The Earth's atmosphere is divided into several layers, each characterized by distinct

properties and features. These layers, from the surface of the Earth outward, are:

1. Troposphere:
 Altitude: 0 to 8-15 kilometers (0 to 5-9 miles)
 Characteristics: This is the layer closest to the Earth's surface, where weather
events occur and where most of the Earth's atmospheric mass is
concentrated. As altitude increases in the troposphere, temperature generally
decreases.
2. Stratosphere:
 Altitude: 8-15 kilometers to about 50 kilometers (5-9 miles to about 31 miles)
 Characteristics: The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which absorbs
and scatters ultraviolet solar radiation. Unlike the troposphere, temperature in
the stratosphere increases with altitude.
3. Mesosphere:
 Altitude: 50 to 85 kilometers (31 to 53 miles)
 Characteristics: In this layer, temperatures decrease with altitude. The
mesosphere is the region where most meteorites burn up upon entering the
Earth's atmosphere.
4. Thermosphere:
 Altitude: 85 kilometers and above (53 miles and above)
 Characteristics: The thermosphere is where the International Space Station
(ISS) and other low Earth orbit satellites are found. Despite the name,
temperatures in the thermosphere can be very high due to the absorption of
high-energy solar radiation. However, because the density of particles is
extremely low, it would not feel hot to an object in this layer.
5. Exosphere:
 Altitude: About 500 kilometers (311 miles) and above
 Characteristics: This is the outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. It
gradually transitions into outer space. The density of particles in the
exosphere is extremely low, and gas molecules can escape into space from
here.

Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic energy emitted by the Sun. This energy is
essential for sustaining life on Earth and drives various processes such as weather, climate,
and photosynthesis. The Sun emits energy across a broad spectrum of wavelengths, and this
energy

The global energy budget is a concept that describes the balance between the incoming and
outgoing energy on Earth. It represents the flow of energy in and out of the Earth's
atmosphere, and understanding this budget is crucial for studying climate and atmospheric
processes. The global energy budget is generally divided into two main components:
incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial (or longwave) radiation.

1. Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation):

 The Sun is the primary source of energy for the Earth.
 Solar radiation, or insolation, reaches the Earth's atmosphere and surface.
 About 70% of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's surface,
warming the planet.
2. Outgoing Terrestrial Radiation:
  The Earth's surface, having absorbed solar radiation, re-emits energy in the
form of terrestrial (longwave) radiation.
 This outgoing radiation is primarily in the infrared part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 Greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere, such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and methane, absorb and re-radiate some of this outgoing radiation
back toward the surface. This process, known as the greenhouse effect, helps
maintain a habitable temperature on Earth.

The global energy budget is often described in terms of the following key terms:

 Absorption: The process by which the Earth's surface absorbs incoming solar
radiation. Different surfaces (land, oceans, ice) absorb solar energy at different rates.
 Reflection (Albedo): Some of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into space
without being absorbed. Surfaces with high albedo, such as ice and snow, reflect
more sunlight.
 Convection and Latent Heat: Absorbed solar energy also drives processes like
convection and the evaporation of water. As water evaporates from the surface, it
stores latent heat, which is released when the water vapor condenses into clouds.
 Radiation to Space: The Earth loses heat to space through the emission of terrestrial
radiation. This is a critical component of the energy budget.

The balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation is essential
for maintaining a relatively stable climate on Earth. Changes in this balance, such as an
increase in greenhouse gas concentrations, can lead to an enhanced greenhouse effect and
contribute to global warming.

Scientists use satellites, ground-based measurements, and climate models to study and
monitor the components of the global energy budget and understand how it influences
Earth's climate system.

1. Rank: 1 snow (80%) 2 lake (about 42% with a fairly high angle sun), 3 light-coloured
rocks (about 25%), 4 boardwalk (about 20%), 5 coniferous forest (12%)

2. (a) Dirty snow is darker than fresh snow, so will refl ect less and absorb more solar
energy, increasing the rate of melting.

(b) The albedo of crops varies with the colour of crops. Ripe cereals will have a higher
albedo than dark green leafy vegetables.

(c) Urban land uses that have lower albedos than the average 15% include asphalt roads
and paths (10%) and urban parks with coniferous forests (12%), while concrete bridges
and buildings (22%) have higher than average albedos.

3. (a) The sun’s heat would allow snow to melt and water from the lake to evaporate.
These processes absorb heat from the air to give the energy to drive them and it is
stored in the resulting water vapour as latent heat.
(b) Ice crystals (in the form of frost) which were deposited on the fence during the cold
night are evaporating into the air because the sun’s rays during the early morning provided
heat. The atmosphere is so cold and saturated that the water vapour produced by the
evaporation is condensing almost immediately to give tiny water droplets hanging in the
air as a mist.

4. (a) A selection of the many reasons for variations from time to time is given here:

• Differences in cloudiness affect the insolation received at the surface. It is less when
skies are cloudy because higher amounts of insolation are reflected, scattered back to
space and absorbed by the cloud. It also varies according to the time of day, as low
angle rays in the early morning and late evening will pass through more atmosphere
than the high angle rays near midday, again resulting in more scattering, reflection and
absorption.

• A change in seasons leads to differences in albedo; for example, when a deciduous

forest is in leaf, it will refl ect more sunlight than when the forest is leafl ess, at which
time the surface reached by the insolation would be dark wood and soil. However,
when covered by snow, the ground would have a higher albedo.

• Both sensible heat transfer and latent heat transfer will be greater at the hotter times
of the day than in the early mornings and late evenings because both processes
increase as temperature increases.

(b) The changes detailed in

(a) can also be used to explain variations from place to place but a different situation
would have to be used in

5. (a) The minimum temperature at this mid-latitude place is about an hour after dawn
and the maximum temperature of the day is about two hours after midday. Both occur
when the incoming and outgoing solar radiation are of equal amounts.

6. Areas on Fig. 2.14 where solar radiation is highest at the Earth’s surface (over 225
w/m2) are a small area in northern Argentina in South America, interior southern
Africa (including the Kalahari Desert) and the northern half of Australia (including the
Great Australian Desert) in the southern hemisphere.

7. In the northern hemisphere, one area is in the ocean just east of the Caribbean Sea,
while the other areas are on land. They are the Mojave Desert of North America, the
 Sahara Desert of North Africa, the Arabian Desert in the Arabian Peninsula and
eastwards to the Sind (Thar) Desert near the Indian border.

8. These areas are not where the highest values would be expected if latitude was the
only infl uence. Areas expected to have the highest solar radiation at the Earth’s
surface, the Equatorial latitudes, actually have some of the lowest values. Areas with
less than 150 w/m2 of solar radiation include three areas in Equatorial latitudes: the
western centre of South America, the Congo Basin in Africa and most of Indonesia.
Two other large areas lie pole-wards of 40°N and S, which is where latitude does have
the expected infl uence, as the low angle of the sun’s rays gives weaker insolation. 8.
The southern hemisphere has more ocean than land at any latitude outside the polar
regions than the northern hemisphere, so there is more water vapour in the air for
cloud to be produced. Consequently, more solar radiation is refl ected, scattered and
absorbed by clouds and less reaches the surface in the southern hemisphere.

Dew:
is the water droplets that form on surfaces, such as grass and leaves, during the nighttime
when the temperature drops and the surface cools, causing moisture in the air to condense

The greenhouse effect:

is a natural process where certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap and retain heat from
the Sun. This trapped heat keeps the Earth's surface warmer than it would be without these
gases. Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, can enhance the greenhouse effect,
leading to global warming and climate change.

Conduction:
is the process of heat transfer through direct contact between particles in a material. It occurs
as higher-energy particles transfer thermal energy to adjacent lower-energy particles, leading
to an overall increase in temperature within the material.

Albedo:
is a measure of the reflectivity of a surface. It quantifies the fraction of solar radiation that is
reflected back into space by an object or surface, with values ranging from 0 (no reflection,
perfectly absorbing) to 1 (complete reflection). Light-colored surfaces, like ice and snow,
have high albedo, while dark surfaces, like asphalt, have low albedo.

Solar radiation:
refers to the electromagnetic energy emitted by the Sun, including visible light and other
forms of electromagnetic waves. This energy is crucial for sustaining life on Earth and drives
various processes such as weather, climate, and photosynthesis.