1923 and 1933, the Weimar Republic became popular among the people. The successes of the Weimar during this period was
highly associated with the work of Gustav Stresemann who was the Republic’s chancellor and Foreign Minister from 1923 to 1929
when he died. Stresemann scored many successes as foreign minister. Among the important successes include the following:

(a) He ended the French occupation of the Ruhr region which was an income generator for Germany: The French had occupied the
Ruhr region after Germany had failed to pay reparations. He achieved this through a policy of reconciliation with France.

(b) He restored Germany status in international affairs: In 1925 Stresemann signed the Locarno Pact which ended the French
occupation of the Ruhr region and Germany agreed to permanently lose Alsace and Loraine to France. In 1926, he persuaded the
allied powers to allow Germany to join the League of Nation. By 1928, he had signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in which Germany
and other countries renounced war as a means of settling disputes. Under Stresemann Germany became a cooperating partner in
international affairs of Europe.

(c) He set up measures to control inflation: He stopped the printing of worthless paper money (The Mark) and issued a new currency
called the Rentenmark which was backed by gold. This ended inflation.

(d) He initiated rapid industrial development and the rebuilding of economy by asking for Loans from the USA: These loans were
used to improve industrial development in Germany. Jobs were created in industries.

(e) He sought international assistance from the international committee under Dawe: He set up a commission to help lessen the
28

burden of Germany’s war reparations. The commission drew up the Dawes Plan from the ideas and advice of Charles Dawes. This
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was set up to ensure the effective payment of reparations. When the terms of the Dawes Plan were about to run out, Owen Young,
 an American financier drew up the Young Plan to reorganize Germany’s repayments when the Dawes Plan came to an end. The
Young Plan reduced the size of the reparation bill and prolonged the repayment period.

By 1929, the economic situation in Germany had improved greatly. Employment levels increased and the standards of living had
improved. Opposition to the Weimar Republic also lessened.

Why The Recovery Of The Weimar Economy Did Not Last Long

The recovery of the Weimar’s economy was fragile because:

 It depended heavily on American money. Once the loans discontinued Germany returned to crisis.
 It mostly depended on the ideas of Gustav Stresemann. After his death, the economy began to crumble again.

The Collapse Of The Weimar Republic

The death of Gustav Stresemann in 1929 coincided with the Great Economic Depression. By 1931, the effects of the Depression were
being felt in Europe. Germany especially was negatively affected because she depended on the US loans for economic development. The
loans from the US were discontinued. This led to the collapse of Germany industries. Many industries closed down. The rate of
unemployment increased rapidly. Germany faced food shortages which resulted into food riots. The Weimar Republic could not deal
with these economic problems and the German public became discontent with the Government. It was during this chaotic situation that
Hitler and his NAZI Party rose to power. Hitler took advantage of the situation to campaign against the government. He promised the
German people that if he came to power, he would improve the situation in Germany. Hitler came to power in January, 1933. Therefore,
the Great Depression and its effects is what led to the final collapse of the Weimar Republic.

29 Page
 Chapter Nine

GERMANY UNDER HITLER

Hitler’s Background
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian, born in Braunau in 1889. His father was Alois Hitler, a
customs officer and his mother was Klara Polzi, a domestic worker. Hitler was not very
educated. At the age of 17 years he went to Vienna to study art. He worked as a sign
painter, street sweeper and printer before he joined the Germany army in 1914.

As a soldier, Hitler rose to the rank of Corporal and was awarded an Iron Cross for his
bravery and service during the First World War. After the war, Hitler was not happy with
the defeat of Germany and the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles imposed on
Germany. He further opposed the establishment of the Weimar Republic. As such, Hitler
set himself two aims in his political career. These were:
 To free Germany from the Versailles Treaty.
 To rebuild a Greater Germany with a stronger army.
Throughout Hitler’s political career, he maintained that Germany was not defeated in the
First World War but was betrayed by her enemies The November Criminals (The
politicians who negotiated and signed the Armistice which ended the First World War in Adolf Hitler
November 1918).

The Rise Of Hitler To Power

Hitler started politics in 1919 when he joined the Germany Socialist Workers’ Party. In February 1920, he became the president of the
Party taking over from Drexler Anton. He renamed the party as National Socialist Germany’s Party (NAZI) This party rose to power
rapidly and within a decade, it became the most important and feared party in Germany.

The NAZI Party used the Swastika as its symbol. It was feared because of the use of
violence which was carried out by the Nazi private army called the Storm troopers (SA).
These Storm troopers, led by Ernst Rohm used to wear Brown Shirts with a Swastika
Emblem as arm bands. In March 1923, with the help of the Storm troopers, Hitler
organized a revolt called “March on Berlin” which aimed at overthrowing the government.
However, this revolt failed and Hitler became frustrated. He intensified his use of violence.

Swastika

On 6th November, Hitler and the Nazis organized another revolt called the Beer Hall Putsch or Munich Putsch which again tried to
overthrow the government. This revolt started in a beer Hall in Munich. However, the revolt failed and Hitler was imprisoned for 5
years but only served for 9 months. During his imprisonment, Hitler wrote a Book entitled ‘Mein Kampf’ (My Struggle) which contained
all Nazi ideas and the future of Germany. It became the Nazi bible. The book was published in 1924.

The Nazi party had less support after 1923 because the economy under Gustav Stresemann has improved. In 1929, Stresemann died
and there was a Great Economic Depression. This made the Germany economy collapse and people began to hate the Weimar Republic.
30

This provided an opportunity for Hitler and the Nazi party to win support. Between 1929 and 1932, Successive Chancellors Franz Von
Papen and Von Schleitcher failed to improve the Germany’s economy. In the 1932 elections, the Nazi party became the largest single
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party in Parliament with 236 seats. Following the 1932 elections, the new German President Paul Von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as
the Chancellor of Germany. After President Hindenburg’s death, Hitler combined the positions of the President and the Chancellor and
became the ‘Fuhrer’.

Factors That Favored Hitler’s Rise To Power

There are many reasons that account for the rise of Hitler:
(a) Hitler had good oratory skills: Hitler had a very strong personality and his speeches always attracted large numbers of followers.
These personal attributes enabled him to win the support of various classes of people in Germany.

(b) The use of propaganda: Hitler used the Nazi party machinery to spread propaganda against the weaknesses of the Weimar republic.
The party propaganda was based of the twenty-five point program that promised the people high wages for workers, nationalization
of property and destruction of the Versailles treaty. Joseph Goebbels was put in charge of the Nazi propaganda machinery.

(c) There was no strong opposition to the Nazi Party: There was division between the Communists and the Social Democratic Parties
which weakened resistance against the strong NAZI Party: Thus Hitler and the NAZI Party took advantage of this vacuum to
assume power in Germany.

(d) The use of Storm troopers (SA) militarism to win support: Hitler’s Nazi party had a private army (Storm troopers). Their leader
was by Ernst Rohm. They put on Brown Shirts and a Swastika emblem as an arm band. The Storm troopers held demonstrations
throughout Germany. They used violence and intimidation to win political power for Hitler.

(e) The Versailles Treaty and its humiliating terms: The German people were humiliated by the provisions of the Versailles Treaty.
Hitler promised that he would get rid of the treaty and disregard its humiliating terms once he came to power. This gained Hitler
a lot of support since the Versailles Treaty was hated by the Germans.

(f) The Weaknesses of the Weimar Republic: The Weimar Republic was too weak and unpopular. It failed to control the violence
and other acts of terror that rocked Germany in the 1920s. Besides, the German people hated democracy. They were used to being
ruled by strong monarchs. Democracy in Germany led to the establishment of many political parties, which during the period of
the Great Economic Depression became involved in political rivalries instead of finding solutions. Therefore, Hitler promised the
Germans that he would create a stronger government that would solve their problems. This made him win the support of the
people.

(g) Hitler’s NAZI party promised to solve unemployment: The NAZI Party combined Nationalism with a vague form of Socialism.
The Party promised to improve the people’s economic and social conditions through the creation of employment, giving workers
better wages and improving social services. This enabled the Party to win support from many Germans especially the industrial
workers and the Unemployed.

(h). The Great Economic Depression of 1929 and its effects: In 1929, the USA was hit by an economic depression. The depression
spread to Europe and the most affected was Germany. America’s loans and investments to Germany were withdrawn. Suddenly many
Germany companies were closed down leading to food Shortages, inflation and unemployment which rose rapidly from 1.5million in
1929 to 6 million by 1932. As the economic crisis deepened, support for anti-democratic parties such as the NAZI party and the
communist Party increased. Hitler took advantage of the situation to rise to power.
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HITLER’S DOMESTIC/HOME POLICY

German underwent many changes during the reign of Nazi party. The Aims of Hitler’s Home Policy were:

(a) To consolidate power to himself.

(b) To eliminate all opposition.
(c) To bring law and order in Germany.
(d) To achieve economic recovery for Germany.

Hitler came up with a number of changes that helped him manage the domestic affairs of Germany. These changes helped him consolidate
himself in power. Some of these changes are outlined below:

(a). Hitler introduced a one-party state in 1933: He persuaded Parliament to pass Enabling Laws which gave Hitler powers to rule as a
dictator for 4 years. In 1934 when President Hindenburg died, Hitler combined the position of president and Chancellor to become the
Fuhrer, the most powerful person in Germany. The passing of the Enabling Laws marked the beginning of the “Rule of Terror” in
Germany. Using the Enabling Laws, Hitler was able to:
 Ban all other political parties with their leaders banished from Parliament. The Nazi remained the only party in Germany.
 Ban all trade Unions and replaced them with the German Labor Front. Wages and working conditions were controlled by the
NAZI Party. Workers were not allowed to go on strike. This allowed him to be able to control opposition from workers.
 Put all the local governments under the control of the NAZI loyalists
 Imprison or even kill all Communists.

(b). Hitler reformed the education system: The German school curriculum was set to conform to Nazi ideas. School text books were
written in support of Nazi ideas. There was a lot of physical training in schools, while religious studies were banned. Teachers and
lecturers were closely monitored to make sure they did not express their opinions. They had to take oath of allegiance to Hitler.

(c). Hitler introduced a police state: Hitler introduced compulsory military service called conscription. Many Germans were recruited
into the army. The people who openly criticized the Nazis were imprisoned. The secret Police force called Gestapo was formed and was
led by Reinhard Heydrich. The Gestapo arrested, murdered and imprisoned or sent to concentration Camps people who were against
Hitler and the NAZI Party. It had members in most of the institutions in Germany. The Gestapo was assisted by the Nazi army called
the Storm Troopers (SA) led by Ernst Rohm. Hitler’s body guards known as the SS (Black shirts) led by Himmler Heinrich also carried
out ruthless acts against Hitler’s opponents. The SS had its own courts and separate military branch called the Waffen SS. The Gestapo,
The Storm Troopers (SA) and the SS all used terror tactics to intimidate, arrest, and kill all of Nazi opponents such as the liberals,
socialists, and communists. His potential competitor, Rohm and many others were killed on the Night of long knives. Rohm was hated
and killed by the SS for trying to influence Hitler to unite the SA with the regular army. As a way of proving his hatred for communists
who were his political rivals, Hitler blamed them for starting a fire that burned down the Reichstag. The fire was started by a communist
named Marianus Van der Lubbe.

A summary of Germany’s secret police organizations can be presented as follows:

Organization Leader Characteristics

Gestapo Reinhard Heydrich -This was Germany’s state secret police
Storm Troopers (SA) Ernst Rohm -They used to wear brown shirts.
-They carried out violent street fights and disrupted meetings for
For the opposition.
SS Himmler Heinrich -They used to wear black shirts.
32

-They were Hitler’s loyalist Body Guards.

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-They killed suspected opponents on behalf of Hitler.

(d). Hitler strengthened the use of media propaganda: Hitler made Joseph Goebbels Minister of Propaganda. With his powers, Goebbels
controlled the information that reached the German people. He banned all newspapers and only the Nazi newspapers and magazines
were published. The Nazi party controlled all the media programs. The theatre and films were controlled by the secret police (Gestapo).
Radio was controlled by government. Cheap radios were manufactured for the German people to afford buying. Goebbels organized
mass rallied where Nazi supporters listened to songs and messages supporting Nazi ideas. Many books were written in line with Nazi
ideas and those that were anti-Nazi were banned in Berlin.

(e). Hitler brought religion under state control: Hitler hated Christianity because it preached doctrines that were parallel to those of the
Nazi. Christianity taught that all men were equal before God. On the contrary, the Nazis believed that the Aryan race was superior to
any other race. The churches were now seen as the source of opposition. In 1933, Hitler signed a treaty with the Catholic Church called
the Concordat in which both sides agreed not to interfere with each other. The Nazis closed many churches and set up their own church
called the Reich Church, which banned followers from using the Bible and other religious symbols. The church was also stopped from
having control of its finances. Those that protested against these orders were arrested and sent to concentration camps.

(f). Hitler passed strict laws against the Jews: Before Hitler became leader of Germany, anti-Semitism (prejudice and hatred against the
Jews) had grown strong in Germany and Europe. After attaining power, Hitler persecuted the Jews. In 1935, he passed the Nuremberg
Laws which took away many rights from the Jews. Hitler hated the Jews for many reasons, some of which were because:
(a) He blamed them for all the sufferings that Germany experienced.
(b) He accused them of having betrayed German during the First World War which led to her defeat.
(c) He accused them of wanting to take over key social and economic institutions of Germany.
(d) He regarded them as unclean people.
(e) He accused them of polluting the Aryan race.

As such, Hitler made sure that the Jews suffered in Germany. Some of the ways that Hitler mistreated the Jews were that:

(a) He denied Jews of German citizenship.

(b) He stopped Marriage between Jews and Aryans.
(c) He made them travel in separate parts of buses and trains from the Germans.
(d) He did not allow them to hold any positions in government offices.
(e) He forced them to wear a yellow “The Star of David” so that they could easily be
identified in public.
(f) He made them perform forced labor.
(g) He sent out Nazi thugs to burn down Jewish Synagogues and smash up Jewish
homes.
(h) He ordered Germans not to buy from Jewish shops.
(i) He declared the killing of all Jews throughout Germany by mass execution in Gas
Chambers that were built in concentration camps. This policy of massive killing of Star Of David
Jews in Germany became known as the Final Solution to the Jewish problem. In
total, about 6 million Jews died this way by 1945.

(g). Hitler introduced a special family planning policy: Hitler became worried that the birth rate of a pure race Aryan Race was declining.
He therefore encouraged all pure Germans to have more children. There were financial incentives for people who wanted to marry and
bear more children. Family planning centers were closed and contraceptives banned. Mothers with many children were rewarded by the
state. This was aimed at producing many children that would later join the Germany army.
33

(h). Hitler reorganized the Germany economy: Hitler wanted to eliminate unemployment and make Germany self-sufficient economically.
He therefore appointed a banker Dr. Schacht to take charge of the Economy. He Kept industries in Private hands while the state
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determined what was to be produced. To encourage economic growth, the state gave loans to industrialists at a low interest. During his
first four years in office, Hitler reduced unemployment. He achieved this by:
 Telling industrialist what to produce depending on what the country needed.
 Moving workers around the country to places where jobs existed.
 Encouraging farmers to increase agricultural production.
 Encouraging foreign countries to buy German goods.
 Establishing the National Labor Service which undertook public works such as Building of roads, bridges and railways.
 Introducing compulsory military service (Conscription) to provide employment in the army.
 Stopping women from working so that they could be more jobs for men.
 Giving Germany workers medical care, and were encouraged to make culture visits and take cheap holidays which were organized
by the state. The Germans were also encouraged to buy the “People’s Vehicle” the Volkswagen.

These policies helped Hitler consolidate his hold of power and make the Germany economy grow. By 1939, Germany had one of the
highest standards of living in Europe and strongest economies.

HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY 1933-1945

Between 1933 and 1939, Hitler followed an aggressive foreign policy that led to the outbreak of the Second World War. The Aims of
Hitler’s foreign policy were:

(a) To acquire more living space (Lebensraum) for Germany.

(b) To re-arm and restore Germany to her former glory.
(c) To disregard and break the terms of the Versailles Treaty.
(d) To have a union with Austria (Anschluss).
(e) To unite all German-speaking people in Europe.

To achieve his aims, Hitler got involved in a lot of aggressive activities in Europe that consequently led to the Second World War.
Between 1933 and 1945, for example, Hitler did the following:

(a) Non-Aggression Pact with Poland: In 1934, Germany signed a 10-year Non-Aggression Pact with Poland. The Pact ended friction
between the two countries over the Polish Corridor and the Port of Danzig. Hitler had no immediate intensions of occupying
Poland because he wanted Poland to serve as a buffer between Germany and Russia.

(b) Union with Austria (Anschluss): In 1934, Germany attempted to unite with her natural partner Austria, which comprised of 80%
German People. A union between the two would ensure a more powerful Germany. However, she was blocked by Italian Troops
at Brenner Pass. However, later in 1938, Hitler came to terms with Italy and German troops finally occupied Austria after Hitler
accused the Austrian Government not providing law and order to the Germans living in Austria. This union was a clear disregard
for the terms of the Versailles Treaty. However, no action was taken against Germany by the allied powers, which made Hitler
commit more acts of aggression.

(c) Withdraw from the Geneva Disarmament Conference: In 1934, Germany withdrew from the Geneva Disarmament Conference
and the League of Nations because she was denied equal arms with other Countries. Immediately after withdrawing, she embarked
on the program of rearmament. She started by expanding the army through conscription, building an air force and constructing
Submarines, all of which were forbidden by the Versailles Treaty. Britain supported Germany’s rearmament through the Anglo-
German Naval Agreement which they signed. By this agreement, Britain allowed Germany to build her navy up to 1/3 that of
British Naval power. The agreement also allowed Germany to build submarines contrary to the terms of the Versailles treaty.
34

(d) The Occupation of the Saar Region: In 1935, Germany pushed to occupy the Saar region. The Saar landers voted to rejoin Germany
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and not to be part of France. This was a result of the influence of Nazi propaganda.
(e) The Occupation of the Rhineland: In 1935-36, Hitler ordered the German troops to re-occupy the Rhineland (a demilitarized
zone) against the terms of the Versailles Treaty and the Locarno Pact. The European countries did not protest against this act
because their attention went to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Germany occupied Rhineland and the Saar region
because they provided a buffer for Germany on the Western front against France. This event convinced Hitler that the allied powers
and the League of Nations were weak.

(f) Signing of alliances: From 1936 onwards, Germany tried to draw other aggressors into alliance systems. Germany’s leader, Hitler
signed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Mussolini of Italy and the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan in 1937. The closer relationship
between Germany, Japan and Italy led to the signing of the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, a military alliance and communication link
of dictators. In 1939, Hitler signed the Pact of Steel with Italy. These treaties strengthened the ties among member states and
enabled them to carry out more acts of aggression.

(g) Germany Involvement in the Spanish Civil War: In 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, Germany, together with Italy helped
General Francisco Franco to establish a Fascist dictatorship in Spain even if the League of Nations had stopped them. They supplied
General Franco with guns and funds to help him fight the war. In the same year, German recognized the Italian occupation of
Ethiopia.

(h) The Occupation of Sudeten: In 1938, Germany troops occupied Sudeten, a resources-rich and highly industrialized province of
Czechoslovakia with a lot of Germans. Hitler was not happy when Czechoslovakia used military force to stop a rebellion incited
by Germany in Sudeten. After the occupation, a conference was called for Germany and was attended by representatives from
Germany, Britain and France. The allied powers agreed to Hitler’s demands with the hope that lasting peace would be found at last
in Europe. However, this only encouraged Hitler to continue with more acts of aggression against neighboring states.

(i) The Occupation of Czechoslovakia: In 1939, German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia. The then British Prime Minister
Neville Chamberlain condemned Hitler’s actions since Hitler had promised not to occupy anymore territories in Europe. Britain,
and France promised to help Poland, Hitler’s next target, in the event of an invasion by Germany. The same promise was extended
to Greece, Romania and later Turkey. These acts by Germany made Britain to expand the army through conscription in readiness
for war.
(j) The Invasion of Poland: Before invading Poland, Germany signed the Pact of Steel with Italy in 1939 where the two agreed to help
each other if one went to war. In the same year, Germany signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact with Russia where Russia was promised
Eastern Poland after the defeat of Poland by Germany. Hitler drew Russia into the alliance because he did not want Germany to
fight a war on two fronts. On 1st September, 1939, Germany troops invaded Poland. This marked the beginning of the Second
World War.

35 Page

A Pictorial Summery Of Hitler's Foreign Policy

 Chapter Ten

ITALY 1919-1939
Background

After the First World War, Italy was left in a poor and weakened state with high inflation, massive debts, unemployment, food shortages,
strikes and an extended depression. In addition, many Italians were not happy with the Versailles treaty settlements as it did not meet
the agreements made between Italy and the allied powers at the Treaty Of London in 1915, where Italy was promised that once the war
had been won, she would be given Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria, Trieste, Dalmatia, Adelia, Aegean Island and protectorate powers over
Albania and Fiume. At the Versailles treaty, Italy was only given Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria and Trieste. The social, economic and
political problems together with the disappointing Versailles treaty caused much discontent in Italy.

Italy’s Problems After The First World War

After the First World War, Italy faced a number of problems which created discontent among the Italian people. These problems were:

(a) High cost of living: Between 1914 and 1921, the cost of living in Italy went up while the salaries remained stagnant. The middle
working class were highly taxed. Besides, the Lira (Italian currency) kept on declining in its value. There was no investment in
industry and consequently, there were shortages of essential goods and services.

(b) Land shortage for the peasants: There was not enough land for peasants who wanted better farming conditions and a chance to
improve the barren land. The rapid population growth of the peasants and the restriction on emigration to the USA created acute
shortage of land.

(c) High unemployment: After the war, most Italian industries closed down due to low production. The ex-servicemen and youths had
no jobs. The unemployed crowded the cities and this led to wide spread violence, riots and strikes which led to the total breakdown
in law and order.

(d) The failure of democracy: After the war, many political parties existed in Italy and none of them commanded a clear majority in
parliament to form a government. As a result, Coalition Governments were formed from time to time but they still failed to give
Italians a stable government because they quarreled more than finding solutions to Italy’s problems. Italians wanted a government
of a strong party and Leadership.

(e) The growth of communism: The growth of communism in Italy threatened the industrialists and rich landowners. Communism
was spreading at a faster rate among the poor and industrial workers, which posed a danger to landowners. They then began to
look for a way of crushing it before it becomes established fully in Italy.

(f) Rampant strikes and lock-outs: There were strikes in many parts of Italy as industrial workers demanded higher wages. These
strikes led to many lock-outs especially in 1919 and 1920. The government did not deal with these strikes for fear of causing a
revolution. Since there was no reaction from the government, the workers moved on and seized factories.

(g) State Conflict with the Church: The Church and the State were in constant conflict with each other. The conflict was as a result
of the seizure of Church property by the State in 1870. The Pope urged the Catholics to stop taking part in State affairs. The
majority of Italians being Catholics supported the Church in the conflict with the state.

With all these problems, the Italians were looking for a strong leader who would pull them out of this chaotic situation. A chance came,
36

in 1922 when Benito Mussolini took advantage of these problems and used his fascist party to rise to power.
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 Chapter Eleven

ITALY UNDER MUSSOLINI

Mussolini’s Background

Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 at Dovia in Italy. His father was a black smith while
his mother was a teacher. As a young boy, Mussolini was stubborn. He got expelled from
one school to another because of being violent. He qualified as a teacher but later left to
become a journalist in Switzerland.

In 1904, the government of Switzerland expelled Mussolini for organizing strikes and
demonstrations against the government. He then went back to Italy and continued as a
journalist. He became the editor of a socialist newspaper called Avanti before forming his
own paper called IL Popolo D Italia. In his socialist Views, Mussolini denounced
Militarism, imperialism, religion, nationalism and War. He was arrested for 5 months for
his anti-militarist views. Benito Mussolini

When the First World War broke out, Mussolini abandoned his anti-militarism views and advocated for Italy to join the war. He wanted
Italy to enlarge by acquiring Trentino and Triesse which were promised to Italy at the London treaty of 1915 by the allied Powers. As
a result of his advocacy for war, Mussolini was expelled from the Socialist Party. In 1915, he joined the Italian Army and fought in the
First World War. During the war in 1916, he was wounded and was discharged from the Army on medical grounds. However, after the
war, Mussolini was disappointed by the settlements of the Versailles treaty for Italy and the chaos that prevailed in Italy. Therefore, in
1919, he decided to form the Fascio-de-Combattimento (battle group) in Milan. This which marked the beginning of the Fascist
movement in Europe.

Stages Of Mussolini’s Rise To Power

Italy’s post war problems provided the background for Mussolini’s rise to power. To rise to power Mussolini took the following steps:

(a) Firstly, Mussolini mobilized ex-soldiers, dismissed workers and unemployed youth and formed a fascist battle group called the
Fascio-de-Combattimento in 1919. This group attacked the communists and broke up their meetings.

(b) Secondly, he turned the Fascio-de-Combattimento into a political party called the Fascist Party in 1921.The party adopted Black
Shirts as their uniform. Between 1920 and 1922, there was confusion in the Italian Parliament because there were many political
parties that formed coalition governments which were not effective. In order to strengthen the fragile Italian Government,
Mussolini demanded cabinet posts in 1922 when 22 Fascist members were elected to parliament. However, this demand was
rejected.

(c) Thirdly, Mussolini led the “March on Rome” in 1922 to challenge the government. He demanded for the resignation of the
Italian Prime Minister Luigi Facta. Facta refused to resign and instead recommended stern military action against the Fascists.
On 28th October, 1922, more than a 100,000 fascists volunteers undertook the “March on Rome” unopposed. The army could
not disperse the Fascists and the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Luigi Facta and his government. He then invited
Mussolini to form a new government. Mussolini became the Italian Prime Minister on 30th October, 1922.
Once in power he built up the idea of himself as a superman, and got the title of ll Duce (the leader).
37 Page
The Growth Of The Fascist Party

Mussolini’s Fascist Party grew so fast and gained a lot of support from various groups of people who saw it as a solution to many of
Italy’s problems. Among the groups that supported fascists included:
(a) Middle classes, Catholics, and the army supported fascists because they were against communism.
(b) Ex-servicemen and unemployed youth supported fascists because of its militaristic policies and they were also promised jobs.
(c) Industrialists supported fascists because socialists were a threat to private property.
(d) Nationalists supported fascists because they were promised to return Italy to the ancient glory of the old Roman Empire.
(e) Peasants supported fascists because they were promised to be given land.

MUSSOLINI’S HOME/DOMESTIC POLICY

After ascending to power, Mussolini made a lot of changes to consolidate his Fascist rule in Italy. The aims of his home Policy:
(a) To consolidate power to himself.
(b) To bring law and order in Italy.
(c) To achieve economic recovery and development for Italy.

Mussolini’s Home Policy

Mussolini introduced a number of policies as a way of eliminating all obstacles and consolidate his power. The following were a few
steps that he took:

(i) Creation of a Co-operative State: After ascending to power, Mussolini created a co-operative state. The co-operatives were
established for people within an industry. Each co-operative comprised of representatives of workers, employers and 3 members
of the Fascist Party. The co-operatives sent representatives to the General Assembly of Co-operatives which was headed by
Mussolini. The Assembly made important decisions about the country’s economic policy and about prices and wages. These
cooperatives were unsuccessful, ineffective and corrupt because they were dictated by the Fascists.

The establishment of a co-operative state was one of Mussolini’s major economic achievements in Italy. It involved the abolition
of Strikes and lock outs. In 1926, Mussolini banned trade unions and employee associations and replaced them with co-operations.
These corporations settled wages and working conditions. In 1938, Mussolini abolished Parliament and replaced it with the
Chamber of Fascists and Cooperatives. Through the introduction of the above measures, Mussolini and the Fascists controlled
the political and economic life of the people of Italy.

(ii) Indoctrination and Propaganda: Mussolini wanted to ensure that all Italians accepted and believed in Fascist ideas. He therefore
laid down a program of indoctrination directed at both the young and adults. The young people were bombarded with Fascist
ideas in schools from textbooks and after school; they joined the youth organizations such as Fascist Youth Movement. Adults
were indoctrinated through newspapers, posters and rallies. These media glorified Mussolini and the Fascism.

(iii) Policy towards Religion: Mussolini needed the support from the Pope and the Church for his dictatorship to succeed. He therefore
decided to improve the state’s relationship with the Church. Mussolini signed the Lateran Treaty with the Pope in 1929. By the
Lateran treaty;
 The state recognized the Vatican as an independent State.
 The church recognized the kingdom of Italy.
 The State also promised to pay the Church 1,750 million Lira as compensation for the loss of Rome in 1870.
In turn, Catholicism became the official state religion of Italy and the Pope and the Catholic Church recognized the
Kingdom of Italy and Mussolini’s rule. Therefore, there was an understanding between the Church and the State and
Mussolini was assured of support and encouragement for his Fascist rule from the Pope and the Church.
38 Page
(iv). Introduction of a totalitarian state: During the one Year, Mussolini turned the Fascist Army into a private army. Its main aim was
to deal with opponents of Fascism. In the same year, Mussolini increased the strength of the Italian army. The Fascists beat up, tortured
and terrorized their political opponents. All anti-fascist newspapers were shut down. Mussolini’s critics and opposition leaders, like
Giacomo Matteoti the Socialist leader were killed in 1924 for stating how the election was rigged. In towns and cities, all democratically
elected mayors were replaced with Fascists. Mussolini began to assume more and more power, for example, he made laws without the
consent of Parliament and the King in some cases. In 1926, he abolished all non-Fascist organizations and this meant that all non-Fascist
political parties were banned. The Fascist Party became the only party in Italy. By this time, Mussolini became a full time dictator.

(v). Mussolini’s Economic Battles: To revive the economy of Italy, Mussolini launched a number of battles. These included:
 The Battle of the South: This was launched in 1924. This was an economic policy to address poverty in the Southern Part of
Italy which did not have as many industries as the northern part. This battle was extremely unsuccessful because the people in
the north were not willing to share their wealth with those of the south.
 The Battle of Wheat: This was launched in 1925. This was an agriculture policy aimed at making Italy self Sufficient in Wheat
production. Awards of gold, silver and bronze were given to farmers who grew most wheat. This battle was very successful and
by 1926, wheat production in Italy had almost doubled.
 The Battle for land: This was launched in 1926 to increase the area of cultivatable land in Italy. This Battle involved reclaiming
land, especially the Pontine Marshes by draining and afforestation, ploughing tall hillsides and clearing forests and woodlands.
 The battle for births: This was launched to increase the Italian population and ultimately, the Italian Army. Many incentives
like free education and health facilities were given to people with large families.
 The Battle for the Lira: This was launched in 1926. This battle aimed at restoring the value of the fluctuating Italian currency.

These policies that Mussolini introduced helped him consolidate his hold of power in Italy. They also helped him improve the Italian
economy.

MUSSOLINI’S FOREIGN POLICY

The main aims of Mussolini’s foreign policy were:

(a) To rebuild the Roman Empire by conquering land around the Mediterranean Sea in North Africa.
(b) To revenge Italy’s defeat by Ethiopia in the Famous Battle at Adowa in 1896.
(c) To make Italy a world Power through the creation of a strong Army.
(d) To revisit the Versailles Treaty and get what was due to Italy.

Mussolini’s aggressive and dangerous foreign policy was guided by extreme nationalism. His aggressive foreign policy led to international
tension which contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War. To achieve his aims, Mussolini got involved in various aggressive
activities with and against other countries:

(i) Relationship with Other Countries: Mussolini wanted a closer relationship with other countries. He signed the Kellogg and Locarno
Pacts which showed his willingness to co-operate with Britain and France despite being unhappy with the Versailles Treaty. At
first, Mussolini looked at Hitler with suspicion, and therefore blocked Hitler’s invasion of Austria at Bremmer Pass. Mussolini
then joined Britain and France to form an anti-German peace treaty against Hitler’s actions. However, Hitler and Mussolini became
friends after 1936 when they withdrew from the League of Nations after being branded as aggressors.

(ii) The Corfu Crisis of 1923: Mussolini had aggressive intensions against neighboring Greece. In 1923, an Italian General Tellini was
murdered by the Greeks while trying to settle a border dispute. Mussolini accused Greece of the murder and demanded
compensation and an apology. Greece wanted the matter to be settled by the League of Nations. Mussolini refused the League’s
intervention. Before a solution could be found, Mussolini invaded the Greek Islands of Corfu. This incident showed the aggressive
39

nature of Mussolini and made the relations with Britain and France unstable.
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 (iii) The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia): Mussolini wanted a colonial Empire in Africa. Having occupied Somali and Eritrea
earlier, Mussolini wanted to expand into the Ancient Kingdom of Abyssinia to revenge for the humiliating defeat that Italy went
through in 1896 at the Battle of Adowa. Taking advantage of border incidents between Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland, Mussolini
invaded and occupied Abyssinia. The Italian air force bombarded Ethiopia and the army seized the capital and forced the leaders
into exile. Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations for Italy to be punished. The League condemned Italy and banned the
shipment of arms but there was no ban on oil, coal, iron and steel. These sanctions were too late and ineffective. Mussolini and the
Italians were angered by this criticism and Italy withdrew from the League of Nations in 1936 so as to continue with the occupation
of Ethiopia until 1943. These aggressive acts drove Mussolini and Hitler into becoming being good friends and Hitler supported
the Italian Invasion of Ethiopia.

(iv) The Italian Involvement in the Spanish Civil War: In 1936, Mussolini and Hitler interfered in the Spanish Civil War. They wanted
to set up a Fascist dictatorship in Spain. Mussolini and Hitler sent troops and weapons to Spain to help General Francisco Franco
overthrow a democratically elected government. This was totally against the League of Nations demands.

(v) Alliances: Mussolini and Hitler became close after being criticized by the League of Nations for their aggressive acts against other
countries. Both left the League and felt more and more isolated internationally. Their co-operation in supporting the Spanish Civil
war finally resulted into the signing of an alliance called the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. In 1937, Italy joined the Anti-Commutern
Pact between Germany and Japan which was formed in 1937 to fight against the spread of Communism. The new alliance became
known as the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. This was a military alliance and it lasted until the Second World War. In August 1938,
Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel which was a purely military alliance in which Germany and Italy promised to support
each other in an event of War. By signing this treaty, Mussolini sealed the fate of Italy and his own as the Second World War
brought about his down fall in 1943 until his death in 1945.

The Fall Of Mussolini (Why Mussolini Was Overthrown)

Mussolini was overthrown because:

(a) Many Italians did not like Italy’s entry into the Second World War which Mussolini influenced.
(b) The Italian economy had become weak under Mussolini and had no money to support a major war. The Italian army had less
weapons and the country had lost the support of industrialists and bankers.
(c) The Italian general public had suffered hardships due to increased taxes to pay for war. There was massive inflation and low wages.
(d) Many Fascists had surrendered by 1943 and many of the leaders had fled from their government positions.
(e) The Fascist Grand Council turned against Mussolini and the king dismissed him after which Badoglio Marshal became Prime
Minister.

Mussolini was killed by the partisans, who hanged him upside down on the 28th April, 1945.

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 Chapter Eleven

RUSSIA UNDER THE TSAR

Background

During the 19th century, Russia was under the leadership of the ancient rulers known as the Tsars. She was one of the five European
powers that decided the destiny of Europe from 1814, and one of the powers that dominated European affairs up to 1914 when the
First World War started. Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia as an autocrat (ruling the country as one see it fit without being answerable to a
parliament) from 1894 to 1917. The Tsar ruled with the support of the Orthodox Church, army and the civil service.

Opposition To The Tsar

Although the Tsar received the support of the Orthodox Church, army and the civil service. It faced opposition from the:
(a) The Cadets: These were mainly middle class people who wanted a liberal parliamentary democracy.
(b) The Social Revolutionaries: These wanted land to be given to the peasants who supported them. They used terror to bring about
change.
(c) The Social Democrats: These followed Marxist ideas. They were in support of the industrial working class. In 1903, the Social
Democrats split into two:
i. The Mensheviks: These wanted a mass party with industrial workers as members. They were in support of a gradual
revolution process.
ii. The Bolsheviks: These wanted a small party with full-time revolutionaries. They wanted a quicker revolution process.
They were led by Lenin.

During the period 1870-1914 Russia was going through serious efforts towards industrialization. These developments started taking
place during the rule of Tsar Alexander III and Tsar Nicholas II. By 1880s, Russian production had increased under Sergei Witte as
Minister of Finance and Commerce. The industrial developments made Russia a power that needed to expand. She adopted an
expansionist policy which ran her into conflict with Japan, leading to the Russo-Japanese war in 1904.

Russo-Japanese War Of 1904-1905

This was the war fought between Russia and Japan in 1904-05. The two countries clashed over interest in controlling Eastern Europe.
Russia had earlier adopted an expansionist policy. Although this policy towards Eastern Europe and the Balkans had reduced after the
Crimean war of 1854-1856 and the Berlin Congress of 1818, it was revived later. She now decided to concentrate her expansion
eastwards. In her attempt to fulfill her expansion desire, she collided with Japan which had similar interests in Eastern Europe thus
resulting into the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War

The Russo-Japanese war was caused by the following:

(a) The war was caused by Russia’s ambitions for expansion towards Eastern Europe which clashed with Japan who had similar
interest of expanding eastwards. This was because Russia’s defeat during the Crimean war did not stop her natural desire for
expansion. She therefore clashed with Japan over Eastern Europe, hence the Russo-Japan war.

(b) The war was also caused by a clash of interest between Russia and Japan over the control of Korea and Port Arthur which had
natural advantages of warm water throughout the year.

(c) The war also started because both Russia and Japan wanted to test their Military Mighty.
41

(d) The war was caused by pressure from people in both powers who urged their government to attain foreign glory and prestige. The
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pressure climaxed into the Russo-Japan war.

It should be noted that in this war, Russia experienced a humiliating defeat from Japan. First, Russia was defeated at Port Arthur, while
another fleet was smashed at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905.

How The Russo-Japanese War Led To The Russian Revolution Of 1905

Russia’s defeat by Japan had far reaching consequences on the Russians. It led to the Russian Revolution of 1905 in the following ways:

(a) The war humiliated Russia both at home and outside. The proved that Russia had one of the weak naval fleet in Europe. It showed
that Russia was not yet strong enough to fight a modern war and that she had to strengthen her military first if she was to fight
any other war. This made the Tsarist regime to lose popularity at home. It exposed the total inefficiency and corruption of the
Tsarist system. The Russians therefore began to demand for an end to autocracy so that the Russian Duma (Parliament) is elected.
This led to demonstrations and strikes across Russia.

(b) The war also weakened the Russian economy: A lot of funds were rechanneled to finance the war instead of developing other
sectors of the economy like agriculture and industry. Many workers became idle in a corrupt government. This forced the people
to rise against their government in 1905, demanding for a regime change.

(c) The war led to the growth of Marxist ideas and the formation of political parties along Marxist principles. The workers and the
intelligentsia found in Marxism the answer to their grievances which the Tsarist regimes failed to solve, hence they formed political
parties such as Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the Social Revolutionary Party (SRP). This was intended to mobilize and
organize for the removal of the Tsarist regime, hence, under Lenin and Martov, the workers started spreading propaganda against
the government and their activities resulted into a revolution in 1905.

The effects of the Russo-Japanese war, coupled with other social and economic problems that the war brought made the Russians rise
against the Tsarist rule. The war created many problems that led to the Russian Revolution of 1905.

The 1905 Russian Revolution

This was a wave of mass political and social unrest that spread through the Russian Empire in 1905. It was the first attempt by the
Russians to put an end to the tsarist Regime. The revolution involved worker’s strikes, peasant unrest and military mutiny. When these
protests and strikes spread to many parts of Russia, Tsar Nicholas II tried to solve it by passing the October Manifesto on 30th October
1905. The October Manifesto proposed the following:

(a) Creation of a popularly-elected legislative body called the state Duma.

(b) Granting of civil rights like Freedom of speech and conscience to the Russians.
(c) The right to form political parties.
(d) To put an end to press censorship.

The October Manifesto helped him to calm the situation until 1917 when he was finally overthrown. Tsar Nicholas survived the 1905
Revolution because:
(a) His opponents were not united.
(b) There was no central leadership in the revolutions.
(c) He had been willing to compromise at the critical moment using the October manifesto which proposed putting up an elected
parliament (Duma) in place.

Causes Of The 1905 Revolution

There were many causes of the 1905 Russian Revolution. Among them included:

(a) Economic hardships: Russia had no form of income tax. The Tsar taxed peasants to raise money to maintain his regime. Peasants
were also supposed to pay Redemption Payments to the state for the land given to them by the state after being got from
42

landowners. There was widespread famine as peasants were supposed to produce surplus grain for export even if they did not have
enough. Majority of poor peasants did not have land. Peasants and workers had poor living conditions. They lived in communal
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houses where they shared kitchens, toilets and washrooms. The economic rundown in 1900 led to lack of jobs. A few that had
 jobs had their trade unions banned. All these hardships led to protests and strikes that culminated into a revolution in 1905 in
Russia.

(b) Unpopular Tsarist policies: Many Russians were unhappy with the political conditions in Russia. Many ethnic minorities were
oppressed, Jewish people were persecuted and those opposing government were purged. The middle class industrialists were not
happy that they had no say in how the country was governed. Increased industrialization and urbanization had led to major social
and economic problems for workers and peasants. This discontent encouraged revolutionary groups to push for a change of
government in 1905.

(c) The defeat in the Russo-Japanese war: Between 1904 and 1905, Russia and Japan fought for control of strategic territories in
china. It ended in humiliating defeat for Russia. Many people in Russia criticized the Russian government for the defeat. The
defeat revealed the Tsar’s weakness. They demanded that the Tsar be removed from power, which almost happened in a revolution
in 1905.
(d) The Blood Sunday Massacre of 1905: The Blood Sunday massacre took place on a Sunday in January 1905 in St. Petersburg,
when hundreds of defenseless Russian trade unionists and industrial workers, led by Father Georgy Gapon and other Orthodox
priests, were killed by the Tsar’s guards as they approached his Winter Palace. They had intended to present a petition, asking
Tsar Nicholas to consider improving the poor work conditions and solve other economic problems. The poor conditions had
sent many people on strike, and caused widespread discontent of the Tsar. When the people matched to present their petition for
change of government, they were shot down by the guards. This event became known as the Blood Sunday.

Tsar Nicholas ll’s Reforms

With the October Manifesto in place Tsar Nicholas II with the help of Peter Stolypin (Russian Prime Minister) managed to survive the
1905 Revolution by introducing a number of changes (reforms) that lessened chances of a possible revolution and strengthened the
Tsarist regime. Some of these reforms were:
(i) The State Duma: The Duma was an elected representative assembly. Tsar Nicholas II introduced an elected Duma which brought
reforms and freedoms. Many Russians were now given more rights as they began to enjoy freedom of conscience, speech, assembly
and association, universal suffrage in elections for the Duma. The Duma approved all laws before it could operate. At the same
time the army and the Okrana (Tsar’s secret police) were used to suppress all revolutionary groups.

(ii) Land reforms: Tsar Nicholas II worked with Stolypin to reform the agricultural sector so that it becomes as competitive as those
of other European countries. He hoped that reorganizing the land would increase support for the Tsar among unskilled farmers.
He believed that success increased with increase in the number of peasant landowners. Loans for peasants to buy land became
available with the introduction of Peasant’s Land Banks. Peasants were also given incentives to move to remote areas to open up
the countryside. This was meant to increase the number of better-off peasants (kulaks). This way, agricultural output and peasant
land ownership increased, and were all in support of the Tsar.

(iii) Industrial reforms: Tsar Nicholas II also industrialized urban areas as people flooded into cities looking for work. The production
of iron, coal and steel rose, giving jobs to the unemployed people.

(iv) Reforms in the social sector: In 1905, trade unions were made legal. In 1912, safety inspectors were introduced into factories.
Workers began to benefit from the employee insurance schemes which provided protection against accidents and illnesses. In
1908, a program was announced to bring about universal education within 10 years. By 1914, an extra 50,000 primary schools
had been opened. This made Tsar Nicholas II win the support of the people.

Despite introducing these reforms, Tsar Nicholas ll was overthrown by the Russians in the 1917 Revolutions.

Why The Tsar’s Government Was Overthrown in 1917.

The Tsar ruled as Autocrats. In 1917, Russian citizens rose up against their ruler Tsar Nicholas II because of the following reasons:
43

(a) Failure of the land reforms: By 1911, it was clear that Stolypin’s land reforms were not having the desired effect because the
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population of peasants was growing rapidly for the schemes to cope with. Besides, the farming methods used were not enough to
 support the growing population and Stolypin who was behind the reforms was assassinated in 1911. This caused discontent in
Russia.

(b) Industrial unrest: From 1912 onwards, there were thousands of industrial strikes set off by the shooting of striking gold mines in
the Lena Goldfields in Siberia. Whatever reforms had been made earlier, they were not enough to remove all the pre-1905
grievances. These strikes led to the 1917 revolution.

(c) Government repression: The government used the secret police to root out revolutionaries among university students and lecturers
and deported a big number of Jews. This was dangerous as the government had earlier supported freedom of speech and
contributions of the peasants, industrial workers and educated classes. This suppression paved way for a massive revolution that
took place in 1917.

(d) Revival of the revolutionary parties: Around 1912, various revolutionary parties especially the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks revived.
Lenin, former editor of the revolutionary newspaper, Iskra (The Spark) was influential in the revolutionary fight. By 1917, these
revolutionary parties had established themselves among all classes of people in Russia, making the 1917 revolution so easy.

(e) The royal family was greatly discredited: The royal family was discredited by a number of scandals. First, Nicholas was suspected
of having plotted the assassination of the Russian Prime Minister Stolypin by the secret police in his presence. Second, the royal
family was discredited by the family’s association with Gregory Rasputin, a self-professed ‘Holy man’ who was of help and advisor
to the Tsar’s wife.

Gregory Rasputin

Rasputin’s Life

Gregory Rasputin was a Russian ‘Holy man’ who befriended the family of Tsar Nicholas
II. Rasputin was believed to possess spiritual powers to help people in crises and to heal
the sick. He was invited to stay at the Tsar’s palace in order to:

(a) Pray for Tsar’s child Alexei who was suffering from a bleeding problem
(Hemophilia)
(b) Advise the Tsar and his wife over matters of the state.

Rasputin became the real power behind the Tsarist throne. However he was hated by
many Russians because of:
(a) His excessive alcohol drinking habits.
(b) His numerous sexual affairs with court ladies.

He was therefore killed in 1916 by a group of plotters led by Felix Yussupov. After his Gregory Rasputin
death series of riots broke out, which later turned into a revolution. The revolution in
1917 was led by Lenin.

The Russian Revolutions Of 1917

Lenin was a leader of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party formed in 1898. He closely worked together with Trotsky and Stalin.
Trotsky was put to be in charge of Lenin’s Secret Force called the Red Army. Together they adopted the revolutionary theories of Karl
Marx. As the party grew stronger, individual differences began to affect the party and eventually the party split into two on an account
of the strategy to follow to overthrow the Tsar. Lenin and those who wanted to use force to overthrow the Tsar regime won a majority
44

on the executive and so came to be known as the ‘Bolsheviks’ meaning ‘Majority men.’ On the other hand, the party that wanted both
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active and passive members as well as giving room for sympathizers came to be known as ‘Mensheviks’ meaning Minority men.
Lenin announced the formal coup d’état by the Bolshevik in November 1917. His Marxist propaganda resulted into various strikes that
rocked Russia. Lenin played a key role in the outbreak of the 1917 socialist revolution. The 1917 revolution occurred in two phases as
follows:

(i) The March 1917 Revolution: This was the first revolution that occurred in March 1917. It was led by Bolsheviks, Menshevik
and social revolutionaries. The demonstrations involved students, workers and the Russian masses in towns, cities and up-country
areas. The Tsar responded by sending his most reliable troops, the Cossack regiments to suppress the demonstrators but instead
of stopping the revolution, the troops simply joined the demonstrators. The Tsar stepped down on March 15, 1917 and this
marked the end of the Tsardom in Russia. The Tsar was replaced by a provisional government under the leadership of Prince
George Lvov. However, after ruling for a short time Prince Lvov was replaced by Alexander Kerensky.

The provisional government was faced with problems from outside as well as its own weaknesses. Some of the problems included
the following:
 It became very unpopular among the people due to continued war against Germany.
 Mutinies broke out in the army.
 There was revolt at the kronstadt naval base in July.
 Peasants were simply taking over the land owners’ estates.
 There was growing opposition from the Bolsheviks.
 The Petrograd soviet became more hostile to the government for its failure to solve Russia’s economic problems.
These problems made the provisional government lose the support of the army and the Bolsheviks who organized another
revolution, which took place in October 1917.

(ii) The October 1917 Revolution: This was the second revolution influenced by the Bolsheviks under Leon Trotsky in October
1917. It led to the overthrow of the provisional government and the establishment of the first republic. Within two days the Red
Army had seized railway stations, telegraph offices and the Winter palace. The leader of the provisional government Kerensky fled
and the Bolsheviks took over. The new Bolshevik government was now formed, headed by Lenin with Leon Trotsky in charge of
defense and foreign affairs. Lenin and his Bolshevik government therefore came to power in 1917.

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 Chapter Twelve

RUSSIA UNDER LENIN

Lenin’s Background

Lenin’s real name was Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov. He was born on 22 April 1870. He was
born of a well-educated family. He was expelled from the university because of his radical
ideas. He went to St. Petersburg and became a professional revolutionary. His older
brother, Alexander Ulyanov was killed in 1887 for plotting to kill the Tsar. Lenin was
once in exile in Siberia, after which he returned to join Martov in publishing much of his
Marxist ideas and became the editor of a revolutionary newspaper called Iskra (The
Spark).

Lenin

From the start Lenin became a dictator. He set up the secret police called the Cheka, which began to intimidate, imprison and murder
political opponents. He changed the name of his party to Communist Party which became the only party in Russia. He even adopted a
new symbol for the party; Hammer and sickle. Upon coming to power, he faced a lot of opposition. These opponents were called the
Whites, while Lenin’s Bolsheviks were called the Reds. The whites were made up of former Tsarist, Mensheviks, and
social revolutionaries. A civil war then broke out between the Whites and the Reds. The Reds (Bolsheviks), under
Trotsky won because:

(a) They had large, well organized armies.

(b) They made good use of propaganda to show that the whites were fighting hard to
bring back Tsarism which people hated.
(c) The Red Army and he Cheka (Secret Police) kept a strict control over the many
territories making sure that people obeyed Lenin’s rule.
(d) The Red controlled major towns with their factories and industries to support the
war.

Hammer & Sickle (Communism)

To defeat the opponents, Lenin introduced measures to ensure that his armies were supplied and fed. He introduced War Communism.

War Communism

War communism was a Russian policy introduced by Lenin where Bolsheviks took control of key economic institutions such as factories,
mines, workshops and railways. Under War Communism:
(a) Lenin sent the soldiers to the countryside where they forced the peasants to hand over any grain they had stored away.
(b) Land and industries were nationalized.
(c) Severe discipline was instilled in factories, boycotts and strikes abolished.
(d) Opposition was eliminated by use of the secret police (Cheka).
(e) Nobody was allowed to sell to gain profit.

In industries things were however worse as the years of war had left mines flooded, machines smashed, factories and railways destroyed.
The government quickly crushed the Kronstadt rebels who had supported communism for some time.
46

The Kronstadt rebels had demanded for an end to war communism. Lenin responded to The Kronstadt rebellion by introducing the
New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921.
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Lenin’s New Economic Policy

Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921 at the Party Congress. The NEP involved the partial re-introduction of
capitalism in which only large basic industries remained under the control of the state. All small industries were returned to their former
owners and were allowed to produce what they wanted. By 1923 most of the industries were controlled by private individuals. Under the
NEP:
(a) Peasants were allowed to sell part of what they produced for their own profit.
(b) Better off peasants (kulaks) were allowed to rent extra land and hire other peasants to work for them.
(c) Small factories were given back to private ownership while large ones remained in state hands.
(d) Small businesses could be set up to trade at a profit.

Using NEP, crop production increased. Famine disappeared. In towns people were allowed to set up their own small factories and
shops. Thus more goods were produced and life in Russia became comfortable. Many Bolsheviks who were now calling themselves
communists disliked NEP as they saw it as a return to capitalism, where the rich made profits out of the poor. They also argued that
NEP did not give Russia more heavy industries like steel works.

Importance Of Lenin

Before his death Lenin had done the following for Russia:

(a) He had established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) or Soviet Union for short. Its new capital was Moscow and
not Petrograd any longer.
(b) He had led the communist revolutions in Russia.
(c) He had created a powerful, disciplined communist party by using a secret police (Cheka) to remove opponents his policies.
(d) The USSR had become a one-party state which was a dictatorship where the communist party controlled industry, police, army,
and the press.

The Death Of Lenin

Lenin died in January 1924 after suffering from stroke. Before his death, Lenin had wanted Trotsky to take over from him. Unfortunately,
three contenders; Zinoviev, Kamenev and Stalin all ruled up to 1926. All these three hated Trotsky. However, the real struggle for power
was between two contenders Trotsky and Stalin. Stalin succeeded to rule Russia after eliminating Trotsky. Stalin was able to defeat his
rivals because:
(a) He was a political expert with a lot of support in the party, having been editor or the Pravda Newspaper and Secretary General of
the party).
(b) Trotsky had made himself unpopular by spreading world revolutions, which alarmed many communists.
(c) Trotsky had offended many party members.
(d) The other contenders underestimated Stalin.
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 Chapter Thirteen

RUSSIA UNDER STALIN

Stalin’s Background

Stalin was born in 1879 to a woman who was a washer and a man who was a shoe maker.
His real names were Losif Djugashvil. His dream was to become a priest. In 1888, he
went for an elementary education to a nearby church school from where he secured a
scholarship in the theological seminary. Unfortunately he was expelled from the seminary
because of his involvement in political activities and spreading of revolutionary ideas. This
frustrated his desire to become a priest. In 1913 he named himself ‘Stalin’ which means
‘Man of steel.’ In order to make ends meet, he worked as editor of the Pravda Newspaper
in 1917 before he joined the Social Democratic Party where he was called Koba. When
Lenin died in 1924, Stalin took over from Lenin as the new leader of Soviet Union from Stalin
1924 to 1953 when he died.

Stalin’s Home Policy

Upon becoming the leader of the Soviet Union, Stalin introduced many changes to the Soviet Union. The main aims of introducing
these domestic policy were:
 To transform Russia into an industrialized country within 10 years.
 To produce enough food for export and domestic use.

To transform Russia into an industrialized nation, Stalin introduced some policies. The major polices that he introduced were as follows;

(a) The Five Year Plans: Stalin initiated the ‘Five Year Plan which was intended to increase the production of goods in order to make
the Russia an industrial giant. The Gosplan (State Planning Commission) was responsible for all the plans. It collected information
and decided on what should be done for each industry. Any failure for each industry could lead to imprisonment. The plan was
started in 1928-1933 and 1937-1946. Each of the five years was intended to build a particular sector of the economy. For
example:

(i) The first Five Years Plan focused on heavy industrialization. This included areas such as coal, iron, steel, oil, electricity and
machine building. By 1940, hundreds of factories were built, many of them in new towns east of Ural Mountains where they
would be safe from invasion.
(ii) The second Five Year Plan (1932-37) again concentrated on heavy industry. With technical assistance from abroad, this
plan led to an increased production in steel, heavy machinery and iron, which made the union an industrial giant.
(iii) The third Five Year Plan (1937-41) put more emphasis on production of consumer goods, though it later changed to the
production of consumer goods.

(b) The Collectivization Policy: Stalin introduced the collectivization policy to make the union a food basket for all European
countries. Collectivization was a policy where small farms and holdings belonging to the peasants were merged together to create
big farms in order to increase agricultural production. The existing system of small farms was not enough to satisfy the high
demand for food in the growing industrial cities. As a result, there was need to merge small farms to make big farms where tractors
and combine harvesters would be used. This collectivization policy was put up to get rid of the class of prosperous peasants
(Kulaks) because they were believed to be standing in the way of progress. There were two types of collective farms that Stalin
put up. These were:
(i) State Farms (SOVYKHOZY): These were owned by government. Workers on these farms were employed by government
48

and were paid monthly salaries by the government.

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(ii) Collective Farms (KOLKHOZ): These were large farms owner by peasants brought together by government officials.
 This collectivization policy was launched in 1929 and was carried out with force by the Red Army. Those peasants who resisted
the policy were either arrested, put into forced labor camps, killed or deported to unpopulated lands in Siberia. Their houses and
machinery were turned over to the collective farms. Mostly, in retaliation, the kulaks killed their cattle, destroyed machinery and
burnt their crops. The collectivization policy almost turned into a military operation or a civil war. By 1941 most of all land in
USSR was collectivized. However, the collectivization policy led to poor harvests due to the problems between the state and the
kulaks.

(c) The Purges and the Great Terror: Stalin also worked out ways of dealing with the opposition. He wanted to eliminate all those
who were against his policies. He set up a new secret police called the NKVD, which he used to eliminate all opposition. In 1924,
Stalin’s ally Sergei Kirov was murdered. Other leading party members such as Zinoviev, Kamenev and Bukharin were tortured and
later executed. Others were either threatened or arrested and sent to labor camps. The freedom of speech was denied to soviet
citizens. The NKVD managed to rule the USSR population with terror.

(d) Education: Stalin worked hard to bring to the union free, massive education, although it was heavily controlled by the NKVD
(secret police). He introduced compulsory enrollment for all children aged 8 and 11in school. By 1940, there was great
improvement in the number of schools and school going children across the union. Stalin believed that education was a way of
turning children into a younger generation into good, orthodox soviet citizens

Russia After The Death Of Stalin

After the death of Stalin in 1953, Malenkov and Khrushchev became joint leaders of Russia. When Malenkov resigned in 1958,
Khrushchev became the sole leader of Russia. As leader of Russia Nikita Khrushchev introduced policies that were mostly the exact
opposite of Stalin’s policies. This became commonly known as Destalinization.

De-Stalinization

De-Stalinization was a political reform related to the reversal of Stalin’s policies in Russia by Nikita Khrushchev. It was a reform that
put an end to many of Stalin’s policies in Russia and across Europe. Under destalinization, Stalin’s statues and pictures were taken down
from public places. The use of persecution and terror ended. The power of the political police was put under control and the Doctors
who had been arrested were released. Many labor camps were dissolved while a few remaining ones were improved. Writers and artists
began to express their true feelings instead of just turning out propaganda in support of communism. Russian leaders made visits abroad
and foreign tourists were allowed to visit Russia. There was emphasis on the production of consumer goods and on financial incentives
for farmers. Slowly, Russia became a freer nation. The terror was ended and the tension relaxed.

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 Chapter Fourteen

THE USA BETWEEN THE WARS, 1919-1941

Background

After the First World War, people in Europe looked to the USA for leadership, both to prevent future wars and for money to help
rebuild Europe’s shuttered economies. European countries obtained loans from the USA to repair much of their damaged economies and
their infrastructures. This was because American industry and farming had grown steadily since the 1860s. Up to 1920, the country had
huge resources (coal, iron, timber and oil). It also had a growing population, many of them immigrants willing to work hard. The railways,
mining and manufacturing were all strong.

In the early years of the First World War, the USA businesses profited from the war in Europe. American industries supplied arms and
equipment. American firms were able to take over much of the export businesses of the European powers while they were caught up in
the fighting. The First World War thus made the USA wealthy and confident. The USA also became an isolationist (Not wanting to
be dragged into foreign disputes). By 1920, the profit of many American companies rose greatly. More goods were produced more
quickly and cheaply. Industries making consumer goods grew quickly. In the motor industry, Henry Ford’s car became increasingly
common. The motor industry created more jobs in related areas such as car parts and road building. Apart from buying goods, Americans
wanted a share of the profits which companies were making. To do this they bought and sold shares in companies. The dealing in shares
depended on confidence that share prices would continue to rise. However, in September 1929, the prices of shares began to go down.
People began to sell shares for less, and the worse was on ‘Black Tuesday’ 29 October 1929 when some shares lost all of their value. This
became known as the Wall Street Crash or the Great Crash. This Wall Street Crash plunged America into economic depression that
became known as The Great Depression of 1929.

THE GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION OF 1929.

The Great Depression was also called an Economic Slump, Economic Crunch, or Economic Depression. It started in the U.S.A and later
spread to the rest of the World. It started in 1929 and went up to 1939. During this period, banks and companies went bankrupt and
closed. The USA stopped lending money to other countries. Thousands of people who had invested their savings in shares made massive
loses. There was widespread unemployment and many people became homeless.

Causes Of The Great Depression

The Great economic depression had a number of causes, among them were:

(a) Domestic over production of goods: The use of improved methods of production, use of labor saving machinery and wide spread
use of electricity led to over production of goods. This was more prevalent in the Agricultural Sector. This led to a decline in prices.
Consequently farmer’s income was reduced.

(b) Unequal distribution of income: The big profits made by industrialists were not distributed equally among the workers. This meant
there was less money in circulation as industrialists kept money to themselves. This reduced the buying power in the hands of the
public to sustain the high production.

(c) Change of people’s lifestyle in the USA: To some extent, the common man in the U.S.A was responsible for the depression. In the
1920s, the people’s life style in the USA changed in such a way as to reduce the farmers’ income drastically. For example, people
preferred artificial fabric cloth to cotton cloth and ate fruits, vegetables and drunk milk instead of eating meat and bread. Because of
this wheat local market dwindled and the problem was further worsened by a decline in international trade. Many farmers were
compelled to abandon their farms as some fell behind with their mortgage loans. Many farmers sought employment but
unfortunately, the industrial sector was having its own problems and farmers could not find employment.
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(d) Decline in international trade: As result of over production of industrial goods in the late 1920s many European countries
introduced high tariff on the imported goods. To some extent, it was in response to American’s trade restrictions of European
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produced goods. America imposed tariffs on these goods. This introduction of high tariffs severely affected American business as
 this contributed to the decline of U.S.A. international trade. During the First World War, the U.S.A enjoyed a favorable balance of
trade. The European powers that were at war (1914 – 1918) brought American goods within a few years. After the war these nations
became trade rivals rather than customers. Argentina and Canada began competing with the U.S.A in the production of meat and
wheat respectively. America’s loss of foreign trade as a result of rivals and trade restrictions was such that by 1928, she experienced
an unfavorable balance of trade. This development contributed greatly to the depression.

(e) Failure of loan repayments: The failure by Britain and France to pay back American loans that the U.S.A had given out loans to help
them in their war efforts also caused the Great Depression. These counties accumulated such heavy debts that they failed to pay back
in time. Worse still, between 1924 and 1929 under Dawes plan, America gave out large sums of money to Germany. A lot of money
was leaving the country and little was coming into the U.S.A reserve Bank. This had a negative effect on the economy. Many banks
ran out of the money while long queues of people trying to withdraw their money became common.

(f) The collapse of the Wall Street Stock market in 1929: By October, 1929 share prices had fallen so low that many people chose to
sell their shares. Most investors lost their money and failed to repay their loans because some of these shares lost all their value. This
set off a bad circle of social, political and economic problems, that otherwise became known as the great depression.

(g) Speculations: In 1926, there were speculations of high quick profits in company shares. People with cash rushed to buy shares in
companies. But when, in 1929, signs began to show that sales of goods were slowing down, some well-informed investors decided
to sell their shares while prices were still high. This caused suspicion, and many people decided to sell their shares while the going
was good. This caused a drastic collapse of shares as many people were not ready to buy shares. This massive fall of share prices
caused the depression.

Effects Of The Great Depression

The Great Depression had far reaching consequences on the people of America and other European Countries. Some of these effects are
as follows:
(a) It ruined millions of investors who had paid high prices for their shares at the stock market.
(b) Many banks remained in shaky positions as many people rushed to withdraw their savings so that they keep their money at home.
(c) The demands for all types of goods fell so many workers were laid off and factories closed.
(d) Many countries like Germany were affected because their prosperity depended mostly on loans from the USA.
(e) As a result of the depression, in many states, like Austria, Germany, Japan and Britain, right-wing governments came to power when
the existing regimes failed to cope with the situation.

The Great Depression affected the Americans so much, such that during the 1932 elections, they were looking for a president who would
inspire them and deal with the depression. When the election was held between Herbert Hoover and Franklin Delano Roosevelt,
Roosevelt won.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt became President of the USA in 1932. This was at a time when the Depression had already begun to cause
problems in many sectors of the USA. There were two main reasons why he won the 1932 elections, and these were:

(a) He was a good communicator who inspired confidence in the Americans through his ‘fireside chats on radio. This made him
popular among the people.
(b) He promised to drag America out of the problems caused by the depression using the New Deal policy.

Problems Caused By The Great Depression In The USA

The USA was faced with a number of problems as a result of the Great depression. Some of these problems included:
(a) Poverty: There was severe poverty in areas like Tennessee valley, where the Tennessee River caused soil erosion. This forced people
51

in such areas to move into town to seek employment.

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 (b) High Unemployment: By 1932, after many people from the countryside went to urban areas, unemployment went up to 17 million.
Factories and industries closed down because the owners could not manage to buy raw materials and pay their workers. Many
workers were laid off and could not get alternative employment. These unemployed people resorted to banditry and organized
crime which increased the fear of the American people.

(c) Collapsed banking system: From 1932, the USA factories and industries had less production. Exports declined. Low production
and exports led to the collapse of the banking system. Accounts, especially for the lower and middle class were frozen in order to
pay the bank tellers before they were laid off. This frightened the millionaires who withdrew their money and kept it under their
pillows. The banks therefore closed down.

(d) Loss of purchasing power of the dollar: There was over-production in American industry. In addition, the unequal distribution of
wealth in the population made the dollar lose its purchasing power. This consequently led to the closure of many industries. Many
people used the easy way of making money which involved buying and selling stock exchange shares as a profit instead of investing
in industries.

(e) Low industrial production: As industries closed down and workers laid off, there was generally low production in industries.
Consequently, exports declined due to USA policies of tariffs which made the food expensive in the USA.

When these problems heightened, the American people in a state of panic and despair, voted Franklin Roosevelt into power so that he
could solve them.
Measures Taken By Roosevelt To Solve The Problems Brought By The Depression
When Roosevelt won the election, he acted quickly to end the depression. He introduced the New Deal as a solution to the American
problems.

The New Deal

The New Deal was a series of programs and projects put up during the Great Depression by Franklin Delano Roosevelt that aimed to
restore prosperity to Americans. The New Deal was Franklin Roosevelt’s domestic program between 1929 and 1939 which took action
to bring about immediate economic relief and reforms in industry, agriculture, finance, waterpower, labor, and housing in America. The
New Deal had three major aims and these were:

1. Relief: To give direct help to the poverty stricken people who were without food and homes.
2. Recover: To reduce unemployment, stimulate the demand for goods and get the economy moving again.
3. Reform: To take all available measures to prevent a repeat of the economic disaster.

From 4 March -16 June 1932 (The Hundred Days) Roosevelt managed to get the US Congress to pass a huge amount of legislation.
He put in place ‘Fireside chats’ on radio to restore morale of the people and win their confidence. A list of proposals for new laws were
drafted and presented to the Congress. These new laws passed by Congress set up new schemes for tackling the social and economic
crisis: some of these news included the following:
(a) The Emergency Banking Act And Securities Exchange Commission: Through this act banks on the verge of collapse were provided
with Federal Government funds to keep them in business. This was done to reassure the American people that their money was safe.
This created confidence in the Banking Industry.

(b) The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA): This act was passed to advise farmers on marketing and farming techniques
and help them solve the problem of over production. Farmers were given a subsidy for machinery and fertilizer for growing crops.

(c) The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): This was set up to give cash relief to the poor and to help Local Authorities
with their pro relief schemes.
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(d) The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): This was set up to provide work for the unemployed. Through this act, youths were
organized and sent to various camps throughout USA. They planted trees and cleared swamps. These youths were given free food,
cloths, shelter, entertainment and a daily wage. By 1940 two million youths were employed by the Civilian Conservation Corps.

(e) The Civil Works Administration (CWA): This was set up to provide paid for public works such as building schools, roads and
hospitals. In 1933 it was replaced by Works Progress Administration (W.P.A) under a social worker called Hopkins. The WPA
created various clubs for writers, painters, artists, actors, dancers and film makers. This restored confidence in the American people.

(f) The National Recovery Administration Act (NRA): This act abolished child–labor, shortened the working week and fixed minimum
wages. It also allowed workers to form Trade Unions, fight for better salaries and working condition.

(g) The Wagner Act (1935): This forced employers to recognize Trade Unions after the NRA was declared illegal by the American
courts. It set up the National Labor Relations Board to handle Labor disputes.

(h) The Social Security Act (SSA): This was set up to allow each of the USA’s state to take part in an unemployment and old age welfare
scheme. It introduced old age pensions and insurance against unemployment, relief for the poor, the handicapped and dependent
children. Through National Housing Act government provided money for building more houses at low rents affordable to the
poorest families. As if this was not enough a Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (H.O.L.P) was set up to help house owners to pay
back mortgages (house loans). Through this loans for paying mortgages at low rates of interest were given.

(i) The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): This was set up to build dams to control floods, to general electricity, to provide water
for irrigation and to create employment opportunities in the Tennessee River Basins. The scheme served seven American States.

Results Of The Measures Introduced By Roosevelt Under The New Deal

The measures introduced by Roosevelt to deal with effects of the depression brought about the following result to the USA:

(a) Millions of jobs were created in many areas of the American economic and social sectors.
(b) The banking system was established and became fully operational.
(c) The standard of living among the people was improved as they received cheap government aid.
(d) There was rapid infrastructure development. New schools, roads and power stations were built.

Opposition To The New Deal Legislations

There were a number of groups in the USA that opposed the measures that the New Deal took to bring the USA out of the Great
Depression. These groups included the following:

(a) The Businessmen: The business leaders were not happy with the regulation of working conditions and trade unions. They argued
that the New Deal came with a huge cost that came from taxing the American people. They complained that farmers had little
freedom under the New Deal. In their view, they did not want government to interfere in economic affairs.

(b) The States: The states were concerned about the New Deal because measures like the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) cut
right across the rights of individual states. Some states feared that the federal government was becoming too powerful.

(c) The Socialists: The socialists felt that the New Deal left too much power in the hands of the businesses.

(d) The Supreme Court: the court claimed that the president was taking too much power. It ruled that several New Deal laws were
illegal. It declared several measures introduced by Roosevelt as interference in individual freedoms of the employers and their
business firms. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) and the National Recovery Administration (NIRA) were declared invalid
53

by the Court in 1935 and 1936 respectively. The court argued that federal government did not have the right to say what each
Page

state should do.

 Chapter Fifteen

CHINA

Background
By 1900, China was under the leadership of the Qing family better known as the Manchu’s. During this period, China was heavily
controlled by foreign nations and this increased civil disorder in the country. Large parts of the country were ruined by rebellions and
uprisings, such as:

(a) The Boxer Rebellion: This rebellion occurred in northern China. Its aim was to enforce reforms in the Qing administration, drive
away foreigners, and to re-establish traditional rule.

(b) The Kuomintang Nationalist Party: This was a political party formed by young revolutionists between 1911 and 1912. It
comprised of students, frustrated military officers and young officials. They fought for the Qing rule to be overthrown and be
replaced by a Republic. They were promoting nationalism, democracy and improving people’s lives by making new land reforms.
They were inspired by the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen.

(c) The Wuchang: This was a revolutionary military uprising that began on 10th October, 1911. This uprising ended with the
overthrow of the Qing administration and the formation of the Republic of China in Nanjing on 12th March 1912. Sun Yat-sen
was declared the founder and first president of the republic of China. Shortly, Sun Yatsen was forced to hand over power to Yuan
Shikai who was Prime Minister under the Qing government.

Political Developments In China

Yuan Shikai led the provisional government in China into the First World War. He soon became a dictator and declared himself an
emperor in 1915. In 1916, he resigned and died the same year. At the time that the war was ending, Chang Kai-Shek was temporarily in
the driving seat in China. He lost popularity when he failed to take over the Germany possession of the Far East.

In 1919, the Versailles treaty was signed that concluded the war and handed over Far East possessions to Japan. This was totally rejected
by the Chinese and caused wide spread demonstrations resulting into the Fourth May Movement which was against Feudalism,
Warlordism, autocracy, imperialism among others. It instead advocated for democracy, freedom, patriotic, science, and progress among
others. The movement resulted into the formation of the Communist Party under Sun Yat-sen.

In 1925, Sun Yat-sen died of cancer and Chang Kai-Shek seized control of the Kuomintang Nationalist Party. He succeeded in bringing
most of the south and central China under his control through a military campaign called Northern Expedition. In 1927, due to some
differences Chang Kai-Shek turned against the Red Army communists and killed many of them in the incidence that was termed as the
White Terror.

In October1934, the surviving Red Army

communists moved a long journey that
covered 600 miles for 385days. They
started off from the Kiangsi Province,
crossed mountains, 25 rivers including the
Yantze River, and villages and established
a guerrilla base at Shensi Province near the
Great Wall of China. The movement was
called the Long March. The communists
reorganized under a new leader Mao-Tse-
Tung or Mao Zedong.
54 Page

The Long March

In 1937, both the Nationalist party and Communist party in China nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese during the
Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese forces reacted by committing numerous war crimes against civilians in the Policy of ‘Kill All, Burn All
and Loot All’, an incidence that came to be known as Nanking Massacre.

CHINA UNDER THE COMMUNISTS

China became a communist country in October 1949, after the Second World War. However, many problems came as a result of the
civil war and the war with Japan.

China’s Problems After The Second World War

China experienced a lot of problems after the Second World War. The country was destroyed after the long civil war and the war with
Japan. These problems included the following:

(a) Railways, roads, canals and dykes had been destroyed during the wars.
(b) There were chronic food shortages.
(c) Industry was backward and less productive.
(d) Agriculture was not productive enough to feed the poverty-stricken people.
(e) Inflation was very high and out of control.

These problems had been made worse by the poor performance of the Kuomintang government. The government soon lost the support
of the peasants and many others. It was not until 1949 that Mao Zedong came to power and worked hard to improve the economy of
China.

China Under Mao Zedong

After the Communist victory over the Kuomintang in 1949, Mao Zedong set about rebuilding a shattered China. At first he received
advice and aid from Russia. Later, when the relationship with Russia became weak he crushed all opposition within his party to keep
china developing. He introduced a number of reforms that mostly were in line with Stalin’s policies.

Mao Zedong’s Attempt To Solve China’s Problems

Mao made a lot of changes to try and solve china’s problems:

(a) Agricultural changes: Mao tried to change china from a country of small private farms into one of the large co-operative farms.
He took land from large landowners and shared it among the peasants.

(b) Industrial Changes: The industrial changes started with the government nationalizing most businesses. In 1953, Mao embarked
on a Five Year Plan concentrating on the development of heavy industry like steel chemical and coal. The Russians helped with
cash, equipment and advice. The plan had some success. China’s communications had been restored, inflation was under control
and the economy was looking much healthier.

(c) The Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957): This was a period in China when the Communist Party encouraged citizens to express
their views openly about the communist regime. The campaign was in response to the demoralized technicians and engineers who
felt threatened by the activities of the party cadres. This came about upon seeing that there was going to be conflict between a
new class of technicians and engineers on one hand and party cadres on the other hand. The party cadres feared that technician
and engineers would threaten their authority in implementing the changes that Mao introduced in china as they had been
influential in ensuring that all reforms were implemented. The campaign was a platform to ensure that the two sides worked
55

together to implement Mao’s policies.

Page
 (d) The Great Leap Forward: This was Mao’s second five-year plan. It was an economic and social campaign aimed at reconstructing
the country from an agrarian economy to a communist society through the formation of the people’s communes. The idea behind
this was to industrialize by making use of the massive supply of cheap labor and avoid importing heavy machinery. In this plan,
Mao degreed increased efforts to multiply grain yields and bring industry to the countryside. He wanted to achieve his plans by
doing the following;

 He introduced Communes: He made larger units of farms than the collectives, of about 75,000 people and divided them into
brigades and work teams with an elected council. They ran their own collective farms and factories, and carried out functions
of local government. Each family in a commune received a share of the profits and had a small private plot of land.

 He introduced a complete change in industry: Instead of insisting on large scale works, Mao introduced much smaller factories
in the countryside to provide machinery for agriculture. He organized small steel furnaces, organized and managed by the
communes and did much of social work like building roads, canals and irrigation channels.

(e). Cultural Revolution: This was Mao’s socio-political movement aimed at preserving Chinese communism by purging remnants
of capitalism and traditional elements from Chinese society. Western influence, traditional Chinese ideas and middle class attitudes
were all wiped out. Foreign missionaries and merchants were forced to leave the country. This was a way of eliminating Mao’s rivals
in schools, factories, and government institutions. He used his supporters, the Red Guards under Lin Piao, mostly comprising of
students to carry out achieve his ends. This however almost ended into a civil war.

Mao’s Death

Mao died in 1976. There were three main contenders to succeed Mao. There was Gua Guofeng, named by Mao himself as his
successor. Others were Deng Xiaoping, and a group known as the Gang of Four led by Mao’s widow Jing Qing. After a long struggle
for power amongst the three parties, Deng Xiaoping became the leader in 1981.

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

This Is An Exclusive Work Of:

Mayoba Chuulu Pious: M. Ed. L&M (Chalimbana)

PG. Dip. M&E (Cavendish)
B. Ed. History (ZAOU)
B. Ed. L&M (Chalimbana)
56

Dip. L&M (UNZA)

Page

Prim. Trs. Cert. (DLTTC)

 Chapter Sixteen

THE SECOND WORLD WAR

The Second World War started in 1939 and ended in 1945. It was also referred to as the Second European War. It was fought between
the two military camps in which Europe became divided into, that is:
(a) The Axis Powers or Dictators, (Germany, Japan, and Italy who were members of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis) and
(b) The Allied or Democratic powers (Britain, France, Russia and later United States of America).
The war broke out on 1st September 1939 when Germany invaded Poland.

Causes Of The Second World War.

There were many causes of the Second World War, as shown below:

(i). The unfair terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919: The Versailles peace treaty was too unfair to Germany. It intended to keep
Germany weak. It humiliated Germany politically, and ruined her economy. This made Germany a permanent enemy of the victor (allied)
powers. It made her develop the need to revenge which later came in 1939, resulting into the Second World War.

(ii). The failure of the League of Nations to disarm members: The League of Nations was primarily formed to eliminate any possibilities
of an outbreak of another War. The League of Nations failed to carryout effective disarmaments and stop the aggressive acts of some of
its major member countries. The league, for example, failed to prevent the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Italy’s invasion of
Ethiopia in 1936 and the many acts of aggression committed by Hitler. When the League of Nations condemned such actions, the
aggressors left the League to commit more acts of aggression. These invasions later attracted other countries to join, hence the tension
and later, war.

(ii). The rebirth of the alliance system in Europe: European countries began to formed alliances against other countries. Out of their
common interests as dictators, Mussolini and Hitler signed the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. In the same year, Germany signed the Anti-
Commutern Pact with Japan. In 1937, the three dictators, Italy, Germany and Japan signed the Rome-Berlin Tokyo Axis. In August
1939, Hitler and Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel. These military alliances led to the division of Europe into two camps just like before
the First World War. These camps started preparing for War, which later broke out in 1939.

(iii). The Great Depression of 1929: The Great Depression acted as cause of the Second World War because it led to the collapse of
democracies and the rise of dictatorships. For example, the Weimar Republic collapsed and Hitler and the NAZI Party in Germany rose.
These dictatorships carried out aggressive policies that developed hostile environments among European nations. The nations therefore
easily went to war.

(iv). The Imperialistic desires of European powers: Some powers in Europe were determined to acquire more colonies, while others
wanted to defend their already acquired ones. France, for example, wanted to maintain and defend her imperialistic gains in Africa, while
Italy aimed at forming another Roman Empire. Britain wanted to safeguard her economic interests in the Far East while Russia had
interest in the Balkans. This imperialism climaxed into war.

(v). Arms race or militarism: Germany pulled out of the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1934. She then started rapid re-armament
in preparation for revenge against the Versailles treaty. The other countries felt threatened and also started rearming. This created an
atmosphere for war which easily broke out in 1939.

(vi). The formation of two rival/hostile military camps: By 1939 Europe was clearly divided into two rival camps as a result of military
57

pacts and alliances prior to the war such as the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, Locarno Pact and Nazi Soviet Pact. One camp comprising
dictators was always hostile toward another that comprised of democrats. These two camps soon turned against each other in the Second
Page

World War as each member of one camp helped another in times of war.
(vii). The policy of appeasement: The policy of appeasement was a policy of making concessions to dictatorial powers in order to avoid
conflicts. The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain and the French adopted this policy towards Germany by giving Hitler grants,
pardoning Germany’s debts, and frequently visiting him. The reasons why they adopted the policy of appeasement were that:
 Britain and France were not yet ready for another war and so they did not want to provoke Hitler.
 Britain and France felt guilty of how they treated Germany at the Versailles Peace Treaty.
 They wanted Hitler to stop his plans for another war.
However, this was a miscalculation because Hitler was using the grants from the appeasers to buy new and strong military weapons for
war. This fueled his desire to revenge during the war.

(viii). German Invasion of Poland: This acted as the immediate cause of the Second World War. Germany invaded Poland on 1st
September, 1939. When Germany did so, invaded Poland, Britain and France gave an ultimatum to Germany to withdraw her troops by
3rd September, 1939. When this ultimatum expired, Britain and France declared war on Germany and the war started.

Course / Stages Of The War

The Second World War was fought on many fronts some of which were as follows;

(i). The Western Front:

In 1939, Germany attacked and defeated Poland within 6 weeks. At first, there was no actual fighting between Britain and France and
Germany because Britain and France were not ready for War. From September 1939 to April 1940, the two sides were still organizing
themselves. This period was referred to as the period of the “Phoney War” However, after April 1940, Germany used Blitzkrieg (War
of Lightening). This was a plan that Hitler formulated to quickly defeat and occupy Denmark, Norway, Belgium and France. The
invasion of these countries was code named “Operation Yellow”.

After the defeat of the above mentioned Countries, in September 1940, Germany launched “Operation Sea Lion”. Operation Sea Lion
was the code Name for the German Invasion of Britain. Hitler used the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) to bombard Britain in order to
weaken her. The main assault, thus, ‘Operation Sea Lion’ was supposed to have been an attack from the Sea. The resulting fighting
between Germany and Britain was referred to as the “Battle of Britain”. However, Germany failed to defeat Britain because by this time
Britain had prepared adequately for the war.

(ii). The Mediterranean, Middle East and North Africa.

In 1940, Italy was certain that Germany would win the war. She therefore joined the war on the side of Germany. Italy invaded Greece,
Yugoslavia, Crete, Malta, Egypt and Libya. Italy owed her victories in these battles to the help she was given by Germany. By 1943,
Germany was unable to provide help to Italy. This resulted into Italy’s defeat.

(iii). The Eastern Front.

The main war on the Eastern Front was between Germany and
Russia. The Code Name for the German invasion of Russia was
“Operation Barbarossa”. Germany invaded Russia in 1941. By
1942, Germany troops advanced towards Kiev, Leningrad,
Moscow and Stalingrad. Germany was certain of victory over
Russia because:
 The Russian army was poorly trained.
 Russian weapons were outdated. For example, Russian
guns were drawn by horses or tractors.

.
58

Operation Barbarossa
Page
When Russia saw that she was losing the war, in 1943, she entered into a Lend Scheme with the USA which enabled her to obtain tanks
and other war materials from the USA. This Scheme greatly enhanced Russia’s progress in the war. By 1945, the Russians managed to
drive the Germans out of Russia and captured East Germany. The success of the Russian troops in 1945 was partly due to fact that the
German troops were not adequately prepared for the severe Russian winters.

(iv). War In the Pacific and Asia.

War in the Pacific and Asia was perpetuated by Japan. Japan wanted to expand her Empire and win major areas of oil, rice and other
resources for her allies. Before the outbreak of the Second World War, Japan had occupied Manchuria (1931) and North China (1937).
In 1941, Japan Captured Indo-China and then attacked the United States naval base in the Pacific called Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. In
1941, the USA officially declared war on Japan, Germany and Italy. Britain also declared war on Japan. During the year that followed,
Japan captured the Gawnwake Islands, and the USA held Philippines. In 1942, Japan also captured Burma, Malaysia, the Dutch East
Indies and Singapore.

Allied Victory In The Second World War.

Allied Victory in Europe

In 1943, the allies began to win the war because of the entry of the USA in to the war. This is because the USA entered the war with
fresh soldiers, advanced weapons and financial assistance. The USA also became the leader of the Allied powers. In the summer of 1943,
the allied powers conquered and liberated North Africa from Italian occupation. In autumn of 1943, Italy was defeated.

In 1944, France was liberated from Germany Occupation. The liberation of France was launched at Normandy, a small French Coastal
town. This day was referred to as the “D-Day”. In 1945, the Russians drove the German troops out of Russia and occupied the Eastern
part of Germany and her smaller allies such as Bulgaria, Rumania and Finland. In May, 1945, the allied powers launched a final attack
on Germany which was code named “Operation Jubilee”. Hitler committed suicide and Germany made an unconditional surrender.
Berlin was then occupied by the allied forces.

Allied Victory in the Pacific and Asia

Between 1942 and 1945, Japan lost most of her territorial gains in the Pacific and Asia to the USA. In 1942, the USA sank Japanese
Aircraft carriers and ships in the Coral and Midway Islands. Between 1943 and 1945, American troops captured the Islands of Iwo Jima
and Okinawa while the British captured Burma.

After the fall of Italy and Germany, the allies turned their full force on Japan. By February, 1945 Japan was surrounded by the allied
Powers. The allies demanded that Japan should surrender unconditionally but Japan rejected the demand. On the 6 thAugust and the 9th
of August, 1945, the USA dropped Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. On 14th August, 1945, Japan surrendered
and the Second World War ended.

Reasons For Initial Victories For Germany And Her Allies (Axis Powers).

During the initial stages of the War, Germany and her allies achieved Initial victories due to the following reasons:
(a) Germany Generals were skilled in war while the troops were brave and efficient.
(b) Hitler had carefully planned and prepared for the war since he rose to power in 1933.
(c) The use of War of Lightening (Blitzkrieg) enabled them to achieve early victories.
(d) The Allied powers were not ready for the War. As a result, they were involved in a Phony War which gave Germany an advantage.
(e) The Axis Powers maintained an element of surprise in all their attacks. This ensured victory in all the wars they fought.

Reasons For The Final Defeat Of Germany And The Axis Powers
59

Germany and the Axis powers finally lost the Second World War because:
(a) The entry of the USA into the war: The USA had fresh soldiers and enough finances to support the allied side. Germany and the
Page

Axis Powers did not have such help.

 (b) Germany had weak allies: Germany’s allies such as Bulgaria, Rumania and Finland could not help much towards the end of the
War.
(c) The Axis Powers were not as advanced as the Allied powers technologically and scientifically: The allied forces invented the Radar
and Atomic Bomb which the axis powers never had.
(d) The Axis Powers had too many countries to fight at the same time: For example, Hitler’s war against Britain involved not only
Britain but her entire colonial Empire and at the same time, Hitler was fighting Russia on the Eastern Front.
(e) The Axis powers did not use all the material and human resources for the war: The allied powers used “Total Warfare”. This was
using all the available material and human resources for the war. Women were also used during the war.
(f) The allied powers knew how to counteract the Blitzkrieg which German mostly depended on to win the war: They also built air
and naval supremacy which enabled them to win battles in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. They also used this advantage to
slowly starve the Axis powers of essential supplies.
(g) The German Soldiers became undisciplined and Hitler lost popularity toward the end of the war: On the other hand the allied
forces were fully supported by their people.

Results / Effects Of The Second World War

The Second World War had a lot of effects on many countries. These results include the following:

(a) Loss of human life: During the Second World War, millions of people died.

(b) Destruction of Property: During the war, most of the European cities were destroyed. These only recovered due to financial
assistance from the USA through the Marshal plan after the War.

(c) It led to the emergency of two Super Powers, the USA and the USSR: Before the war, the balance of power in the World was
upset. This was due to the fact that before the Second World War, the balance of power had been concentrated in Europe, thus,
in Britain, Germany and France. The Second World War led to the destruction of these powers.

(d) It led to the Emergency of The Cold War: The war also led to the emergency of the Cold War which was characterized by
tensions and conflicts between capitalist USA and the Communist USSR and their respective supporters.

(e) It cause a lot of negative environmental problems like diseases: The Second World War had serious environmental impact as a
result of the nuclear weapons, especially the dropping of the Atomic Bombs on Japan.

(f) It led to the formation of the United Nations organization: This was formed to maintain peace among countries of the world.

(g) It led to the division of Germany into East and West German: In 1943, Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt agreed that
Germany must surrender unconditionally, and that the allies must occupy it.
60 Page
 Chapter Seventeen

THE END OF EUROPEAN EMPIRES

THE ERA OF DECOLONISATION

Background

At the end of the Second World War in 1945, the nations of Europe still controlled big areas of the rest of the world, particularly Asia
and Africa. Britain had the largest areas, followed by France. However, by 1960, most of the African countries had gained their
independence, hence no longer under colonial rule.

Why European Powers Gave Independence To Their Colonial Territories

There were a number of reasons that made European nations give up their empires. Some of these reasons include:

(a) Nationalist movements: Most missionary educated Africans in colonies began to have a general feeling that they were being
exploited by the Europeans. They felt that the development and prosperity of the colonies were being held back in the interest of
Europe. They began to sow seeds of self-government for Africans. Men like John Chilembwe, Willie Mokalapa, Charles Domingo,
and Eliot Kamwana preached equality of all men. They began to make progress towards independence, which they attained by the
second half of the 18th century.

(b) The effects of the Second World War: The Second World War was an eye opener to the Africans who realized there was no
difference between them and the Europeans. African nationalists became aware that military superior Europeans could be defeated
by force of arms, as they witnessed some super powers being defeated during the war. They also noticed how some European
powers had been weakened by the war. This enabled them to easily rise against their colonial masters, and demand for
independence.

(c) Pan-Africanism: By the early 20th century, Africans began to see the need to be united by the same culture and spiritual heritage.
The idea became known as Pan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism was started by Marcus Garvey (Jamaica) and W.E.B. Dubois. The
idea of pan-Africanism spread so quickly among Africans especially students. It gave them the courage to get rid of colonial rule
from Africa. Pan-Africanist organized meetings and conferences to press against colonial rule. Africans united and formed the
Organization of African Unity (OAU) to fight for African independence from colonial rule.

(d) Outside pressures: there was also pressure from countries and organizations to end European empires overseas. The USA and the
USSR were hostile to imperialism. America pressured Britain to speed up independence for India and other countries. America
looked at newly independent countries as potential market for her industrial products. The UNO also came out firmly against
imperialism and demand for decolonization. These demands encouraged nationalists all over the world to intensify their campaigns
against colonial rule.

(e) The effect of colonial power on African societies: The Colonial powers sowed seeds of opposition by creating cultural conscious
through the color bar resulting in strikes like the Copper belt strikes of 1935. This further led to the formation of welfare
societies, trade unions and finally political parties than fought for independence. People like Donald Siwale and Mbikusita
Lewanika were very instrumental in the formation of the welfare societies and political parties.

(f) The exhaustion of raw materials: When Europeans saw that their colonies had run out of raw materials, they decolonized them.
The colonies were no longer profitable to them.

(g) The influence of guerilla campaign: Africans began to resist European rule employed guerilla tactics to fight against Europeans.
In countries like Zimbabwe, Namibia, South Africa, the Africans resorted to guerrilla warfare to gain independence.
61 Page
 (h) The 1960 Wind of Change speech: in 1960, Harold MacMillan, the then British Prime Minister addressed the south African
parliament after touring African Commonwealth states. The address, that became popularly known as the Wind Of Change
Speech influenced nationalists in Africa to fight for self-rule, and that Britain was ready to meet their demand for self-governance.

Common Problems After Independence In Africa

After attaining independence, African states faced a number of problems. Some of these problems are outlined below:

Social Problems

Many African nations experienced the following social problems after independence;

(a) They had poor health and educational facilities. This led to high levels of illiteracy and mortality among the people.
(b) They experienced civil wars as people owed their allegiance to their tribes than to their nations.
(c) They had poor communication systems.
(d) They faced hunger and poverty due to low production of crops.
(e) There were many diseases that led to massive loss of lives.
(f) There were also higher levels of unemployment in many sectors of society.
(g) There was widespread disrespect to human rights.
(h) There have been a lot of urban drifting leaving rural areas underdeveloped.
(i) There has been lack of investment in most countries.

Economic Problems
The newly independent African states also faced the following economic problems:

(a) They mostly depended on foreign aid, without which they couldn’t develop much of their social and economic sectors.
(b) They mostly relied on one or two commodities for export, which made their economics limited and weak.
(c) Many of them experienced either floods or droughts that led to crop failure, famine, starvation and death of livestock.
(d) Their currencies were of less value, resulting to their economies being weak.

Political problems
Some of the political problems that African countries faced after independence were as follows:
(a) African leaders lacked experience of how to run democratic governments left by Europeans.
(b) There were several cases of corruption among leaders.
(c) Many African countries experienced political violence in the process of choosing leaders during elections.
(d) They depended on western European nations, resulting in those countries controlling African governments, a system commonly
referred to as neo-colonialism.
(e) There were widespread military coups among African countries in trying to remove unpopular rulers.
(f) Some African government suffered direct military interventions from European countries which did not like their government.
(g) Some leaders manipulate the constitution to perpetuate their hold of power. 62 Page
 Chapter Eighteen

INDIA

Background
India was under British rule from 1858 to 1947 when she attained independence. After independence, India was partitioned, creating
independent states of India and Pakistan.
Why India’s Partition Was Necessary
After independence, there was need to partition India. This was largely because:
(a) There was religious hostility between Hindus and Muslims: India had two main religious groups after Independence, Hindus and
Muslims. Hindus made up about two-thirds of the 400 million population, and the rest were mostly Muslims. After the 1937
elections, the Hindu National Congress Party called on the Muslim League to merge with Congress. This alarmed the Muslim
League, who were afraid that an independent India would be dominated by Hindus. The Muslims therefore demanded a separate
Muslim state of Pakistan, which was granted to them in 1947.

(b) The proposed British federal scheme failed: The British had proposed a federal scheme in which the central government would
have only limited powers, while those of the provincial governments would be much greater. This would enable provinces with a
Muslim majority to control their own affairs and there would be no need for a separate state. Both sides accepted the idea in
principle but failed to agree on the details.

(c) Violence between Hindus and Muslims broke out in August 1946: This began when the viceroy (the king’s representative in
India), Lord Wavell, invited the Congress leader, Jawaharlal Nehru, to form an interim government, still hoping that details could
be worked out later. Nehru formed a cabinet which included two Muslims, but Jinnah was convinced that the Hindus could not
be trusted to treat the Muslims fairly. He called for a day of ‘direct action’ in support of a separate Pakistan. Fierce rioting followed
in Calcutta, where 5000 people were killed, and it soon spread to Bengal, where Muslims set about slaughtering Hindus. As Hindus
retaliated, the country seemed on the verge of civil war.

(d) The partition was necessary to prevent a civil war in India: The British lacked the military strength to control the violent situation
between Hindus and Muslims. Lord Louis Mountbatten was sent as the new viceroy, and he soon decided that partition was the
only way to avoid civil war. He realized that there would probably be bloodshed whatever solution was tried, but felt that partition
would produce less violence than if Britain tried to insist on the Muslims remaining part of India. Within six weeks Mountbatten
had worked out a plan for dividing the country up and for the British withdrawal. Afraid that delay would cause more violence,
Mountbatten brought the date for British withdrawal forward to August 1947.

How The Partition Of India Was Carried Out

Soon after independence, The Indian Independence Act was rushed through the British parliament (August 1947), separating the Muslim
majority areas in the north-west and north-east from the rest of India to become the independent state of Pakistan. The new Pakistan
unfortunately consisted of two separate areas over a thousand miles apart. Independence Day for both India and Pakistan was fixed for
15 August 1947. Soon after this partition, a number of problems followed.
Problems After The Partition Of India
The two independent states of India and Pakistan faced a number of problems that came as a result of the partition:
(a) People became misplaced: Millions of people found themselves on the wrong side of the new frontiers – Muslims in India and
Hindus in Pakistan.

(b) Rampant violent clashes and deaths: Afraid of being attacked, millions of people headed for the frontiers, Muslims trying to
get into Pakistan and Hindus into India. Clashes occurred which developed into near-hysterical mob violence. In Punjab, about
250,000 people were murdered.

(c) Pakistan divided further: After the partition of India, Pakistan did not work well as a divided state, and in 1971 East Pakistan
broke away and became the independent state of Bangladesh.
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 Chapter Nineteen

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Origins
The idea to form the League of Nations was brought up by Woodrow Wilson, the American President in his famous Fourteen Points.
This was his 14th point that were a basis of the discussions at the Versailles Treaty. The League’s principle aim was to preserve
international peace and security. It was formed in January 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, a traditionally neutral state.

Membership Of The League

At the beginning, the League of Nations had 42 member states. By 1926 when Germany was admitted, there were 55 members of the
league.

Aims Of The League

The aims of the League of Nations were as follows;

 To preserve world peace and security, that is, national disputes were to be settled peacefully. This was the most important aim of
the League of Nations.
 To ensure a general disarmament to the lowest level for national security.
 To guarantee political independence and territorial integrity to great and small nations
 To establish an international force (army) under the supervision of the League, to help in implementing and enforcing the decisions
of the League of Nations.
 To respect treaties and publish them.
 To encourage friendships among member countries.
 To encourage international co-operation among member countries in solving social, political and economic problems.
 To impose economic and political sanctions against any member country committing acts of aggression.
 To improve general working conditions of employees who suffered from exploitation, mistreatment and oppression.
 To set up a mandate system for the control of defeated countries’ former territories.
 To fight against hunger, poverty, diseases, human and drug trafficking, child labor, slavery and ignorance

The Structure/Organization Of The League Of Nations

The structure of the League of Nations comprised of 5 main organs plus a number of commissions.

(i). The Assembly

This was like a world parliament where each member country had a right to send 3-5 representatives. When it came to voting, each
member country had only one vote regardless of the status and size of a country. The members met once every year in September.
Decisions were made on a 2/3 majority. The functions of the League Assembly were;
 To make laws to govern the League, thus, it was a legislative body.
 To approved the budget of the League of Nations
 To debate on issues concerning member states
 To appoint the non-permanent members of the League Council.
 To appoint the Secretary General on recommendation from the League Council.

(ii). The Security Council

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This was the executive body which was made up of nine (9) members. The five (5) permanent members were Britain, France, Italy, Japan
and the USA whose seat remained Vacant. The Assembly also elected four (4) non-permanent members on a 3year rotational term.
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Members met at least 3 to 4 times a year though they could be summoned any time if there was any emergency that threatened world
peace. Decisions in the Council were made unanimously. The five permanent members had the right to Veto, meaning they could refuse
any decision made by the Council. The functions of the Security Council were;
 To carry out general disarmament.
 To maintenance of world peace and security.
 To recommend the appointment of the Secretary General and the admission of new members.
 To impose sanctions (economic/military) on disobedient member countries.

(iii). The Secretariat

This was an international Civil service. It was made up of the Secretary General and about 500 members from member countries. Its
headquarters were based in Geneva, Swaziland. The first secretary general was an Englishman, Sir Eric Edmund. This was the
administrative wing of the League. Its functions were;
 To implement the League’s decisions.
 To carry out research and provided factual information on issues needed by the League Assembly and organs.
 To kept records for the League.
 To translate documents in all the Major world languages.
 To send reminders for meetings to all member countries
 To supervise the work of the Commissions of the League.

(iv). The International Court of Justice

This was an international court of appeal that acted like an international judiciary. The headquarters of the Court were based in the
Netherlands (Holland) at The Hague. It was established in 1922. It consisted of fifteen (15) judges who were drawn from member
countries and elected by the League Assembly on recommendation from the League Council. The functions of the court were;
 To settle disputes among member countries. However, it had limited powers since it could not enforce its decisions.
 It also gave legal advice to other organs.
 It interpreted international documents.
By 1939, the court had settled 70 major cases and had helped to arrange 400 international agreements.

(v). The International Labor Organization (ILO)

This was made up of representatives from governments of member countries; employers, employees and trade unions. Its headquarters
were based in Geneva, Switzerland. Its functions were;
 To work for the improvement of workers’ conditions of services through an 8 hour working day and a working week of 48 hours.
 To help Workers to have annual paid holidays.
 To encourage workers to have trade Unions.
 To publish international agreements which member countries were to rectify.

Commissions Of The League

The League Commissions complemented the work of the 5 main organs in achieving the aims of the League of Nations. These were;

(a) The Mandates Commission: This commission was responsible for the good governance of the mandate territories (the former
colonies of the defeated powers in the First World War). These mandate territories were controlled by countries such as Britain
and France.

(b) The World Health Organization (WHO): This commission was there to ensure that people in member countries enjoyed good
health. It carried out research to find vaccines and cure for contagious diseases such as smallpox and measles.
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 (c) The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): This commission was responsible for:
 Ensuring that there was food security in the world.
 Carrying out research on how to improve production and made the information available to member countries.
 Giving out loans for the improvement of food production to member countries.
 Providing food relief to the affected countries in times of drought and famine.

(d) Slavery Commission: This worked to abolish slavery around the World.

(e) The Drug Commission: This commission drew attention to the dangers of certain drugs and introduced measures of controlling
drug trafficking.

(f) Minorities Commission: This commission looked into the ill-treatment of minority groups in major countries and devised ways
of protecting them.

(g) The Disarmament Commission: This commission dealt with the reduction of arms in all member countries to the lowest level.
However, this commission had the least success.

(h) The Economic and Social Commission: This dealt with social and economic problems in Member countries. It carried out research
on these problems in member countries and made recommendations on how to solve these problems.

(i) Refugee Commission: This commission dealt with the repatriation and resettlement of refugees from the First World War since
many people had lost their homes during the War.

Organization Of The League

Successes Of The League Of Nations.

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Since its formation in 1920, the League of Nations scored a number of successes as outlined below:
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(i) It secured loans for Austria and Hungary to rebuild their economies after the First World War.
 (ii) It settled a number of wars and territorial disputes, for example:
 In a quarrel between Finland and Sweden over Aaland Islands, The League ruled in favor of Finland in 1920.
 The League decided that Upper Silesia should be divided in 1921 between Germany and Poland, who had both claimed its
ownership.
 The League decided that the province of Mosul claimed by Turkey and Iraq goes to Iraq.
 The League also stopped the Yugoslavian invasion of Albania in 1921.
 The League handed over the port of Memel to Lithuania. This ended the disputes between Lithuania and Germany over
who should own Memel.
 The League settled squabbles between Colombia and Peru, and between Bolivia and Paraguay.
 It settled a war between Greece and Bulgaria after Greece invaded Bulgaria because of the shooting incidents on the border.
The League swiftly intervened by ordering Greece to withdraw its troops from border and pay compensation to Bulgaria.

(iii) It carried out relief work in various countries to help refugees and other affected peoples. For instance, it solved the problem of
former prisoners of war marooned in Russia at the end of the war. After 1933, valuable help was given to thousands of people
running away from Nazi persecution in Germany.

(iv) It worked hard to reduce the outbreak of serious epidemics in the post war period. For example, the Health Organization did
good work in investigating the causes of epidemics and it was especially successful in combating the typhoid in Poland and Russia
which at once seemed likely to spread across Europe.

(v) It helped in reducing drug trafficking in member countries.

(vi) It was also partly successful in protecting the rights of minority groups in various countries.

(vii) It scored a lot of successes in Labor welfare through the work of the ILO. The International Labor Organization (ILO) under its
French Socialist Director Albert Thomas managed to collect and publish huge amount of information and approached many
governments to take action for the improvement of conditions of service, that is, specified minimum wages and introduced sickness
and unemployment benefits as well as old age pensions.

Failures / Weaknesses Of The League Of Nations.

Most of the scored achievements of the League of Nations were short lived. It had the following weaknesses/failures:

(a) It failed to carry out complete disarmament even if it was recommended so at the Geneva Disarmament Conference. It only
emphasized on the disarmament of the defeated powers especially Germany, while the other powers kept their arms. As such,
when Hitler came to power, he started rapid re-armament and the other powers responded by starting to rearm. This started the
Arms race again.

(b) It failed to achieve its major aim ensuring permanent peace in Europe and outside. It was out ruled by the outbreak of the Second
World War. It was not able to maintain world peace and as such, it was referred to as “A Toothless Barking Dog.”

(c) It failed to restrain its members from acts of aggression. It failed to control Japanese invasion of Manchuria in China, Italian
occupation of Ethiopia in 1935, Germany takeover of Rhineland in 1936, Germany invasion of Austria, Czechoslovakia and
Poland in 1939, and Mussolini’s invasion of Corfu Island.

(d) It failed to guarantee security and independence of some member states. Poland, Austria, Ethiopia, and Manchuria were forcefully
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colonized while the league was still operational.

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 (e) The absence of the United States of America (USA) made the League of Nations weak in the sense that it deprived the
organization of the much needed financial support from her.

(f) It failed to have a joint army of its own to enforce its actions: It depended on collective security for maintenance of peace.
Therefore, it was difficult to enforce law and order.

(g) It failed to win the support of non-European countries. It was Eurocentric in nature and was consequently not supported by the
non-European countries.

(h) The League was financially weak therefore it depended on contributions from member countries which were not forth coming.

(i) The absence of major world countries from the beginning also contributed to the failure of the League. Though the League of
Nations was founded by Wilson, the US president, the US senate refused membership. Other countries especially the defeated
countries such as Germany only became a member in 1934. Italy left the League in 1936 after the invasion of Abyssinia
(Ethiopia), and Japan also left in 1933 after the invasion of Manchuria. As such, the League of Nations was seen as a “victors
club”. This weakened the foundation of the League of Nations.

(j) The League also failed to win the respect of big powers: They resolved their differences outside the League, disrespecting the
provisions that they themselves came up with.

Reasons For The Failure Of The League Of Nations

Even if The League of Nations had set objectives to maintain world peace and security, it failed in many instances because:

1. It did not have an international army or force to reinforce the League’s decisions: It depended on the contributions from member
states who were very reluctant to respond.

2. Member states had conflicting and selfish interest which affected the execution of set objectives: Member countries put the interest
of their nations first, and not that of the League.

3. It was dominated by Big powers while interests of small powers were neglected: The Big powers could act outside the provisions
of the League and still went unsanctioned.

4. It did not have adequate funding, probably due to the absence of economic giants like the USA: Besides, many member states were
still financially weak as they had spent a lot during the war.

5. It had no clear policies on members’ entry and exit. Members left at will whenever aggrieved. They went back to rearm and
continue with their acts of aggression.
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 Chapter Twenty

THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION (UNO)

Origins
The United Nations Organization was initiated out of the ideas
of Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt at the Yalta
conference. It came into existence during the Second World War
as a result of the failure of the League of Nations to maintain
world peace and security. As such, there was need to establish
another world organization to maintain peace after the defeat of
the Axis powers in the Second World War. The UN came into
existence on 26th June, 1945 after 50 countries signed the United
Nations Charter at the San Francisco Conference in the USA.
However, the UN started its formal operation on 24th October,
1945 after the five (5) leading countries, thus, USA, Britain,
France, China, and USSR approved the charter. Its Headquarters
are in New York in the USA.

Steps That Led To The Formation Of The UN

Plans for the formation of the UN were laid down long before the Second World War ended. This was done through a series of meetings
and conferences among the allied Nations. These talks were initiated by President Roosevelt of the USA.

The First step leading to the formation of the UN was the signing of the Atlantic Charter of August 1941. This agreement was signed
between President Franklin Roosevelt of the USA and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. This meeting took place on board
a British Battleship called the “Prince of Wales”. By this Charter, the two leaders agreed to create a more Permanent system of General
Security that would ensure freedom for all people and international cooperation between all nations after the defeat of the Axis Powers.

The signing of the Atlantic Charter was followed by the Washington Declaration of January 1942. This was a speech by President
Roosevelt outlining the terms of the Atlantic Charter which had laid down guidelines for the formation of a “United Nations”. The
Washington Declaration was signed by 26 Countries who also pledged to aid in the achievements of the Atlantic Charter and the defeat
of the Axis Powers.

In October, 1943, the Moscow Conference was held in the USSR. The Conference was attended by President Roosevelt of the USA,
Churchill of Britain, Stalin of the USSR (the host) and Chiang Kai Shek of China. The leaders discussed details of the plans of the work
of the UN.

The Moscow Conference was followed by series meetings between August and October 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks Conference near
Washington D.C. The aim of this Conference was to prepare ground work for the final formation of the UN. At this conference, the
countries represented agreed on the main Structure of the UN and paying particular attention to the Security Council.

In February, 1945, another meeting was held in the USSR which came to be known as the Yalta Conference. Among the issues discussed
were the voting procedures and eligibility to join.
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From 26thApril to 25th June, 1945, a very important and final conference was held in San Francisco, USA. There were 50 countries that
attended this Conference and signed the drafted UN Charter. The signing of the UN Charter marked the official formation of the UN,
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on 26th June, 1945. Unfortunately, president Roosevelt, who had initiated and coined the term “United Nations” did not live to see the
final formation of the UN as he died on 12th April, 1945. The UN started its operations on 24th October, 1945 and its headquarters
are based in New York, USA.

Aims Of The UN

The major aims of the UN were:

 To bring international Peace and security in the world.
 To achieve international cooperation in solving economic, social and political issues and problems.
 To promote the respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.
 To promote friendships among member countries.
 To preserve the independence of member countries.
 To complete disarmament under effect control.

Organization/Structure Of The UN

The UNO’s structure comprises of six (6) main organs plus specialized agencies that the help in achieving the aims of the UN. These
are:

(i). The General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main organ and it acts as the world parliament of the UN. It has representatives from all member countries.
Each member country sends up to five (5) representatives but when it comes to voting, each country has one vote regardless of the status
of a country. The General assembly meets annually every September for 3months. Decision Making in the General Assembly is based on
a 2/3 majority. The General Assembly performs the following functions:
 It is the main law making body of the UN.
 It discusses and debates on all matters affecting the UN
 It appoints the Secretary General based on Recommendations from the Security Council.
 It appoints/elects members of the other organs, like the non-permanent members of the Security Council.

(ii). The Secretariat

The Secretariat is the administrative organ of the UN, headed by the Secretary General who is the Chief Administrative officer appointed
by the General Assembly. The Secretary General serves for a period of five (5) years, and can be re-appointed depending on the previous
performance. It also comprises of about 500 other members drawn from member countries. The Secretary General was chosen from a
non-allied member country, had to be impartial and to have great experience in International relations.

Since 1945, there has been many Secretary Generals. These have been as follows:

Secretary General Country Of Origin Years Of Service

Trygve Lie Norway 1945-1953
Dag Hammarskjold Sweden 1953-1961
U Thant Burma 1961-1971
Kurt Waldheim Austria 1972-1981
Javier Perez de Cueller Peru 1982-1992
Boutros Boutros Ghali Egypt 1992-1997
Koffi Annan Ghana 1997-2007)
Ban Ki Moon South Korea 2007 to 2017
Antonio Guterres Portugal 2017 to date
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So far, The UN has had two Secretary Generals from Africa, that is, Boutros Boutros Ghali from Egypt and Khoffi Annna from Ghana.
Dag Hammarskjold died in a plane crash in Zambia on his way to the Democratic Republic of Congo to resolve a civil war there. The
Secretary General sits in New York UN headquarters. The Secretariat performs the following functions:
 It sends reminders for meetings.
 It carries out research on issues and produces documents.
 It keeps of records for the UN.
 It translates documents into the main world languages.
 It carries out decisions of the General Assembly.
 It helps solve international disputes.
 It Administers peace keeping operations.
 It supervises the work of the specialized agencies.
 It is responsible for the everyday running of the UN.

(iii). The Security Council.

The Security Council is the executive body of the organization whose aim is to keep peace and security in the World. The Security
Council comprises of fifteen (15) members of which five (5) are permanent and ten (10) are non-permanent, chosen for a two year
rotational term. The five permanent member are Britain, France, China, USA and USSR. The 5 permanent members have the power to
Veto, that is, they can stop any motion before the council or stop any action they Security Council wanted to take. The Security Council
performs the following functions:
 It recommends the appointment of the Secretary General to the General Assembly.
 It recommends the admission of new members.
 It is responsible for general disarmaments.
 It also recommends political and economic sanctions on offending member countries.
 It is also responsible for sending peace Keeping forces to war torn areas.

(iv). The International Court of Justice.

This is judicial organ of the UN. It operates with fifteen (15) judges selected from member countries by the General Assembly for a
period of three (3) years. The headquarters of the international Court of Justice are based at The Hague in the Netherlands. The
International Court of Justice performs the following functions:
 To settle disputes referred to it by member countries through legal means than resorting to war.
 To give legal advice to other organs of the UN.
 To interpret legal documents and treaties of the UN.
However, the ICJ cannot enforce its decisions and a country can choose to accept or refuse its decisions thereby risking diplomatic
isolation.

(v). The Economic and Social Council.

The Economic and Social Council Comprises of eighteen (18) member countries who are elected for a three (3) year term of office by
the General Assembly. The president of the council serves for a term of one (1) year only. The council meets once every year. The council
performs the following functions:
 To carry out studies and produce reports on International Social, economic, culture and political issues in member countries.
 To ensure protection of Human rights and freedoms in member countries.
 To offer recommendations and financial assistance for the improvement of Socio-economic situations in member countries.

(vi). The Trusteeship Council.

The Trusteeship Council was created to look after the interests of the people in the mandated colonies of the League of Nations.
71

However, the operations of the Trusteeship Council stopped in 1994 because most the territories were independent. The main functions
of the Trusteeship Council were:
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 To ensure that the administering powers of the mandated colonies were fair.
  To ensure that all the mandated colonies attained self-independence.

Agencies Of The UN

The specialized agencies were created to facilitate and compliment the work of the UN organs. Among the specialized agencies are:

(a) The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR): The main function of this Agency is:
 To give assistance to refugees by providing shelter, medical help, education, clothing and clean water.
 To ensure that the refugees are repatriated to their countries of origin.

(b) The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): FAO works in close collaboration with the World Food Program. The work of
FAO is:
 To ensure food security by increasing food production throughout the world.
 To educate farmers about more effective agriculture methods.
 To give loans to poor countries to improve their food production.
 To donate food to hunger stricken countries.

(c) The United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): The work of this:
 To provide scientific research and produce and disseminates information on educational methods.
 To promote freedom of the press and the training of teachers.

(d) World Health Organization. (WHO): The main aim of this agency is
 To improve health standards in all member countries.
 To promote good health for all as a basic human right.
 To carry out research work to eradicate contagious diseases like TB, measles and Cholera.
 To find a cure/vaccine for the HIV/AIDS.

(e) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (I.B.R.D/World Bank): The work of the World Bank is:
 To give loans for developmental projects to member countries such as the rehabilitation of schools, hospitals, and roads.
 To provide member countries with expert advice and assistance to identify and prepare developmental projects to make
their economies more productive.

(f) International Labour Organization (ILO): The ILO was formed by the League of Nations after the First World War and it was
continued after the formation of the UNO. The work of ILO is:
 To improve the working conditions of all workers in member countries.
 To spearhead the formulation of labour laws throughout the world.
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Organization Of The United Nations Organization

Achievements Of The UN

The UN has scored a number of achievements since its formation in 1945. These have been:

(a). The UN has been Successful in keeping peace in some cases since its formation in 1945.
This has been done through;
 Persuading conflicting Nations to Negotiate. In 1946, for example, Iran formally charged the USSR with interference in her
internal affairs. The Security Council asked the two countries to settle their differences by direct negotiations. On 23rd May,
1946, the two reached an agreement which led to the evacuation of Soviet troops from Iraq.
 Sending observer /fact finding missions to conflicting Nations.
 Sending peace keeping forces to conflicting nations from member to help prevent further conflicts or the re-occurrence of
fighting between parties.
(b). The UN has also been successful in resolving Conflicts between or within member. Some examples of these are;
 The Congo Crisis in 1960: When there was a conflict in the Congo after independence, the UN Secretary General organized
an operation in the Congo. The UN intervened in the Congo and helped in Uniting Congo. The UN also helped in restoring
peace in a country that was torn apart by rebellions, mutiny and civil war.
 The Korean War 1950-3: The UN was also able to resolve the war in Korea. Korea was a Japanese Colony since 1910. After
the Second World War, it was divided between the Capitalist USA and the Communist USSR. This led to the creation of
North and South Korea. This led to a conflict between the two sides as to the kind of government to install in Korea. Under
pressure from the UN, the two powers were forced to withdraw from Korea. However, in 1950, the Communist North Korea
invaded the Capitalist South Korea. The UN intervened by sending UN troops to evacuate North Korean troops from South
Korea in 1953.

(c). The UN has also been successful in its efforts at achieving disarmament. The UN has succeeded in discouraging armaments since
its formation. The main focus of the UN has been in discouraging the production and use of Nuclear weapons. This has been achieved
through the creation of a disarmament commission and the UN Nuclear Weapons Inspectorate. In 1982, the UN launched a World
Disarmament Campaign that has been quiet successful though the UN still faces problems from the more powerful member states
especially the super powers.

(d). The UN has also been extremely successful through the work of its specialized agencies. It has been able to improve the Social,
political and economic conditions of its member countries. This has been done through technical and financial assistance to member
countries.

Failures Of The UN

Despite scoring successes in some areas, the UNO has also recorded a number of failures:

(a) The UN has failed in tackling issues of collective security in some areas: Conflicts still prevail between and among countries in
Africa and the Middle East such as in Palestine and Israel.

(b) The UN has also failed to control the acts of terrorism in the World especially from extremist Islamic groups: The September 11
2001 attacks on the USA and suicide bombings in Iraq and the Middle East have shown the failures of the UN.

(c) The UN has also failed to be completely independent from the USA and other big powers: This has been due to the fact that the
big powers are the financiers of the operations of the UN. This makes the big powers to disregard the recommendations of the
UN Security Council and the General Assembly, like during the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.
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 (d) The UN has also failed to completely eradicate some socio-economic problems threatening humanity today: The issue of the
HIV/AIDS and the complete eradication of poverty in the Third World countries has not been fully achieved yet.

(e) The UN has also failed to completely disarm and impose effective sanctions on offending member countries especially the big
powers.

How Different Is The United Nations From The League Of Nations

There are a number of differences between the UN and the League of Nations. For example:

(a) The UN is committed to safeguarding individual human rights, which the League did not get involved in.
(b) The UN has a wider member ship and is therefore a genuine world organization than the League. For example, both the USA
and USSR were founder members of the UN whereas the USA never joined the League.
(c) The Scope of the UN is much wider than the League. The UN spends much time and resources on social and economic matters
than the League.

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 Chapter Twenty-One

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION (NATO)

Origins

The origin of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) can be traced back to the time when the Second World War alliance
between USSR and the USA was fading away. The two super powers became antagonistic after the war because USSR wanted to expand
communism across Europe at the same time that the USA was influencing the spread of capitalism on the same continent. As a way of
stopping the spread of communism in Europe, countries in Western Europe set up a defensive organization (NATO) that would defend
them against the aggressive communist influence from Eastern Europe. Thus, NATO was formed on 4th April, 1949, when twelve (12)
nations signed in Washington D.C.

Membership Of NATO

There were twelve (12) nations that signed to become members of NATO. These were USA, Britain, France, Norway, Denmark,
Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, Canada, Iceland, Italy, and Portugal. Later, in 1951, Greece and Turkey joined. The last to join was
West Germany, in 1954. As a united state Germany re-joined in 1990 to replace West Germany. Spain would have been welcomed to
join by USA but some member countries still did not want the Spanish leader General Francisco Franco due to his aggression as a
communist.

Aims Of NATO

The aims of NATO were to:

 To stop the spread of communism in Western Europe and outside.
 To defend the territorial integrity of member states.
 To help each other as member states once attacked by communist aggressors.
 To promote joint political and economic co-operation within the North Atlantic in order to eliminate conflicts.
 To resolve disputes among member states through peaceful means.
 To safeguard the freedom and civilization of people in member states founded on the principles of individual liberty and the rule
of law.

Organization Of NATO

NATO organization can be summarized into Civilian structure, military structure and organizations and agencies.
Initially, NATO’s military forces were organized into three (3) main commands. These were:
1. The Atlantic command.
2. Channel command.
3. Allied command of Europe. This was directed by the Supreme Allied Commander in
Europe (SACEUR).

The United States of America (USA) is the dominant member of SACEUR, so the NATO military force command always comes from
USA. The USA is also the major financier of most NATO activities. In order to stop any aggressor, NATO partly relies on nuclear
weapons. The military committee is responsible to the North Atlantic Council. The headquarters of the North Atlantic council are in
Brussels, Belgium.

Achievements Of NATO
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Since its formation in 1949, NATO has scored a number of achievements, as shown below:
(a) It has managed to control Russian imperialism and the spread of communism in Europe: Communism has not spread towards
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Western Europe and those countries in Eastern Europe that were communist have been liberated, and have taken the capitalist way.
 (b) It has managed to defend the independence and the territorial integrity of member states: Turkey and Greece were guarded by
NATO, and concentrated on economic development without any fear of aggression from communists.
(c) It has managed to preserve the Unity of Western Europe under capitalism: countries in Western Europe have remained under
capitalism.
(d) It has successfully promoted political unity and has prevented historical rivalry among member states. Countries like France and
Germany, Britain and France, Norway and Ireland, Turkey and Greece which had conflicts have been brought together.
(e) It has managed to keep wars out of Europe for a number of more than six decades. It has managed to divert wars beyond European
borders.
(f) It has managed to extend its membership and geography: Many other countries have joined the organization, thereby increasing its
membership and geographical coverage.
(g) It has successfully formed a joint military force composed of troops from member countries: The force has been able to handle
many conflicts among member and non-member countries.

Failures Of NATO

(i) NATO is faced with a challenge of America’s domination: This is because the USA contributes the largest percentage of NATO’s
budget. There are however many European countries who are not comfortable with this US dominance.
(ii) The formation of Warsaw Pact in 1955 was a direct challenge and sign of failure on NATO. Nikita Khrushchev formed Warsaw
Pact to embrace and protect the communist states against any attack. This shows how ineffective NATO had become.
(iii) NATO failed to contain communism in Third World nations and other parts of Europe and Asia. Countries like China, Cuba,
North Korea, and Vietnam still have strong communist regimes.
(iv) NATO also failed to solve international crises involving member states. In 1956, for example, NATO failed to intervene in the
Suez Canal crisis involving Britain and France.

With the coming to power of the Soviet Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985, there have been better relations between the USA and other NATO
countries. Gorbachev allowed more democracy in Soviet Union and other communist countries of Eastern Europe. In 1990, the leaders
of NATO and Warsaw Pact countries signed an agreement that the two alliances would not use military force against each other.

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 Chapter Twenty-Two

THE WARSAW PACT

Background

The Warsaw Pact was a defense organization signed in Warsaw, Poland, on 14th May 1955 by the USSR and her satellite states. It was
a direct counter of NATO. The member states of the Warsaw Pact came together and agreed to defend each other against any attack by
the outside force, especially the capitalist states of Western Europe. This pact was that of peace and friendship, co-operation and mutual
assistance. In other words, it was an international defense treaty among eight communist states of central and east Europe.

Membership

The Warsaw Pact had Eight (8) members. These included The USSR, East Germany, Poland, Romania, Albama, Hungary, Bulgaria,
and Czechoslovakia. In this treaty, all the languages of member countries were used. Although the Warsaw Pact was an international
collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the treaty and was in command of the armed forces of the member states. The command
and control headquarters of the Warsaw pact was in Warsaw, Poland while the military headquarters were in Moscow, in the USSR.

Aims Of The Warsaw Pact

The main aims behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact were:

 To ensure non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member countries.

 To defend any member against any attacked by an outside party.
 To safeguard and respect the independence of member countries.
 To promote economic, social and political development of member countries.
 To improve the general standard of living of member states.
 To consolidate unity and co-operation among member states.
 To defend human rights of member states.
 To promote communist ideologies in the region against capitalist ideologies.
 To mediate conflicts among member states or between a member state and an outside party.
 To create a free environment in which member states operate.

In 1991, the Warsaw Pact was transformed into the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO).

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 Chapter Twenty-Three

THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS

Background

The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary organization made up of Britain and her former colonies, protectorates and dominion
states. Dominion states are countries which are independent but have the Queen as their head of state. Examples of dominion states
include Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The Commonwealth has Queen Elizabeth of Britain as its head. It has a total number of
fifty-three (53) member states. Despite being a former British colony, South Africa was not a member of Commonwealth because of the
apartheid (racial discrimination) policies that characterized its governance system. She only became a member in 1994. Since 1930,
members of Commonwealth hold sporting events known as Commonwealth Games. These games are held every four (4) years.

Aims/Objectives Of The Commonwealth

The aims/objectives of the Commonwealth are:

 To unite Britain and all her former colonies, protectorates and dominions under one umbrella.
 To promote good governance and democracy among member states.
 To carry out joint ventures in trade and resolve political conflicts.
 To provide market for industrial and agricultural products among member states.
 To uplift the standard of living among member states.
 To enable member states exploit their resources fully in order to promote industrialization.
 To promote education, sports, agricultural and health standards.

Structure Of Administration

The Commonwealth has a few structures that help in the administration of its affairs. These are:

(a) Heads Of State Summit: The Heads of state summit is made up of the heads of state of government of member countries. It is
the policy making body of the Commonwealth. The heads of state meet once in every two years, where they discuss many issues
affecting member states. Decisions are mainly reached upon by consensus, and not by voting.

(b) The Secretariat: The secretariat is the body responsible for matters concerning the Commonwealth’s international political and
economic issues. It is headed by the Secretary General who is responsible for preparing the agenda, supervising commonwealth
committees and chairing the secretariat meetings. The first Commonwealth Secretary General from Africa was Chief Emeka
Anyaoku from Nigeria. The seat of the secretariat is in London.

(c) Ministerial Meetings: Foreign Ministers from member countries meet regularly. The Ministers of Finance and Ministers of
Defense meet once a year, whereas Ministers of Education and Ministers of Health meet once every three years. The ministerial
meetings are held to discuss a variety of issues including trade and technology, development, political stability and improved social
services.

(d) High Commissioners: A High Commissioner is a country’s representative or diplomat from a commonwealth country to another.
A country’s representative to another country which is not a member of the commonwealth is called an Ambassador. Because these
represent their countries abroad, they are addressed with a title similar to that of a president; “Your Excellency.”
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 Chapter Twenty-Four

THE EUROPEAN UNION (EU)

Origin

The European Union was formerly called European Economic Community (EEC). It was set up in 1957 under the terms of the Treaty
of Rome. It was signed by the six (6) founder members, that’s is, France, Belgium, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Luxemburg.
It changed its name from European Economic Community to European Union in 1992. Currently, it joins together twenty-seven (27)
European countries.

Aims/Objectives Of The EU

The aims/objectives of the EU are:

 To promote good governance and democracy among member states.

 To provide market for industrial and agricultural products of member states.
 To promote education, sports, agricultural and health standards especially among member states.
 To help developing countries by extending loans and grants to them.
 To unite all European countries under one umbrella.
 To ensure development of all European countries socially, politically and economically.
 To have a joint venture in trade and to resolve political conflicts.
 To uplift the standards of living among member countries.

Organization Of The EU

The EU has some institutions that help it in achieving its aims. These are:

(a) The European Commission: The European Commission is the executive organ of the Union. It is responsible for proposing
programs of the union. It makes policies that are sent to the council of the European Union. The commission is also responsible
for charging in the court of justice the member countries which do not abide by the laws of the union. It ensures that democratic
principles are followed among member states.

The commission is responsible for day to day running of the union. It operates as a cabinet with one member from each member
state. These members on the commission are called commissioners. They are headed by the Commission President. The other
high ranking Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and security policy.

(b) The European Parliament: The European Parliament is the legislature of the union. It is responsible for passing laws by which the
union is run. It also controls the power of the executive. The members of the European parliament are directly elected by the
citizens of the member states. The parliament is responsible for approving most of the new policies of the European Commission.

(c) The Council Of Ministers: It consists of government ministries from each member states. This council is responsible for setting
political objectives for the European Union. It also helps to co-ordinate economic policies.

(d) The European Court Of Justice: This was set up to deal with any problem that might arise out of the interpretation and operation
of the union. It was a court of appeal for any government that is seen to infringe the rules of the community. It fights corruption
within the union.

The European Union has helped many developing nations in many ways. It gives grants and loans to poor countries of the world.
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Britain’s Failure To Join The EU

Although Britain under Winston Churchill was influential in the formation of the union, she refused to join the union in 1957. This
was because she did not want other members to interfere with her economic affairs. Britain was afraid that economic unity would lead to
political unity, and the loss of British sovereignty. Britain therefore took the lead in organizing a rival group called the European Free
Trade Association (EFTA), whose membership comprised Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria and Portugal. Britain
felt more prepared to join this rival group (EFTA) because it did not question common economic policies and had no commission to
interfere with the affairs of member states.

Why Britain Decided To Join The EU

In 1961, barely four years after her refusal to join the union, Britain decided to join the EU. The task of negotiating Britain’s entry into
the union was given to Edward Heath. However, the French president Charles de Gaulle opposed Britain’s intentions to join. Britain
decided to join because:

(a) The EU was becoming successful even without Britain. Member countries began to develop economically.
(b) The British economy became stagnant as compared to other European states especially members of the union.
(c) The EFTA was not increasing trade among member states at the rate that EU was.
(d) Britain’s competition from other EU members would stimulate British industry to greater effort and efficiency.

Why France Opposed The Entry Of Britain Into The EU

France opposed the entry of Britain into the union because:

(a) France claimed that Britain had many economic problems which would only weaken the union.
(b) Britain thought France’s opposition was so that she dominates the union without Britain.
(c) France was suspicious that since Britain was closely connected with America, America would easily find a way of dominating
European affairs.

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 Chapter Twenty-Five

THE AFRICAN UNION (AU)

Origin

The African Union (AU) was formally called the Organization of African Unity (OAU). It transformed into the African Union in 2002.
The organization was formed on 25th May, 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It was formed as a league of independent African states. It
was formed as a result of a compromise between the Casablanca Group (comprising states from North Africa), the Brazzaville Group
(comprising former French colonies in Africa) and the Monrovia Group (comprising former British colonies from West Africa). At the
end the Monrovia and Casablanca groups swallowed the Brazzaville group. There were now two groups parallel to each other. With the
mediation and advice of Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, the two groups agreed to bury their differences and form a political
federation called the Organization of African Unity.

Membership Of AU

The AU was signed by thirty-two (32) states. However, Togo and Morocco sighed later because Morocco had misunderstandings with
Mauritanian and could not sit on the same table, while Togo still had matters to solve over the toppling of the legitimate government of
Sylvanus Olympio.

Aims/Objectives Of AU

The aims/objectives of the AU were to:

 To promote unity and solidarity of all African states.

 To eradicate all forms of colonialism and neo-colonialism from the African continent.
 To promote international co-operation as demanded by the United Nations Charter.
 To spearhead economic development in the continent of Africa.
 To defend the independence, territorial integrity and sovereignty of all African states.
 To provide and improve the standards of living among African people through the provision of basic needs like food and shelter.

Principles Of AU

In order to achieve its aims, members of the AU were mandated to follow the following principles:

1. Members were not to interfere in the affairs of other states.

2. Members were to detach themselves from the ideologies of the super powers.
3. The organization was to operate on the principle of diplomacy not war.
4. Members were to regard each other as equal.
5. Members were to form a joint army to fight for the independence of member states that were still under colonial rule.
6. Members were to respect and observe human rights as stipulated by the December 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
7. Members were to respect political borders of member states as at independence.
8. The organization was to condemn all political assassinations and coups of all member countries.
9. The organization was to remain a neutral organ, and not interfere in the affairs of any country.
10. The organization was to solve the problem of poor transport and communication in all member states.

Organs Of The AU

In order to effect its duties, the AU put in place the following organs:

(a) The General Assembly: This was the supreme body. It consisted of heads of states (presidents) of member states. Its main duty
was to make decisions and discuss important matters affecting African countries. The chairman for the Assembly was the head of
state elected for that year. Each year they had to elect a chairman from a different state.
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(b) The Council Of Ministers: This comprised of foreign ministers form AU member states. Their main duty was to draft the agenda
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for the general assembly. They also helped in monitoring the implementation of AU resolutions.
 (c) The General Secretariat: This was headed by the Secretary General for a five (5) term of office. It was set up in Addis Ababa. The
Secretary General was assisted by Regional Assistant Secretaries. The main duty of the Secretary General was to budget and oversee
the implementation of the AU principles. He was elected by the Heads of states and was eligible for re-election.

(d) The African Development Bank: This was set up to advance loans to AU member states.

(e) Specialized Commissions: Specialized commissions were also set up to help in effecting the objectives of OAU. These included:
 The Defense And Security Commission
 The Education And Cultural Commission.
 The Economic And Social Commission.
 The Liberation Commission.
 The Scientific Research And Technical Commission.
 The Health, Sanitation And Nutrition Commission.
 The Commission For Mediation, Reconciliation And Arbitration Commission.

Achievements Of AU

The AU scored a number of achievements/ successes in a number of areas. Some of these were:

(a) It succeeded with the decolonization of Africa. It trained Africans to fight liberation wars in South Africa, Namibia, Angola, and
Mozambique among others which led to the liberation of these countries.
(b) It managed to settle interstate and regional conflicts, like those conflicts between Uganda and Tanzania, Uganda and Sudan,
Somalia and Ethiopia, and Algeria and Morocco over oil deposits in Ethiopia.
(c) It managed to dismantle apartheid in South Africa. It employed diplomatic skills like peace talks and where possible, military
approach was used to end apartheid.
(d) It tried to improve and develop transport and communication in Africa. It facilitated the construction of the Trans-African
Highway, and Lagos-Mombasa Highway. It also facilitated the construction of many harbors and ports.
(e) It managed to handle the issue of refugees in Africa. It managed to secure better places for refugees from war torn countries around
Africa.
(f) It promoted economic development among member states. Through the African Development Bank whose branches have been
set up in many countries, it managed to give long-term loans to African countries for development purposes.
(g) It promoted democratic governance and defended human rights among states. It condemned coups and political assassinations in
African states.

Failures Of AU

Despite the above successes, the AU recorded a number of failures too. These are:

(a) It failed to end neo-colonialism from Africa. Up to date, independent African states are still controlled by their former colonial
masters.
(b) It failed to completely eradicate inter-state conflicts within Africa. With the OAU in existence, conflicts occurred between Rwanda
and DRC, Uganda and Tanzania.
(c) It failed to form a continental economic union that would spearhead economic development. States resorted to forming regional
economic unions like COMESA, ECOWAS, SADC, and PTA among others.
(d) It failed to improve the standard of living amongst Africans. People still die of curable diseases like malaria, cholera and
kwashiorkor.
(e) It failed to protect human rights in Africa. Most OAU member states were headed by dictators who openly abused the rights of
their subjects.
(f) It failed to stop the occurrence of civil wars in African countries. Civil wars still occurred in Sudan, Angola, and Uganda among
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others, beside the OAU in place.

(g) It failed to mobilize funds from member states to finance the budget, form a military high command and to amend the charter.
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 Chapter Twenty-Six

THE ARAB LEAGUE

Background

The Arab League is a regional organization of Arab countries in North Africa, Horn of Africa, and South West Asia. It is a voluntary
association of independent Arab speaking countries, which have oil and natural gas. It was formed on 22 March 1945 in Cairo, Egypt.
The headquarters of the Arab League is in Cairo, Egypt.

Membership Of The Arab League

At its formation, the league had Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Iraq, Syria and Jordan as its members. Later, Morocco, Palestine,
Cameroon, Yemen, Sudan, Algeria, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Djibouti, Tunisia, Kuwait, Somalia, Oman, Mauritania, Libya, Arab
Jamahiriya, and Bahrain joined. It had a total of twenty-two (22) members. At present, however, it has only twenty-one (21) members
following the suspension of Syria due to government repression during the civil war.

Common Features Of Arab States

The Arab states have a lot of things in common. For example:

(a) Their common language is Arabic.

(b) Their common religion is Islam.
(c) They have a common culture, with similar dress code.
(d) Most of them were ruled by the Ottoman Empire, and later by Britain and France.
(e) They have similar economic systems, most of them depend on the exporting oil.
(f) They are members of the Arab League and Organization of Oil Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC).
(g) They are all found in similar geographical locations, particularly in arid deserts in the Middle East and North Africa.

Objectives Of The Arab League

The Arab League was formed to meet the following objective:

 To promote social, political and economic development of member states.

 To consolidate unity and solidarity among member states.
 To safeguard the independence and sovereignty of member states.
 To defend the human rights of people of member states.
 To consider the affairs and interests of Arab countries.
 To mediate conflicts among member states, or between them and other parties.
 To improve the welfare and general standards of living of people of member states.
 To ensure peace and stability in the region.
 To eradicate poverty from people of member states.
 To seek solution to common problems affecting people in member states.
 To ensure a free and democratic environment in which member states operate.
 To promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade between the Arab world and its trading partners, the United Kingdom.
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 Chapter Twenty-Seven

SOUTHERN AFRICA DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC)

Background

SADC was formerly called Southern African Development Co-ordination Conference (SADCC). The Southern Africa Development
Co-ordination Conference (SADCC) was formed in 1980, but it was transformed to Southern Africa Development (SADC) on 17
August 1992 during the Windhoek Declaration in Namibia. This was done in order to make the organization a fully integrated economic
community. The headquarters of SADC is in Gaborone, Botswana.

Membership Of SADC

The founding members of SADC are those nine (9) members that
signed the Windhoek Declaration. These include Zambia,
Malawi, Mozambique, Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia,
Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. In 1994, South Africa joined SADC
after her first democratic elections and the end of apartheid. Later,
the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mauritius, Swaziland,
Madagascar, and Seychelles joined SADC.

SADC Member States

Principles Of SADC

SADC operates following a strict order of principles, and these are:

1. Sovereign equality of all member states.

2. Solidarity, peace and security.
3. Human rights, democracy and the rule of law.
4. Equality, balance and mutual benefit.
5. Peaceful settlement of disputes.

Objectives Of SADC

SADC was formed to meet the following objectives:

 To alleviate poverty and improve the standards and quality of life of the people of southern Africa.
 To promote peace and security in the region.
 To promote economic growth and development in the region.
 To improve trade in the region by removing economic sanctions on countries like South Africa which had been practicing racism
before joining the organization.
 To create a common and wider market for the products of member states.
 To promote interdependence of member states.
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 To promote self-reliance of member states.

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 To develop and promote good governance in the member states.

  To maximize the exploitation of natural resources as well as protecting the environment.
 To strengthen the long standing historical, culture and social relations among the peoples of the member states.

Structure/Organization Of SADC

SADC is made up a number of structures. These are:

(a) The Summit: The Summit is the supreme organ of the organization. It is made up of the heads of States or Governments. The
summit usually meets once a year, although there are new recommendations that it should meet twice every year.
The summit performs the following functions:
 It makes policies for the organization.
 It controls the direction and functions of the organization.

(b) The Troika: The Troika consists of the Chairpersons, that is, the Incoming chairperson and the Outgoing chairperson of SADC.
Its functions are:
 To help in implementing decisions made by the summit.
 To provide policy directions to SADC institutions in the period before SADC meetings.

(c) The Secretariat: This is the principal executive institution of SADC headed by the Executive Secretary. The secretariat has its
headquarters in Gaborone, Botswana. The work of the secretariat is:
 To plan and manage SADC programs.
 To implement the decisions of the summit and council.
 To organize and manage SADC meetings.
 It is responsible for SADC financial and general administration.
 To promote and harmonize policies and strategies of member states.

(d) The Organ On Politics, Defense And Security: This organ is responsible for:
 Promoting political stability, defense and security in the region.
 safeguarding the region against any act of aggression.
 Promoting security and peace through democratic conflict resolution with punitive measures as the last resort.

(e) The Council Of Ministers: This organ consists of Ministers from each member state, usually, Ministers of Foreign Affairs,
Ministers of Economic Planning or Ministers of Finance. It meets four (4) times in a year. This council is responsible for:
 Overseeing the operations and development of SADC.
 Ensuring that policies of SADC are properly implemented.

(f) The Integrated Committee Of Ministers: This organ is made up of at least two (2) Ministers from each member states. It is under
the Council of Ministers. Its work is to:
 Monitor the activities (core areas of integration) of SADC which are Trade, Industry, Finance and Investment.
 Provide policy guidance to the secretariat.
 Coordinate and evaluate the activities of the directorate.

(g) The Tribunal: The Tribunal is the organ responsible for:

 Ensuring that all members adhere to the principles and regulations of SADC.
 Helping settle disputes among member states.
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(h) SADC National Committees: These are special committees made up of individuals representing governments, private sector and
civil society from member countries. These committees initiate projects, formulate regional policies and oversee the
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implementation of programs at national level.

 (i) Standing Committee Of Senior Officials: The standing committee of officials consists of one permanent or principal secretary or
an official of an equivalent rant from each member state, preferably from a ministry responsible for economic planning or finance.
This committee is a technical advisory committee to the council.

Achievements Of SADC

(a) SADC has been able to resolve conflicts peacefully. It managed to solve a political conflict in Zimbabwe.
(b) It has been able to help member countries in times of disaster. It helped Mozambique during floods.
(c) It has managed to promote trade among member countries. Many goods have been moving from one member country to another
without much difficulty.
(d) It has facilitated the construction and rehabilitation of various infrastructural projects in the region. Roads, railway lines and
harbors have been have been built under SADC program for Action.
(e) It has promoted the spirit of togetherness. There are limited restrictions on people’s movement from one country to another
within the region.
(f) It has managed to establish a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping training centre for the region, with headquarters in Zimbabwe.
This has enabled the region to send well trained and disciplined peacekeepers to troubled member states.
(g) It has managed to fight and minimize the trafficking of drugs and other illegal substances in the region.
(h) It has never abandoned its stance against bad governance. It sends election observers to member countries to ensure that they hold
peaceful elections.

Challenges/Failures Of SADC

Despite scoring many successes, SADC has also faced a number of challenges:

(a) SADC has failed to eradicate poverty among member states. Most countries in SADC are poverty-stricken, and people are very
illiterate.
(b) There is unequal distribution of benefits in the region. South Africa benefits more than other member states because it sells more
industrial products than any other countries.
(c) Most countries in SADC have small populations, which creates low purchasing power on regional goods produced.
(d) SADC has failed to stop the spread of HIV/AIDS. The region has the highest prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS in Africa.
(e) Most member states pay less attention to the affairs of the organization. They put the interest of their nations before the
organization.
(f) SADC is still hooked on to neo-colonialism. It has not been able to be totally self-reliant. Most countries in the region still depend
on aid from Europe, USA, and China.
(g) There is a lot of mistrust between member states. Some people in some countries of the region carry out xenophobic attacks (kill
migrants from other countries).
(h) SADC still has poor infrastructural development despite efforts to improve such in member states.
(i) Most member countries in SADC are still developing and as such they are unable to pay subscription fees to keep the entire
organization running.
(j) Most countries in SADC produce the same agricultural products. This increases competition for market as too many similar
products flood the market.
(k) SADC has failed to come up with a common currency which makes cross-border traders face the inconvenience of currency
exchange as they trade among member states.
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 Chapter Twenty-Eight

THE COMMON MARKET FOR EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICA (COMESA)

Background

COMESA was founded in 1993 and was formally established on 8th December 1994. It replaced the Preferential Trade Area (PTA)
which was formed in 1981. The establishment of COMESA was a fulfillment of the requirement of the PTA Treaty, which provided
for the transformation of the PTA into a common market.

In 2000, a Free Trade Area (FTA) was formed in Lusaka with Djibouti, Egypt, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Sudan, Zambia,
and Zimbabwe as members who agreed to eliminate tariffs on goods which conform to the COMESA rules. Burundi and Rwanda joined
the Free Trade Area on 22nd January, 2004 following an earlier decision by Namibia and Swaziland to seek approval of the Southern
Africa Customs Union (SACU), of which they are also members. Since its formation COMESA has sought to promote free movement
of goods and services, capital and labour among member states.

Principles Of COMESA

In pursuit of the aims and objectives of COMESA the member states agreed to adhere to the following principles:

 Accountability, economic justice and popular participation in development.

 Equality and interdependence of the member states.
 Inter-state cooperation, harmonization of policies and integration of programs among member states.
 Non-aggression between member states.
 Recognition, promotion and protection of human rights in accordance to the provisions of the African Charter on human rights.
 Solidarity and collective self-reliance among member states.
 Maintenance of regional peace and stability through the promotion and strengthening of good neighborliness.
 Peaceful settlement of disputes among member states.
 Promotion and sustenance of a democratic system of governance in each member state.
 Recognition and observance of the rule of law.

Membership Of COMESA

The current members of COMESA are

Angola, Burundi, Comoros, The
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),
Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia,
Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland,
Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The
organization therefore has a total of
twenty (20) member states. Mozambique
withdrew from COMESA in 1998 while
Tanzania withdrew in 2000.
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COMESA Member States

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Aims/Objectives Of COMESA

COMESA was formed to meet the following objectives:

 To offer common and competitive market for goods produced in the region.
 To promote and encourage industrial productivity.
 To promote and encourage modernization of agriculture and food security.
 To promote and encourage balanced exploitation of natural resources.
 To seek to harmonize the financial decision within the region.
 To promote and encourage reliable transport and communication infrastructure.
 To cooperate and create an enabling environment for both foreign and domestic investment.
 To enhance economic development in the region through promotion of peace, security and stability among member states.
 To raise peoples’ standard of living through promotion of joint development in all economic fields such as industry and agriculture.
 To cooperate in strengthening relations between the common market and the rest of the world.

Structure Of COMESA

COMESA has a number of organs that help run the organization in order to achieve its objectives. These organs are:

(a) The Authority: The Authority is the supreme policy making organ of COMESA. It comprises of the Heads of States of member
countries. The Authority is responsible for:
 making COMESA policies.
 Giving direction to the organization.

(b) The Council Of Ministers: The Council of Ministers is made of ministers from member states. The council meets once every year.
The council is responsible for:
 Monitoring COMESA activities.
 Reviewing the financial and administrative management of the organization.
 Recommending policy direction and development and reports to the Authority.

(c) The COMESA Court Of Justice: This court is locates in Lusaka, Zambia and is composed of seven (7) judges. The Court is
responsible for:
 settling disputes among the member states.
 interpreting the provisions of the treaty governing COMESA.
 Seeing to it that member states implements and respects the decisions.

(d) The Committee Of Governors Of Central Banks: This organ is made up of governors of central banks from all member states.
The work of this committee is to:
 Advise the Authority and the Council of Ministers on monetary and financial matters.
 Determine the maximum debit and credit limit to the organization.
 Develop programs and action plans in the field of finance and monetary.

(e) The Inter-Government Committee: This organ is made of Permanent Secretaries from member states. These permanent secretaries
are those falling under in the Ministries of Finance, Trade, Customs, Transport, Industry, and Legal Affairs. The committee is
responsible for:
 Making development programs and action plans for the organization.
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(f) Technical Committees: There are twelve (12) technical committees. These include; Transport and communications; Trade and
customs; Tourism and wildlife; Natural resources and environment; Legal affairs; Labor, human resources and social affairs;
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 Industry; Finance and monetary affairs; Energy; Comprehensive communication systems; Agriculture; Administrative and
budgetary matters. These committees are responsible for:
 Preparing and monitoring the implementation of programs.
 Making recommendations to the Inter-government committee.

(g) The Secretariat: The Secretariat is the principal administrative organ of COMESA. It is headed by the Secretary General who is
appointed by the Authority for a five (5) year period. The COMESA secretariat is based in Lusaka, Zambia. Former Secretary-
Generals of COMESA include: Erastus J. O. Mwencha (Kenya), Dr. Bingu wa Mutharika (Malawi), Prof. Novete (South Africa),
Mr. Semyano Kiingi (Uganda). The secretariat is responsible for:
 Providing technical support and advisory service to member states.

Achievements Of COMESA

COMESA has achieved the following:

 It has managed to establish a free trade area where some member states have removed trade barriers.
 Through COMESA member states have established close relationship with major development partners such as International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.
 It has facilitated the integration of the telecommunications network in the region.
 It has facilitated for the free movement of persons and labour services in the region.
 It has encouraged industrialization of member states through regular trade fairs.

Weaknesses/Challenges Of COMESA

COMESA has been facing a number of challenges in its operations. These are:

 Resources in COMESA member states are being underutilized. This is because people who should utilize these resources are
neglected, poorly educated and in poor health.
 Most COMESA member states fail to internalize agreements in their national administration and development plans. Cooperation
does not go beyond the signing of treaties and protocols.
 COMESA member states still depend on the west for imports of raw material supplies and manufactured products. Dependence
on imported raw materials from the west makes COMESA economies vulnerable to poor foreign exchange.
 Most COMESA member states are also members of other economic blocs like SADC. These organizations have conflicting
interests which weaken the integration process and brings about costly competition for attention and resources.
 COMESA member states are debt burdened and this makes them fail to realize utmost economic development.
 There are unequal levels of economic development among the COMESA member states. Some member states are economically
advanced that others.
 COMESA member states have high prevalence of diseases. Diseases ranging from malnutrition to HIV/AIDS have caused massive
decline of both skilled and non-skilled labour force among member states.
 Most COMESA member states have high prevalence of corruption of different forms. Corruption is witnesses in the awarding of
contracts and at customs checkpoints in many parts of COMESA member countries.
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 Chapter Twenty-Nine

COLD WAR

Definition Of Cold War

The Cold War was an international situation of persistent tension (conflicts) between the Western Capitalist countries led by the United
States of America (U.S.A) and the Eastern Communist countries led by the United Soviets Socialist Republic (U.S.S.R). It was not a
state of armed conflict but a struggle for superiority in national defense, economic growth, diplomacy, science and technology and
ideology through the use of hostile words and actions. It was a war of ideas and words. The Cold war was characterized by competition
to win support of neutral countries through economic and military aid, building of arms and nuclear weapons. It began after the Second
World War.

Origin Of The Cold War

The origins of the Cold War can be traced to the period of the Second World War when the USA and the USSR formed a grand
alliance against Germany and Japan. There were a lot of differences and mistrusts between the two alliances. By 1947, the Cold War was
clearly in existence when the USA and the USSR formalized their differences during the Potsdam conference (1945) and Yalta
Conference (1945).

(I). The Yalta Conference (February, 1945)

The Yalta conference was also called the Crimea conference. It

was held at Yalta in Crimea, Russia in February 1945. It was a
conference of Joseph Stalin (U.S.S.R), Franklin Delano Roosevelt
(USA) and Winston Churchill (Britain) who met to map out the
details of the post war settlements in Europe. Roosevelt mediated
between Stalin and Churchill’s plans to push western troops far
into Eastern Europe. At this conference, the three leaders agreed
that:

(a) Germany should be divided into four zones. These zones

would be run by the USSR, France, Britain and USA.
(b) Berlin, Germany’s capital city (which was in the USSR
zone) would also be divided into four zones, controlled by
the four corresponding allies.
(c) Germany should disarm completely. Besides, the allies
would take away all the machinery and goods from
Germany and use them to repair damage done to their own
countries with half to be given to USSR which had suffered
most. Winston Churchill, Woodrow Wilson, Joseph Stalin
(d) Countries of Eastern Europe should hold free elections.
(e) A new international organization, The United Nations (At The Yalta Conference)
Organization (UNO) should be set up to replace the
defunct (failed) League of Nations.

(ii). The Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

The Potsdam Conference was held at Potsdam in1945 which was the old rural suburb of Berlin between 17th July and 2nd August 1945.
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At this time of the war, only Stalin from Russia had remained. Clement Attlee replaced Winston Churchill as British Prime Minister at
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the conference while Vice president Harry Truman became USA president after the death of Franklin Roosevelt. The two new leaders
did not get on well with Stalin at this conference. This resulted into tension. Among the issues that caused tension at this conference
include the following;

(a) Britain and USA refused Russia to have a naval base in the Mediterranean.
(b) Russia wanted to take reparations from Germany, but Britain and the USA refused.
(c) Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland, against what Britain wanted.
(d) Truman did not tell Stalin about the atomic bomb before they first used it against Japan in 1945.

The Potsdam conference further looked into issues around the treatment of Post – Second World War Germany. Berlin was also to be
split into four–power Allied Control Commissions. USSR got a part on the East of Berlin while USA, Britain and France shared the
part on the Western side. Each power was to take reparations from its own zone as it saw it fit.

Causes Of The Cold War

Many reasons have been given for the emergency of the Cold War. Among them were:

(a) Suspicion (Mistrust) between USA and USSR: Suspicions and mistrust between USA and USSR over each other’s military
strength contributed to the emergency of the Cold War. At the end of the Second World War, the USA and the USSR emerged
as super powers. The secrecy over the atomic bombs created suspicions between the two. Therefore, a new kind of arms race in
nuclear weapons emerged between them.

(b) Ideological differences between communists and capitalists: Although the USA and the USSR cooperated during the Second
World War, they mistrusted each other due to ideological differences. They developed opposing systems of government. Since
1917, the USSR had developed a Communist system which was a natural enemy of the Capitalist economy of the USA. The
democratic states hated communism and its leaders.

(c) The Spread of Communism: Even before the end of the Second World War, the USSR imposed communist governments in
Eastern Europe (Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary and Yugoslavia). Communist Eastern Europe was divided from Capitalist
Western Europe by an Invisible demarcation called the “Iron Curtain”. This was the term used by the then British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill to describe the invisible separation that now existed between eastern and Western Europe. The USSR wanted
to spread communism to Western Europe. The USA took it upon itself to stop the spread of Communism. This created tension
between the USA and the USSR.

(d) Power rivalry between USA and USSR: After the Second World War, with the decline of Europe, power was largely shared
between USA and USSR. Conflicts developed as one wanted to dominate the other.

Aspects Of The Cold War

(1). The Truman Doctrine

This was an American foreign policy started by the US President Harry Truman. Its main purpose was to stop the spread of communism.
By this policy, the USA was ready to use her technological and financial superiority to help all democratic nations stop the spread of
communism in Europe, which now became known as The Policy of Containment. In March 1947, Truman obtained $400 million to
assist in fighting communism in Europe, particularly in Greece and Turkey.

(2). The Marshal Plan/Marshall Aid

The Marshall plan or Marshall Aid, also known as the European Recovery Program (ERP) was an American initiative formulated by
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George Marshall in June 1948 to implement the Policy of Containment and The Truman Doctrine. The Marshal Plan was created to:
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(a) Implement the injection of American Money into European economic as a way of recovering from war destruction.
 (b) To stop the spread of communism.
The Marshall aid lasted for only four years. By this plan, supplies of food, fuel, machinery and raw materials valued at $13 Billion were
sent to Europe. Truman believed that poverty and hardship provided breeding ground for communism. Later, in 1955, USSR’s Stalin
proposed a similar plan called The Molotov Plan to counteract the Marshal plan and prevent her satellite states from gaining from it.

(3). The Cominform

The Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) was formed in October 1947 by Stalin, President of USSR. All communist
Countries were supposed to be members of Comiform. The aim of this organization was to draw all communist countries together and
spread communist ideas. It was also an economic organization to encourage industrial development and trade among communist
countries. However, Marshall Tito, leader of Yugoslavia refused to be part of the Cominform even though his country remained a
communist.

(4). The Iron Curtain

The Iron Curtain was the boundary line dividing Europe between communist Eastern Europe and capitalist Western Europe. The term
symbolized the way USSR blocked its territories from open contact with democratic west. The allies became suspicious of the USSR
who set up Communist government in all the territories that she liberated from German occupation like Poland, Bulgarian, Romania and
Albania. In a speech in March 1945, Winston Churchill described the pro-Communist Countries that were established in Eastern Europe
by USSR as an “Iron Curtain” USSR continued to tighten its grip on Eastern Europe. By 1947 all states in Eastern Europe had
Communist governments except Yugoslavia, and USSR treated her zone of Germany as if it belonged to her.

(5). Regional Defense Organizations (NATO & Warsaw Pact)

In 1947, Britain and France decided to form a 50 year treaty of cooperation in order to combat the spread of Communism. In 1948, the
BENELUX countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxemburg) joined Britain and France and the treaty became known as the Brussels
Treaty of 1948. However, the members of the Brussels Treaty were not strong enough to stop any communist attacks from the Soviet
Union, only the USA was. Besides, the USA no longer wanted to be isolated. The USA joined Western Europe to form an alliance of
defense against communism. In April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed.

1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): The members of the new organization were; USA, Britain, France, Norway,
Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, Canada, Iceland, Italy, and Portugal while Greece, Turkey joined in 1951and joined
last West Germany in 1954. Spain would have been welcomed to join by USA but some member countries still did not want the
Spanish leader General Francisco Franco.

NATO became a military alliance aimed at defending Western Europe and North America from a possible Soviet military attack.
It was stated in the treaty that an attack against any member country would be considered as an attack on all member states.
NATO had a joined military force. The first commander of the NATO forces was an American, General Eisenhower. NATO
states also agreed to:
 Firmly support the United Nations Charter,
 Make peaceful settlements of all disputes amongst themselves for international peace, Security and Justice.
 Encourage Economic cooperation.
NATO was successful in checking the spread of communism because the communist made no further territorial gains anywhere
in Europe after April 1949. NATO forces were ready to meet any communist challenges. The NATO air and Naval forces were
well equipped and backed by the American Atomic power. The headquarters of NATO were based in France, Paris.

2. The Warsaw Pact: In 1955, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in response to the formation of NATO. The Warsaw
Pact was a military alliance formed against a possible attack from the Western Countries on the Soviet Union and its satellite
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states. The members of the Warsaw Pact were Russia, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and
Albania. Yugoslavia was not a member of the Warsaw Pact though she was a communist country.
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 The Warsaw Pact like its rival organization NATO, provided for a joint command of armed forces whose headquarters were
in Moscow. The members of the Warsaw Pact agreed to;
 Resist the attacks of the Capitalists/imperialist states jointly.
 Participate in mutual economic and cultural collaboration.
 Accept the Russian Command of the forces.

THE COLD WAR CRISES 1948-1963

The crises that took place between 1948 and 1963 worsened the hostilities and rivalries between the communists and the capitalist states
and intensified the Cold War. These were;

(a). Berlin Blockade (1948)

The Berlin Blockade arose out of disagreements over the treatment of Germany at the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. After the Second
World War, Germany was divided into four zones controlled by the USA, Britain, France and the USSR. The Capital of Germany Berlin
was also divided into four corresponding zones. However, Berlin was in the USSR zone. With the help of the Marshall Aid, the western
region under France, Britain and USA began to recover and prosper economically. The eastern region under the USSR experienced
hunger and poverty. Many East Germans were leaving the east because West Germany seemed much more attractive. The crisis started
when the west introduced a new currency to replace the old Germany currency which had become worthless. They also allowed elections
in their zones. The USSR felt threatened by this and in reaction did the following:
(a) USSR stopped the circulation of the new currency in her zone and Berlin as a whole.
(b) USSR also blocked off Berlin from the rest of West Germany. In 1948, all roads, railways and canal links between Berlin and
the border with West Germany were closed. Electricity from the Russian Sector was cut off.
This blockade was a clear challenge to the allies. The allies responded to the blockade by airlifting essential commodities such as food,
fuel, and medical supplies. By May 1949, all line of communication was opened up by the Communist USSR. However, the Berlin
Blockade of 1948 created tension between the communists and the capitalists and intensified the Cold War.

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Four Germany Zones Four Sectors Of Berlin

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The three Western zones (France, Britain and USA) came together to form the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the
other sector in the name of East Germany remained under Russia. However, since 1948, many East Germans were escaping into West
Germany by crossing from East Berlin into West Berlin. To prevent this, a 2,900km long border made of bricks was built by the
communists. This became known as the Berlin Wall which was completed in August 1961.

(b). The Korean War (1950-1953)

From around 1910, Korea was a Japanese territory. After the defeat of Japan in the Second World War, the USSR took control of
North Korea and set up a communist state. In the south, the USA set up a democracy. The South Korean President Syngman Rhee and
the North Korean President Kim ll Sung each claimed to be president of all Korea. The relations between the two parts of Korea became
hostile. In 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea. The matter was taken to the United Nations Security Council. The Security Council
condemned North Korea aggression and decided to send United Nations (UN) troops led by the U.S.A to defend South Korea. The
U.N forces led by General Douglas MacArthur of the U.S.A landed in Korea and pushed North Koreans back to Yalu River on the
border with China. China feared a non-communist neighbor and joined the war on the side of the USSR. They managed to push the
UN forces back again. This incident worsened the hostilities between the communists and the capitalists. In July 1953 peace talks were
held that divided Korea. The war ended after three years, but Korea remains divided to this day.

(c). The U2 Incident (1960)

The U2 incident occurred when the USSR shot down the USA U2 spy plane and captured the pilot Gary Powers. According to the
USSR, Gary Powers admitted he was on a spying mission. The USA denied that spying flight took place over the USSR territory. They
claimed that Gary Powers had accidentally strayed into the USSR airspace whilst on a flight to study weather conditions. To prove the
USA wrong, the USSR developed the film taken by Powers on his mission, which showed that he was really spying. The USA was
demanded to apologize for the U2 affair, stop future spying flights and punish those responsible. However, Eisenhower refused to
apologize. Gary Powers was sentenced to 10 years in the USSR but was exchanged for an USSR agent in 1962. This showed how
conflict could easily develop between the two super powers.

(d).The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

Cuba is an island off the Coast of USA. After the Second World War, Cuba was under the dictatorial government of Fulgercio Batista.
Batista was overthrown by Fidel Castro in 1958. Batista went into exile in the U.S.A. While there, he organized a Cuban invasion with
the help of the American government under John. F. Kennedy and American trained Cuban exile rebels. In April 1961 Kennedy
authorized the invasion of Cuba, at the Bay of Pigs. However, the invasion was a total failure. The American backed invasion was a
warning for Castro, who asked for help from the U.S.S.R. In October 1962 American President John F. Kennedy announced that Russia
had deployed Nuclear Missiles on Cuba which were capable of hitting most of the American towns. In return the U.S.A government
announced a Naval Blockade of Cuba and demanded the withdrawal of the missiles or the U.S.A would invade Cuba. At this hour a
nuclear war involving the U.S.A and Russia looked likely and world peace was greatly endangered. Finally, Russia agreed to withdraw
the Nuclear Missiles and in return the U.S.A promised not to invade Cuba. This marked the end of the missile crisis. In the end, Russia
and the U.S.A decided to install a direct telephone link between Moscow and Washington known as “The Hot Line” in order to settle
future crisis quickly.

(iv). The Congo Crisis (1960)

After independence in 1960, Congo faced a number of problems. The American Government had supported the new democratic leaders
while USSR supported the rebels such as Kasavubu and Patrice Lumumba who were against the government. The USSR openly
supported the rebels by sending Vehicles, aircrafts and other war materials to Congo. The Presence of the American Investigative Agencies
was heavy in the Congo. Congo became a battle field for the USA and USSR between 1960 and 1961. This was because both sides
wanted to control the mineral resources found in the Congo. The internal Conflict in the Congo was resolved by the UN. This incident
also escalated the Cold War.

(v). The Vietnam War (1956 -1973)

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Vietnam was a French colony but after the defeat of the French army by the communist rebels at Dien Bien Phu, France withdrew
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completely from Vietnam in 1954. Vietnam was then divided into two states: communist North Vietnam remained under Ho Chi Minh
while the non-communist south came under Ngo Dinh Diem. Ho Chi Minh wanted to join north and South Vietnam into one
communist country. At the Geneva Conference free elections to facilitate this union had been promised and agreed but they were never
held. With the help of China, Ho simply decided to use force to make South Vietnam join the north. The guerilla troops called Vietcong
were used to threaten civilians. To prevent this union, the leader of South Vietnam Ngo Dinh Diem asked for assistance from the USA.
The USA quickly agreed to offer money, troops, weapons and advice to South Vietnam because they wanted to suppress the spread of
communism. When the USA agreed to help the south, the USSR also decided to join China to back up the communist North Vietnam.
The USA troops bombed North Vietnam key points and communications links though failed to effectively deal with the Vietcong. At
this point, the Vietnam war had become a war between the USA backed South Vietnam and the USSR and China backed North
Vietnam.

When Richard Nixon took office as USA president in 1968, he started to solve the Vietnam Crisis. He aimed at finding a permanent
solution to the Vietnam problem. He withdrew the USA troops in order for South Vietnamese to take over the fighting themselves. The
local army was increased while Nixon supported them with modern weapons. South Vietnam was encouraged to invade both Cambodia
and Laos so as to cut off supplies to the Viet Cong. In response, North Vietnam also invaded Cambodia and Laos and set up Communist
governments there. The Viet Cong were still very active. At this stage, the Vietnam War became bitterly unpopular in the U.S.A. The
Congress refused to vote for the money needed in that war forcing Nixon in 1973 to pull out the USA troops before victory and safety
of South Vietnam was not yet assured. In 1975 North Vietnamese armies and the Viet Cong captured Sargon and took over South
Vietnam with the help of outsiders. This left Vietnam as a single country in 1975, under a communist regime.

THE END OF THE COLD WAR

There are many factors/reasons that contributed to the end of the cold war. These factors are as follows:

(a) The effects Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962: After the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, it was realized by both the Communists and
the capitalists that any nuclear war between them would lead to mutual destruction. Nikita Khrushchev (Russia president after
Stalin) and John F. Kennedy settled their differences over Cuba and established a line of communication between them called the
Hotline to prevent any future misunderstandings. The hostilities were finally relaxed, a situation commonly referred to as détente.

Détente

Detente was the gradual relaxation of tension between the two superpowers, the USSR and USA as a way of preventing future
conflicts. To put détente into practice, the two superpowers under Khrushchev and J.F. Kennedy signed the Nuclear Test Ban
Treaty in 1963 which banned all nuclear tests in the atmosphere or under water. When Jimmy Carter became the USA president
in 1977, he continued with the process of Détente. He continued negotiations with the USSR which became known as the
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT). By SALT, both the USA and USSR agreed to limit production and expenditure on
nuclear weapons while staying super powers.

Reasons For Détente

Détente came about because:

(i) The confidence of the USA was damaged by her defeat in the Vietnam War. She didn’t want any war in future.

(ii) The cost of nuclear arms race was going high.

(iii) Both superpowers has a lot of weapons that could destroy the whole earth many times.

(iv) The USSR wanted to reduce expenditure on arms and focus on improving people’s standards of living.
95

(v) The USA was seen to lose a lot of resources in arms production at the expense of the poverty in the country.
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(vi) For USA, détente was a way of further dividing the USSR and China to make sure communism stopped growing.
 (vii) Détente was an opportunity for China to develop relations with the USA, because China was looking for American
investment to help modernize the country.

(b) The Change of leadership in the USSR: In October, 1964, Khrushchev was forced to resign and was replaced by Leonid Brezhnev.
This new president wanted the international acceptance of the Soviet Union’s sphere of influence. In August 1975, a treaty called
the Final Act was signed by European statesmen in which Western European countries recognized the existing boundaries and
promised more trade with the communist countries.

(c) The disintegration of the Communist bloc: From 1953 onwards, the Soviet Union started facing a lot of discontent and a lot of
challenges from its satellite states. These discontents and challenges were mostly as a result of the economic policies and the
operations of the Warsaw Pact. By 1991, the USSR had undergone a series of revolutions that led to the breaking away of satellite
states and the establishment of democratic governments in them, particularly Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Hungary.

(d) Gobarchev’s Reforms: From 1990, the new Russian President Mikhail Gobarchev introduced reforms that brought the Cold War
to an end. Gobarchev’s aim was to transform the Soviet Society to the same level as that of the Western European Capitalist
society. He blamed the backwardness of Russia and it economic problems on the Communist System. To this effect, he introduced
two reforming policies that led to the end of Communism and consequently the Cold War. These policies were Perestroika and
Glasnost.
(i) Perestroika: Perestroika was introduced in October 1985. It was an economic policy that introduced reforms with the aim
of reducing central planning and restructuring the economy. Gorbachev resurrected some pieces of Lenin’s New Economic
Policy of the 1920s in the Perestroika. Through the Perestroika the Russian government under Gobarchev:
 Authorized the formation of cooperatives and family businesses and permitted collective farms to sell some of their
produce on the market at the going price.
 Relaxed restrictions on foreign trade and investment.
 Reduced central control over the managers of state-owned firms.
 Introduced a market economy and free enterprise. Russians were now allowed to own businesses.
 Allowed foreign investments into Russia, especially from the USA.

(ii) Glasnost: Glasnost was a political policy that was introduced to pave way for democracy. It was a policy of open and
public discussions on issues affecting the USSR. This policy allowed the free flow of information in Newspapers, on
radios and national television, unlike during communism. For the first time since the early 1920s, candidates not proposed
by the Communist Party were allowed to run. Gorbachev in 1989 became chairman of the Congress of People’s Deputies,
an elected body that had replaced the Supreme Soviet that spring. In 1990 the congress amended the Soviet constitution
to allow non-Communist political parties to organize and put candidates forward in elections.

In 1990, during the May Day Celebrations, the Russians marched to the streets and demanded for the end of communism. On 25th
December, 1991, the Union of the Socialist Soviet Republic ceased to exist. This marked the end of the Cold War.
96 Page
 Chapter Thirty

THE MIDDLE EAST CRISIS

The Creation Of The State Of Israel

Before the birth of Christ, a wandering people called the Jews settled in Palestine, and considered it as their homeland. In 63 BCE their
land was overran by the Romans. In 66 AD the Jews rose against the Romans but they were defeated. Many Jews were killed, sold into
slavery or sent into exile. They got scattered all over Europe and the Middle East where they were looked upon as outsiders. This made
the surrounding Arabs move in to occupy the land of Palestine that the Jews were forced to leave.

Wherever they went, the Jews were persecuted, especially in Europe. Thus for instance in the late 19th century thousands of Jews in Russia
and Poland were killed in bloody massacres called pogroms. As a result of these hardships that they faced in Europe and else were, an
Austrian Jew named Theodor Herzl founded the Zionist Movement in 1897. Zionism was a movement of secular socialist and nationalist
ideals which aimed at creating a Jewish nation in Palestine. Theodor wanted Jews from all over the world to go back and settle in Palestine,
the land of their fore fathers. At the time Palestine was ruled by Turkey (Ottoman) but after the First World War Palestine had been
assigned to Britain as a mandate of the League of Nations. In 1917 Arthur Belfour the British foreign secretary assured the Zionist leaders
that Britain favored the idea of establishing a national home, in Palestine for the Jewish people and would facilitate its achievement. Since
then, a large number of Jews began to arrive in Palestine and lived alongside the Arabs.

In 1929, however, the relations between the Jews and Arabs in Palestine broke down. The two sides were discontent over Jerusalem.
Besides, the Arabs were not comfortable with the large numbers of Jews who had migrated back into Palestine. In this developing conflict,
Britain and later on the United Nations were seen by Arabs to be more on the side of the Jews than Arabs. They suggested that
Immigration of Jews into Palestine meant that they would actually constitute a majority of the population. The British weakness and
inability to cope with the situation in Palestine after the Second World War resulted in Ernest Bevin, the Labor Foreign Secretary to ask
the United Nations Organization to deal with the problem. Consequently, in November 1947, the UNO voted to divide Palestine.
Early in 1948 the British completely pulled out of Palestine and let the UNO to carry out its own plan.

Since the time of the British mandate, the

Jewish community in Palestine had been
forming political, social and economic
institutions that governed daily life and
served as a pre-state infrastructure. Zionist
leader David Ben-Gurion served as head of
the pre-state government. The British
Mandate over Palestine expired on 14th
May 1948, and on the same date David
Ben-Gurion proclaimed the creation of the
state of Israel. David Ben-Gurion, Head of
the World Zionist Organization and
leader of the Jewish Agency was chosen as
the first Prime Minister while Chaim
Weizmann became the first President of
Israel.
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State of Israel (1956)

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Soon after the creation of the state of Israel in 1948, armies of Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq invaded Israel, forcing her to
defend the sovereignty she had regained in her ancestral homeland. The Arabs wanted to prevent the creation of Israel as they thought it
would prevent or delay their struggle for independence in Palestine from Britain.

Reasons For The Establishment/Creation Of The State Of Israel

There were many reasons why the state of Israel needed to be established. Some of these reasons were as follows:

(a) To bring back and settle the Jews from exile after they were driven out of Palestine by the Romans.

(b) To enable the Jews have a nation in their ancestral homeland. This was influenced by the World Zionist Organization founded
in 1897 at Basle, Switzerland. This organization encouraged Jews to go back to their home. The movement of the Jews from
various parts of the world to Palestine was generally referred to as Zionism.

(c) To provide a safe place for Jew refugees who survived the massive persecution and murder by Hitler and the Nazi after 1933.
Hitler murdered over six million Jews during the Second World War. This persecution caused a flood of refugees and by 1940
about half of the Population of Palestine was Jewish.

(d) To enable the Jews fight for their national home. This determination of the Jews to fight for their national homemade them to
begin a terrorist campaign against both Arabs and the British. Such Jewish terrorist campaign led to the blowing up of King David
Hotel in Jerusalem, which the British were using as its headquarters, ninety-one (91) people were killed.

Why Arabs Opposed The Creation Of The State Of Israel.

The Arabs opposed the creation of the state of Israel because:

(a) They feared that Jewish immigrants would become many and consequently squeeze them out of their own homeland. So the Arabs
began terrorist activities against the Jews.

(b) Both groups, Arabs and Jews had different religions and could not live together. Arabs claimed Palestine to be a land of their
ancestors, among them Abraham and Ishmael.

(c) They had lived in Palestine for close to 2000 years while Jews had been away from Palestine for the same number of years. As a
result, Arabs believed they had more right to Palestine that the Jews.

(d) Jews gained possession over most land in Palestine through purchase of land from Arabs. So they feared that in the end all land
will be bought by the Jews.

(e) The Arabs maintained that they did not deserve to suffer for Hitler’s persecution of the Jews. And that the creation of Israel led
to the problem of Arab refugees.

Why The Israelites Claimed Ownership Of Palestine

The Israelites claim ownership of Palestine because:

(a) They believe God gave this land to Abraham (the ancestor of the Israelites) and his off springs, according to the Bible. (Genesis
15:18)
(b) They believed that Palestine was promised to the Jews as a national home by Britain (according to the Balfour Declaration) in
1917.
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(c) The Jews had found Palestine a barren desert but made it a prosperous place.
(d) Israel is for peace but Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) is behind guerrilla attacks on Israel.
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(e) Hitler’s persecution of the Jews (necessitated) made it possible to have a Jewish homeland.
The Camp David Agreement (1978) by Carter (USA), Sadat (Egypt) and Begin (Israel) was a comprehensive agreement for peace for
the Middle East.

How Arab Countries Opposed The Establishment Of The State Of Israel

The Arab countries used different ways to oppose the creation of the state of Israel. They carried out the following to ensure Israel does
not become an independent state:

(a) Raids: Before establishment of Israel, Arabs raided Jewish settlements leading to conflicts between the two groups. In 1956
Egyptian terrorists’ also raided on Israel forcing Israel to join a joint attack on Egypt by France and Britain.

(b) Acts of terror: In 1949 Arab states – Jordan, Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia attacked the newly found state of Israel. Again in
1973 on the Yom Kippur, Syria attacked Israel’s Golan Heights assisted by Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Egypt also attacked
Israel across the Suez Canal. Arab terrorists and suicide bombers have continued to cause havoc in Israel.

(c) Threats: In 1967 Arab leaders threatened to invade Israel forcing her to attack neighboring Arab States.

(d) Sanctions: In 1973 Arab countries pushed the price of oil up, to punish countries that had supported Israeli during the War.

ARAB – ISRAEL CRISES/WARS

There has been a number of wars Arabs and Jews. A few examples of such wars are discussed below:

(i). The First Arab–Israel War Of 1948

The First Arab-Israeli war was fought in 1948 between a coalition of Arab states (Jordan, Egypt, Syria and Saudi Arabia) and Israel. The
Arabs were protesting against the creation of the state of Israel. When the announcement was made that Israel was a new state, the Arab
states surrounded and attacked it. Israeli President Weizmann and Prime Minister David Ben Gurion’s cry for help to the rest of the
world was met with silence. Israel was now faced with a task of defending itself singlehandedly.

Despite Israel fighting against many states, the Arabs failed to defeat Israel because their leaders were not united, each seeking to gain an
advantage from the war. The Arab armies had no coordinated plans; the Jews could concentrate on defeating first one and then another.
Also their armies were badly led, officers and men fleeing in times of difficulty. On the other hand the Jews had the technical skills of
British trained officers; the determination of a people which had no option other than to fight to the bitter end. The war came to an end
on 7th February 1949.

Results Of The First Arab-Israeli War

As a result of this war:

(a) Israel gained more territory than had been allocated to it by the UN proposal of 1948.
(b) The city of Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan.
(c) Over one million Arabs fled from Palestine to live in refugee camps in Syria, Jordan and Egypt.

(ii). The Suez Crisis Of 1956

The Suez crisis was the Second Arab-Israeli war. It started in October 1956 when Israeli troops attacked Egypt through the Suez Canal
after Egyptian president Gamal Abdul Nasser nationalized the canal. Within a week, Israel had captured the entire Sinai Peninsula.
99

Fearing that after nationalizing it, Nasser might close the canal and cut off shipment of oil from the Persian Gulf to Western Europe,
Britain and France sent their troops to help Israel with a view of regaining control of the canal and overthrowing Nasser from power.
Page

The troops landed at Port Said and Port Fuad and began to control the Canal Zone. This act of aggression was met with opposition
from the USA through the United Nations who evacuated the British and French troops from the Canal Zone in December 1956. The
Israeli forces also withdrew in March 1957. The UN forces took charge of policing the Egypt-Israeli borders.

Results Of The Suez Crisis

As a result of this crisis;

(a) Britain and France lost their influence in the Middle East.
(b) Egypt blocked the Suez Canal.
(c) Arabs reduced oil supplies to Western Europe.
(d) Nasser emerged as prestigious leader of Arab nationalism against interfering Europeans.
(e) Britain was now a weak European power, unable to follow any foreign policy independently of the USA.
(f) Algerians were encouraged to fight for their independence from France which they achieved in 1962.

(iii). The Six-Day War Of 1967

The Six-Day war or The June war was the third Arab-Israeli war. It was fought between 5 and 10 June in 1967 by Israel and the
neighboring Arab states of Egypt, Jordan and Syria. After years of diplomatic friction between Israel and its neighbors, Israel, under
Moshe Dayan as Minister of Defense launched pre-emptive air strikes that crippled air forces of Egypt and its allies. While the Arab-
side air forces were still crippled, Israel staged an attack that enabled it to seize the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West
Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. The war ended with a UN arranged ceasefire in 1970.

Results of The Six-Day War

The Six-Day war led to the following;

(a) Israel absorbed more than a million Palestinian Arabs who mostly occupied West Bank and the Gaza Strip.
(b) The war increased the refugee crisis as Palestinian Arabs kept escaping from Israeli rule.
(c) The defeat on the Arab states left them with the desire to revenge, which occurred in 1973 during the Yom Kippur war.

(iv). The Yom Kippur War Of 1973

The Yom Kippur war or October war was the fourth Arab-Israeli war. It was fought by a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria
against Israel. The war took place mostly in Sinai and the Golan, places captured by Israel during the Six-Day war in 1967. Egypt was
determined to use its military to gain control of the east bank of the Suez Canal and drive out Israelis from the Sinai. Syria wanted to
regain the Golan Heights. On 6th October 1973 on the Jewish Holy Day called Yom Kippur, Syria attacked the Golan Heights with
help from Jordan, Iran and Saudi Arabia; Egypt attacked across the canal and broke through the Israeli’s defensive Bar-Lev line. Russia
Supplied aid and technical aid to the Arabs. On the other hand, The USA which was reluctant at first to aid Israel later did so. When
the aid arrived, Israel drove the Arabs back. The Syrians were pushed back towards Damascus. The Israeli army drove through Sinai and
captured the West bank of the Canal, leaving the Egyptian army surrounding east of the Canal and in Port Said. UN mediators and USA
Secretary of State Henry Kissinger arranged a cease fire which was agreed upon by both sides. UN forces were sent to separate the Israeli
and Egyptian forces.

Results Of The Yom Kippur War

As a result of this war:

(a) Israel agreed to withdraw its forces from the Suez Canal which encouraged Egypt to open it.
(b) The Arabs pushed oil prices up. By 1974 oil prices were 4 times as they had been in 1972. They used this “Oil Weapon” to
threaten to cut off supplies to any country supporting Israel, Holland being the first sufferer.
100

=====================================================================
Page

THIS IS WHERE WORLD HISTORY ENDS, ATLEAST FOR SCHOOL GOING CHILDREN. WHAT REMAINS IS FOR THOSE ABOVE SECONDARY SCHOOL LEVEL. I BET, YOU
HAVE NEVER SEEN SUCH SIMPLIFIED WORK IN SECONDARY SCHOOL CERTIFICATE HISTORY. THIS IS AN EXCLUSIVE WORK OF MAYOBA CHUULU PIOUS!
 REFERENCES

Chiyoke, M. Senior Secondary World History. Lusaka: MK Publishers, 2016.

Chris, C. And Terry, F. Communist Russia Under Lenin And Stalin. London: John Murray, 2002.
Cornwell, R. D. World History In The 20th Century. Singapore; Longman Singapore Ltd, 1980.
Kasoma, A. L. Senior Secondary World History. Lusaka, 2006.
Lowe, N. Mastering World History. (5th Ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
Martell, J. The Twentieth-Century World. (2nd Ed.). London: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd, 1973.
O’Callaghan, B. A History Of The Twentieth Century. London & New York: Longman, 1987.
Peacock, H. L. A History Of Modern Europe 1789-1978. (6th Ed.). New York: AEB, 1987.
Snellgrove, L. E. The Modern World Since 1870: Longman Secondary Histories. (2nd Ed.). London: Longman Group Ltd, 1981.
Walsh, B., & Wayne, B. Revision History: GCSE Modern World History. London: John Murray, 1996.

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 HISTORY

10-12

CENTRAL AFRICAN

SOSTAZ PRODUCTION

1
OUTLINE OF CENTRAL AFRICAN HISTORY

1. The Bantu Speaking People.

 Origins of the Bantu Speaking People.
 The Way of Life of the Bantu Speaking People.
 Causes of the Bantu Migration
 Course/Routes of the migrations

2. The Katanga Kingdoms.

 The Luba Kingdom (Origins, Development and Decline)
 The Lunda Kingdom Mwatayamwvo

3. The Luba-Lunda Migration before 1800.

 Causes of the Migrations.
 Course/Nature/Direction of the Migrations.
 Results/Effects of the Migrations.

4. Central African Kingdoms.

 The Lunda Kingdom of Mwatakazembe.
 The Bemba Kingdom
 The Lozi Kingdom.
 The Maravi/Malawi Kingdoms (Kalonga and Undi Kingdoms).
 The Mwenemutapa Kingdom
 The Rozwi Kingdom.

5. Nguni incursions into Central Africa.

 The Ngoni under Zwangendaba.
 The Kololo under Sebitwane.
 The Ndebele under Mzilikazi.

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6. The Portuguese Activities in Central Africa.
 The Portuguese in the Zambezi Valley
 The Prazo System.

7. Missionary Activities in Central Africa.

 David Livingstone.( Background, Aims, His Three Great Journeys and effects of
his Journeys)
 Later missionary activities.
1. London Missionary Society (L.M.S)
2. The Universities Mission to Central Africa. (U.M.C.A)
3. The Paris Evangelical Missionary Society (P.E.M.S)
4. Free Church of Scotland. (F.C.S)
5. The White Fathers

8. British Imperialism in Central Africa.

 John Cecil Rhodes and his Aims.
 The Occupation of Southern Rhodesia.
 The Occupation on Nyasaland
 The Occupation of Northern Rhodesia.

9. Central African Federation/ the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

 Arguments for and against Federation
 The Federal Constitution.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Federation.

3
 1. THE BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE

DEFINITION
 The largest single group of people in Central Africa are Bantu Speaking people. They are
also found in Southern and East Africa.
 The word Bantu is also used to define Culture Similarities among the Peoples of
Central, Southern and Eastern Africa.
 The Peoples of these parts of Africa have over 90% Similarities in their languages.
 The conclusion therefore, is that the Bantu Speaking people had a common parent
Language called Proto-Bantu.

ORIGINS OF THE BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE.

 The Bantu Speaking People were part of the Early Iron Age farmers from the Middle
East from the area of the Fertile Crescent between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers.
 They initially settled along the Nile River and later spread to the rest of the Sahara
grasslands in North Africa.
 However, from the 3rd century, the ancestors of the Bantus started migrating from the
Sahara due to the fact that the Sahara started to dry up.
 Some Groups moved up North crossing the Mediterranean Sea. Other groups migrated
south of the Sahara towards Lake Chad, Nigeria and the Cameroonian Highlands.
 However, the Major group is the one that settled between Nigeria and Cameroon. This
was the area that was referred to as the Benue Region. It was here that the Bantu
Language and culture is said to have developed.
THE EARLY WAY OF LIFE OF THE BANTU SPEAKING PEOPLE.
 Social way ofLife.
 Socially, the Bantu speaking people were organized into a family which was the basic
unit of society. Several families formed a family household. Several households
combined to form a clan. A number of clans formed villages. Several villages combined
to form a tribe or a chiefdom/kingdom.

4
 In Bantu Society, Work was divided between the males and females. The males hunted,
fished and herded livestock. The females fetched water, firewood, cooked and cleaned
houses and looked after children.
 The Bantu lived in huts made of pole and mud and thatched with grass. These huts were
arranged in a circular form and in the middle was the Kraal to protect the animals.
 The diet of the Bantu people included pulp, meat, wild fruits, roots and vegetables, fish,
wild insects and beer made from millet and sorghum.
 The Bantu celebrated important moments in life or rites of passage such as birth, puberty
and marriages. The Bantu also co-operated during these important moments.
 Cattle were considered to be a symbol of wealth though it was used during religious
ceremonies and for bride price.
 Religious Way of Life.
 The Bantu believed in a Supreme Being who created all things and was addressed
By different names.
 The Bantu also believed in a whole range of spirits for different occasions e.g.
Ancestral spirits and rainmaking spirits.
 These were prayed to through Prophets and priests. Sacrifices of animals, beer
and other foods were made under the Msoro tree, hills or in rivers.
 Economic Way Of Life.
 The Bantu speaking people were agriculturalists and pastoralists. The Bantu grew crops
like beans, sorghum, millet and gourds.
 They also kept both big and small animals such as goats and cattle. Besides the above, the
Bantu were also fishermen, hunters, food gatherers, and ironsmiths (smelters of copper
and iron).
 Women were also pottery makers of channel-decorated pots. The Bantu were also traders
who used the barter system initially.
 Political Way of Life.
 Politically, Bantu society was organized in some form of a hierarchy. Households were
under the leadership of the eldest male member of the household.

5
  The clan was controlled by the eldest male member. Clans formed villages that were
controlled by a village Headman. Villages formed tribes, which were herded by
chief/King.
 Chiefs or Kings in Bantu society were considered to be Semi-divine and because of this,
they had a lot of authority. They also acted as priests in important ceremonies.
CAUSES OF THE BANTU MIGRATIONS
 The causes of the Bantu migrations were complex and inter- related, some were long
term and general, others were short term and specific.
 Availability of Large empty land: This encouraged widespread movement of people who
developed “culture” of migrations. Whenever and wherever they wanted to. Gradually
mystery of nature made them venture into the unknown and one move led to another.
 Population increase:The increase in population led to the emergency of large
communities that needed more land. The shortage of land was solved by migrating into
empty spaces.
 Agricultural practices: Some agricultural practices like the growing of varieties of millet,
legumes, pumpkins and tuber crops forced people to move in search of suitable
geographical and climatic conditions.
 Disputes: Succession disputes, family quarrels, civil wars, rebellions etc. led to the
migrations by losing parties.
 Expansion of the Sahara: A possible southward expansion of the Sahara desert brought
about climatic changes that forced people to move away to the South.
 Misrule by some chief: Some Bantu Chiefs were cruel to their people and so, some of
their people left in order to be free from them.
 Occupations of different Bantu people: farmers migrated in order to look for land, traders
to trade items, hunters for animals and fishermen for fish.
 Travel and adventure: Some Bantu people migrated simply to see other places and to start
a new life somewhere else.

6
 COURSE OR ROUTES OF BANTU MIGRATIONS

Fig 01.(map showing the Bantu Migrations from Cameroon)

 Bantu migration into central Africa took place using three routes as follows:
 The Eastern route was from the Benue region southwards and then eastwards following
the Northern ends of the equatorial rain Forest into East Africa.
 Some settled in East Africa while others moved further southwards into the Central
African Savannah.
 The Central route was from West Africa passing through the equatorial rain
forest.Using dugout canoes, they were able to cross rivers and to move using the rivers
till they reached the Savannah.
 The Western route started from the Benue region southwards and then westwards to the
Atlantic Ocean.From there they moved southwards until they reached the Savannah

7
 region and then eastwards into the hinterland in the Savannah region.In the hinterland,
the groups began mining and inter – marrying with each other and with other peoples.
 Later, the Bantu people also migrated from the Luba – Lunda empires of Katanga into
other areas of central Africa especially into Zambia, Angola and Malawi.
RESULTS OF BANTU MIGRATIONS IN CENTRAL AFRICA
 The following were the main results of Bantu migrations in Central Africa:
 The formation of Centralized government systems: Chiefdoms and Kingdoms were
formed where people respected their rulers and paid tribute to them.
 The coming of these migrants also led to the increase in the population of the areas they
occupied, and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people by the Bantu. The Bushmen
fled to the dry parts of the region.
 Trade was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu. This involved local trade
amongst themselves and long distance trade with the east and west coasts.
 Also, the Bantu migrants also introduced farming. They introduced cultivation of crops
such as millet and sorghum and keeping of animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
 Iron smelting was also introduced in central Africa by the Bantu speaking people and
iron tools replaced stone tools.
 Tribal identities also resulted from the Luba – Lunda migrations. People identified
themselves with those that they migrated with and formed tribes whose languages were
slightly different from the original Bantu language.

2. KINGDOMS OF KATANGA (LUBA AND LUNDA EMPIRES)

I. THE LUBA KINGDOM

 The Luba Kingdom was located around the Luapula River near Lake Kisale in Katanga
Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
 ORIGIN
 The Luba Kingdom was founded in the 13th Century by Kongolo, who led the Songye
into the above are and conquered the local Kalundwe people.
 Kongolo marred the Queen of the Kalundwe, took over the throne from his wife and his
name become the title of his successors.

8
 In the 15th Century, Kongolo welcomed Ilunga Mbili, a hunter from the Kunda people,
and gave him his half-sisters Bulanda and Mabele to marry.
 However, Ilunga differed with Kongolo and was chased from the Kingdom back to his
people.
 Ilunga Mbili‟s son kalala Ilunga grew up in Kongolo‟s army where he proved to be a
good soldier.
 Kongolo became suspicious of Kalala Ilunga‟s ambitions and plotted to kill him.
 Kalala Ilunga escaped to his father‟s place and came back with an army that defeated and
killed Kongolo.Hence, Kalala Ilunga took over as King and thus began the Kunda
dynasty in the Luba Kingdom.
 EXPANSION
 The Luba Kingdom expanded due to conquest of surrounding tribes who were forced to
pay tribute to the Luba Kings as a sign of loyalty to them.
 For example, Kalala Ilunga controlled even the area to the west of Lake Kisale and
became more powerful than any precious chief in Congo especially in matters of tribute,
trade and war.
 The Kingdom was well organized politically: On top of the hierarchy was the King or
Mulopwe.
 He was assisted by officials at his court who were like government ministers.
 The Mulopwe Twite was in charge of the army and the policy to defend the Kingdom and
to maintain law and order.
 Mulopwe Inabanza kept the sacred spears of the King and took care of the King‟s
spiritual well-being.
 Mulopwe Nsikala was like a Prime minister, he passed the King‟s orders to other chiefs.
 There was the Nsungu who acted as King when the King died or was too sick to perform
his duties.
 All chiefs had to be related to the Kongolo or to Kalala Ilunga and so, power was kept in
the hands of a few families.
 There was a chain of command from sub – chiefs to village headmen.

9
  Tribute moved up the hierarchy; from headmen to local chiefs, then to provincial rulers
and finally to the Mulopwe.
 DECLINE
 The Luba Kingdom declined due to the following factors:
 The Kingdom had a weakness in its political system in that when a king died, all officials
were expected to resign and the new king would choose his own capital and his own
officials.
 This did not always work and it sometimes led to succession disputes. Some old chiefs
refused to resign or simply migrated away with their supporters.
 Some young men who had the hope of becoming chiefs became frustrated and left the
Kingdom with their followers.
 For example, Kibinda Ilunga left the Luba Kingdom and migrated into Luba country
where he became chief.
 Also Luba kings did not incorporate the conquered chiefs into the Luba Kingdom. They
merely collected tribute from them and this made it easy for other chiefs to break away
when opportunities to do so came.

THE LUNDA KINGDOM OF MWATAYAMWVO

 The Lunda Kingdom of Mwata Yamvwo was located near the Kasai river in Katanga
region of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
 ORIGIN
 The founder of the Mwatayamvwo Kingdom was Kibinda Ilunga, a hunter who left the
Luba Kingdom after a succession dispute in the 16th century.
 Kibinda Ilunga led his followers to the banks of the Kasai river where he settled and
married Lueji, a queen among the Lunda people.
 Traditionally, Kibinda Ilunga took over as King from his wife Luenji
 Later, it was discovered that Lueji was barren and so, Kibinda Ilunga took a second wife
called kamonga Rwasa who gave him a son called Lusengi.
 When he became King, Lusengi introduced Luba methods of government such as a
strong chief supported by junior chiefs.

10
  Lusengi‟s son Naweji conquered many neighboring tribes and took on the title of
Mwatayamvwo meaning the Lord of vipers or master of wealth.
 Mwatayamvwo became a title for all the later rulers of the Kingdom.
 EXPANSION
 The Kingdom expanded as a result of the following factors:
 The Mwatayamvwo expanded his kingdom using conquests. Many neighboring tribes
were incorporated into the Lunda Kingdom.
 Conquered chiefs were made to pay tribute to Mwatayamvwo as a sign of loyalty to him.
Part of the tribute was redistributed among the people while the bulk of it was used in
trade.
 The Kingdom has plenty of natural resources which enabled Mwatayamvwo to
participate in the long distance trade with the Swahili – Arabs from the east coast and
with the Portuguese from the west coast.
 His capital Musumba was the center of this long distance trade.
 Mwatayamvwo exchanged slaves, copper, salt and ivory for guns, gun-powder, cloth,
beads and other European manufactured goods from the coastal traders.
 He monopolized the trade and obtained a lot of wealth for himself and his people. Hence,
the term master of wealth.
 Guns enabled him to conquer his neighbors while other items were distributed among his
junior chiefs to win their loyalty.
 Also, the Kingdom had a good political organization with the local people at the bottom
living in villages run by village headman.
 Villages were grouped into districts and each district was ruled by a chief known as the
Kilolo.
 Above the Kilolo was a Commissioner called the Yikezi? The Yikezi was appointed by
the Mwatayamvwo to supervise a Kilolo whom Mwatayamvwo did not trust.
 DECLINE
Mwatayamvwo‟s Kingdom began to decline in the 17th century as a result of the
following reasons:
 Some sub – chiefs were unwilling to continue paying tribute to Mwatayamvwo and so,
they left the Kingdom with their followers.
11
  The slave trade brought insecurity in the Kingdom. It brought tribal wars and some
people left the Kingdom for fear of being sold as slaves.
 Also, Lueji‟s brothers Kinguri and Chinyama could not accept. Luba domination among
the Lunda. Chinyama and his followers migrated southwards into north – western
Zambia. They split into many groups such as the Luvale and the Chokwe.
 They migrated away from the Kingdom with their followers: Kinguri led his people into
Angola where they became known as the Imbangala.
 These migrations paralyzed Mwatayamvwo‟s kingdom and made him lose his wealth and
power. Hence the decline of the Kingdom.
 His descendants later built the Kasanje Kingdom near the Kwango river.

2. THE LUBA – LUNDA MIGRATIONS

 DEFINITION
 Luba – Lunda migrations or dispersal refers to the migrations of various tribal groups
from the Luba and Lunda Kingdoms of Katanga to other parts of Central Africa
especially Zambia, Malawi and Angola.
 These migrations took place mainly during the 17th and 18th centuries.

CAUSES
 The Luba Lunda migrations were caused by the following factors:
 Sharp population increase in Katanga caused by the introduction of new crops which
improved the diet health and fertility of the Luba – Lunda peoples.
 Shortage of land for crop cultivation and animal pastures resulting from a sharp
population growth. Hence, people began to migrate in search of land.
 Succession disputes after the death of some chiefs created discontent among losing
candidates who moved away to establish their own chiefdoms elsewhere.
 Some people migrated away from their homelands after quarreling with their relatives.
 Also, some people were chased or left on their own after accused of practicing witchcraft.
 To expand their kingdoms, some kings sent some of the chiefs on conquest missions and
some of them migrated to the conquered areas with their followers.
12
 Some people migrated after failing to pay heavy taxes and tribute imposed on them by
their rulers. Such people also left to avoid being sold as slaves to the slave traders.
 Cruel chiefs also made some of their subjects to migrate to other places where they could
be free from their cruelty.
 Some people left as a result of travel and adventure. They simply wanted to see other
places and try lie somewhere else.
 GENERAL NATURE
 Migrants from Luba country mostly settled in Zambia‟s Northern, Copperbelt and Lusaka
provinces.
 Examples include the Bemba of the Bena Ng‟andu clan, the Chishinga, Unga and Ushi of
the Ngoma clan, the Lala and others.
 The Chewa of kalonga Mkanda, Mkanda and Undi also migrated from the Luba Kingdom
during the late 1500s.
 Migrants from Lunda country settled mostly in north – western Zambia. Examples
include the Lozi of Mwamba, the Chokwe, the Lunda of Chinyama and Musokatanda and
many others.
 The Lunda of Luapula also originated from the Lunda Kingdom in Katanga.
 RESULTS
 The results of the Luba – Lunda migrations were as follows:
 It led to the formation of centralized states in Central Africa. Kingdoms and Chiefdoms
were formed in Central Africa where kings and chiefs were given a lot of respect.
 The system of paying tribute to chiefs and kings was started. People paid tribute in form
of items such as given, salt, minerals and others.
 The coming often Luba – Lunda migrants also led to an increase in the population of
Central Africa, and the displacement of the Late Stone Age people by the Bantu. The
Bushmen fled to the dry part of the region.
 The Luba – Lunda migrants also introduced trade in the newly occupied areas of Central
Africa. This involved local trade amongst themselves and long distance trade with the
east and west coasts.
 Also, farming was introduced in these areas where the Bantu started cultivating crops
such as millet and sorghum and keeping animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
13
  The Luba – Lunda migrants introduced a system of shifting cultivation commonly called
Chitemene among the Bemba people of Zambia.
 Iron smelting was also introduced in Central Africa by the Bantu speaking people and
iron tools replaced stone tools.
 Tribal identities in the newly occupied areas also resulted from the Luba – Lunda
migrations. People identified themselves with stone that they migrated with and formed
tribes whose languages became different from the original Bantu language.

QUESTIONS.
1. Give (a) the causes and (b) the effects of the Luba-Lunda dispersion in Central Africa.
[14,6]
2. Give an account of the causes and routes of the Bantu Migrations into Central Africa
before 1800. [12,8]
3. What were the causes of the Luba-Lunda Dispersal? Describe the general nature and the
important effects of this dispersal in Central Africa. [8,6,6]-2005.
4. Give reasons for and a description of Bantu Migrations into Central Africa before 1800.
[8,12]-2006.
5. (a) List down the main Bantu-speaking peoples of Zambia by the Mid-Nineteenth
Century.
(b) Where did they come from?
(c) Any why did they migrate? [5: 5: 10]-2002.

2. CENTRALIZED KINGDOMS
I. THE KALONGA KINGDOM
 ORIGIN
 The founders of the Malawi Kingdom of Kalonga were led from the Luba Empire by
Mazizi Kalonga in the 13th century.
 Mazizi Kalonga died on the way and his successors took on the title of Kalonga.
 These migrants entered the area around lake Malawi and settled alongside the Chewa
hunter – gatherers and subsistence cultivators who had occupied the area earlier.

14
 They later formed the many different groups of the Malawi people namely the Chikunda,
Chipeta, Mang‟anja. Mbo, Ntumbu, Nyanja, Nyasa, Nsenga and Zimba.
 Apart from the Nsenga, the Malawi people all spoke Nyanja, the language of the lake.
 Kalonga‟s people established themselves as rules over the Chewa people and introduced
a good political system.
 In 1580, Lundu broke away and established the Kingdom of Bororo to the South of
Kalonga.

Fig 02. (Map Showing the extent of Kalonga Kingdom)

EXPANSION
 During the late 16th century, the power of the Kalonga family began to increase and they
began to create a unified chiefdom.
 The most powerful of their rulers was Kalonga Masura, who ruled from 1600 – 1650 and
made an alliance with the Portuguese.

15
 In 1608, he sent 4000 Malawi soldiers to help the Portuguese defeat Mwenemutapa Gatsi
Rusere.
 In return, the Portuguese helped Masura to conquer his rival Lundu.
 Kalonga Masura then tried to take control of the gold and ivory trade in Mwenemutapa‟s
Kingdom but in vain.
 The Kingdom expanded through conquests. Masura built a powerful army of about 10
000 Malawi soldiers which he used to conquer the Chipeta, Mbo, Zimba and Chewa.
 The conquered tribes were made to pay tribute to Kalonga, which he used in the long
distance trade.
 Masura sold ivory and slaves and obtained guns, gunpowder, beads, cloth and other
luxurious goods. Control of trade to the north of the Kingdom helped him to expand his
Kingdom.
 He used his wealth to reward his warriors and sub-chiefs while guns strengthened the
military position of the Kingdom.
 Kalonga used his wealth to win the loyalty of his sub – chiefs and subjects. He distributed
his wealth among his sub-chiefs who in turn redistributed them to their people.
 The religious factor was also important in the development of Kalonga kingdom. The
Kalonga family was considered to be semi-divine and was believed to possess rain
making powers.
 DECLINE
A number of factors have been attributed to the collapse of the Kalonga Kingdom. These
includes:
 Kalonga failed to build a highly centralized political state, unlike most of the Luba-
Lunda counterpart. The subordinate chiefs were given so much autonomy that they were
able to command a following of their own.
 After the death of Masura, Undi broke away following a succession dispute and took with
him close members of the Kalonga which left the ruling Kalonga with no apparent hair to
the throne.
 Another contributing factor was the failure of the royal Mbona rain-cult to create unity
among various Chewa people which led to further break away groups.
 Externally the kingdom suffered from Yao attacks.

16
  The Yao traders also traded directly with the lesser chiefs. Thus they stopped fearing
Kalonga as they no longer depended on him.
 The kingdom continued to decline until the killing of the last Kalonga by the Yao in the
1860s.

UNDI’S CHEWA KINGDOM

 ORIGIN
 The Chewa Kingdom of Undi originated as a result of a succession dispute. Undi broke
away from the Kalonga Kingdom in present day Malawi around 1700.
 Undi established his Capital at Mano, south of Tete district in Mozambique. His
Kingdom went as far as south of Katete in Zambia‟s Eastern Province.
 He spread his control throughout the Katete and Chadiza areas. In these areas, the
conquered local groups such as Mkanda‟s Chewa, the Nsenga of Petauke and the Chewa
of Tete. He was given the praise name of Gawa Undi. “Gawa” meant “share”. This was
because Undi shared the Land among his subordinate chiefs. Gawa Undi became the
official title of the Chewa Paramount Chiefs.
 DEVELOPMENT OF UNDI‟S KINGDOM
The factors that led to the Development of Undi‟s Kingdom were:
 A well-organized political structure-Undi organized a centralised political structure as
compared to the Kalonga, s Kingdom. He organized the Kingdom according to levels of
Hierarchy of rulers i.e.
UNDI-was the overall boss

SUBORDINATE CHIEF-from the Phiri and Banda Clans

TRIBUTARY CHIEFS-from the conquered people

HEADMEN- from the villages.

ORDINARY PEOPLE

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 This ensured that Undi had firm control of political affairs in the Kingdom.
 Religious Powers- Undi was also perceived to be a semi-divine ruler. He controlled the
important rainmaking Shrine. He also established a female rainmaker called Makewane,
who was in charge of the Shrine. This contributed to the political power of Undi and it
was also a very important factor in uniting the Chewa people.
 Raids- This was an important factor in the development of the Kingdom.Undi conquered
and assimilated weaker groups such as the, Nsenga, Chewa and the Tumbuka. These
were incorporated into the Kingdom. At its height, Undi,s Kingdom was vast. It included
the Eastern Province of Zambia, parts of Mozambique‟s Tete districts and parts of
Malawi.
 The concentration of Power in the Phiri Clan; Undi gave posts of Sub-chiefs to
members of the Phiri Clan. He also encouraged the members of the clan to intermarry
with women from other clans and the defeated tribes. The sub-chiefs were loyal to Undi
because of Family relationship ties. In this way, Undi was able to maintain Unity in the
Kingdom.
 Natural Resources; Undi‟s Kingdom was also very rich in Natural Resources. To begin
with, Undi, s area was well watered and had fertile soils. Besides there were other natural
resources such as salt, iron ore, ivory and gold. In addition, by mid 1700, the mining of
Gold in the Kingdom by he Portuguese became very important. The Portuguese and their
Chikunda agents mined the gold got their share and gave a percentage to Undi. All these
natural resources enabled Undi to participate in the Long Distance Trade.
 Tribute System; Tribute was collected from the defeated chiefs and the subordinate
chiefs as a sign of loyalty to Undi. This tribute was in form of ivory, slaves and gold.
This also enabled the Undi to participate in the Long Distance Trade.
 Monopoly of the Long Distance Trade; The rich natural resources and the Tribute
System enabled Undi to participate in and later monopolise the Long distance Trade. In
exchange for local products such as ivory, gold and slaves, Undi was given items such as
guns, gunpowder and beads. This economic factor greatly contributed to the development
of Undi‟s Kingdom.
 Slave Trading; it also contributed to the development of the Kingdom. At about the
same time that Gold mining was at its peak, trade in slaves had also started and was

18
 highly profitable. Many people were sold as slaves. This led to an increase in Undi,s
Economic power. This human labour was needed for the huge plantations called the
Prazoes in the Zambezi valley.
 DECLINE
After 1750, Undi‟s Kingdom began to decline because:
 It had no strong centralized government system,. Sub –chiefs tried as much to
decentralize power with the help of external traders. Hence, conflicts arose between Undi
and his sub – Chiefs and this weakened his position.
 Undi did not have a permanent army and this made foreigners and sub – chiefs
undermine his authority because they had nothing serious to fear. Sub – chiefs stopped
paying tribute to Undi.
 The Portuguese and their Chikunda agents began undermining Undi‟s authority by
trading directly with Undi‟s sub – chiefs. Consequently, Undi‟s lost his monopoly of
trade.
 The slave trading activites of the Portuguese and the Chikundi created insecurity and
weakened the kingdom.
 Undi lost control of the Makewana rain making shrines. This weakened his position and
negatively affected the unity in the Kingdom.
 The final destruction of the Kingdom was done by the Ngoni Zwangendaba‟s Ngoni
settled in Nsenga country for four years on their way to the north. They raided Undi‟s
people and put the Kingdom in more trouble.
 From the north, Mpezeni‟s ngoni terrorized the Kingdom again. They permanently settled
in Nsenga land and this led to the final destruction of the Kingdom.

THE LUNDA KINGDOM OF MAWATA KAZEMBE

 ORIGIN
 Mwata Kazembe‟s Lunda Kingdom started as an offshoot of the already existing
Kingdom of Mwata Yamvwo.
 Around 1680, Mwata Yamvwo Muteba sent Mutanda Yembeyembe eastwards to conquer
the weak tribes in the Luapula area in order to control the salt and copper deposits there.

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 Mutanda yembe yembe was asked to establish a tributary chiefdom on behalf of Mwata
yamvwo.
 However, he became disloyal to Mwata yamvwo for himself all the items collected from
the conquered people and when Chinyama reported him to Mwatayamvwo, Mutanda
Yembeyembe killed Chinyanta.
 Mwatayamvwo‟s army defeated Mutanda Yembeyembe.
 As a reward to Chinyanta‟s death, Mwatayamvwo Muteba appointed Chinyanta‟s first
son Nganda Bilonda as Chief of the Luapula area and gave him the title of Mwata
Kazembe.
 Nganda Bilonda conquered all the surrounding tribes in the Luapula valley and built his
capital at Mwansabombwe.
 However, Nganda Bilonda drowned in the Luapula river while trying to expand his
kingdom. He was succeeded by his son Kanyembo in 1725.

Fig 03. Map showing the location of Mwata-Kazembes’ Kingdom

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 EXPANSION
 Kanyembo was given the Lunda insignia of kingship of Mwatayamvwo and this included
a belt, staff, knife and a cutting of Mutaba tree to be planted at his capital.
 Kanyembo then began expanding the Kingdom by successfully conquering the area
between the Luapula and Lualaba rivers.
 He also organized military campaigns in Shaba area where he defeated the Lamba and
Sanga chiesf.
 Kanyembo crossed the Luapula river in 1740 and conquered the Ushi, Chungu and Shila.
 He died in 1760 and he was succeeded by Ilunga Lukwesa who conquered the Tabwa,
Lungu and Shila.
 These conquests by different Kazembe helped to expand the Kingdom as the conquered
people were made to pay tribute to Kazembe.
 Tribute and availability of natural resources enabled Kazembe to participate in the long
distance trade with both the east coast and the west coast.
 He traded with the Portuguese on the west coast through the Imbangala middlemen and
this trade route passed through Mwatayamvwo‟s capital. He also traded with the
Portuguese at Sena and Tete using the Bisa Middlemen.
 On the east coast, he traded with the Swahili, Arabs and Nyamwezi traders and his
middlemen were the Yao.
 Kazembe sold copper, salt, ivory and slaves and obtained fire arms, cloth, beads and
some other European luxuries.
 Kazembe monopolized the trade and used his wealth to reward his sub – chiefs. This
earned him their loyalty.
 Guns were used in conquering his neighbors and were not distributed to his junior chiefs
for fear of overthrowing him.
 DECLINE
 The Lunda Kingdom of Mwata Kazembe began to decline after 1830 due to the following
reasons.
 In the 1830s, the Bemba and the Ngoni people raided Kazembe‟s middlemen, the Bisa for
trade items. The Bisa, who had no protection from Kazembe, stopped trading on behalf of
Kazembe and this deprived Kazembe of his wealth.
21
  In the 1950s, Mwata Kazembe Keleka allowed the Yeke under Msiri to settle in the
Luapula valley in the Northern part of the Kingdom.
 Msiri later acquired guns and became so powerful that he began to challenge Kazembe.
 Msiri later cut off Kazembe‟s kingdom from the western trade route and the copper from
Katanga.
 He also began to trade directly with Kazembe‟s sub – chiefs and this weakened
Kazembe‟s Kingdom.
 Kazembe also lost the eastern trade route. The Nyamwezi and the Swahili Arabs opened
new trade routes from the east coast to the interior. They began trading with Msiri instead
of Kazembe.
 Kazembe also lost his monopoly over tribute. The Swahili Arabs gained direct contact
with his sub-chiefs and Kazembe did nothing to stop them.
 In 1872, Tippo Tib entered the Luapula valley and interfered directly in the political
affairs of the Lunda. He replaced the reigning Kazembe Kafuti Chikonkole with
Lukwesa.
 By the time the British South Africa Company entered the Luapula valley in the 1890s,
Kazembe‟s Kingdom had been reduced to the Luapula valley. The area was then placed
under British protection.

THE BEMBA KINGDOM

 ORIGIN
 The founders of the Bemba Kingdom originated from the Luba Kingdom in Katanga
around 1600.
 The Bemba chiefly clan, the Bena Ng‟andu clan were led from the Luba Kingdom by
Chiti Muluba and Nkole.
 They migrated eastwards into Zambia‟s Northern Province where they settled at
Lubemba after conquering the local people of the area between Chinsali and Kasama
districts of Zambia around 1650.
 Chiti Muluba was given the praise title of Mukulu, and he became known as Chitimukulu
which became the title of all the Bemba paramount chiefs.

22
 Chiti Muluba built his capital at Mwalule west of Lubemba and his people became
known as Babemba.
 This marked the foundation of the Bemba Kingdom.
 FACTORS FOR SLOW DEVELOPMENT OF THE KINGDOM
The development of the Bemba kingdom was slow because:
 Lubemba was poor in natural resources. The soils were poor and mostly poorly watered.
Hence the area was not suitable for farming.
 The presence of tsetse flies in the area hindered animal keeping.
 Lubemba‟s lack of natural resources prevented it from participating in the long distance
trade.
 Hence, until the 1830s, the Kingdom consisted only of Chinsali and Kasama districts.

 EXPANSION OF THE KINDOM

 To develop their kingdom, the Bemba turned their disadvantages into advantages. They
resorted to raiding their neighbors such as the Mambwe for cattle, the Tabwa for salt, the
Ushi for iron and the Bisa for ivory.
 The repeated raiding also made the Bemba proficient in warfare. Through raiding and
conquests, they began expanding their kingdom at the expense of their neighbors.
 In the 1830s, Chitimukulu Chileshe Chepela made good administrative reforms that
contributed to the expansion of the Kingdom.
 For example, he abolished short ruling periods and introduced reigns of long periods.
 Chepela also limited succession to the throne to his own clan, the Miti clan, and he
appointed his nephews to rule the conquered tribes on his behalf.
 The Bemba kingdom became centralized and this brought unity and stability in the
Kingdom. Unit and stability enabled the Bemba to conquer surrounding tribes who paid
tribute to them.
 Tribute collection and raids helped the Bemba to participate in the long distance trade.
Chepela and later Chitapankwa, made trade alliances with the Nyamwezi, Arabs and
Swahili traders.

23
  The Bemba exchanged mostly ivory and slaves for cloth, beads, guns and gunpowder
from the coastal traders. Guns enabled them to expand their Kingdom even further.
 The Bemba became so united military that during the reign of Chitapankwa they
managed to repel attacks by the Ngoni of Mpzeni and Mpelembe.
 By then, the Bemba were controlling a vast area including Mpika district, Lungu land,
Tabwa and Mambwe areas.
 DECLINE
 The Bemba Kingdom began to decline in after 1883 following the death of Chitimukulu
Chitapankwa.
 Chitapankwa was succeeded by his brother Sampa while his nephew Chiponda became
the senior chief Mwamba.
 These new leaders lacked the good leadership qualities of Chepela and Chitankwa and
this led to the collapse of Bemba authority and the decline of the Kingdom.
 In addition, the two leaders were involved in squabbles over the throne and this divided
the Kingdom into two parts.
 By 1893, a white father Bishop DuPont came to Lubemba and made friends with Chief
Mwamba DuPont influenced senior chief Mwamba to accept British protection.
 In 1896, the British South Africa Company declared Lubemba a British protectorate.
 Hence, by 1897, the Bemba submitted to British protection and Bemba dominance in the
area ended.

THE LUYI (LOZI) KINGDOM

 ORIGIN
 The Luyi or Lozi aristocracy originated from the Lunda Kingdom of Mwatayamvwo in
Katanga from where they were led by a queen called Mwamba.
 They settled in the Zambezi flood plans around 1650 after conquering the Nyengo,
Mwenyi and Munatwa and then built their capital at Lealui.
 Mwamba died and she was succeeded by her daughter Mbuyawamwambwa whose father
is believed to have been the god called Nyambe.
 Mbuyawamwamba abdicated the thrown in favor of her son Mboo Muyunda who became
the first male leader of the Lozi and took the title of Litunga.
24
 Some of the Mboo; s relatives left the Kingdom to establish their own chieftaincies
elsewhere.
 Mwanambili settle at Imatongo and his followers became known as the Kwandi.
 Mange went to the eastern forest and his people were called the Kwangwa
 Ilishua settled at Mashi and his followers became known as the Mashi.
 Later, litunga Ngalama brought back Mange and Mwanambili under control while
Ngombala conquered the Shanjo and Totela.
 Thus, the Kingdom became established and it began to expand after 1780.

Fig 04. Map showing the Lozi Kingdom

 EXPANSION
There are several factors that account for the expansion of the Luyi Kingdom as follows:
 The Zambezi flood plains provided a good system of communication by canoe. This
enabled rules to effectively control their subjects and to collect tribute.
 The river was surrounded by fertile alluvial soils and abundant water for irrigation of
crops using canals that were dug. Hence, agricultural production was high.

25
 There were also plenty of other natural resources in the Kingdom such as fish and
animals.
 The kingdom also expanded due to the good leadership qualities of Ngalama, Ngombala
and Mulambwa who conquered surrounding tribes and brought them under Lozi control.
 The conquered tribes were made to pay tribute to the Litunga.
 The Kingdom was well organized politically. It was divided into villages controlled by
village headmen or indunas.
 A group of villages formed a district called Silalo.
 The Litunga was assisted by his Prime Minister called Ngambela.
 The rapid expansion of the Kingdom took place during the reign of Lintunga Mulambwa.
 Mulambwa became the Litunga of the Lozi people in 1780 and introduced a number of
reforms in the Kingdom.
 Mulambwa, the tenth Litunga, believed that people stole because of being in need.
 Hence, he introduced a new law whereby a person caught stealing was given cattle or a
position of authority and then watched closely so that he did not steal again.
 If a man was caught committing adultery with another man‟s wife, his wife would be
given to the offended man to do the same publicly.
 Mulambwa refused the Portuguese and the Mambari slave traders entry into his kingdom.
He did not want to sell his people as slaves because he needed them for labor and as
source of tribute.
 He welcomed important immigrants such as the Mbunda of Mwene Kandala and Mwene
Chiengele who come to settle in Bulozi.
 The Mbunda were skilled medicine men and military men who introduced fighting using
a small axe called bukano.
 They also introduced cassava and a new type of yam called sikuswani. Hence they
contributed to the prosperity of the Kingdom.
 Mulambwa died in 1830 and his death was followed by a succession dispute between
Mubukwanu and Silumelume. Hence, the Kingdom began to decline.
 DECLINE
The decline of the power of the Lozi kingdom was due to the following factors:

26
 The Kingdom which was divided into two parts was not united. The northern part was
predominately Luyi and spoke Siluyana or Luyi language while the southern part spoke
Subiya, Totela and Shanjo.
 When the Kololo arrived in the Kingdom, the Southern part supported Sebitwane
 The system of dual kingship with the senior Litunga at Lealui and the junior Litunga at
his capital in the Southern apart of the Kingdom was a seed for conflict.
 It resulted into a succession dispute and a civil was after the death of Mulambwa.
Mabukwanu a junior Litunga tried to prevent his brother silumelume from becoming the
senior Litunga. This led to the outbreak of a dispute over succession.
 Hence, when the Kololo arrived in the Kingdom in the 1830s, the Lozi Kingdom was torn
apart and weakened by a bloody civil war.
 Thus, the Lozi were easily defeated by the Kololo who took over the control of the
Kingdom and ruled Bulozi for about forty years.

THE MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM

 ORIGIN
 The origin of the Mwenemutampa kingdom dates to as far back as the 12th century.
 It was formed by the Karanga section of the Shona people who ruled first from
Mapungubwe and later from Great Zimbabwe.
 The empire flourished on trade with the Iron Age traders in which the Karanga
exchanged gold ad ivory for iron implements. Salt was also an important item in the area.
 In the 15th century, the Mbire section of the Shona began to control the Kingdom.
 The first of the Mbire rulers was Chikura wasyambeu and he was succeeded by his
grandson Nyatsimba Mutota around 1420.
 Mutota abandoned Greater Zimbabwe and migrated northwards on a series military
campaigns in order to control salt deposits and take over the gold and ivory trade in the
lower Zambezi.
 He also wanted to scape drought and civil wars which had hit the Southern part of Great
Zimbabwe.
 Mutota conquered the Tavala people in Dande area where he settled and built his capital
at Mount Fura.
27
  The conquered people nicknamed Mutota as “Mwenemutapa‟ and his warriors as the
„Makorekore‟. Mwenemutampa means „Lord of the conquered lands.‟
 This marked the foundation of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom.

fig 05. (Map showing the Kingdom of Mwenemutapa)

 EXPANSION
 Mutota expanded the Kingdom by conquering neighboring tribes.
 By the time he died in 1450, the Kingdom included much of Zimbabwe except for the
eastern highland.
 Mutota was succeeded by Matope who ruled from 1450 to 1480.
 Matope managed to control the gold trade and ivory trade and this strengthened he
economic position of the kingdom.
 He also organized military campaigns and conquered many weaker tribes.
 Matope centralized the Kingdom by appointing his relatives and those loyal to him as
rulers.

28
 He managed to control the richest parts of the Kingdom namely Mbire province under
Togwa and Guruhuswa province under Changa.
 These two provinces were rich in gold which brought a lot of wealth to the Kingdom as it
was used in trade with the Portuguese.
 The Kingdom reached its greatest extent during Matope‟s reign. He brought the whole of
Zimbabwe under his control and extended the Kingdom to include part of eastern
Mozambique.
 Matope died in 1480 and was succeeded by his son Nyahuma.
 DECLINE
 The decline of Mwenemutapa kingdom began after the death of Matope mainly due to
internal disputes and Portuguese activities in the Kingdom.
 Matope‟s successor Nyahuma was young and inexperienced and he failed to control
Changa and Togwa. The Kingdom was too big for him to control iron from one center.
 The two rebelled against Nyahuma, killed him and declared them independence of the
Mwenemutapa.
 Change seized power and built a separate Kingdom known as Changamire‟s Kingdom.
 In 1494, Nyahuma‟s son Chikuyo killed Changamire and declared himself the
Mwenemutapa but failed to control Mbire and Guruhuswa provinces.
 By the late 1490s the Mwenemutapa Kingdom was divided into two separate Kingdoms
and the authority of Mwenemutapa was seriously declining.
 The Portuguese entered the Kingdom in the 16th century with the desire to control the
gold and ivory trade.
 In 1573, they forced Mwenemutapa Negomo to sign in a treaty with them through which
they acquired rights to own land in the Kingdom.
 In time, the Portuguese began to challenge Mwenemutapa‟s authority over gold and
silver in the Kingdom.
 They began trading with Mutapa‟s sub-chiefs and started mining gold illegally.
 In 1623, they deposed Mwenemutapa Kapararidze who opposed their presence in the
Kingdom. They replaced him with Mavura who became a puppet to them.
 This created instability in the Kingdom and contributed to the collapse of the Kingdom.

29
3. THE NGUNI INCURSIONS INTO CENTRAL AFRICA

A. MZILIKAZI AND THE NDEBELE STATE

 ORIGINS AND MOVEMENT

 Mzilikazi was the chief of the Khumalo tribe, who sought refuge and Shaka‟s protection in
Zululand.
 He feared to be brutalized by Zwide, the killer of his father.
 Shaka made him a commander in the army.
 In 1821, Mzilikazi was successful in cattle and raid against the Sotho but he refused to hand
over the cattle to Shaka.
 Instead, he left Zululand and led his Khumalo people and army across the Drakensberg
Mountains.
 They were followed by Shaka‟s force but they escaped from the area.
 The Khumalo reached the Oliphant‟s river in 1823 and settled at Ekupumuleni.
 By 1826, Ndebele had reached Mhlalandlela where they settled in southern Transvaal.
 Mzilikazi attacked and defeated the weaker tribes he found in Transvaal and incorporated
them into his tribe.
 However, he failed to defeat Moshesh‟s Basuto and he was forced out of Transvaal by
attacks from the Tlokwa and Boers.
 The Ndebele left Mhlalandlela in two groups.
 Induna Gundwane Ndiweni led one group consisting of women, old people, cattle and
children, including Mzilikzi‟s sons into Zimbabwe and Lobengula.They took a shorter route
into Zimbabwe and settled in the Matopo hills area.
 The second group consisting of warrior was led by Mzilikazi.The group went as far as Lake
Ngami where they clashed with the Kololo. They lost contact with the main group.
 Hence, when Mzilikazi‟s group moved into Zimbabwe, they found that Nhulumane had been
installed as king.
 Mzilikazi then executed Nkhulumane, induna Gundwane Ndiweni and others for treason.

30
Fig 06. (Map showing the movements of the Nguni Speaking people into Central Africa)

The Ndebele State in Zimbabwe

 After the execution, the Ndebele stabilized and lived a settled life in Zimbabwe.

 Mzilikzi built his capital at lnyati.

 He mixed elements of Nguni and Sotho Tswana culture and custom to establish his own
state.
 He formed regiments based in regional villages rather than at a large central capital.
 Mzilikazi was not as harsh as shaka and he allowed his people and regiments to marry
freely.
 Mzilikazi built the most powerful kingdom north of the Limpopo river, where there was
law and order.
 Conquered tribes who failed to pay tribute were harshly dealt with.
 The Ndebele heavily depended on raiding the shonA for cattle.
 Ndebele civil society was divided into three castes or classes:
 The Zansi caste was the highest class and was composed of the original khumalo. It
formed the Ndebele aristocracy or ruling class.

31
  The Enhla was the second most important class.It was made up of Sotho-Tswana people
and others that were conquered and assimilated into Ndebele society while in Transvaal.
 The Holi caste was the lowest class in Ndebele society.It was made up of tribes that were
conquered in Zimbabwe especially the Shona ad the Tonga.
 These were regarded as slaves and did work for the Zansi and Enhla castes.
 Mzilikazi died in 1868 and he was succeeded by his son Lobengula.

THE KOLOLO UNDER SEBITWANE

 ORIGIN AND MOVEMENTS

 The Kololo originated from the Orange Free State in South Africa where they were
originally known as the Fokeng.
 The Fokeng were a Sotho speaking people under their Chief Sebitwane from the Patsa
clan.
 His people experienced constant raids by the ngoni who had fled from Shaka‟s wars.
 Thus in 1820, Sebitwane led his people northwards with a woman captured from the
Kololo clan of the Puthing.
 The fokeng adopted her as a mother – igure and began calling themselves as the Kololo.
 The Kololo settle in Transvaal but they were attacked by the Griquas‟ in 1825 forcing
them to migrate westwards into Botswana.
 They settled around Lake Ngami where many of them died of malaria. Many of their
cattle died on their way to Lake Ngami where many more died due to tsetse flies.
 These problems coupled with Ndebele attacks forced Sebitwane to migrate northwards
across the Zambezi river.
 Further attacks by the Mzilikazi and Nxaba forced the Kololo to migrate westwards into
Bulozi about 1831.
 Sebitwane easily conquered the Lozi who were already weakened by civil war after the
defeated of Mulambwa.

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 Sebitwane‟s Rule in Bulozi

 By 1845 Sebitwane had established his control over the Lozi and he began to set up a
firm Kololo state in Bulozi. He made a number of changes in the administration of the
kingdom.
 The capital was moved from Lealui to Linyanti where it was easy for him to defeat
himself against external enemies.
 Sebitwane made the Kololo aristocracy as the ruling class of the kingdom. The Kololo
became the „lords of Bulozi‟.
 He also placed two Kololo families in each of the conquered Lozi villages. Thus the
Lozi were able to learn Sesutho, the indigenous Kololo language which became widely
spoken all over Bulozi. This helped him to create unity in the kingdom.
 Sebitwane also allowed some Lozi chiefs to remain as rulers and took some of them into
his Kololo council.
 Sebitwane married some women form the conquered Lozi tribes and this helped him to
strengthen his bonds with the conquered.
 Tribe paid by his subjects‟ from the various parts of the kingdom was distributed among
all his people including slaves and this won him their loyalty.
 Unlike Lozi chief who never appeared in public, Sebitwne mixed freely with his people
and all were referred to as children of the king.
 Sebitwane ordered his Kololo village headmen to treat the Mkalaka fairly. He also
allowed the Makalaka to leave Kololo villages where headmen were cruel.
 Therefore, Sebitwane was accepted and liked by all his people including the Lozi and
they were able to live in unity with the Kololo.
 As a result of these policies and the peace that his kingdom enjoyed, Sebitwane is
regarded as one of the greatest and wisest leaders of Ceenral Africa during the 9th
Century.
 During his reign, the Lozi kingdom expanded as far east as Choma, Namwala and
Mazabuka districts.
 It also included parts of Angola, Zimbabwe and Botswana.
 In 1851, Sebitwane died after falling from Livingstone‟s horse.

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  Sekeletu‟s rule and the restoration of Lozi Rule in Bulozi

 Sekeletu came to power in 1851 after his sister Mamochisane abdicated the throne in his
favor.
 Sekeletu lacked the wisdom and intelligence of his father and so became unpopular
among both the Kololo and the Makalaka.
 He did not follow Sebitwane‟s policy of marring from the conquered tribes.
 He also did not care how some young makololo were treating the Makalaka as slaves.
 Many Lozi were killed by Sekeletu when he suffered from leprosy. He accused the Lozi
of having bewitched him.
 Thus, the Lozi developed a negative attitude towards the Kololo and waited for a chance
to overthrow them and retain their rule.
 The chance came in 1863 when Sekeletu was succeeded by Mpololo and succession
despite broke out among the kololo.
 Many Kololo had also died of malaria.
 The Lozi led by Njekwa and Sipopa rebelled against the Kololo and took over the
kingdom.
 Sipopa became the first Litunga of the Lozi after the restoration of Lozi authority. He
ruled from 1864 to 1876.

ZWANGENDABA’S NGONI MIGRATIONS INTO CENTRAL AFRICA.

 ORIGINS AND MIGRATIONS.

 Zwangendaba was a general in Zwide‟s army at the battle of Mlathutse River between the
Ndandwe and the Zulu in 1818.
 After the defeat of the Ndwandwe by the Zulu, the Ndwandwe became divided into
different groups. These broke away in groups later became known as the Ngoni.
 Zwangedaba led the Jere clan into southern Mozambique where they defeated a segment
of the Thonga people.
 However, Zwangendaba group was defeated by the Sanguine, another break- away group
of the Ndwandwe.

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 Thus, Zwangendaba led his Jere Ngoni into Zimbabwe where they settle alongside
Nxaba‟s Ngoni.
 A conflict over land arose between the two groups in which Zwangendaba‟s Jere Ngoni
were defeated and forced to leave the area.
 They migrated northwards and crossed the Zambezi River near Zumbo on 19th November
1835, a day marked by the eclipse of the sun.
 After crossing the Zambezi River, the Jere Ngoni settled for sometime in Nsengaland.
The western part of Undi‟s kingdom. Hence they weakened Undi‟s kingdom.
 From there, they migrated eastwards into Malawi and then north-eastwards into
Mamboed country.
 Zwangendaba‟s Ngoni finally settled in Ufipa district in southern Tanzania where he died
in 1848 at a place called Mapupo.

 Results of Zwangendaba‟s death: The Ngoni split.

 After the death of Zwangendaba‟s, the Jere Ngoni split into many five main groups as a
result of succession despite that broke out.
 Ntabeni went northwards and settled near Lake Victoria. They became known as the
Gwangara Ngoni.
 Zulu Gama led another group south – east wards and settled in Songa region, They
became known as the Gwangara Ngoni. The Gwangara clashed with the Maseko Ngoni
in the area.
 Another group led by Mpezeni went south –westwards into Bembaland. The Ngoni
clashed with the Bemba but left the area moving south-east wards into Nsengaland
where they settled.
 Mpezeni‟s Ngoni destroyed Undi‟s kingdom and later built their capital at Mtenguleni‟s
eastern Zambia.
 Mombera‟s group went into Tumbuka land where they were later joined by Mpelembe‟s
ngoni. They defeated the Tumbuka and killed the last Chikuramayembe.
 Lastly, Chiwere Ndhlovu, a war commander in Zwangendaba‟s army, led his group
south – eastwards and settled among the Chewa of Dowa district in Malawi.

35
  Although he was an Nsenga, Chiwere‟s Ngoni followers accepted him and supported
him.
QUESTIONS

1. Give an account illustrated by a Sketch map of the Nguni incursions into Central Africa
in the first half of the 19th century.

2. Describe the Political, social and economic organization of the Ndebele Society in
Zimbabwe in the Period 1840-1868.

3. Give an account of the career of Sebitwane of the Kololo in the Zambezi valley between
1835 and 1851. Why did the Kololo fail to create a stable state in the Zambezi Valley
after the death of Sebitwane?

4. Show how Mzilikazi and his people settled in Central Africa. Give the results of his
arrival and subsequent settlement.

5. Give an account of the career of Sekeletu. To what extent was he responsible for the
collapse of Kololo rule in Bulozi?

6. Describe the Work and importance to his people of Mzilikazi of the Ndebele. [20]

7. Explain the Circumstances and the results of Zwangendaba‟s arrival in Central Africa.
What happened to the Ngoni people after Zwangendaba‟s death? [14:6].

3. THE PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA.

 In the 2nd half of the 15th century, the Portuguese started voyages of discovery with the
aim of exploring the coast of Africa and finding the Sea route to India.
 Portuguese activities in Central Africa were mostly concentrated in three areas and
these were; the Zambezi Valley/Mozambique, Angola and the Congo.
 REASONS FOR THEIR INTEREST IN CENTRAL AFRICA.
Economic reasons.
 The Portuguese wanted to find a sea route to India in order to participate in the spice
trade.
 They also wanted to establish trading posts on the coast of Africa.
 They wanted to look for mineral resources in the interior of Africa.

36
Religious reasons.
 The Portuguese wanted to spread Christianity by getting rid of Islam in Africa.
 They were also looking for a Christian King in Africa by the name of Prester John who
they wanted to use to spread Christianity in Africa.
Political reasons
 The Portuguese later developed political ambitions and wanted to create a Portuguese
empire in Central Africa from the east coast to the west coast. This was to be achieved
through getting rid of all-powerful African Kingdoms in Central Africa.
PORTUGUESE ACTIVITIES IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY.
 Portuguese penetrated into the Zambezi valley from the east coast. Initially, they
established themselves at Port Sofala in 1505.
 In 1507, they occupied the Mozambique Islands. By 1530, the Portuguese had fully
established the trading centers of Sena and Tete on the Zambezi River.
 It was from these two areas that the Portuguese penetrated into the Mwenemutapa
Kingdom and the Zambezi Valley.
The Portuguese relationship with the Mwenemutapa.
 The Portuguese interest in the Mwenemutapa Kingdom started during the rule of
Mwenemutapa Chikuyo around 1576. A Portuguese by the name of Antonio Fernades
was sent by the Portuguese from Tete to the Mwenemutapa Kingdom to start trade
relations.
 Mwenemutapa Chikuyo signed a Treaty with the Portuguese and the terms were;
 The Portuguese gave Chikuyo financial and military aid.
 Chikuyo allowed the Portuguese to start trading and mining in the Kingdom.
 The result of this treaty was that the Portuguese started penetrating into the Kingdom and
pretended not to have any political ambitions.
Mwenemutapa Negomo and the Portuguese
 After 1560, and during the rule of Mwenemutapa Negomo, the Portuguese changed
strategies. They sent a missionary group, which was, led Fr. P.J Silvera. Silvera became
very close to the Mwenemutapa who was converted to Christianity together with some of
his court officials.

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  Due to this closeness, the Swahili and Arabs became jealous and convinced Negomo that
the Portuguese missionaries had come to the Kingdom as spies. In his anger, Negomo
killed Silvera and some of his men.
 He later discovered that the Arabs and the Swahili had tricked him. Negomo apologized
to the Portuguese and decided to sign a treaty with the Portuguese to show his remorse.
 The treaty was signed in 1573.
 The terms of the treaty were;
-Negomo gave the Portuguese a piece of land from Tete to the coast. This is how the
Portuguese came to possess most of what is called Mozambique to day.
-Negomo also gave the Portuguese trading rights and allowed them to settle and
establish trading centers in the Kingdom such as Dambabare.
 The Portuguese were also given Judicial Powers as captains of the gates through which
traders entered the Kingdom.
 The Portuguese were allowed to establish a garrison at a place called Masopa, which
was close to the Mwenemutapa‟s capital. The Garrison had two functions. These were to
help defend the Kingdom against outside attacks and to be used to defeat the
Mwenemutapa if he rebelled against the Portuguese.
 The result of this treaty was that it gave the Portuguese too much political and economic
power within the Kingdom. It was because of this treaty that the Portuguese started full
interference in the Mwenemutapa Kingdom.
 Despite Negomo‟s apology‟ which was accepted by the Portuguese locally, the
Portuguese government tried to colonise the Mwenemutapa Kingdom between 1574 and
early 1600s. Young King Sebastian of Portugal sent several expeditions to the
Mwenemutapa Kingdom with the aim of colonizing it.
 The first expendition was sent under the leadership of Fr. Barrett. This failed due to the
interference of the Manic and the death of Fr. Barreto due to malaria. Around 1575,
another expedition of about 400 soldiers under Vasco Fernades Homem was sent to
colonies the Kingdom. However, this expedition also failed due to the carnivorous
Wazimba people who were cannibals.
Mwenemutapa Gatsi Rusere and the Portuguese

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  During the Rule of Gatsi Rusere, the Portuguese continued interfering in the
Mwenemutapa Kingdom. Gatsi Rusere signed another economic alliance with the
Portuguese. The terms of the alliance were;
-Gatsi Rusere was promised economic and military aid against internal rebellions.
-In turn, he gave the Portuguese more trading and mining rights within the Kingdom.
-He also gave the Portuguese more land and they used this land to establish Prazoes.
 The result of this treaty was that the Portuguese gained a lot of Political and economic
powers within the Kingdom. They used these powers to fully undermine the
Mwenemutapa.
 The Portuguese even tried to overthrow the Mwenemutapa by enlisting help from
Kalonga Mansula. The People of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom blamed Gatsi Rusere for
the Portuguese interference. Kapararidze who was a militant in 1623 therefore overthrew
him.
Mwenemutapa Kaparidze and the Portuguese.
 During his rule, Kapararidze tried to get rid of the Portuguese from the Kingdom. He
stopped trading with them and also started attacking some Portuguese settlements. In
1628, he killed a Portuguese official. Because of his hostility towards the Portuguese, the
Portuguese overthrew Kaparidze in 1628.
Mwenemutapa Mavura and The Portuguese.
 The Portuguese replaced Kapararidze with their own Puppet rule Mavura. The
Portuguese baptized Mavura and renamed him as Phillipe.
 In 1629, Mavura was forced to sign a treaty with the Portuguese.
 The Terms of this treaty were;
-Mavura was ordered to expel the Arabs and the Swahili from the Kingdom.
-Mavura also gave the Portuguese rights to look for minerals within the Kingdom.
-The Portuguese were also given judicial powers to act as chiefs and judges.
 The result of this treaty was that the Portuguese completely took over the running of the
Kingdom.
 Besides, Mavura allowed himself to loose respect before his people and the Portuguese.
Consequently, after his death in 1665, there was a civil war until 1693. During the period

39
 of the succession dispute, the Portuguese took advantage of the situation to further
undermine the Kingdom.
 However, after 1693, another militant Mwenemutapa came to power and asked for
military help from Changamire Dombo of the Rowzi Empire to get rid of the Portuguese
from.
 In 1695, Mwenemutapa and the Changamire defeated the Portuguese and drove them
away from the Zambezi valley. This reduced the political powers of the Portuguese in the
Zambezi valley.
THE PRAZO SYSTEM
 Prazoes were large land grants that were given to the Portuguese in the Zambezi valley to
establish huge plantations.
 There were two types of Prazoes. These were; Private Prazoes which were given to the
Portuguese settlers by the Mwenemutapa and other chiefs in return for military assistance
and Crown/Government Prazoes which were owned by the Portuguese Government
and leased to rich European individuals.
 The Prazo owners were referred to as Prazeros or Senhors, which meant land Lords.
These prazo owners had both political and economic powers.
Origins of the Prazoes.
 The origins of the Prazoes can be traced to Mwenemutapa Negomo‟s treaty with the
Portuguese in 1573. In the treaty, Negomo gave away land from Tete to the coast.
 From then on wards, the Portuguese continued to get more land concessions from
weaker Mwenemutapas such as Gatsi Rusere in exchange for military assistance and
financial aid.
 It was during the rule of Mwenemutapa Mavura that the Portuguese gained more land in
the Mwenemutapa Kingdom.
 Besides getting land from the Mwenemutapas, the Portuguese later started illegal land
grabbing in the Kingdom. Initially, they started making illegal land deals with the Sub-
chiefs. However, they later started using their Chikunda agents and pombeiros to raid
villages in the Kingdom and grab land.

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  Therefore, by the early 1600s, the Prazo System was fully established in the Zambezi
valley.
 The Prazoes had both Political and economic functions:
Political Functions.
 The Prazoes were supposed to act as agents of Portuguese civilization i.e. they were to be
used to spread Portuguese culture, language and religion.
 The Prazoes were to act as agents of colonization by undermining the African political
structures and paving way for the Portuguese government to take over control of the
areas.
 Prazoes also acted as political entities i.e. they were chiefdoms within a Kingdom. The
Prazoe owners also enjoyed some of the privileges of African chiefs such as the
collection of Tribute.
 As such, the Prazoes undermined the political powers of African Kingdoms.
Economic Functions
 Prazoes acted as Agriculture centers i.e. they were sugar plantations. This sugar was
exported to Europe.
 The Prazoes also acted as trading centers. Initially, the Prazoes acted as centers for ivory
and gold trade but later, they became centers of the Profitable slave Trade.
 Consequently, the Prazo owners acquired vast political and economic powers and started
disregarding the Portuguese government.
Decline of the Prazo System.
 The Prazo System started to decline at the end of the 18th century.
 This was because the Prazoes had failed to perform the political function for which they
were created. Instead of being centers of civilization, the prazoes had become centers of
corruption. Besides, the Prazo owners had acquired too much power and started
disregarding the Portuguese government.
 The Prazoes finally declined due to the following reasons:
 There was a decline of commerce and industry on the Prazo, as they became centers of
slave trading.

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  African farmers and slaves on the prazoes were demoralized as they were exploited and
forced to work without pay and to pay head tax.
 The abolition of slavery and slave trading after 1830 is what led to the final collapse of
the Prazo system. In 1836, the Portuguese government banned slave trading and slavery
in all Portuguese areas. However, the prazo owners in the Zambezi valley ignored this
ban. As a result, the Portuguese government allowed other European countries
especially the British Royal Navy to search and arrest any Portuguese ship owners
carrying slaves.
 Therefore, by 1880s, slave trading and slavery in the Zambezi valley drastically
reduced. This led to the collapse of the Prazo System because the system depended on
slave labor. The Portuguese by this time had lost both political and economic power in
the Zambezi valley and turned their attention to the Mwatakazembe Kingdom.

QUESTIONS

1. Illustrate how the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries in the Zambezi Valley led to the
intensified Portuguese activities in the area between the second half of the 16th century
up to the first half of the 19th century. [20].

2. Describe the Relationship between the Portuguese and the Mwenemutapa in the 16th and
the 17th centuries. [20].

3. Show how the Portuguese penetrated the area between the Zambezi and the Limpopo
rivers. What new agriculture features did they introduce in the area? [10:10].

4. MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA.

A. DAVID LIVINGSTONE.
EARLY LIFE.
 David Livingstone was born in 1813 at Blantyre in Scotland.
 His parents were poor and could not meet his education requirements.
 Thus, Livingstone began working in a cotton factory at the age of 10 while attending
night school.
 He then studied medicine at Glasgow University and graduated as a medical doctor.

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  Thereafter, living stone joined the London Missionary society. (L.M.S).
PRELIMAINARYWORKS IN AFRICA.
 In December 1840, Livingstone was sent by the L.M.S to Africa as a missionary.
 He joined Robert Moffat at Kuruman in 1841.
 From Kuruman, Livingstone moved northwards and established a mission station at
Mabotsa.
 Livingstone then married Mary Moffat in 1843.
 From there, he established another mission station at Kolobeng in 1847.
 He moved northwards and reached lake Ngami and Linyanti in 1849 and 1951
respectively.
 Livingstone made friends with king Sebitwane of Kololo.
 He then developed interest in exploration and become a missionary explorer.
 His interest was to know more about the interior of Central Africa.
 He went back South Africa and sent his family to England.
LIVINGSTONE‟S AIM IN AFRICA
 Livingstone‟s aim in central Africa were:
 To open the interior of Central Africa to other missionaries and explorers.
 To fight against slave trade in order to replace it with legitimate trade in goods.
 To encourage other missionaries to spread Christianity and western civilization to Africa.
 To end fear, poverty, superstition, ignorance and warfare that widespread in Central
Africa.
 To write books and draw maps about Central Africa for the benefit of the Europeans.
LIVINGSTONE‟S JOURNEYS.
 To achieve his aims, Livingstone made three journeys into the interior of central Africa.
First journey. (1852-1856)
 Livingstone‟s aim in this journey was to find a possible route for missionaries and
traders.
 He set off South Africa and reached Linyanti in 1853.
 Sekeletu gave him 27 men as guides, porters and servants.
 He travelled up the Zambezi up to the Atlantic coast where he reached Luanda in 1854.

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  Livingstone the returned to Linyanti in 1855 and moved down the Zambezi.
 He saw the Victoria Falls in 1855 and named the falls after the Queen Victoria.
 From there, he followed the Zambezi up to Quelimane and returned to England in 1857.
SECOND JOURNEY
 Livingstone‟s second journey in central Africa is also called the Zambezi expedition.
 His aim in this journey was to find out how navigable the Zambezi river was and how out
means for stopping the slave trade.
 The journey was sponsored by the British government.
 Livingstone stated from the east coast and followed the Zambezi river upwards.
 This journey was a failure because the Zambezi was not navigable due to the cobra Bassa
rapids.
 Also, his wife died at Shupanga his steamship broke down.
 However, Livingstone‟s party moved up the Shire River to the Murchison rapids.
 He explored the shrine highlands in 1859 and saw Lake Chirwa.
 Livingstone saw lake Nyasa and found a lot of slaves trading activities in the region.
 In 1860 Livingstone went to Bulozi to return his Kololo men.
 Thereafter, he was called back to Britain in 1863.
THIRD JOURNEY
 The third journey was sponsored by the Royal Geographic Society.
 Hs aim in this journey was to find the sources of the Nile and Congo rivers and further
expose the evils of the Slave Trade.
 The journey started from Zanzibar in 1866 via the Ruvuma river westwards.
 He passed through Lake Nyasa and crossed the Luangwa River.
 From there, he went northwards to Lake Tanganyika but his medicine box was stolen.
 Livingstone then found Chambeshi River and explored Lake Bangweulu Lake Mweru.
 He crossed the lake and found the Lualaba river but was too ill to explore it.
 In 1871, he went to Ujiji on the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika where he met Henry
Morton Stanley.
 Stanley gave him some medicine and together they explored the lake.
 Livingstone refused to go back to England as advised by Stanley.

44
 Instead, he moved southwards and reached the marshy areas of Lake Bangweulu.
 Livingstone became seriously ill and died at Chitambo village in Lala country in 1873.
 His intestines and heart buried at Chitambo near serenge.
 His faithful servants Chuma, Susi and Jacob carried his body to the coast.
 He was buried at west Minister Abby in London.
Fig 07. (Map showing David Livingstones’ Journeys)

LIVINGSTONE‟S ACHIEVEMENTS AND RESULTS OF HIS WORK.

 Livingstone opened up the Central African interior to missionaries and traders.
 He made the evils of slave trade known to the outside world and contributed to its
abolition.
 He also laid a foundation for Christian missionaries to establish mission stations in
Central Africa so as to spread Christianity.
 The missionaries also built schools and hospitals and taught domestic skills and
handicrafts in Africa.
 His speeches, writings and maps provided valuable information to the Europeans about
the people of Africa, their customs, traditions and beliefs.

45
  Livingstone‟s work paved a way for the European colonization of Africa.
 He was the first white man to see the Victoria Falls, Cobra Bassa rapids, Murchison
rapids, Shire highlands, lakes Nyasa, Mweru, Bangweulu and many other geographical
features.

THE WORK AND ACTIVITIES OF MISSIONARY SOCIETIES IN CENTRAL

AFRICA.
AIMS
 To fight against slave trade and introduce legitimate trade in goods such as manufactured
goods.
 To spread Christianity and teach the word of God to Africans.
 To introduce western education in Africa and build schools so as to teach people how and
write.
 To build hospitals and clinics in Africa and teach Africans better methods of health and
hygiene.
 To purify Africans and help to stop tribal wars and cruel customs.
THE LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY
 The London missionary society (L.M.S) was one of the earliest missionary societies to
open a mission in central Africa.
 In 1859, Robert Moffat set up a mission station at Linyati in Matabeleland.
 Robert Moffat was accompanied by Thomas Morgan, William Sykes and his son John
Smith Moffat.
 Charles Helm opened another mission station at Hope Foundation in 1870.
 Both missions failed because the Ndebele were reluctant to accept Christianity, which
condemned some of their traditional practices.
 Livingstone‟s friendship with Sebitwane enabled James Helmore and Rodger Price to
move to Linyanti in 1859 with three African servants.
 They tried to open a mission at Linyanti but failed because Sekeletu mishandled the m.
 Most of them died of malaria and some survivors went back to the south.

46
  Rodger Price moved to Ujiji in 1877 and opened a station on the shores of Lake
Tanganyika.
 The Ujiji, the L.M.S extended its work to north – eastern Zambia among the Lungu and
the mambwe.
 Fwambo mission which was set up in 1884 became a center for missionary work.
THE PARIS EVANGELICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY.
 The Paris Evangelical Missionary society (P.E.M.S) in central Africa did most of its work
in western Zambia.
 Led by François collard, the mission started working in Bulozi in 1886 under Lewanika‟s
permission.
 Coillard previously spent most of his life on missionary work in Bulozi.
 A number of member of the royal family were converted to Christianity.
 Lewanika‟s son Litia was converted in 1891.
 The P.E.M.S built schools, hospitals and clinics and translated the Bible into Silozi
language.
 Collard became a personal friend and advisor to Lewanika and this ensured the smooth
running of his missionary activities.
 Coillard advised and helped King Lewanika to obtain British Protection in 1890.
 The P.E.M.S also established Mabumbu and Senenga missions in 1898.
 They extended their services to other places.
THE UNIVERSITIES MISSIONS TO CENTRAL AFRICA (UMCA)
 The universities Mission to central Africa (U.M.C.A) was formed in England as a direct
response to Livingstone‟s appeals and speeches after his journey.
 The mission started working in central Africa at Magomero in Nyasaland in 1861.
 The mission was led by Bishop Charles Mackenzie.
 The Magomero mission failed due to malaria and Yao slave raiding and trading activities
in the area.
 Bishop Mackenzie and a number of his colleagues died of malaria.
 Bishop Tozer succeeded Bishop Mackenzie and transferred the mission to Zanzibar in
1863.

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  The mission worked among the Arabs and the freed slaves.
 By 1873, a cathedral was built at a former slave market in east Africa.
 A number of mission stations were built in the area towards Lake Nyasa.
 In 1885, a station was set up at Likoma Island on Lake Nyasa by Chauncey Maples and
William Johnston.
 From Likoma Island, the first Africa priest emerged.
 The mission spread Christianity, opened schools and carried on medical work.
 They contributed to the end of tribal wars and the slave trade.
 The U.M.C.A extended their work to Northern Rhodesia and built a number of stations
there.
THE FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND (LIVINGSTONE MISSION)
 The free church of Scotland mission was set up in Central Africa under Livingstone‟s
name and therefore became known as the Livingstone mission.
 The mission sent Dr. Robert Laws to form a mission in Malawi in memory of Dr. David
Livingstone.
 He established a mission at Cape Maclear in 1875 and built a school there.
 The mission was not successful due to slave trading activities in the area.
 Hence, it was moved to Bandawe among the Tonga in 1881, where it became successful.
 The mission managed to persuade the Ngoni to cancel a raid against the Tonga.
 In 1886 Adam Koyi successfully persuaded the Mombera to allow the mission work
among Mombera‟s Ngoni.
 Mission stations were opened in Chief Chikusi and mombera areas. The Ngoni also
became keen students.
 In 1894, the mission moved northwards to Kondwe, which later became known as
Livinstonia.
 Livinstonia mission station was a great success.
 A training center for evangelists, teachers, skilled craftsmen and medical assistants was
opened.
 It became a famous institution providing education to Africans in Central Africa.

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  The activities of the Livinstonia mission were extended to northern Zambia at Mwenzo in
1894.
 Chitambo and Lubwa missions were also opened in 1895.
 David Kaunda worked at Luwa mission.
 The results of work of the free church of Scotland were:
 The pacification of Mombera‟s Ngoni and the conversion of the Ngoni to Christianity.
 The introduction of academic and vocational education in Central Africa.
 The mission worked hard to replace slave trade with legitimate commodity trade.
THE CATHOLICMISSION.
 There were two main groups of Roman Catholic Missionaries.
A. THE JESUIT FATHERS.
 The Jesuits arrived in Matabeleland in 1878.
 Lobengula did not allow them to preach among his subject.
 One group moved eastwards to begin work in Gazaland but was unsuccessful.
 In 1884, Lobengula gave the Jesuits permission to carry out their work at Empandeni.
 They extended their work to Mashonaland n built Chishawasha mission near Harare in
1892.
 Another group moved northwards towards the Zambezi valley under father Depelchin.
 They visited Lewanika but failed to get permission to work in Bulozi.
 Hence. They decided to move to chief Mweemba‟s area and established a mission there.
 Unhealthy conditions and death of some prominent members forced them to abandon the
station.
 In 1902, Jesuits under Father Moreau open a station Chikuni in Chief Monze‟s area.
 It was at Chikuni that Jesuits started first formal schooling in central Africa.
B. THE WHITE FATHERS
 The white fathers were led by Father Bishop DuPont who later became a bishop.
 They began working in northern Zambia among the Mambwe in 1891.
 Their progress was very slow due to Arab and Bemba raids on the Mambwes.
 The white fathers then moved to Bembaland but the reigning Chitimukulu Sampa
opposed them.

49
  DuPont obtained permission from the lesser chiefs like chief Makasa to start working in
his area.
 The white fathers built Kayambi mission in 1895.
 In 1897, DuPont built Chilubula mission in chief Mwamba‟s area.
 The white fathers introduced education in their stations and built schools, clinics,
hospitals and craft centers.
 They fought Arab, Bemba and Lunda slave traders and interpreted the Bibile into local
languages such as Bemba.
THE UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH
 The mission attempted to work in Bulozi in 1882.
 Fredrick Arnot spearheaded the work of the mission in Bulozi.
 No progress was recorded in the area and so, Arnot went to work in Angola.
 The united Presbyterian Church also set up a mission station in Msiri area among the
Yeke people.
 The mission then moved to lake Bandawe area and began working in the area after
Msiri„s death.
 A mission station was established there near Lake Bangweulu in 1894.
RESULTS OF MISSIONARY WORK IN CENTRAL AFRICA.
 Missionaries campaigned against slave trade and this contributed to it abolition.
 They introduced legitimate trade in goods such as cloth, beads and other European
manufactured goods.
 The pacified warlike tribes that were raiding their neighbor: for example the Ngoni of
Mombera.
 Missionaries converted many Africans people to Christianity and made them change their
lives.
 They introduced western education in Africa, built schools, taught people how to and
write and trained people as skilled craftsmen.
 The missionaries built hospitals and clinics and introduced Africans to better methods of
health and hygiene.

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  The missionaries also developed a written form of African languages and produced books
which they translated into those languages.
 New crop and western farming methods such as the use of corporation and fertilizers
were also introduced in Africa.
 The missionaries acted as protectors in some cases by assuming political control and
helped to bring about colonization.

SOME INFLUENTIAL MISSIONARIES IN CENTRAL AFRICA

A. DR ROBERT LAWS.
 Robert Laws was a Christian missionary of the Free Church of Scotland in Malawi.
 He established a station at Cape Maclear in 1875 and built a school there.
 Robert Laws also led the missionaries to set up a station at Bandawein 1881.
 He was a very practical man, a preacher, teacher surgeon, carpenter, painter, boat builder
and engineer.
 Robert Laws had good personal ability and organizational skills and believed in teaching
practical skills.
 He led the missionaries for 52 years and played big role in uniting the Malawi branches
of the Presbyterian Church to form the Presbyterian church of central Africa.
 Due to his efforts the Free Church of Scotland was successful in Malawi.
 He also contributed to the pacification of the Ngoni to stop raiding other tribes.
B. FRANCOIS COILLARD.
 Francois Coillard was a Christian missionary of Paris Evangelical Missionary Society.
 He worked for some time in Lesotho and learnt Sesotho language.
 Coillard worked in Zimbabwe at chivi but failed to establish a mission station there.
 He decided to establish a mission station among the Lozi in western province Zambia.
 Lewanika gave him permission to work in Bulozi.
 He built a mission station at Sefula near Lealui in 1887.
 Other missions were later opened at Mabumbu and Senanga in 1898.
 He became a personal friend and advisor to Lewanika.

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  Due to his efforts, a number of members of the Lozi family were converted to
Christianity including Lewanika‟s son Litia.
 Collard advised and helped Lewanika to obtain British protection in 1890.
 He also convinced widely Lewanika and his people to reduce the power of witch doctors
and to stop raids on surrounding tribes.
 He helped to spread Christianity widely and built many churches, clinics and schools in
Bulozi.

C. BISHOP TOZER

 Bishop Tozer came as a missionary under the universities mission to Central Africa in
Malawi.
 He worked with Bishop Mackenzie, leader of the U.M.C.A missionaries at Magomero.
 Bishop Tozer took over the leadership of U.M.C.A after Mackenzie death.
 He worked among the freed slaves in Zanzibar and built a cathedral at a former slave
market in east Africa.
 Thus, he contributed to the ending of slave trade in Africa.
 He also contributed to the spread of Christianity and built a number of churches, schools
and hospitals in the Nyasa and Indian Ocean coast.

QUESTIONS

1. Who were the leading figures of the Livingstonia Mission? Describe the aims and
achievements of the Mission. [20].

2. Give an account of the Work and influence in Central Africa in the 19th century of Two
of the following:

a) The London Missionary Society.

b) The Universities Mission To Central Africa
c) The Livingstonia Mission
d) The Paris Evangelical Mission Society
e) The White Fathers [10:10].

3. Write briefly on the importance of the following in the History of Central Africa.
a) Robert and John Smith Moffat
b) Robert Laws
c) Bishop Tozer [7:7:7]

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4.
(a) Name five Christian Missionary Societies Active in Africa.
(b) Mention one leader for each Missionary Society mentioned.
(c) Give the aims and background history of David Livingstone before 1852. [5:5:10]

5. Write short accounts on the activities and importance to Central Africa of the following
Christian Missionaries.
a) The Paris Evangelical Mission.
b) The London Missionary Society
c) The Universities mission to Central Africa. [7:7:7]

6. Discuss the work of David Livingstone to Central Africa. What was the effect of his work
in Central Africa? [16:4].

7. Describe the Journeys of Dr. David Livingstone in Africa between 1849 and 1873. What
were the results of these Journeys? [16: 4].

5. BRITISH IMPERIALISM IN CENTRAL AFRICA

 The term “imperialism” refers to the penetration of European influences in the
underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia for economic, social and political benefits.
 In the 1870s, imperialism was characterized by the revival of colonial expansion. This
new imperialism was spearheaded by Britain due to her industrial development.
 The acquisition of territories in Africa was aimed at providing raw materials such as
rubber, cocoa and mineral ores.
 Colonies also provided markets for surplus finished goods from Europe. Surplus capital
from Europe was also invested in Africa.
 John Cecil Rhodes played a very important role in the British imperialism in Southern
and Central Africa. He is known to have been the greatest imperialist in Southern and
Central Africa.
 Cecil Rhodes was born in 1853 in England. In the 1860s, he came to South Africa to
leave with his brother on a farm due to his ill health, which needed warm weather.
 In the 1880s, he dominated the De Beers Diamond Company, the Gold Consolidated
Mines and the B.S.A Company. Rhodes also became a powerful political figure in South
Africa i.e. he became the Cape Prime Minister 1890.

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CECIL RHODES‟ AIMS
 Cecil Rhodes‟ aims in Central Africa were:
 He wanted to create a British Empire from the Cape to Cairo by extending British
Colonial rule in Africa and building a railway line from the Cape to Cairo.
 He also wanted to sign treaties with African Chiefs in the Central Africa to gain control
of territories in Central Africa.
 Rhodes also aimed at using force where necessary.
THE OCCUPATION OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA
 The Occupation of Southern Rhodesia was achieved in two phases.
 First the occupation of Mashonaland, which was done through the signing of treaties
and the occupation of Matebeleland, which was achieved through war in.
OCCUPATION OF MASHONALAND
 Cecil Rhodes was interested in Matebeleland because of its potential as a gold producing
area because of the minor discoveries of Gold at Tati and the evidence of Gold at the
Zimbabwe ruins.
 In addition it was part of his Cape to Cairo dream. In 1887, Cecil Rhodes became aware
that Boers of the Transvaal under Paul Kruger were also interested in Matebeleland.
 The Ndebele King Lobengula was also under a lot of pressure from the Europeans who
became interested in his Kingdom. In addition, Lobengula wanted to secure his position
within the Kingdom.
 Therefore, in 1887, Lobengula signed a treaty with the Boers of the Transvaal who were
represented by Piet Grobbler. This was a treaty of friendship between the Ndebele and
the Boers of the Transvaal. By this Treaty, Lobengula allowed the Boers to hunt on his
Land. This Treaty was referred to as the Grobbler Treaty of 1887.
 The signing of the Grobler Treaty forced Rhodes to send his own representative to
negotiate for a treaty with Lobengula. He sent John Smith Moffat who was the High
Commissioner of Bechuanaland and a personal Childhood friend to Lobengula.This led
to the signing of the Moffat Treaty of February 1888.

54
  By this treaty, Lobengula Promised the British never to sign any treaties with any other
Europeans apart from the British. This treaty secured the British route to the North.
 However, Cecil Rhodes was not satisfied with the Moffat Treaty. He decided to send
Charles Rudd to Negotiate for another Treaty with Lobengula.
 This led to the signing of the Rudd Concession of October 1888. In this negotiation
Rudd was accompanied by James McGuire and Frank Thompson who was an expert in
native languages. The terms of the Rudd concession were;
 Lobengula gave the British Mineral rights in Mashonaland and he agreed to allow a few
British to enter his Kingdom and look for Gold
 The British were also granted hunting rights on Lobengula his land.
 Lobengula was to receive a gunboat on the on the Zambezi and 1000 riffles with 100 000
rounds of ammunition.
 Lobengula was also to receive a monthly allowance of 100 pounds.
 Lobengula also promised to uphold the Rudd Concession.
 The Rudd Concession led to the colonization of Southern Rhodesia. Lobengula signed
the Rudd concession without knowing the full extent of the terms. Even though he later
realized he had been tricked there was nothing he could do to stop the British.
THE B.S.A COMPANY CHARTER
 After the signing of the Rudd Concession, Rhodes decided to establish a company that he
would use to colonies Central Africa.
 He aimed at using the money from his mining companies to expand British Colonial rule
in Central Africa. Therefore, the B.S.A Company Charter of October 1889 was a
document bearing the Queen‟s signature that gave Cecil Rhodes permission to colonise
Central Africa on behalf of the British government.
 The terms were:
-The Company was given the right to administer certain territories in Central Africa.
-The Charter also gave the Company mineral and land rights in the occupied territories.
-It also gave the Company the right to tax the local people.
-It also granted power to the Company‟s board of directors to pass laws that would
preserve law and order.

55
 -The charter was allowed the Company to establish a suppressive force of Policemen
that would maintain and enforce.
 After obtaining the B.S.A. Company charter, Cecil Rhodes started recruiting the people
who were to be the first settlers of Mashonaland.
 The Pioneer settlers had to be of both Afrikaner and British origin, had to be below the
age of 35 and had to have a variety of trades. Each of the 200 men was promised 3000
acres of land and 15 gold claims upon reaching Mashonaland.
 The group also comprised of 200 BSA company police and about 1000 servants from
the Ngwato people of Bechuanaland. This group was referred to as the Pioneer Column.
 The group moved from Bechuanaland through Matabeleland and settled in Mashonaland
where they established themselves at Fort Victoria and Fort Salisbury, which became
their capital.
 The Ndebele did not fight the British as they entered and passed through Matebeleland
though the Impis had wanted to.

Fig 08 (The first group of the pioneers in Mashonaland - 1890)

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OCCUPATION OF MATEBELELAND
 The occupation of Matebeleland completed the British occupation of Southern Rhodesia.
 The Occupation of Matebeleland was achieved through war. The British realized that
Lobengula was not going to willingly hand over Matebeleland to them. Therefore, the
only option open to them was through war.
Causes of the Anglo- Ndebele War of 1893
 The British were disappointed by the fact that they did not find any gold in Mashonaland.
They thought they would in Matebeleland. The British started looking for an excuse to
declare war on Matebeleland.
 The British occupation of Mashonaland also led to the 1893 war. The occupation created
political instability in the Kingdom. This was because the Ndebele impis could no longer
raid the Shonas as they were under British Protection. The Ndebele Impis had always
considered Mashonaland as their raiding grounds. Sometimes, the impis carried out raids
on Mashonaland without Lobengula‟s permission. This created tension with the British
settlers.
 The British favoring of the Shona over the Ndebele also angered the Ndebele, as the
Ndebele perceived them Shona as being slaves and inferior. In addition, the Shona were
sometimes used as translators by the British authorities.
 The Killing of the Shona sub-chiefs Lomagunndi and Chivi also contributed to the
outbreak of war. The two Sub chiefs had stopped paying tribute to Lobengula, as they felt
safe under British protection. Lobengula sent his impis to kill the two and grab their
cattle. This annoyed the British Authorities in Mashonaland.
 The immediate cause of the war concerned the cutting of 500meters of telegraphic wire
by the Shona under Chief Gomala. Jameson demanded that chief Gomala surrender the
culprits or pay a fine in form of cattle. The Chief choose to pay the fine in form of cattle.
When Lobengula head this he sent his impis to punish Chief Gomala since by tradition,
all the cattle in the Kingdom belonged to the King. Many Shonas were killed while others
seek refuge at Fort Victoria. The Impis demanded that the Magistrate of Fort Victoria
Lendy had to surrender the refugees. This demand was turned down. Lendy informed
Jameson who was at Fort Salisbury of the situation.

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  However, the British saw this confrontation as an excuse to start war with the Ndebele
and destroy the power of Lobengula. On 14th July 1893, the B.S.A. Company police shot
dead 30 Impis who had not complied with the order to leave the Fort Victoria area. This
incident was referred to as the Fort Victoria Incident.
Course/Stages of the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893
 From 14th July to October 1893, both sides started preparing for war. The Ndebele were
18000 in number while the white settlers were only 3500 but had an advantage in
mobility as they used horses and had modern weapons such as the Maxim gun.
 Jameson started organizing an army and recruiting the settlers. He signed an agreement
with the settlers on behalf of the B.S.A Company called The Victoria Agreement. This
was a secret agreement that stated that after the defeat of the Ndebele all who participated
would be given 2,700 acres of land, 20 gold claims and a share of Lobengula‟s cattle.
 The B.S.A. Company troops were organized into three columns. The Fort Victoria and
Fort Salisbury troops were led by Allan Wilson and Major William Forbes
respectively. The third column was from Tati and Captain Raaf commanded it.
 Before 24th October 1893, the British and the Ndebele fought minor battles. However, on
the night of 24th October, the first major battle took place on the banks of the Shaagani
River. The Ndebele attacked the British laager and killed many of the African refugees
who were sleeping outside the laager. By midmorning, the British had killed many
Ndebele impis using the Maxim gun. The British suffered few casualties.
 The second major battle was fought on 31st October along the Mbembesi River. The
Ndebele were defeated again. On the 2nd of November 1893, the British troops resumed
their advance of Bulawayo Lobengula‟s capital. The aim was to capture the Capital and
arrest Lobengula. However, Lobengula abandoned and burnt his capital and fled
northwards towards the Zambezi River.
 On 4th November 1894, the British occupied Bulawayo and hoisted the British flag. This
completed the British occupation of Southern Rhodesia. The British troops were sent to
follow and capture Lobengula under the command of Major Forbes. It is said that
Lobengula tried to surrender and offered 2 bags of gold to be taken to Jameson as a peace
offering. However, the two troopers who found him killed him on the 4th of January 1894
and stole the gold. The British leaders informed the Ndebele that their King had died of

58
 Smallpox and before he died he stated that he wanted them to stop fighting and leave in
peace with the British.
Results of the War
 The Ndebele were defeated and became British subjects
 They lost their land and cattle to the B.S.A. Company.
 They were relocated to the Shaagani and Gwaii Native Reserves, which were small and
had infertile soils.
 Matebeleland and Mashonaland became one and the territory was called Rhodesia in
Memory of Cecil Rhodes.
 The Matebeleland Order-in-Council was passed to administer the new territory.

THE BRITISH OCCUPATION OF NYASALAND

 The British occupation of Nyasaland was as a result of the missionary activities and
businessmen who had responded to David Livingstone‟s appeals to establish mission
stations and replace the slave trade with legitimate trade and commerce.
 By the 1880s, Scottish Missionary groups such as the Free Church of Scotland had
established mission stations. While businessmen opened up companies such as the
Livingstonia Central African Company, which was later, referred to as the African Lakes
Company.
 However, the work of the missionaries and the Businessmen were being disturbed by the
Activities of the Yao and the Swahili slave raiders. They asked the British Government to
intervene in the area. The Anglo-Swahili war of 1887 to 1889 convinced the British to
bring Nyasaland and colonial rule.
 The British occupation of Nyasaland was achieved through the signing of treaties with
Swahili leaders such as Mlozi. The man who played a major role in the British
occupation of Nyasaland was Harry Johnson.
 He was also a staunched imperialist like Cecil Rhodes who wanted to expand British
colonial rule in Central Africa. Johnson had traveled to many parts of Africa and was a
student of African societies and languages.

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  Johnson achieved his imperialist moves on Behalf of the British Government through the
signing of treaties with African Chiefs and headmen. The treaties he negotiated for were
generally referred to as the Johnson Treaties.
 The aims of these treaties were to:
-Establish some sort of legal basis for taking away land from the African Chiefs
-To acquire land and mineral rights for European Companies.
-To enable British agents to end the slave trade.
 Harry Johnson also worked in close collaboration with Cecil Rhode who wanted to
Protect Central Africa from German and Portuguese imperialism.
 In 1890 the two met in London and discussed how they would work together to ensure
British Control in Central Africa. However, Johnson faced a number of Problems with
the Portuguese and Ngoni‟s in Southern Malawi.
 Therefore Johnson decided to appoint a man by the name of Sir Alfred Sharpe as his
viceto assist him in his task of treaty making. His main area of concern was the Lower
Luangwa valley, which was part of North-eastern Rhodesia or present day Eastern
Province of Zambia.
OCCUPATION OF NORTHERN RHODEDSIA
 The British occupation of Northern Rhodesia was achieved in two phases from two
directions. The Occupation of North- western Rhodesia was achieved from the South i.e.
Mashonaland and Matebeleland. While the occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia was
achieved from Nyasaland.
The Occupation of North- Eastern Rhodesia
 The British Occupation of North-astern Rhodesia was achieved from Nyasaland as a
result of the extension of the treaty making activities that were started by Harry Johnson.
 In 1890, Johnson recruited Alfred Sharpe assist him in the area of the lower Luangwa
valley. Another man who was influential in the occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia
was Joseph Thompson a personal representative of Cecil Rhodes. He was an experience
African explorer.

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 The British Occupation of North-eastern Rhodesia was achieved later towards the end of
the 19th century. This was because both Rhodes and Johnson were busy in S. Rhodesia
and Malawi respectively.
 In addition, powerful groups such as the Ngoni of Mpenzeni, the Lunda of
Mwatakazembe, and the Bemba under Chitimukulu occupied the areas. The British
realized that these warrior groups were likely to resist and therefore force might be
required.
 From January 1890, Alfred Sharp tried to negotiate for treaties with chief and headmen of
the lower Luangwa valley area. He was not very successful because:
 The Ngoni Chief Mpezeni was friendly but suspicious of white men‟s motive. In
addition, Mpezeni was confident that his strong Ngoni state would never need British
protection.
 The People in the Luangwa area were also afraid and suspicious of the activities of the
Chikunda and Prazo owners of Zumbo district of the Zambezi valley.
 Therefore, Mpezeni refused to sign any treaties with the B.S.A. Company officials.
However, Mpezeni was very friendly with a German adventurer called Carl Wiese and
gave him a concession of mineral rights over 2590000 hectares in return for Portuguese
Protection against the British.
 In 1891, Wiese sold his concession to a Portuguese company called Mozambique Gold
Land and Concession Company. This forced the British to claim that their concession
seekers were first in the territory though they did not obtain any concessions from
Mpezeni.
 The British formed a Rival Company called the North Charterland Exploration Company
where most of the Shares were owned by the B.S.A Company. The Company started
negotiating with the Portuguese company and obtained some of the mineral rights.
 Mpezeni tried to resist the influx of Europeans in the Kingdom especially his son Nsingu
wanted to drive out the British by force.
 However, by December 1897 the relation between the Ngoni and the British had
deteriorated and both sides were preparing for war. By 1900, the Ngoni had been
defeated and subdued. Fort Jameson was established as the colonial capital of
Northeastern Rhodesia

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Treaties with the Mwatakazembe
 In the Luapula valley of Present day Zambia, Alfred Sharpe managed to sign treaties with
Nsama of the Tabwa and the Mwatakazembe. The Terms of the Treaty with the
Mwatakazembe were:
 The Mwatakazembe accepted British Protection from the Swahili who were interfering in
the Kingdom.
 The Mwatakazembe granted the B.S.A Company Mineral and land rights in the
Kingdom.
 In 1899, the B.S.A Company decided to destroy the Mwatakazembe power and fully
occupy the area though they had early established a post at Mowers in 1895. In October
1899 a British force under Captain E.C. Margessson matched into the Mwatakazembe
Kingdom but met little resistance because the Kingdom had greatly declined due to
internal and external factors.
Treaty with the Bemba Kingdom
 The Bemba kingdom was colonized as a result of the internal problems of the Kingdom
that forced the Chitimukulu to ask for British protection. After the Death of Chitimukulu
Chitapankwa, there was a succession dispute between his successor Sampa and Senior
Chief Mwamba Chipoya.
 Through the influence a White fathers Missionary Bishop Joseph Dupont, the
Chitimukulu request for British Protection, which was granted to him. Therefore, the
British occupation of the Bemba Kingdom was met with little resistance.
The British Occupation of Northwestern Rhodesia.
 The African ruler who was responsible for the British Occupation of North-Western
Rhodesia was Lewanika of the Lozi Kingdom.
 Lewanika had faced a lot of internal and external problems since he came to power in
1878. He faced problems from members of the Mulongwanji Council.
 In 1884, members of the council led by Tatila Akufuna temporarily overthrew him. When
he was restored to power, he did everything possible to hold on to power.

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  In addition, Lewanika was also afraid of external threats i.e. the possible attack from the
Ndebele under Mzilikazi and the Europeans who were encroaching on his Kingdom i.e.
The Germans, the Portuguese and the British.
 Therefore, Lewanika Made friends with outsiders who would help him. He became
friends with a missionary François Coillard of the PEMS, Chief Khama of the Ngwato of
Bechuanaland and George Westbeech a German Trader.
 Chief Khama in Particular Persuaded Lewanika to seek British protection since he had
the previous year. As a result, Lewanika signed several treaties with the British.
The Ware Concession-1889
 British could respond to his request for protection, Lewanika signed the Ware Concession
with a German trader Henry Ware in June 1889.
 The terms of the Ware Concession were:
-Ware was allowed to prospect for minerals in Tongaland and if found to mine for a
period of 20 years.
-Lewanika was to receive an annual amount of 200 pounds as mineral royalties.
-In this treaty, Lewanika had exaggerated the area of Lozi Political control to
include the Ila and Tonga areas in the South and as far as Katanga in the North.
The Lochner Concession-1890
 After Cecil Rhodes heard of the signing of the Ware Concession, He decided to persuade
Henry Ware to sell him the Concession.
 Cecil Rhodes decided to buy the Ware Concession because it was part of his aim to
achieve the Cape to Cairo Dream.
 In addition, he wanted to control the copper producing area in the North, which Lewanika
claimed to be under Lozi control.
 Rhodes sent his personal representative Frank Lochner in early 1890 to Lewanika. He
was to inform Lewanika that the Ware Concession had been bought by the B.S.A
Company. He was also to give Lewanika the impression that he was dealing directly with
the British Government.

 With the encouragement of Chief Khama of the Ngwato and François Coillard who had
become a personal friend and adviser, Lewanika signed the Lochner Concession in 1890.

63
  The terms were:
-Lewanika gave the British exclusive mineral and land rights in rights in
Tongaland.
-Lewanika also promised never to make any treaties with other Europeans.
-Lewanika was in turn promised an annual salary of 2000 pounds and mineral
royalties.
-He was also promised protection against Ndebele attacks.
-Lewanika was also to allow a British Representative resident at Lealui.
-The B.S.A Company was to build schools for Lozi children and promote trade
and industry in Bulozi.
 However, for over 7 years, the British did not follow up on some of the terms of the
Lochner Concession especially the sending of a resident representative to Lealui.
The Lawley Treaty of 1898
 This treaty was merely a revision of the Lochner Concession of 1890. It was signed
between Lewanika and Arthur Lawley who was a British Administrator of
Matebeleland.
 The terms of the Treaty were:
-Revised the terms of the Lochner Concession and addition were made.
-The Treaty allowed the B.S.A Company administrative authority over all areas
that were claimed to have been under Lewanika‟s rule.
-The Western borders of the Kingdom were also extended and more land taken
as part of the Lozi Kingdom.
 However, this treaty was never signed because British decided to exert more political
control in areas were the B.S.A Company operated.
 The British Government had lost confidence in the B.S.A. Company rule after events that
had been Happening in Southern Rhodesia i.e. the Ndebele and Shona Uprisings.
 The British passed a special law called The Barotseland Order-in-Council. Under this
law, Bulozi was now to be called North Western Rhodesia or Barotseland.

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  The Law also provided for an Administrator who was nominated and appointed by the
Company but approved by the British Government through the High Commissioner at the
Cape. The First administrator of Barotseland was Robert Coryndon.
Victoria Falls Treaty or The Corydon Treaty-1900
 This treaty was signed between the New administrator Robert Corydon and Lewanika.
 The aim of this treaty was to clarify and confirm the terms of the Lawley Treaty that was
not signed.
 The terms of this treaty were:
-The B.S.A. Company was given right to give land grants to European Settlers in
any part of the Lozi Kingdom apart from Barotseland Proper (the original area of
the Luyi rulers in the flood plains).
-The Company was also given judicial powers to try cases especially those
concerning Witchcraft in any part of the Lozi Kingdom but never in Barotseland
proper.
 Under this treaty, Lewanika‟s annual allowance was reduced from the Agreed 2000
pounds to only 850.
 The signing of this treaty led to the loss of political power and influence for Lewanika.
He lost control over the tribute as the conquered chiefs were now under British Protection
and was required to pay tax to the Company.
 In addition, the British started interfering in the affairs of Barotseland proper. This
further weakened Lewanika as a political figure.
The Lewanika Treaty of 1916
 This was a treaty that the British South African Company forced Lewanika to sign. By
this treaty, Lewanika was forced to claim the territory the Lamba people in the Copper
belt area. This was after the discovery of copper in the area, which the Company wanted
to claim.
 By 1916, Lewanika had lost all his political and economic powers and had become a
mere puppet of the British. By this time, the British had fully occupied Northern
Rhodesia.

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QUESTIONS

1. What were the causes, events and the results of the Ndebele War of 1893 to 1894? [20].

2. Show how and why Lobengula granted concessions to the British South African
Company and other agencies in the period 1870 to 1890. Who gained most from these
agreements and who were the losers? [20]

3. How did the British South African Company (B.S.A. Co) gain control of North-western
Rhodesia? [20].

4. Describe the Negotiation between Lobengula and the Concession seekers and the
subsequent occupation of Mashonaland between 1870 and 1890. [20]

5. Discuss how the following treaties contributed to the occupation of North-western

Rhodesia.
(a) The Ware Concession of 1889.
(b) The Lochner Concession of 1890
(c) The Lawley Treaty of 1898
(d) The Corydon Concession of 1900
(e) The Order-in-Council
(f) The Lewanika Treaty.

6. Explain how the British South African Company Occupied North-eastern Rhodesia. [20].

6. THE CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION

 The Central African Federation was the inco-operation or uniting of Northern Rhodesia,
Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland into one territory under one government, which was
referred to as the Federal Government.

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 However, each state was supposed to have its own government to decide on its affairs.
The Federation was also referred to as the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and it
came into existence in 1953.
 The Federation came to an end in 1963 due to strong African opposition. This was
because the White minority from Southern Rhodesia mostly controlled the Federal
Government and Africans did not benefit much from the Federation.

Fig 09. (Map showing the Central African Federation)

REASONS FOR FEDERATION

 The idea to amalgamate Northern and Southern Rhodesia started as early as 1930s by the
white settlers in both areas. There were both economic and political reasons for
advocating for federation. These were:
 Whites in Northern and Southern Rhodesia wanted to maintain white domination in both
territories.
 The white settlers also wanted to achieve economic inter-dependence of the three
territories. This was because each of the three territories produced different commodities
i.e. food, coal and tobacco from Southern Rhodesia, copper from Northern Rhodesia and
labor from Nyasaland.

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  White settlers in Southern Rhodesia wanted to have control of the copper in Northern
Rhodesia.
 The White settlers in Northern Rhodesia hated the Policy of African Paramountancy,
which was introduced in the 1930s by the Passified Memorandum. They wanted to get rid
of this policy by joining with the settlers in Southern Rhodesia.
 Federation would also lead to co-operation in many areas e.g. telecommunications,
hydroelectric power, research and development in fields of health, agriculture, industry
and education.
ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST FEDERATION
 The white settlers both in Northern and Southern Rhodesia and some Africans in
Southern Rhodesia who were attracted to the promised policy of partnership argued for
the formation of the federation. However, Africans in Northern Rhodesia as well as the
British Government initially opposed the idea of federation.
Arguments for Federation
 Federation would bring economic prosperity to all the three areas, as they would
complement each other economically.
 All three states would share in the economic benefits from the Gold and copper mines in
Southern and Southern Rhodesia.
 Federation would lead to a stronger British State in Central Africa that would check or
stop the spread of South African Racial policies.
 Africans in Southern Rhodesia Supported Federation because they were attracted to the
concept of Partnership as opposed to the policy of racial discrimination that had existed
earlier.
Arguments against Federation
 The Africans in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland opposed Federation because:
 Since the two were protectorates of the British government, they were used to the policy
of African Paramountancy and were aware that a federation would be controlled and
dominated by the whites that were in the minority.
 They also did not want the policy of racial discrimination that prevailed in Southern
Rhodesia to be introduced in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland as well.

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  Some white settlers in Southern Rhodesia preferred a union with South Africa rather than
a federation with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland because they wanted to continue
with their racial policies.
 The joining of the two Rhodesia‟s and Nyasaland would have been difficult due to the
fact that Southern Rhodesia was a colony and followed a policy of Direct rule while
Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were Protectorates and followed indirect rule.
 The British opposition Labor and Liberal Parties opposed federation because they did not
want to force Africans into it.
 Africans were also skeptical of the proposed policy of Partnership and believed that the
only kind of partnership that would ever exist between the two races would be like that of
“a rider and a horse.”
 Despite the opposition to the Federation, it was introduced in October 1953. This was
because it was decided that the arguments for federation outweighed those against.
THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
 In order to prepare for the federation constitution, there were several meetings that were
held between 1949 and 1953. In February 1949, representatives from the three territories
met at the Victoria Falls Conference to make proposals for the formation of the
Federation. However, the Labor Party Government rejected the Proposals because
Africans were not represented.
 In 1951, the Conservative Party came to power in Britain under Winston Churchill. He
was sympathetic to the white settlers wish for a Federation. In the same year, another
conference was held at the Victoria Falls. Although Africans were represented, they did
not agree to the proposed constitution.
 In 1952, the Conservative Government under Churchill called for another conference in
London to finalize discussions on the Federal constitution. At this conference, all were
represented including Africans.
 The African representatives still protested against the Federal constitution. However, the
British government sent a conservative politician to Central Africa to find out the African
views on Federation. He falsely reported that Africans were for Federation. Therefore, in
October 1953, the British Government approved the federal constitution that led to the
formation of the federation.

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  Sir Godfrey Huggins who had been the Prime minister of Southern Rhodesia became the
First Federal Prime Minister.
Terms of the Federal Constitution
 The constitution provided for a federal parliament to be based in Salisbury, which was
the federal capital. The Federal Parliament would consist of 36 members of parliament,
18 from Southern Rhodesia, 11 from Northern Rhodesia and 7 from Nyasaland. Of the
36, only 6 would be Africans.
 The Constitution also provided for a Federal Government that would be based in
Salisbury and in 1954, Sir Geoffrey Huggins became the First federal Governor/Prime
minister. The Federal Governor was also responsible for the appointment of a federal
cabinet.
 The Federal Constitution also provided for an African Affairs Board. This board was
made up of 3 Europeans representing Africans and 3 Africans from the three territories.
The duties of the African Affairs Board included protesting against any bill segregating
against Africans.
 Franchise was given to all white settlers of voting age but very few Africans were
allowed to vote.
 The Federal Government would control Finance, trade, communication, industry and
defense. While the territories and their local governments would be responsible for
Education, land, agriculture and health.
 Federal Revenue came from income tax from all three territories but the bulk came from
Northern Rhodesian copper. The Revenue was divided into; 60% for the federal
government, 17% for Southern Rhodesian Government, 17% for the Northern Rhodesian
Government and only 6% percent for Nyasaland.
 The Federal Constitution was to be reviewed within 7years. If it worked well, the
Federation would be given independence from the British Government.
 The British Government also retained some powers over the review of the constitution,
African affairs and defense.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FEDERATION
Northern Rhodesia
Advantages
 Economically, federation led to an increase in employment and this raised the standards
of living for most Africans.
 Northern Rhodesia also benefited from the cheap hydro-electrical scheme at Kariba and
this boosted production in the mines.
 Northern Rhodesian agriculture was also boosted with the wheat and rice growing
schemes on the Kafue Flats.
 Politically, Federation was advantageous to Northern Rhodesia in that it led to the rise of
African Nationalism. This was a positive move towards African Independence.
Disadvantages
 Federation led to a lack of broad based economy for Northern Rhodesia as much
emphasis was placed on the production of copper which was a wasting resource.
 Besides, most of the income from Northern Rhodesia went to develop the Federal
Government and Southern Rhodesia.
 Education in Northern Rhodesia was also neglected and this led to lack of trained
manpower at the time of independence.
 Racial discrimination was also on the increase in the mines, shops and hotels.
 Besides, Northern Rhodesia did not benefit as much as she was supposed to from the
Hydro-electrical power on the Kariba Dam. It would have been more advantageous if the
Power station had been on the Kafue River.
Nyasaland
Advantages
 The Federation led to improvements in Agriculture in Nyasaland i.e. the Tea growing
scheme and tea became the main cash crop of Nyasaland.
 The Federation also created job opportunities for the people of Nyasaland who went to
work in the copper mines of Northern and Southern Rhodesia.
 Most people from Nyasaland also benefited from the federation by improving their
education in Southern or abroad.

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  Like N. Rhodesia, Nyasaland also benefited from the Federation politically as it led to
the rise of African Nationalism. The Federal Government also passed laws that
contributed to the gaining of independence for Nyasaland.
Disadvantages
 Federation delayed the development of Nyasaland as she was used as a mere labor
reservoir for Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia.
 This lack of development was also as a result of the insufficient share of the Federal
income, which was not adequate for development.
 Africans in Nyasaland had limited voting rights in the Federal and territorial elections.
 The Federation also delayed the independence of Nyasaland as most educated Africans
left for better economic opportunities in N. and S. Rhodesia.
Southern Rhodesia.
Advantages
 Southern Rhodesia benefited more from the Federation than the two other territories.
Southern Rhodesia got a larger percentage of the Federal income i.e. 60% for the Federal
Government based at Salisbury and 17% for Southern Rhodesia as a territory. This
Contributed to the development of Infrastructure.
 Africans were also encouraged to put into practice them policy of Partnership by
allowing some Africans to participate in elections.
 Southern Rhodesia also benefited more from the Hydro-electrical power station.
Disadvantages
 The disadvantages were minimal for Southern Rhodesia.
 The two main disadvantages were that Federation contributed to an increase in racial
discrimination.
 It also greatly delayed Southern Rhodesian independence in comparison to the other two
territories.
 The federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland came to an end as a result of Protests from
Africans in 1963.

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QUESTIONS
1. List the terms of the Constitution of the Central African Federation. What advantages did
the Federation have on Northern Rhodesia? [10:10].

2. Discuss the formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Central African
Federation). What were the main terms of the Federal constitution? [12:8].

3. What were the advantages and disadvantages for either (a) Malawi, or (b) Zambia as
members of Central African Federation? Why did the Federation Break up? [14:6].

4. What were the arguments for and against the Central African Federation? [12:8].

5. (a) What reasons were given in favor of federation?

(b) Why did Africans oppose it? [10:10].

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