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Sustainable Fishery Systems

Second Edition

Anthony Charles
Saint Mary’s University
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition History
Blackwell Science Ltd (1e, 2001)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data Applied for:

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Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

 iii

Contents

Preface and Guide to the Book xv

Acknowledgements xviii

Part I Fishery Systems 1

1 Introducing Fishery Systems 3

1.1 Sustainability and Resilience 3
1.2 Rationale for a Systems Approach 6
1.3 Fishery Systems as Social-Ecological Systems 7
1.4 Depicting Fishery Systems 10
1.4.1 Fishing Effort 10
1.4.2 Adding Dynamics 11
1.4.3 Adding Complexity 12
1.4.4 The Fishery System 13
1.4.5 Alternatives 14
1.5 Characterising Fishery Systems 18
1.5.1 Small-Scale Versus Large-Scale Fishery Systems 18
1.5.2 Spatial Scale and Time Scale 21
1.5.2.1 Spatial Scales 21
1.5.2.2 Time Scales 22
1.5.3 Other Approaches to Characterising Fishery Systems 23
1.6 Complexity 24
1.7 Next Steps 25

2 The Natural System: The Fish 27

2.1 What Is Caught in Fishery Systems? 28
2.1.1 Fishes 30
2.1.1.1 Inland (Freshwater) Fish 31
2.1.1.2 Pelagic Marine Fish 31
2.1.1.3 Demersal Marine Fish 32
iv Contents

2.1.2 Shellfish 33
2.1.3 Characteristics 37
2.2 Spatial Distribution of Fished Resources 38
2.3 Fish Dynamics 41
2.3.1 Single-Species Dynamics 41
2.3.2 Multi-Species Dynamics 45

3 The Natural System: Fishery Ecosystems 48

3.1 Ecosystems 48
3.1.1 Aquatic/Fishery Ecosystems 50
3.1.2 A Typology of Fishery Ecosystems 52
3.2 Biodiversity 55
3.3 The Physical–Chemical Environment 58
3.3.1 The Winds 58
3.3.2 Ocean Currents 59
3.3.3 Upwellings 61
3.3.4 Other Relatively Localised Phenomena 61
3.3.5 Physical Features 62
3.4 Dynamics of Fishery Ecosystems and the Biophysical Environment 62

4 The Human System: Fishers and Fishworkers 65

4.1 Fishers and Fishworkers 65
4.1.1 A Typology of Fishers 66
4.1.2 Women in Fishing 70
4.1.3 Fishworkers in the Post-Harvest Sector 73
4.1.4 Fisher Organisations 73
4.2 Fishing Methods 75
4.2.1 A Typology of Fishing Methods 75
4.2.1.1 Seines/Encircling Gear 77
4.2.1.2 Trawls and Other Towed/Dragged Gear 77
4.2.1.3 Gill Nets and Entangling Nets: Drift and Static Gear 77
4.2.1.4 Traps and Pots 78
4.2.1.5 Lines 78
4.2.1.6 Other Methods 78
4.2.2 The Choice of Fishing Method 79
4.2.2.1 Biological 80
4.2.2.2 Economic 80
4.2.2.3 Social and Governance 80
4.3 Fisher and Fleet Dynamics 80
4.3.1 Dynamics of Fishing Effort 81
4.3.2 Capital Dynamics and Fishing Capacity 83
4.3.3 Technological Dynamics 85
4.3.4 Fleet Dynamics 86
 Contents v

5 The Human System: Post-Harvest Aspects and Fishing Communities 89

5.1 The Post-Harvest Sector of the Fishery 89
5.1.1 Processing 92
5.1.2 Marketing and Markets 95
5.1.2.1 Marketing 95
5.1.2.2 Markets 96
5.1.3 Distribution and Trade 98
5.1.3.1 Distribution 98
5.1.3.2 Trade 98
5.1.4 Consumers 99
5.1.4.1 Consumer Preferences 99
5.1.4.2 Consumer Demand 100
5.1.5 Food Security 101
5.2 Fishing Households and Communities 102
5.2.1 Households 102
5.2.2 Communities 105
5.3 The Socioeconomic Environment 108
5.3.1 Links of Fishery Systems and Their Socioeconomic Environment 108
5.3.2 Labour 108
5.3.2.1 Labour Mobility 109
5.3.2.2 Effects on the Fishery 110
5.4 Post-Harvest and Fishing Community Dynamics 111
5.4.1 Dynamics of Markets and Consumer Demand 111
5.4.2 Dynamics of Communities and the Socioeconomic Environment 112

Part II The Fishery Governance and Management System 115

6 Fishery Governance 117

6.1 Rationale for Governance and Management 117
6.1.1 Open Access 118
6.1.2 The Need for Management 118
6.1.3 The Need for Participatory Management 119
6.2 Governance and Management 123
6.3 Fishery Values and Objectives 125
6.3.1 A Portfolio of Fishery Objectives 127
6.3.2 Objectives, Priorities, and Conflict 129
6.4 Fishery Management Institutions 131
6.4.1 Types and Roles of Institutions 131
6.4.2 The Choice of Institutions 132
6.4.3 Examples of Institutions 132
6.5 Governance of International Fisheries 137
6.6 Legal Framework 138
vi Contents

6.6.1 Legal Pluralism 139

6.7 Dynamics of Fishery Governance 140

7 Fishery Management 142

7.1 Time Scales of Management 143
7.2 Spatial Scales of Management 143
7.2.1 International Coordination 145
7.2.2 Decentralisation/Devolution 145
7.3 Appropriate Fishing Effort and Catch Levels 147
7.3.1 The Yield-Effort Curve 147
7.3.2 The Gordon–Schaefer Graph 149
7.3.3 Fishery Objectives Influence the Choice of Effort Levels 150
7.4 Developing a Portfolio of Fishery Management Measures 153
7.5 Implementation at the Operational Level 154
7.6 Fishery Enforcement 156
7.7 A Survey of Fishery Management Measures 157
7.7.1 Input (Effort) Controls 158
7.7.1.1 Limited Entry 158
7.7.1.2 Limiting the Capacity per Fisher or per Vessel 158
7.7.1.3 Limiting the Intensity of Operation 158
7.7.1.4 Limiting Time Fishing 158
7.7.1.5 Limiting the Location of Fishing 159
7.7.1.6 Challenges with Input Controls 160
7.7.2 Output (Catch) Controls 160
7.7.2.1 Total Allowable Catch 161
7.7.2.2 Individual Quotas 162
7.7.2.3 Community Quotas 162
7.7.2.4 Escapement Controls 163
7.7.2.5 Challenges with Output Controls 163
7.7.3 Technical Measures 164
7.7.3.1 Gear Restrictions 165
7.7.3.2 Size Limits 166
7.7.3.3 Closed Areas 166
7.7.3.4 Closed Seasons 167
7.7.4 Ecologically Based Management 168
7.7.4.1 Taxes and Royalties 169
7.7.5 Subsidies 170
7.8 Dynamics of Fishery Management 172

8 Fishery Development 174

8.1 Rationale for Fishery Development 174
8.2 Objectives of Fishery Development 175
 Contents vii

8.3 Strategic Choices in Fishery Development 178

8.3.1 New Fisheries 178
8.3.2 Existing Fisheries 179
8.3.3 Integrated Development 180
8.4 Targeting Fishery Development 181
8.4.1 Needs Assessment 181
8.4.2 Positive Signs 181
8.4.3 Other Considerations 182
8.5 Options for Fishery Development 183
8.5.1 Direct Support to Fishing Activities 183
8.5.2 Institutional Enhancement 183
8.5.3 Training and Human Resource Development 183
8.5.4 Economics and Planning 184
8.5.5 Scientific, Assessment, Statistical, and Information Support 184
8.5.6 Fisheries Management and Monitoring/Control/Surveillance 184
8.5.7 Post-Harvest Support 185
8.6 Participatory Fishery Development 185

9 Fishery Knowledge 187

9.1 The Nature of Fishery Knowledge 188
9.2 The Knowledge of Indigenous Peoples, Fishers, and Communities 189
9.2.1 Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) 190
9.2.2 Indigenous Knowledge 190
9.2.3 Fisher Knowledge and Local Knowledge 192
9.3 Connecting Fisher/Local/Indigenous Knowledge with Fishery Science/
Research 195
9.4 Knowledge Within Institutions 198
9.4.1 Governments 198
9.4.2 International Agencies 199
9.4.3 Universities 199
9.4.4 Private Sector and Nongovernmental Organisations (NGOs) 200
9.5 Fishery Knowledge: The Natural System 200
9.5.1 Stock Assessment 201
9.5.1.1 Stock Assessment Process 201
9.5.1.2 Evolution of Stock Assessment: Single Species and Multi-Species 202
9.6 Fishery Knowledge: The Human System 205
9.7 The Nature of Knowledge Production 208
9.7.1 Disciplinary Knowledge 208
9.7.2 Multidisciplinary, Interdisciplinary, Transdisciplinary Approaches 209
9.7.2.1 Multidisciplinary 209
9.7.2.2 Interdisciplinary 209
9.7.2.3 Transdisciplinary 209
viii Contents

9.7.3 Pure (Basic) and Applied (Targeted) Knowledge 211

9.8 The Structure of Knowledge Production 211
9.8.1 Organized by Species 211
9.8.2 Organized by Function 212
9.8.3 Organized on a Geographical/Ecosystem Basis 213
9.9 Dynamics of Fishery Knowledge 213

Part III Three Major Challenges in Fishery Systems 215

10 Uncertainty in Fishery Systems 217

10.1 Sources of Uncertainty in Fishery Systems 218
10.1.1 Sources in the Natural System 218
10.1.2 Sources in the Human System 218
10.2 A Typology of Uncertainty 219
10.2.1 Introduction: The Stock–Recruitment Relationship 219
10.2.2 Randomness 220
10.2.3 Uncertainties in Data and Parameters 221
10.2.4 Structural Uncertainty 222
10.3 Linking Uncertainty and Dynamics 224

11 Conflict in Fishery Systems 227

11.1 Conflict over Priorities: Fishery Paradigms 229
11.1.1 The Conservation Paradigm 230
11.1.2 The Rationalisation Paradigm 230
11.1.3 The Social/Community Paradigm 231
11.1.4 Fishery Paradigms in Practice: Efficiency and Allocation 232
11.2 A Typology of Fishery Conflicts 234
11.2.1 Fishery Jurisdiction 235
11.2.2 Management Mechanisms 236
11.2.3 Internal Allocation 236
11.2.4 External Allocation Conflicts 237
11.2.4.1 Domestic Versus Foreign Fisheries 237
11.2.4.2 Fishers Versus Fish Farming (Aquaculture) 238
11.2.4.3 The Fishery Versus Competing Industries 239

12 Attitudes (The Story of a Fishery Collapse) 242

12.1 The Cod Collapse Experience 242
12.1.1 The Collapse 242
12.1.2 The Aftermath 243
12.1.3 Understanding the Collapse 244
12.1.4 Recovery? 245
12.1.5 The Future 246
12.2 Attitudes Underlying the Cod Collapse 246
12.2.1 The Role of the Regulator 247
 Contents ix

12.2.2 Blame for the Collapse 248

12.2.3 The Burden of Proof 250
12.2.3.1 Stock Assessment 250
12.2.3.2 Fishing Gear 251
12.2.4 Conservation Can Wait 252
12.2.5 The Illusion of Certainty and the Fallacy of Controllability 254
12.2.6 Synthesis on Fishery Attitudes 256

Part IV Modern Strategies for Fishery Systems 259

13 Sustainability and Resilience 261

13.1 Sustainability 262
13.2 Resilience 265
13.3 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 268
13.4 Components of Sustainability and Resilience 268
13.5 Sustainability and Resilience of Institutions 273
13.5.1 Institutional Sustainability 273
13.5.2 Institutional Resilience 274
13.5.3 Institutional Effectiveness 275
13.6 Sustainability and Resilience within the Fishery System 277
13.6.1 Biodiversity 278
13.6.2 Fishing Fleets, Capacity, and Subsidies 279
13.6.3 Efficiency 282
13.6.4 Livelihood Diversity 283
13.6.4.1 Encourage Multi-Species Fisheries 284
13.6.4.2 Encourage Multiple Sources of Livelihood for Fishers 284
13.6.4.3 Diversify (Broaden the Base of) the Fishery-Dependent Economy 284
13.6.5 Post-Harvest and Fishing Communities 285
13.6.6 Fishery Objectives and Principles 285
13.6.7 Managing Conflict 286
13.7 Assessing Sustainability and Resilience in Fishery Systems 287
13.7.1 Sustainability Indicators 288
13.7.2 Resilience Assessment and Indicators 294
13.7.3 Developing a Framework of Indicators 296

14 Adaptive, Robust, and Precautionary Management 298

14.1 Uncertainty and Risk 298
14.2 Risk Assessment 299
14.3 Risk Management: Analytical Approaches 300
14.4 Adaptive Management and Robust Management 303
14.4.1 Adaptive Management 303
14.4.1.1 Flexibility 304
14.4.1.2 Adaptive Management Concepts and Methods 305
14.4.2 Structural Uncertainty and Robust Management 306
x Contents

14.5 Moving to Robust, Adaptive Management 307

14.5.1 Avoiding the Illusion of Certainty 307
14.5.2 Avoiding the Fallacy of Controllability 308
14.5.3 Avoiding Lack of Robustness (Using a Management Portfolio) 309
14.6 The Precautionary Approach and the Burden of Proof 313
14.6.1 Approach Versus Principle 314
14.6.2 Implementing the Precautionary Approach 315
14.6.3 The Burden of Proof 316
14.6.4 Possible Applications of the Precautionary Approach and the Burden
of Proof 316
14.6.4.1 The Stock–Recruitment Relationship 317
14.6.4.2 Over-Fishing Versus the Environment 317
14.6.4.3 Habitat Protection 318

15 The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries 321

15.1 Rationale for an Ecosystem Approach 321
15.2 History of an Ecosystem Approach 322
15.3 Scope of an Ecosystem Approach 325
15.4 The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF) 328
15.5 Implementing EAF 330
15.5.1 Principles 331
15.5.2 Entry Points 332
15.5.3 Resources for Implementation 333
15.6 Implementing EAF: Human Dimensions 334
15.6.1 Components of Human Dimensions 335
15.6.1.1 Social 335
15.6.1.2 Cultural 336
15.6.1.3 Economic 336
15.6.1.4 Political 336
15.6.1.5 Legal and Institutional 336
15.6.2 Human Dimensions Across Scales 337

16 Rights-Based Approaches to Fisheries Management 341

16.1 The Rationale for Fishery Rights 341
16.2 Use Rights 342
16.3 Management Rights 345
16.4 Use Rights and Management Rights in Context 346
16.5 Rights Versus Ownership 350
16.6 The Commons 351
16.7 Human Rights 353
16.8 Practicalities of Use Rights 358
16.9 Forms of Use Rights 359
16.9.1 Customary Tenure/Territorial Use Rights in Fishing (TURFs) 359
16.9.2 Limited Entry 363
16.9.3 Effort (Input) Rights 364
 Contents xi

16.9.4 Catch (Output) Quotas 366

16.9.4.1 Individual Quotas and ITQs 367
16.9.4.2 Concerns with ITQs 369
16.9.4.3 Community Quotas 370
16.9.5 Community-Based Use Rights 371
16.10 Use Rights Issues: Initial Allocation 374
16.11 Use Rights Issues: Transferability 375
16.11.1 Efficiency 376
16.11.2 Social Cohesion 377
16.11.3 Concentration of Rights 377
16.12 Choosing a Use Rights System 379

17 Co-management and Community-Based Management 382

17.1 Fishery Co-management 382
17.1.1 Who Is Involved in Co-management? 383
17.1.2 Goals of Co-management 386
17.1.3 Forms of Co-management 386
17.1.3.1 Fisher–Government Co-management 387
17.1.3.2 Community-Based Co-management 388
17.1.3.3 Multi-Stakeholder Co-management 391
17.1.4 Levels of Co-management 393
17.1.5 Co-management and Components of Fishery Management 395
17.1.6 Discussion 397
17.2 Community-Based Fishery Management 397
17.2.1 What Is Community-Based Fishery Management? 398
17.2.2 Rationale for Community-Based Fishery Management 399
17.2.3 What Is Involved in Community-Based Fishery Management? 400
17.2.4 Experiences with Community-Based Fishery Management 401
17.2.5 Community-Based Conservation 403
17.2.6 Community Science 406
17.2.7 Factors of Success in Community-Based Fishery Management 407

Part V Fisheries and the Bigger Picture 411

18 Fisheries and Marine Protected Areas 413

18.1 Fishery Closed Areas 413
18.2 Nongovernmental (Informal) Protected Areas 414
18.3 Marine Protected Areas and OECMs 415
18.4 International Agreements 417
18.5 Types of MPAs and OECMs 418
18.5.1 No-Take MPAs 419
18.5.2 Zoned MPAs 419
18.5.3 Local/Community MPAs 421
18.5.4 Large-Scale MPAs 422
xii Contents

18.5.5 MPA Networks 422

18.6 Design of MPAs 423
18.7 Fishery Benefits and Costs of MPAs and OECMs 424
18.7.1 Examples of Possible Benefits of MPAs 425
18.7.2 Examples of Possible Costs of MPAs 425
18.8 Interactions of MPAs and OECMs with Fisheries 426
18.8.1 Objectives 427
18.8.2 Policy Linkages 428
18.8.3 Governance 428
18.8.4 Rights 429
18.8.5 Participation and Co-management 429
18.8.6 Community-Based Approaches 431
18.8.7 Knowledge 432
18.8.8 Livelihoods 432
18.9 MPAs as a Fisheries Management Tool 433

19 Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation 437

19.1 Introduction 437
19.2 A Brief History of Biodiversity Conservation in a Fishery Context 437
19.3 Fisheries and Endangered Species 439
19.3.1 Bycatch 440
19.3.2 Turtles 441
19.3.3 Marine Mammals 442
19.3.3.1 Baleen Whales 442
19.3.3.2 Dolphins 443
19.3.3.3 Seals 444
19.3.4 Seahorses 444
19.4 Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation 445
19.4.1 The Fisheries ‘Stream’ and the Biodiversity Conservation ‘Stream’ 446
19.4.2 Tensions Between the Fisheries and Biodiversity Streams 447
19.4.3 Common Ground of Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation 448
19.5 Opportunities Across Scales for Linking Fisheries and Biodiversity
Conservation 449
19.5.1 Global 449
19.5.2 Regional 451
19.5.3 National 451
19.5.4 Local 452
19.6 Incentives and Opportunities 453
19.7 CBD and IPBES 454

20 Fisheries and Multi-Sectoral Management 456

20.1 Fisheries, Competing Uses and the Need for Management of Multiple
Sectors 456
20.2 Integrated Management 459
 Contents xiii

20.3 Marine Spatial Planning 462

20.4 Ocean Zoning 464
20.5 Blue Economy 466
20.6 Some Common Features of Multi-Sectoral Approaches 467
20.6.1 Rationale 467
20.6.2 Institutional Framework 467
20.6.3 Spatial Delimitation 468
20.6.4 Scale 468
20.7 Fisheries and Multi-Sectoral Management 468
20.7.1 Benefits of Linking Fisheries and Multi-Sectoral Management 468
20.7.1.1 Dealing with Externalities 469
20.7.1.2 Highlighting the Fishery Voice 469
20.7.1.3 Spatial Management 469
20.7.2 Concerns in Fisheries about Multi-Sectoral Management 470
20.7.2.1 Access and Power 470
20.7.2.2 Funding 470
20.7.2.3 Time Constraints 470
20.7.2.4 Dilution 471
20.7.2.5 Environmental Concerns 471
20.7.3 Linking Fisheries and Multi-Sectoral Management 473
20.7.3.1 Objectives 473
20.7.3.2 Values 473
20.7.3.3 Boundaries 474
20.7.3.4 Spatial and Organisational Scale 475
20.7.3.5 Institutions 477
20.7.3.6 Human Angles and Participatory Approaches 477
20.7.3.7 Benefits and Costs 478
20.7.3.8 Knowledge 479

21 Fisheries and Climate Change 481

21.1 Impacts of Climate Change 481
21.1.1 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Impacts of Climate Change 482
21.1.2 Effects of Climate Change on Human Dimensions of the Fishery System 482
21.1.3 Differential Impacts of Climate Change 485
21.2 Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity 486
21.3 Responses to Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaptation 487
21.4 Responses to Climate Change: Mitigation 489
21.5 Responses to Climate Change: Adaptation 490
21.5.1 Types of Adaptation 492
21.5.2 Community-Based Adaptation 494
21.5.3 Differential Impacts and Benefits of Climate Adaptation 496
21.5.4 Adaptation of Fishery Management and Governance to Climate Change 498
21.5.5 Making Management and Governance more Adaptive, Flexible,
and Robust 500
xiv Contents

Part VI Conclusions 503

22 Sustaining Fisheries into the Future 505

22.1 A Review of Fishery Systems 505
22.2 A Review of Fishery Sustainability and Resilience 506
22.3 Making Fishery Governance and Management Effective 507
22.3.1 Institutions 507
22.3.2 Robust, Adaptive, and Precautionary Management 508
22.3.3 Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries 509
22.3.4 Rights 509
22.3.5 Co-management 510
22.3.6 Community-Based Management 510
22.4 The Bigger Picture Around the Fishery System 511
22.4.1 Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation 511
22.4.2 Fisheries, MPAs, and OECMs 512
22.4.3 Fisheries and Multi-Sectoral Management 512
22.4.4 Fisheries and Climate Change 513
22.5 A Closing Note 514

Appendix A Atlantic Canada’s Groundfish Fishery System 516

Appendix B Models of Fishery Systems 524

Appendix C Developing a Framework of Fishery Indicators 538

References 547
Index 630
 xv

Preface and Guide to the Book

Decades have passed since the original edition of this book appeared, early in the 2000s.
I am pleased to say that the content of that book has stood the test of time – the various
themes that were covered in it remain valid today. That said, a great deal has happened over
the decades.
There has been widespread analytical focus on social-­ecological systems, and a global
policy focus on ocean and biodiversity conservation. Those developments reinforce the cru-
cial nature of the two areas emphasised in the original book – using systems approaches
and moving towards sustainable fisheries. Along those lines, the emergence of conserva-
tion tools such as marine protected areas, and management tools such as marine spatial
planning, has been so extensive that their interaction with fisheries needs to be examined.
And without doubt, the dire worldwide threats of climate change have major impacts on
fishery systems in many ways.
Further, there has been an unprecedented spotlight in recent decades on small-­scale fish-
eries around the world, with what is likely the most important fishery document in that
time period being the international Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-­
Scale Fisheries developed by FAO. This ties in with an increasing recognition of the impres-
sive role fishers, fishworkers, and fishing communities play in managing their fishery
resources and conserving their local aquatic environments.
Related to this has been a major shift in how we consider the knowledge needed for fish-
ery decision-­making – while in the past, the focus might have been on ‘fishery research’ we
now see it is at least equally from the traditional, fisher, and community knowledge held by
those engaged in the fishery. Shifts in fishery governance to more engagement and partici-
pation support these shifts over time.
All the above newly prominent considerations call out for attention in a book such as
this, and the second edition of Sustainable Fishery Systems covers them all.
It has been a joy to write this second edition. Not all the time, mind you, but certainly
overall. I imagine that writing any book is a labour of love, and this is no exception. What
you have before you is in some ways a culmination of interests I have had, throughout my
career, in the holistic and systematic analysis of fisheries, and in seeking out approaches to
improving the sustainability and resilience of fisheries.
I have sought, in writing this, to produce something accessible to everyone interested in
looking at fisheries from an integrated perspective and in exploring the various routes to
more sustainable fisheries. I hope that this would include undergraduate and graduate
xvi Preface and Guide to the Book

students from various disciplines, as well as professionals in the fishery field, whether
­academics, those in science and management, or those within fisher organisations and the
fishery sector itself.
With that in mind, the aim here is to present a fairly comprehensive coverage of the
many aspects of fishery systems, what fisheries are all about, and where they are heading
(or should be heading). So, the content and organisation reflect the diverse nature of
­fisheries, the components of fisheries and their changes over time, the fishery governance
and management system, the challenges in fishery systems and modern approaches to
dealing with them, and the links of fisheries to major elements beyond the fishery.
The ­various chapters of the book can be viewed as pieces of the puzzle, all adding up to give
a full sense of the fishery system and how it can be sustained today.
The following gives a short guide to the contents. . .
●● Part I of the book (Chapters 1–5) focuses on Fishery Systems, their structure, and dynam-
ics. This begins in Chapter 1 with an overview of fishery systems, emphasising how these
systems are depicted, and how they are characterised. Chapters 2 and 3 provide an over-
view of the natural system: the fish, the ecosystems, and the biophysical environment.
Chapters 4 and 5 explore the human system, including the fishers and fishworkers, the
post-­harvest sector, households and communities, and the broader socioeconomic envi-
ronment. Each of Chapters 2–5 discusses both the structure of the corresponding compo-
nent of the fishery system, and its dynamics – how it changes over time.
●● Part II of the book (Chapters 6–9) focuses on the Fishery Governance and Management
System, providing a basis on the values, objectives, tools, and approaches that go into
this – with Chapters 6 and 7 covering those two topics of governance and management,
followed by Chapter 8 on ideas of fishery development, and Chapter 9 on the knowledge-­
building (and research) in fisheries.
●● Part III of the book (Chapters 10–12) examines Three Major Challenges in Fishery
Systems, namely (Chapter 10) the ubiquitous presence of uncertainty in fisheries, the
various forms this uncertainty takes, and the connection between uncertainty and risk,
(Chapter 11) the major role conflict plays in fishery systems, along with a typology of
fishery conflicts, and (Chapter 12) the problems that can arise when those in the fishery
have poor attitudes, and specifically the story of how such attitudes led to the massive
collapse of Canada’s Atlantic cod fishery.
●● Part IV of the book (Chapters 13–17) moves from challenges to solutions, namely
‘Modern Strategies for Fishery Systems’. The discussion begins in Chapter 13 with an
examination of the nature of sustainability and resilience, and how to do sustainability
assessment. Chapter 14 focuses on approaches to living with uncertainty through the use
of adaptive management, robust management and a Precautionary Approach to fishery
decision-­making. Chapter 15 discusses the benefits of an Ecosystem Approach to
Fisheries, inherently based on a systems approach. Chapter 16 presents human rights
and fishing rights (use rights and management rights, guiding the access to and use of
fishery resources) as key ingredients for sustainability and resilience. Then Chapter 17
examines the widespread move to fishery co-­management and the longstanding and
expanding role of community-­based management.
●● Part V of the book (Chapters 18–21) looks at ‘Fisheries and the Bigger Picture’ – the
­interactions of fisheries (and fishery governance/management) with four of the biggest
 Preface and Guide to the Book xvii

drivers of change in today’s fisheries, ones from beyond the fishery system per se. These
four are (Chapter 18) marine protected areas and ‘other effective area-­based conservation
measures’ (OECMs), with a focus on their fishery interactions; (Chapter 19) biodiversity
conservation, how its governance interacts with that of fisheries, and specific challenges
of dealing with endangered species; (Chapter 20) multi-­sectoral management of oceans
and other aquatic areas, including integrated management and marine spatial planning;
and (Chapter 21) the omnipresent threat of climate change, and how responses in the
form of mitigation and adaptation interact with fishery systems.
●● Finally, Part VI of the book (Chapter 22) provides conclusions and a review of the key
messages of the book.
A key goal for the book is to be widely accessible. The style of presentation is generally
informal, with the aim of making the text easy to read. Technical aspects are sometimes
placed in boxes, and mathematical details are either omitted, or placed in separate boxes or
appendices. In order to be as accessible as possible, some topics are presented at a relatively
basic rather than ‘expert’ level. For example, most of Chapters 2 and 3 will not be new to
those familiar with biological and oceanographic aspects of fisheries, and similarly
Chapters 4 and 5 will not be new to those familiar with the human dimensions of fisheries.
Those familiar with certain topics are welcome to skip over the chapters (or sections of
chapters) that cover those topics.
The book is written in a non-­disciplinary manner. Each chapter, rather than focusing on
a single discipline, draws on material from a range of disciplines. There are abundant refer-
ences provided for those wishing to explore topics in further depth, and considerable use is
made of ‘boxes’ throughout the book, often as case studies or more in-­depth illustrations of
particular points, or as optional side-­trips from the main text. In many cases, the boxes are
not referred to specifically in the text itself, but each box is titled, so the reader can decide
whether to read the content or not, depending on the topic.
The reader may wonder about the order in which topics appear in the book, and whether
it is crucial to follow that order in reading. The answer is that the chapters can generally be
read in any order desired – with four exceptions. Chapter 1 introduces the major ideas of
the book and really should be read first. Chapter 6 provides a natural opening to Part II on
the Fishery Governance and Management System. Similarly, Chapter 13 properly opens
Part IV on ‘Modern Strategies for Fishery Systems’. And Chapter 22, the concluding chap-
ter, can be read either last, as intended, or by itself, if the reader wishes to have a rapid sense
of the ‘key messages’ of the book. While otherwise the order is not critical, the reader will
see, in places, comments about how the current discussion is linked to what is coming up
later in the book, or how it relates to what has come before, in previous chapters.
Welcome to Sustainable Fishery Systems. I hope you find this book not only useful but
also stimulating and perhaps even provocative.

May 2023 Anthony Charles

Saint Mary’s University
Halifax, Canada
xviii

Acknowledgements

I owe a debt of gratitude to many people. I am truly fortunate to have worked with so many
wonderful colleagues, students, and collaborators over the years.
Around the time the original edition of Sustainable Fishery Systems was published,
I began a multi-­decade part of my career that engaged in a close and transdisciplinary way
with many in Indigenous organizations and communities, fisher organizations and com-
munities, and nongovernmental organizations – primarily on themes of community-­based
fishery management, fishery governance, and community conservation. I am so grateful to
all of those colleagues: Randy Angus, Sadie Beaton, Arthur Bull, Dan Edwards, Dawn
Foxcroft, Don Hall, Peter Irniq, Russ Jones, Tawney Lem, Marla MacLeod, Sharmalene
Mendis-­Millard, Richard Nuna, Ken Paul, Sherry Pictou, Maria Recchia, Hubert Saulnier,
Kevin Squires.
Four special individuals have played crucial roles in guiding and supporting me over the
years. Colin Clark inspired me from the very beginning of my career, leading me to focus
on fisheries and to do so in an interdisciplinary manner. Elisabeth Mann Borgese was very
much a role model for me, in her deep caring for the ocean and ocean users, showing how
to balance the local and the global, and protection for the natural world and for human
communities. Serge Garcia is a broad-­thinking individual with whom I’ve had countless
discussions and published together extensively, and from whom I continue to learn a great
deal. Fikret Berkes has been, and continues to be, a much-­appreciated mentor and guide, a
strong supporter, and a colleague I love working with, in many productive projects. I would
also like to highlight Sherry Pictou who has taught me so much about Indigenous issues
and analyses, and Jake Rice, for the many insights he has shared on national and interna-
tional fisheries. I am grateful as well to Arthur Bull, John Kearney, Chris Milley, and
Melanie Wiber for helping me learn the ropes of community-­based fisheries, and to my
many collaborators at the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
for years of productive connections.
Several colleagues provided particular help with certain chapters, whether in the form of
insightful reviews of chapters or giving extensive general guidance on a topic. This book
would be far inferior without their contribution, and I would like to gratefully acknowledge
them, while taking sole responsibility for any errors. The individuals are as follows, chapter
by chapter:
Chapter 1: Serge Garcia, Daniel Lane; 2,3: Bruce Hatcher, Jeff Hutchings, Brad deYoung;
4: Svein Jentoft, John Kearney, Sherry Pictou; 5: Melanie Wiber, 6: Derek Armitage, Fikret
 Acknowledgements xix

Berkes, David VanderZwaag; 8: Minerva Arce-­Ibarra, Brian Davy; 9: Fikret Berkes, Jeff
Hutchings, Ken Paul, Michael Sinclair; 11: Fikret Berkes; 12: Jake Rice, Michael Sinclair;
13: Chris Béné, Fikret Berkes, Heather Boyd, Angel Herrera, Jeff Hutchings, Gary Newkirk;
14: Kevern Cochrane, Michael Fogarty; 15: Kevern Cochrane, Cassandra de Young, Michael
Fogarty, Serge Garcia, Jon Lien; 16: Maarten Bavinck, Parzival Copes, Serge Garcia, Ralph
Townsend, Melanie Wiber, Rolf Willmann; 17: Fikret Berkes, Arthur Bull, Jennifer Graham,
Melanie Wiber, John Kearney; 18: Lena Westlund, Silvia Salas, Jessica Sanders; 19: Serge
Garcia, Jake Rice; 21: Daniela Kalikoski, Juan Carlos Seijo. Small-­scale fisheries through-
out: Nicole Franz, Lena Westlund, Rolf Willmann.
I have worked very closely with a wide range of colleagues in writing books, journal arti-
cles, and public reports over the course of my career. Every time that happens, and there
have been many such times, I learn a great deal. I am grateful to all these co-­authors for
their ideas and insights, many of which undoubtedly found their way into this book. As
always, any errors are my own. Here is the extensive list of co-­authors, and I am sorry if
I have missed anyone:

Emelita Agbayani Theo Brainerd Lucia Fanning

Renato Agbayani Yvan Breton Michael Fogarty
John Abraham Arthur Bull Nicole Franz
Max Agüero Chris Burbidge Kim Friedman
Steve Alexander Michael Butler Serge Garcia
Eddie Allison Mark Butler Maria Gasalla
Carol Amaratunga Mauricio Castrejón Razieh Ghayoumi
Tissa Amaratunga Joseph Catanzano Exequiel González
Randy Angus Omer Chouinard Hugh Govan
Joe Appiott Patrick Christie Jennifer Graham
Minerva Arce-­Ibarra Ratana Chuenpagdee Leslie Grattan
Derek Armitage Colin Clark Chen Hailiang
Robert Arthur Scott Coffen-­Smout Marcus Haward
Natalie Ban Parzival Copes Amy Heim
Hu Baotong Mel Cross John Helliwell
Manuel Barange Iain Davidson-­Hunt Michael Henderson
Devin Bartley Brad de Young Angel Herrera
Maarten Bavinck Cassandra de Young Shannon Hicks
Jennifer Beckensteiner Libby Dean Amber Himes-­Cornell
John Beddington Phil Dearden Karla Infante Ramírez
Evelyn Belleza Paul Degnbol Simon Jennings
Chris Béné Ana Carolina Esteves Dias Svein Jentoft
Cheryl Benjamin Cathy Dichmont Derek Johnson
Nathan Bennett Daniela Diz Michel Kaiser
Samantha Berdej Rod Dobell Daniela Kalikoski
Fikret Berkes Nancy Doubleday John Kearney
Alicia Bermudez Bruce Downie Ahmed Khan
Paul Boudreau Dan Edwards Marloes Kraan
Heather Boyd Alison Evans Annie Lalancette
xx Acknowledgements

Daniel Lane Prateep Nayak Dale Squires

Amanda Lavers Alfredo Ortega Kevin Squires
Bertrand Le Gallic Jose Padilla Paul Starr
Jennifer Leith Sean Pascoe Robert Stephenson
Marc Léopold Barbara Paterson Bozena Stomal
Philip Levin Daniel Pauly Rashid Sumaila
Rachel Long Carolyn Peach Brown Larissa Sweeney
Laura Loucks Ian Perry Chris Taggart
Pamela Mace Randall Peterman Olivier Thébaud
Alison Macnaughton Sherry Pictou Ralph Townsend
Mitsutaku Makino Evelyn Pinkerton Peter Tyedmers
Marc Mangel Ryan Plummer Raul Villanueva-­Poot
Michael Margolick Robert Pomeroy Nireka Weeratunge
Melissa Marschke Tavis Potts Jean-­Yves Weigel
Jack Mathias Melina Puley Peter Wells
Leigh Mazany Maria Recchia Dirk Werle
Ian McAllister Bill Reed Lena Westlund
Patrick McConney Jake Rice Alan White
Kathleen Miller Murray Rudd George White
Chris Milley Silvia Salas Melanie Wiber
EJ Milner-­Gulland Jessica Sanders Rolf Willmann
Dan Mombourquette Arif Satria Kate Wilner
Hermie Montalvo Hubert Saulnier Xiongzhi Xue
Gordon Munro Juan Seijo Carlos Chiwen Yang
Cintia Nascimento Cristiana Seixas Becca Zimmerman
Nopparat Nasuchon Merle Sowman

I am grateful as well for the wonderful collaborations and interactions with the following:

Megan Bailey Karla Infante Ramírez Jeremy Pittman

Kevern Cochrane Camila Islas Alvez Ameyali Ramos
Cathy Conrad Dominique Levieil Kaitlyn Rathwell
Brian Davy Elisabeth Mann Borgese Wayne Rice
Luciana de Araujo Gomes Philile Mbatha Trudy Sable
Alice R. de Moraes Rodrigo Menafra Ann Shriver
Roger Doyle Ransom Myers Kristen Walker-­Painemilla
Dachanee Emphandu Brenda Parlee
Maren Headley Cristina Pita

I want to express my great thanks to all my research assistants, over the years, who pro-
vided invaluable support in the preparation of this book. A special note of thanks to
Shannon Hicks for a wide range of support and to Larissa Sweeney for great assistance with
the book’s figures.
 Acknowledgements xxi

Cheryl Benjamin Patrick Larter Ashley Shelton

Kristina Benoit Trymore Maganga Larissa Sweeney
Chris Burbidge Robynique Maynard Meagan Symington
Erica Escobar Nicole McLearn Rebecca Zimmerman
Shannon Hicks Erin Rankin

I appreciate the support of Wiley, (Rebecca Ralf, Antony Sami, Kerry Powell, Rosie
Hayden, Joss Everett, Karthick Elango, Manju Pasupathy) and for the original edition,
Blackwell Science (notably Richard Miles and Nigel Balmforth, as well as that of series
­editor Tony Pitcher).
Finally, my greatest appreciation goes to my wife, Beth Abbott, for her longstanding and
patient support of my work, and my now-­adult children – Ivy and Gavin – for being
­generally wonderful.
 1

Part I

Fishery Systems
 3

Introducing Fishery Systems

The title of this book – Sustainable Fishery Systems – reflects a combination of two
­inter-­related terms: ‘sustainable fisheries’ and ‘fishery systems’. An underlying premise of
the book is that success in the pursuit of sustainability (and the related goal of resilience)
is closely linked to adoption of a sufficiently broad conception of the fishery as a ‘system’ of
interacting ecological, biophysical, economic, social, cultural, legal, and management
components.
This statement of purpose raises several obvious questions. What exactly is a ‘fishery
system’ and how is a systems perspective connected with sustainability and resilience?
Further, what are sustainability and resilience, and why are they important in fisheries?
What might a sustainable, resilient fishery look like? These questions are explored in detail
within the book, but the discussion is introduced here in this chapter.

1.1 ­Sustainability and Resilience

First, consider the idea of sustainability. In recent years, it has become standard practice,
in all sectors of economic activity, to emphasise the pursuit of sustainable development –
through which the economy operates in such a way as to meet human needs now while
safeguarding the future (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987;
Kates et al. 2005; FAO 2019; United Nations 2020). This concept is by no means new to
fishery, or to forestry and other renewable resource sectors, where the idea of achieving
a sustainable yield from the resource – a level of output that can be maintained indefi-
nitely into the future – has been central to discussion (if not action) for many decades.
The sustainable development approach has, however, brought about an important
­evolution from a focus merely on ‘sustaining the output’ to a more integrated view in
which sustainability is multifaceted, and emphasises the process as much as the output
(Griggs et al. 2013).
All this discussion of sustainability is timely, given the unfortunate reality that – despite
the above-­noted history within fisheries of discussing sustainability, and despite the ­current
worldwide focus on sustainable development – many fisheries are in a state of crisis, requir-
ing urgent attention. Many international agencies and congresses (e.g. Charles et al. 2016;

Sustainable Fishery Systems, Second Edition. Anthony Charles.

© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
4 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

Asche et al. 2018; OECD 2019) are focusing on this and the consequent need for strategies
to promote sustainable fisheries.
This book explores that idea of sustainable fisheries. Certainly, sustainability concerns
arise in terms of the abundance of fishery resources (whether there is plenty of fish in the
sea) but there are other areas of concern as well: from the health of the fishery ecosystem
to the state of the fishery’s social and economic structure to the well-­being of fishing
communities and of management institutions. Given these diverse concerns, pursuing
sustainable fisheries is best seen not only in terms of how much fish is in the sea (and
keeping the catch of fish to a level ‘not too large’) but much more comprehensively
(Charles 1994; Garcia et al. 2014a; Stephenson et al. 2019). As noted by Ravagnan et al.
(2017, p. 2):

. . .the increasing and diverse use of the marine resources calls for a holistic approach
to seafood management that combines environmental, social and economic aspects
for achieving sustainable development . . . The traditional sectorial approach has not
been successful in marine management. . .

Accordingly, sustainability can be usefully viewed as requiring the maintaining or

­enhancing all four key components: ecological sustainability (including maintaining and/
or enhancing the sustainability, resilience, and overall health of the ecosystem),
­socioeconomic sustainability (maintaining/enhancing long-­term socioeconomic welfare,
including net benefits and reasonable distribution of benefits), community sustainability
(sustaining communities as valuable human systems), and institutional sustainability
(sustaining financing, administrative, and organisational capability). Aspects of these
four components of sustainability will be discussed at various points throughout
this book.

A Quick Introduction to Institutions

Throughout the book, there will be mention of institutions, as in ‘institutional

­sustainability’ above. At times, this refers to an organisation of some sort such as a
Department of Fisheries, a fishery co-­operative, a United Nations agency, a fish mar-
ket, or a scientific research body. It can also refer to a set of rules or guidelines that
regulate behaviour in a fishery. North (1990) takes that second view: ‘Institutions are
the rules of the game in a society’. From a practical perspective, these two senses of
‘institution’ are related: a fishery management agency is an organisation that itself
reflects ­society’s rules for managing fisheries. Similarly, an association of fishing peo-
ple or a community organisation is an institution that can create local mechanisms
for sharing fishery resources, or for responsible behaviour in fishing. Having the ‘right’
institution is needed for sustainability – they need to be structured properly, with
widespread support, and seen as fair and just. Other factors making a fishery
­management institution work effectively, and much more on institutions, will be
­discussed later in the book, in Chapters 6, 14, 16, 17, and elsewhere. Indeed, within
this book, the term ‘institution’ is used often, and in either of the above senses,
depending on the context.
 1.1 ­Sustainability and Resilienc 5

Management and policy measures to promote fishery sustainability are certainly central to
this book, and any attempt to analyse aspects of sustainability requires a broad, ­integrated
view of the fishery. Specifically, sustainable development is not just a matter of protecting fish
stocks but rather involves all aspects of the fishery. We cannot assess the state of ecological
sustainability if we fail to look at the ecosystem beyond individual fish stocks, and we cannot
enhance community sustainability if we restrict our attention solely to those catching the fish.
In addition, complementary to sustainability is the fundamental goal of resilience – the
ability of a fishery to absorb and ‘bounce back’ from perturbations caused by natural or
human actions. Resilience can be defined more rigorously (Hughes et al. 2005, p. 380) as
the ability of a system to ‘absorb recurrent natural and human perturbations and continue
to regenerate without slowly degrading or unexpectedly flipping into alternate states’.
(See also Armitage et al. 2017; Merrill et al. 2018.)
As will be discussed, the idea of resilience, while first formulated with ecosystems in
mind (Holling 1973), is of great relevance to all parts of the fishery. Indeed, resilience is
needed in the human aspects of the fishery (e.g. the socioeconomic structure and fishing
communities) and in the management infrastructure and governance institutions, as well
as in the ecosystem. For example, management must be designed with resilience in mind,
so that if something unexpected happens (as it will, from time to time), the management
processes still perform adequately. Sustainability and resilience must go hand-­in-­hand in
fisheries, with the two being mutually necessary and mutually supporting. The widespread
range of experiences with fishery collapses worldwide clearly suggest a lack of both sus-
tainability and resilience in these cases.

Conservation

The word ‘conservation’ will be used often in this book and is very widely used through-
out all fishery discussions. However, the meaning of ‘conservation’ is not always clear.
Following the early 1990s cod fishery collapse on the Atlantic coast of Canada (to be
discussed at several points in this book – see especially Chapter 12), the government set
up an organisation called the Fisheries Resource Conservation Council to give advice on
what to do after that devastating fishery collapse. The first topic discussed on that coun-
cil was the meaning of ‘conservation’ – or specifically, how did the name of the Council
reflect its actual mandate. Some worried that conservation might mean ‘preservation’ in
the sense of preserving the fish by keeping fishers away. But in fact, that advisory body’s
mandate was focused on the idea of conservation as ‘sustainable use’.
That reflects the links of conservation and sustainability, ones that will be important
throughout the book. Wishing to ‘conserve the fish’ may suggest a desire to ensure
healthy populations of fish, plenty of fish in the sea or the lake, at least avoiding the
number of fish dropping too low. Pursuit of ‘marine environmental conservation’ may
focus on efforts to have healthy ocean ecosystems with abundant life in them. These
are two reasonable ways to look at ‘conservation’, which involves a complex mix of vari-
ous activities. In some cases, it may involve an urgent act of ‘preserving’ (perhaps for
threatened species or areas) while in other cases it is more a matter of ‘maintaining’
what we have (indeed, this often being the sense of ‘sustainability’) and in a third form,
conservation can involve actively ‘rebuilding’ of fish stocks (Garcia et al. 2018) or
­‘restoring’ (particularly used to refer to aquatic habitat or ecosystems).
6 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

1.2 ­Rationale for a Systems Approach

The broad nature of sustainability and resilience in fisheries leads us to recognise the need
for a ‘systems focus’ that looks comprehensively at the full fishery system. The idea of this
approach is to envision fisheries as webs of inter-­related, interacting ecological, biophysi-
cal, economic, social, and cultural components – not as the fish separate from those doing
the fishing, separate from the processors, and so on. A systems perspective is an integrated
one, facilitating the assessment of management and policy measures in terms of implica-
tions throughout the system. The need for such a perspective has been put forward for
many years (e.g. Berkes et al. 2002), but has particularly emerged as a key lesson in recent
decades, as the reductionism at the heart of most scientific disciplines (the idea of dividing
up the study of a system into small pieces for ease of analysis) has been seen to be useful
but not sufficient. To put it simply, we cannot lose sight of the forest while we study
the trees.
A focus on systems avoids both an overly simplistic view of the fishery – ‘fish in the sea,
people in boats’ – and the contrasting view of the fishery as an unintelligible mess of
‘so many types of fish, so many ways of fishing, so many conflicts’. While fisheries certainly
are complex, there is a pattern, a structure, and a set of fundamental themes that arise
repeatedly in fishery discussions.
A systems perspective aims to look at this ‘big picture’ in order to: (1) better understand
the unique nature of the fishery as a human activity, and (2) through this, help make the
fishery ‘work better’. For example, this can involve understanding the two-­way flow in
which the natural aquatic systems produce benefits to humans, and in turn, conserva-
tion work by humans improves ecosystem health, and using that understanding to
develop appropriate management measures and policies to support the two-­way flow
(e.g. Charles 2021).
As Stephenson et al. (2017, pp. 1986–1987) note, an integrated approach involves ‘a more
diverse set of objectives that include the higher standards of ecological integrity and diverse
social, economic and institutional aspects of sustainability’ and ‘promises better success at
meeting objectives, fewer unintended consequences, better appreciation and support of
management and increased management credibility’. In contrast, ‘Failure to adopt a more
comprehensive integrated approach will perpetuate the focus on a subset of primarily eco-
logical objectives and the neglect of many social, economic and institutional objectives.
This will result in further unintended (or at least untracked) consequences, failure to
achieve the diverse spectrum of objectives in legislation, and further loss of confidence in
management systems’.
An integrated approach represents ‘a solution to the overly-­narrow approaches that fed
fisheries management crises’ through ‘recognition that fisheries issues, just as deforesta-
tion or climate change, are not merely ecological or scientific but also social and political,
requiring strong socio-­political processes, laden with issues of social justice, societal
­values, and equity’ (Garcia and Charles 2008, p. 525). Indeed, Degnbol and McCay (2007)
warned of ‘unintended and perverse consequences of ignoring linkages in fisheries
systems’.
With this rationale, a major focus of the book lies in developing an integrated view of the
fishery system – exploring the nature, structure, and dynamics of the various components
 1.3 ­Fishery Systems as Social-­Ecological System 7

of the fishery. The idea is to provide an idea of the ‘pieces of the puzzle’ in fisheries, and
how they fit together to create a fishery system.

1.3 ­Fishery Systems as Social-­Ecological Systems

This chapter begins the examination of fishery systems with an overview of their nature,
structure, and characterisation, including the various approaches available for depicting
fishery systems – in diagrams, words, or ‘pictures’. We then explore the various ways to
define and characterise fishery systems, particularly in terms of their spatial scale, and the
dichotomy between small-­scale and large-­scale fisheries.
The discussion in this chapter is framed around the concept of ‘social-­ecological systems’
(SES). The SES approach is one of the most important developments in recent decades – see
Berkes et al. (2002) and a range of other work, such as Wilson (2006), Ommer et al. (2012),
Hunt et al. (2013), and Colding and Barthel (2019). The SES approach builds on a long-
standing recognition of the systems nature of fisheries (Garcia and Charles 2008), in which
eco-­and human systems interact in complex ways that affect overall governance. As Santos
et al. (2017, p. 60) note, ‘resources are embedded in complex, social-­ecological systems’
including such components as ‘resource system, resource units, users, governance systems’
and these ‘interact to produce outcomes at the SES level’ which in turn implies the need for
‘scientific knowledge that combine ecological and social sciences’. Indeed, the popularity
of an SES approach has moved the longstanding systems approach into standard practice
within environmental and natural resource fields, as a mechanism to integrate ecosystems,
human systems (e.g. fisheries, fishing communities, and coastal regions), and governance
systems.
At this point, it is important to lay out some terminology and some assumptions that will
continue throughout the book. These are described in the boxes below.

Fishers, Fishworkers, and Harvesters

In French-­speaking places, a person who fishes is referred to as a ‘pêcheur’ and similarly

in Spanish-­speaking locations, it is ‘pescador’. In the English language, figuring out
what to call such a person is remarkably challenging, and can vary from country to
country. In many places, those who go fishing professionally call themselves ‘fishermen’
(‘fisherman’ for one), including women who do so. However, current thinking about the
use of words would consider ‘fisherman’ to be along the lines of ‘fireman’ for someone
who fights fires – and over time, in many places, ‘fireman’ has been replaced with ‘fire-
fighter’. There has been a similar effort to use different words for those who fish, but
there are various options. For example, of the world’s two major organisations of fish-
ing people, one (World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers, WFF) uses ‘fish
harvesters’ while the other refers to ‘fisher peoples’ (World Forum of Fisher
Peoples, WFFP).
For fishery publications – books, journals, and reports – what term is used? That is
perhaps most commonly the word ‘fisher’. Although when I am working with fishermen
8 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

colleagues, I will use the term they prefer, for this book, ‘fisher’ will be used throughout.
Other options are ‘harvester’ or ‘fishworker’. However, ‘fishworker’ has its own range of
definitions, sometimes referring to everyone working in the fishery (whether fishing or
in other aspects, e.g. processing) and sometimes to those working in the fishery exclud-
ing fishers per se (usage adopted in this book). The term ‘harvester’ is used, as with the
WFF above, by some fishing organisations to describe themselves, although others are
less keen on the term. Further, it has another meaning, discussed below.
While in this book, ‘harvesting’ will sometimes be used synonymously with fishing,
‘harvester’ will not be used, except in a certain context – those who harvest aquatic
resources along the shoreline, e.g. on beaches, rocky coasts, etc. This can be a very
important activity. In some cases, it is well documented as a livelihood especially of
women harvesters (e.g. in some South Pacific islands). There are also formal
­organisations of harvesters – e.g. in Costa Rica, a network of those engaged in mollusc
harvesting on the shore, and on the Atlantic coast of Canada, several local o ­ rganisations
of professional clam harvesters.
There is a tendency in fishery discussions to envision people in boats away from the
land, casting lines or nets in the hope of catching fish. There is a risk of neglecting the
above types of shoreline harvesting, and the harvesters involved. While this book will
make explicit reference to such harvesting from time to time, it is important, all of the
time, to recall that in discussing fisheries, harvesting on shorelines is included as well.
(The same point can be made of recreational fishers, not at sea, but fishing from the
shoreline or riverbank.)

The governance aspects include, for example, the values held by people in relation to the
sea and the various decision-­making fora and processes (Basurto et al. 2013; Österblom
et al. 2017; Santos et al. 2017). Furthermore, the ‘social’ in SES (including all human
­dimensions – not only social, per se, but also economic, cultural, institutional, and so on) is
­inextricably interconnected with the ‘ecological’ with both being influenced by a
­governance/management system. That reflects the fishery system idea that forms the foun-
dation of this volume. With human systems as complex and in need of understanding as
ecosystems, the importance of interdisciplinary approaches to spatially based and natural
resource management is reinforced within an SES context, notably in fishery systems
(Arlinghaus et al. 2017; Nielsen et al. 2018; Stephenson et al. 2018; Léopold et al. 2019).
Kittinger et al. (2013, p. 355) express the need for a multifaceted systems-­oriented
approach to fisheries, with emphasis on social and institutional components:

. . .successful policy approaches need to be tailored to the specific social-­ecological

context of a given fishery. For policies to be effective, they must be based on a deep
understanding of social context, institutional capacity, ecological dynamics, and
potential external drivers, all of which may present challenges to successful
implementation.

One challenge in discussions of SES lies in connecting the lofty theoretical ideas involved
in their study with on-­the-­ground realities of particular places – where people actually live,
 1.3 ­Fishery Systems as Social-­Ecological System 9

Inland Versus Marine

While it is common to speak of fisheries as SES, not only will the specific aspects of the
fishery system vary from case to case, but there are also some major dimensions along
which such systems are differentiated. As will be seen later in this chapter, fishery
­systems can vary by their spatial extent (local level up to multinational) and by their
‘scale’ – i.e. small-­scale versus large-­scale fisheries. In later chapters, there will be
­discussion on other dimensions, notably among the ecosystems involved, the type of
fishery operating, and many other aspects.
All that said, there is one distinction that should be highlighted from the outset –
between marine (ocean) fisheries and inland (usually freshwater) fisheries. As will be
discussed in Chapter 3, on fishery ecosystems, there are many different ocean
­environments for fisheries (such as coral reefs versus offshore upwelling systems) and
similarly, many inland systems (large lakes, small lakes, rivers, and human-­made reser-
voirs). Furthermore, both marine and inland systems vary with the latitude (notably,
tropical versus temperate) and climate patterns. Given all this, clearly marine fisheries
are not all the same, and nor are inland fisheries. It is not as if inland fisheries repre-
sent a single uniform entity and similarly for marine fisheries.
Nevertheless, the inland-­marine dichotomy has some validity, for two reasons. First,
there are some aspects that tend to be common across inland fisheries. For example,
species within inland water bodies (e.g. in a lake) tend to have less mobility compared
to marine species – a major issue as climate change takes place. On the human side,
fishers and fishing communities may face more immediate conflicts with human settle-
ments and terrestrial activities. And in fishery management, there may be larger issues
with jurisdictional conflict. Many other aspects may be present as well.
The second reason for recognising the inland-­marine dichotomy is that in the ‘fishery
world’ broadly, there is a tendency to focus more on marine fisheries. The reason may
be that, despite the fact that inland fisheries provide livelihoods to a very large number
of people, the world’s largest fisheries are in the ocean, if measured by volume or value
of catch. Another reason may be that in the popular consciousness, when thinking of
fisheries, the tendency is to think of fishing boats out at sea, braving ocean waves.
Whatever the reason for less attention going to inland fisheries, there is a widespread
sense in many national and international organisations of the need to ensure that
those inland fisheries are better recognised.
To that end, this book integrates examples and illustrations of inland fisheries, along
with those from marine settings, and most of the text is designed to apply to both,
rather than separating inland from marine fisheries. When the text does refer to a
marine setting, e.g. ‘vessels at sea’ or fishery interactions with ‘marine protected areas’,
the language should be seen to apply to inland situations as well (e.g. vessels in the
lake or fishing from the riverbank, inland aquatic protected areas, and so on). And
throughout the book, it is important to keep in mind how the discussion applies to vari-
ous different types of fisheries, notably those inland and those in the ocean.
10 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

and fishing actually takes place. It is important to connect the concepts with the reality
of life in the ‘system’. Essentially, the key benefit of talking in terms of SES is to remind
ourselves of the interconnectedness of human society, communities, and households with
the natural world around us. Such a reminder may be especially important for researchers
in disciplinary silos, and fishery managers in sector-­focused silos, while those in coastal
communities typically live and work with that interconnectedness on a daily basis
(e.g. Brueckner-­Irwin et al. 2019).

1.4 ­Depicting Fishery Systems

What does a fishery system look like? How can we describe such a system in words or dia-
grams? Recall from the Introduction that the presentation of fishery systems in this book is
organised around a certain set of components:
✽✽ The Natural System:
✽✽ The Fish
✽✽ The Ecosystem

✽✽ The Biophysical Environment

✽✽ The Human System:

✽✽ The Fishers and Fisherfolk
✽✽ The Post-­Harvest Sector and Consumers

✽✽ Fishing Households and Communities

✽✽ The Social/Economic/Cultural Environment

✽✽ The Fishery Governance/Management System:

✽✽ Fishery Governance (Policy and Planning)

✽✽ Fishery Management

✽✽ Fishery Development

✽✽ Fishery Knowledge

To see how these pieces fit together, and to build up a view of a full fishery system, let us
begin with the simple idea noted earlier – fish in the sea, and a fleet of boats catching them.
If we add to this the fact that the harvest is returned to land and sold in a market, we can
envision a system as shown in Figure 1.1. This simple figure displays the fishery system as
a basic set of inputs (fish and fleet) combining to generate an output (catch of fish).

1.4.1 Fishing Effort

At this point, it is useful to note a fishery term that will arise throughout this volume, and
indeed is used throughout fisheries generally. The term is ‘fishing effort’. Fishing effort tells
us how much fishing takes place, and thereby the impact on the fish stocks – see Anticamara
et al. (2011) and FAO.1 Although effort per se does not measure the specific impacts of that
fishing, it is fair to say that ‘no effort implies no fishery’.

1 https://www.fao.org/faoterm/en/?defaultCollId=21
 1.4 ­Depicting Fishery System 11

Figure 1.1 A highly

oversimplified view of a
fishery system: boats catch
fish, and the harvest is sold in
the market.

Fishing effort is an amorphous amalgam of inputs, made up of four major constituent

elements that can be identified for any given component of the fishing activity:
●● the number of fishers or of fishing vessels;
●● the average potential catching power per fisher, or per vessel, which takes into account
average levels of fisher skill, vessel crew size, vessel dimensions, fishing gear, electronic
gear, and other human and physical ‘inputs’ being used;
●● the average intensity of fishing by a fisher, or a vessel, per unit time, measuring the frac-
tion of the potential catching power that is actually realised;
●● the average time ‘at sea’ for the average fisher or vessel in the fleet (e.g. whether the full
fishing season is being utilised).
The total fishing effort for the particular component of the fishery is given by multiplying
together these four ingredients, i.e. number of fishers or vessels, catching power, intensity,
and time at sea.
Note that if any one of the four ingredients was zero, there would be effectively no fishery
(zero fishing effort). This would be the case if, for example, a fishery had no functioning
vessels, or if there was no fishing gear (implying no catching power), or no fishing time.
A key component in the catching power component of the above formula is the skill and
experience of those doing the fishing. Both real-­world experience and research results have
indicated that this is a major factor in determining the outcome of fishing, yet it is one of
the most poorly analysed aspects – and indeed, typically is not considered in practice.

1.4.2 Adding Dynamics

Suppose we now recognise that both the fish stock and the fishing fleet are subject to their
own inherent dynamics – processes of change over time (Girardin et al. 2017). The fish
12 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

Figure 1.2 A fuller view of a fishery system: the fish stock, the fishing fleet, and the market are all
subject to dynamic processes, which in turn are influenced by the harvest of fish. Economic benefits
are produced from the sale of the harvest.

are driven by natural population dynamics, through the processes of reproduction

(or ­‘recruitment’) and mortality. The fishing fleet varies according to capital dynamics – as
fishers invest in new boats and fishing gear (physical capital), which then depreciates over
time. Both the population dynamics and the capital dynamics are affected by the level of
the catch. Clearly, the catch directly reduces the fish stock, but in addition, when that catch
is sold in the market, the profits generated return to the fishers, who may adjust their
investment (capital dynamics) as profits vary (depending on harvest and market condi-
tions). These dynamic relationships can be incorporated by expanding the above system
diagram to the one shown in Figure 1.2.

1.4.3 Adding Complexity

There are still many aspects missing and/or oversimplified within this system diagram. For
example, on the human side, it is useful to broaden from simply a ‘fishing fleet’ to highlight
separately the fleet and the fishers, as well as the dynamics of each. More fundamentally, it
is crucial to obtain a more complete sense of the fishery system by looking beyond the
internal ‘core’ of the fishery – fish and fishers – shown in Figure 1.2, to incorporate
 1.4 ­Depicting Fishery System 13

interactions with the many other elements of the ecosystem and the human system
(Boumans et al. 2015; Weber et al. 2019). As Fogarty et al. (2016, p. 13) note:

Fisheries lie at the intersection of an interwoven set of ecological, social, economic,

and governance considerations. Although, fisheries are now widely recognized as a
major social-­ecological system type providing a critically important ecosystem ser-
vice, far less is known concerning the full implications of the interplay between
ecosystem and social dynamics in this context. . .

This more holistic, integrated, approach helps to overcome past tendencies to analyse and
attempt to manage the fishery as if it were merely ‘fish in the sea, people in boats’.
Instead, a broader perspective views fish as living in an ecosystem, within a biophysical
environment (Skern-­Mauritzen et al. 2016), and fishers as living in households within
communities, within a broader socioeconomic environment. Harvests move into the post-­
harvest sector to be consumed in local households, providing an important food source, or
transformed into products in the marketplace, in either case increasing the total benefits
produced. Finally, it is important to recognise the multiplicity of these benefits accruing
from the fishery system, and how they feedback into other aspects of the fishery. These
various features can be added to Figure 1.2 to develop a fuller picture – see Figure 1.3. This
figure provides a basis to engage in the task of examining the interactions amongst relevant
components of the fishery system.

1.4.4 The Fishery System

Expanding on Figure 1.3, adding in all the components of a fishery system listed above,
we reach Figure 1.4, which also shows some of the interactions between the parts of the
systems (although not reflecting the dynamics of the fishery as much as Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.4, perhaps better than any number of words, contains the idea of the fishery
system, especially its structure but also some of its dynamics within an SES perspective.
Indeed, we will return to Figure 1.4 in subsequent chapters as we examine the details of
each system component sequentially – the Natural, Human, and Governance/Management
components. Note that these components of the overall fishery system can be referred to as
‘systems’ in their own right or as ‘sub-­systems’ of the fishery system as a whole. These two
terms are generally used interchangeably in this book.
A concern about the fishery system in Figure 1.4 relates to the relationship among the
Natural, Human, and Governance/Management components or sub-­systems. In any fish-
ery system, these are all closely interacting, yet Figure 1.4 shows these three sub-­systems as
separate from one another, albeit with interactions among them. This separation may give
the wrong impression about the fishery system, since (1) there is a strong view that humans
are part of Nature, in which case the Human system could be seen as entirely contained
within the Natural system, and (2) humans do all the governing and managing, so every-
thing about governance and management is entirely contained within the Human system.
Figure 1.5 provides a visual way to show this embeddedness, with Governance/Management
lying within the Human system, and the Human system within the Natural system.
14 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

Figure 1.3 A substantially more complete view of a fishery system, beginning with the fish, the
fleet, and the fishers, each subject to its own dynamics. The fish interact with the ecosystem and
the biophysical environment, while the fishers interact with their households, communities, and the
socioeconomic environment. The post-­harvest sector plays a role between the harvest and the
market. The multidimensional benefits obtained from the fishery then feed back to the natural and
human components of the system.

1.4.5 Alternatives
While Figures 1.4 and 1.5 provide useful graphical description, there are other reasonable
ways to provide a system description. A selection of approaches is given below.
First, in contrast to the above diagrams, oriented ‘organisationally’ as flowcharts or
­structural schematics, an alternative approach to depicting fishery systems in a simple list
of what are considered to be the main components, and the main considerations in each
Figure 1.4 The fishery system, showing the structure of the three major sub-­systems (natural,
human, and governance/management), the major components within each of these, and the key
interactions between sub-­systems and their components. Also indicated are the impacts of external
forces on each part of the system.

Figure 1.5 The fishery system is shown

as a set of embedded sub-­systems, with
the Governance/Management system
logically included within the Human
system (with fishery governance and
management being human pursuits), and
in turn, the Human system fully
incorporated within the Natural system.
The icons shown are just a small sample
of what is included within each sub-­
system. Source: Figure design by Larissa
Sweeney.
16 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

(and which can also include links to the socioeconomic and biophysical environments).
This is essentially a structured listing of representative or particularly relevant components
of the system, since it is never possible to include all elements of the system. An example
of this is as follows:

Fish and the ecosystem
Fishers
Post-­harvest and consumers
Communities and
socioeconomic environment
Fishery governance and
management
Development and
knowledge
Major external impacts
Coastal; offshore/deepwater; migratory and high seas; habitat and
environmental quality; ecosystem health and ecological
interactions
Subsistence; artisanal and small-­scale; indigenous; migratory;
industrial; foreign fleets; women in fisheries
Processing; markets and marketing; distribution; domestic
consumers; export market; eco-­certification
Fishing households; communities; land-­based fishery activity;
historical, cultural and legal factors; institutions
Objectives, values, policy; management structures; management
and enforcement; international commitments; institution building
Capacity development; resource assessment; knowledge-­building;
information flows; economic diversification
Interactions with other aquatic uses (aquaculture, tourism,
shipping, mining, etc.); terrestrial sectors, e.g. agriculture;
pollution and coastal development

Of the seven headings here, the first six are somewhat-­aggregated versions of the fishery
system components used in this book (while the seventh focuses on external impacts that
have an effect on fisheries but is not within the system per se). Of the top six, the first deals
with the Natural system (fish and ecosystem), the next three with the Human system
­(fishers, post-­harvest and consumers, communities, and socioeconomic environment) and
the following two with the Governance and Management system (governance and
­management, development, and knowledge). Each of these is followed by a number of
­elements, listed roughly in a logical order, whether sequential (as for post-­harvest and con-
sumers, and for governance and management) or, as in the case of fish and fishers, from
the more local-­level and/or internal to the fishery, to those of a larger spatial scale and/or
greater external orientation.
For example, the first of these covers the three main environments, from inshore
(coastal) to offshore (deep-­water) to migratory and high seas situations, as well as aspects
of fishery habitat and environmental quality, and ecological interactions. Running paral-
lel to this, the fishers range from subsistence to artisanal/small-­scale to industrial, plus
Indigenous, as well as foreign fleets. (Note that all of these terms are discussed in detail at
a later point.)
A simple listing such as this, while perhaps an oversimplified approach to a complex
system, can be remarkably helpful in giving a broad approach to considering the fishery. It
may also complement more extensive assessment tools, such as those discussed later in the
book. For example, this listing can provide a way to indicate the components of the fishery
system likely to be directly or indirectly affected by an intervention and to highlight the
interactions which should be monitored.
 1.4 ­Depicting Fishery System 17

Various other means are utilised in depicting fishery systems:

●● One of the most common is to depict a fishery system geographically, in the form of a
map. This typically highlights specific fishing zones, ones designated for statistical pur-
poses and often for fishery management. Indeed, maps showing the statistical areas
developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations are wide-
spread, and show boundaries between zones related to fishing activity. Maps may also be
used to show such matters as fish migrations and fishing vessel locations. A map has the
advantage of highlighting spatial features (and spatial heterogeneity), although it is less
useful for dynamic aspects.
●● The fishery can be shown through a visualisation approach, e.g. as an image, picture, or
drawing (cf. Levontin et al. 2017) which can be particularly useful in community-­level
management and education, or for publicity purposes. Visualisation may also be in the
form of interactive maps, building on the above format. For example, Merrifield et al.
(2019) discuss an approach in California (USA) in which ‘users are able to see logbook
data rendered on an interactive map that allows users to query those data for specific
species or windows in time’ as well as to see nautical charts, bathymetry, and local clo-
sures (p. 86). Similarly, Little et al. (2015) present a spatial management tool used to
communicate information between vessels in real time to more easily avoid unwanted
species and reduce bycatch. Along similar lines, a fishery system can be depicted with a
focus on the underlying ecosystem, in particular showing the food chain (food web).
●● Fishery systems can be depicted using mathematical and computer models. In this
approach, the most important features of the fishery are abstracted into mathematical
(symbolic) language. Some examples of fishery models are discussed later in this book.
●● Finally, a cultural perspective can be taken in depicting fishery systems. For example,
Elisabeth Mann Borgese, in her ground-­breaking book The Oceanic Circle (Borgese 1998),
draws on the images of Mohandas Gandhi (1947), describing a desired future for his
home country of India. Borgese uses this poetic representation of a system as a means to
describe the complex systemic interactions of the oceanic world, as well as the embed-
dedness of individuals (such as fishers) in coastal communities, and of the latter in the
larger society:

In this structure, composed of innumerable villages,

there will be ever-­widening, never ascending circles,
Life will not be a pyramid
with the apex sustained by the bottom.
But it will be an oceanic circle
whose centre will be the individual,
always ready to perish for the village,
the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages,
till at last the whole becomes one life
composed of individuals,
never aggressive in their arrogance,
but ever humble,
sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle
18 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

of which they are integral units.

Therefore, the outermost circumference will not yield power
to crush the inner circle
but will give strength to all within
and will derive its own strength from it.

1.5 ­Characterising Fishery Systems

While all fisheries share some common features (people catching fish, for example), there
is also an amazing diversity between, and within, fishery systems. How can we characterise
and differentiate between the various types of fishery systems? This question is explored
here, with particular attention to the matter of scale – something arising in all aspects of
the system and which may well impact on the success of fishery management.

1.5.1 Small-­Scale Versus Large-­Scale Fishery Systems

There is a fundamental distinction in fisheries, and fishery debates, between small-­scale
and large-­scale fisheries – a distinction relating to a range of organisational and structural
factors. As Smith and Basurto (2019, pp. 2–3) note, ‘. . .the full spectrum of capture fisheries
is often simplified and divided into “small-­scale” and “large-­scale” or “industrial” fisher-
ies’. There has been a tendency in past decades for more attention to be paid to large-­scale
fisheries, but today, small-­scale fisheries are deservedly received increasing attention, and
will be the subject of ongoing discussion in this book.
The differences between small-­scale and large-­scale fishers will be examined in Chapter 4,
while here the focus is on the differences in the fisheries and the fleets overall. This depends
on a range of factors, but in general:
●● a small-­scale fishery is one with a small-­boat fleet. . . the difference between small-­scale
and large-­scale can depend on the size of the typical fisher’s operation (e.g. vessel size).
●● a small-­scale fishery operates ‘inshore’ with close ties to coastal communities, in contrast
to the more ‘offshore’ nature of large-­scale fisheries. . . so the distance from shore at
which the fishery operates and the extent to which it is connected to communities tend
to be differences.
●● a small-­scale fishery has a more artisanal than industrial ‘mode of production’ (an aspect
most noticeable in developing countries, and widely discussed in the social science
literature).
For each of these factors, however, there are no clear-­cut, universal boundaries between
small and large scales. Smith and Basurto (2019, pp. 2–3) note that the distinction ‘is not a
mere technical matter of where to draw the line between small-­scale and industrial fisher-
ies; it is, rather, a value-­laden decision with political implications and material conse-
quences both for the environment and for humans who depend on fishing for their
livelihoods and food security’.
There is a substantial literature relating to this challenge of classification (e.g. Carvalho
et al. 2011; Soltanpour et al. 2017; Halim et al. 2019) which has led to the identification of
 1.5 ­Characterising Fishery System 19

Table 1.1 Comparing small-­scale and large-­scale fishery systems.

Small-­scale fisheries Large-­scale fisheries

Alternative Artisanal (developing areas); Industrial (developing areas);

terminology inshore/small-­boat (developed areas) corporate (developed areas)
Fishing location Coastal, including tidal, inshore and
nearshore areas, as well as inland
lakes and rivers
Nature of objectives Multiple goals (social, cultural,
economic, etc.)
Specific objectives in Food production and livelihood
developing regions security
Objectives relating to Focus on maximising employment
utilisation of labour opportunities
Mode of production Subsistence fisheries as well as
commercial ones, selling into
appropriate markets
Ownership Typically individual/family; often
small business in developed nations
Mix of inputs Labour intensive, relatively low
technological level
Rural–urban mix Predominantly rural; located
typically outside mainstream social
and economic centres
Community Closely tied to communities where
connections fishers live; integral part of those
communities
Common ‘Traditional’, romantic,
perceptions technologically simple
Offshore marine settings, with
operations relatively far from the
coast
Tendency to focus on single goal
(profit maximisation)
Export production and foreign
exchange
Focus on minimising labour costs
(i.e. employment)
Market-­driven commercial
fisheries, often with a focus on
export
Typically corporate; often based on
foreign fleets in developing nations
Capital intensive, emphasis on
applying new technology
Often urban or urban-­tied; owners
within mainstream social and
economic centres
Relatively separate and
independent of small-­scale
communities
Modern, impersonal,
multinational corporations

certain key characteristics. Some of these are shown in the first column of Table 1.1, with
relevant features of small-­and large-­scale fisheries also indicated for each characteristic. In
the table, the first row simply indicates the terminology used to describe small-­scale and
large-­scale fisheries, while subsequent rows show characteristics that relate to five key areas:
1) physical location of the fishing activity (row 2)
2) fishery objectives: nature of goals, developing region goals, and labour goals (rows 3–5)
3) economic factors: mode of production, ownership, and labour–capital mix (rows 6–8)
4) social factors: rural–urban mix, extent of local community ties (rows 9–10)
5) external perceptions – how the fishery is viewed from outside (row 11).
Note that the specific characteristics indicated above, and in the table, are those that seem
to have been most often discussed in relation to small-­scale and large-­scale fisheries, but
this is by no means an exhaustive listing.
The varying and confusing definitions of ‘small-­scale’ can be illustrated by looking at the
groundfish fishery of the Atlantic coast of Canada, harvesting cod, haddock, redfish, and
20 1 Introducing Fishery Systems

other stocks. The term small-­scale is rarely used in this fishery, whether by fishers, manag-
ers, or scientists. Instead, the dominant dichotomy historically has been between inshore
and offshore fisheries, a ‘split’ made traditionally on the basis of the size of the fishing ves-
sels and the distance from shore at which fishing takes place. Note that both of these crite-
ria are in Table 1.1. Further, the inshore fishery also has relatively more labour-­intensive
operations and stronger connections with coastal communities. All of these indicators sug-
gest that it can classify as small-­scale. On the other hand, this fishery is fairly heavily capi-
talised and many inshore fishers see themselves as businesspeople in an ‘industry’. While
this fishery may be small-­scale relative to the offshore, its reality certainly confuses the
small-­scale/large-­scale dichotomy.
Given this complexity, fisheries may well be seen as small-­scale or large-­scale on a case-­
by-­case basis, or based on national perspectives, depending on an assessment of a set of
relevant characteristics. Panayotou (1985, p. 11) noted long ago that ‘it is not unusual to
find that what is considered a small-­scale fishery in one country would be classed as a
large-­scale fishery in another’. Many fisheries in North America and Europe, for example,
would be classified as large-­scale from the perspective of many countries of Central
America, while at the same time, the ‘advanced artisanal’ shrimp fisheries of such coun-
tries would be large-­scale if viewed in terms of other less-­developed fisheries.

The Nature of Small-­Scale Fisheries

. . . from the Small-­Scale Fisheries Guidelines

. . .small-­scale fisheries tend to be strongly anchored in local communities, reflecting
often historic links to adjacent fishery resources, traditions and values, and
­supporting social cohesion. For many small-­scale fishers and fish workers, fisheries
represent a way of life and the subsector embodies a diverse and cultural richness
that is of global significance. . . . The health of aquatic ecosystems and associated
biodiversity are a fundamental basis for their livelihoods and for the subsector’s
capacity to contribute to overall well-­being.
(p. x)

Small-­scale fishing communities are commonly located in remote areas and tend
to have limited or disadvantaged access to markets, and may have poor access
to health, education and other social services. Other characteristics include low
levels of formal education, existence of ill health (often including above average
incidences of HIV/AIDS) and inadequate organizational structures. The opportuni-
ties available are limited, as small-­scale fishing communities face a lack of alter-
native livelihoods, youth unemployment, unhealthy and unsafe working conditions,
forced labour, and child labour. Pollution, environmental degradation, ­climate
change impacts and natural and human-­induced disasters add to the threats
­facing small-­scale fishing communities.
(p. xi)
FAO (2015a) / FAO
 1.5 ­Characterising Fishery System 21

1.5.2 Spatial Scale and Time Scale

1.5.2.1 Spatial Scales
The spatial scale of a fishery system relates to its size, geographically and administratively.
For example, the following are fishery systems of varying spatial scales:
✽✽ a small (coastal) community, together with its local fishery resources (e.g. the fish in a
tropical coral reef, or the lobster off the coast of a New England fishing community, or
fish in a lake or river) and the corresponding small-­scale management system;
✽✽ larger-­scale fishery systems, from a sub-­national to a national level, typically organ-
ised around formal jurisdictional boundaries, as would often be in place in many
countries;
✽✽ regional fisheries, involving multiple nations, and corresponding fishery organisations,
such as (1) the FAO’s Regional Fishery Bodies [e.g. the General Fisheries Commission for
the Mediterranean, GFCM, and the Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission,
WECAFC (FAO 2021a)], and (2) structures of the European Union revolving around the
Common Fisheries Policy (European Commission: https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/
cfp_en).
Perhaps the spatial extent of the fishery is already determined, based on historical, socio-
cultural, administrative, or other considerations. Alternatively, if decisions about spatial
scale are to be made, which spatial scale is to be preferred and what should be the appropri-
ate boundaries of the fishery system? When is it best to focus on a small scale and when
should we look at the fishery as a larger system?
These are important questions, since the spatial scale at which the fishery system is
examined will likely affect how interactions among fishery components and the dynamics
of those components (discussed in each chapter) are addressed. Furthermore, given that a
fishery system involves fish stocks and other natural components, fishers and other human
components, and a variety of management components (including science, enforcement,
policy, etc.), it is not surprising that the appropriate scale to view each of these might differ
considerably, depending on the specific circumstances, whether a particular type of fishery
(e.g. inland fisheries – Cooke et al. 2016) or geographical region (e.g. Southeast
Asia – Pomeroy et al. 2019).
In addition, there may be a difference between the ‘natural’ ecological or physical bound-
aries for the fishery system, those most suitable from the perspective of the human system
(involving economic, sociocultural factors) and the desirable boundaries for the manage-
ment system (involving legal, institutional, or political factors). Should the fish and the
ecosystem define the boundaries, or the human institutions and political divisions? How is
it best to balance between the ‘natural’ delimitations of watersheds or coastal zones and the
de facto boundaries of the system from the perspective of the human populations? Does
this require apportioning ocean currents or water flow between human-­defined areas, or
apportioning people between ecosystems?
There are many questions and no universal answers when it comes to spatial scale,
but certainly this is one of the key ingredients that must be decided upon in fishery
planning and management (Berkes 2006). Figure 1.6 depicts the range of spatial scales
in a fishery.
Another random document with
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pourrie. Le démon m’avait imprimé son ergot au front. Il m’était
désormais impossible de me passer des tressaillements continuels
d’une vie à tout moment risquée, et des exécrables raffinements de
la richesse. Riche à millions, j’aurais toujours joué, mangé, couru. Je
ne voulais plus rester seul avec moi-même. J’avais besoin de
courtisanes, de faux amis, de vin, de bonne chère pour m’étourdir.
Les liens qui attachent un homme à la famille étaient brisés en moi
pour toujours. Galérien du plaisir, je devais accomplir ma destinée
de suicide. Pendant les derniers jours de ma fortune, je fis chaque
soir des excès incroyables; mais, chaque matin, la mort me rejetait
dans la vie. Semblable à un rentier viager, j’aurais pu passer
tranquillement dans un incendie. Enfin je me trouvai seul avec une
pièce de vingt francs, je me souvins alors du bonheur de
Rastignac...
—Hé! hé! s’écria-t-il en pensant tout à coup à son talisman qu’il
tira de sa poche.
Soit que, fatigué des luttes de cette longue journée, il n’eût plus
la force de gouverner son intelligence dans les flots de vin et de
punch; soit qu’exaspéré par l’image de sa vie, il se fût
insensiblement enivré par le torrent de ses paroles, Raphaël
s’anima, s’exalta comme un homme complétement privé de raison.
—Au diable la mort! s’écria-t-il en brandissant la Peau. Je veux
vivre maintenant! Je suis riche, j’ai toutes les vertus. Rien ne me
résistera. Qui ne serait pas bon quand il peut tout? Hé! hé! Ohé! J’ai
souhaité deux cent mille livres de rente, je les aurai. Saluez-moi,
pourceaux qui vous vautrez sur ces tapis comme sur du fumier!
Vous m’appartenez, fameuse propriété! Je suis riche, je peux vous
acheter tous, même le député qui ronfle là. Allons, canaille de la
haute société, bénissez-moi! Je suis pape.
En ce moment les exclamations de Raphaël, jusque-là couvertes
par la basse continue des ronflements, furent entendues soudain. La
plupart des dormeurs se réveillèrent en criant, ils virent l’interrupteur
mal assuré sur ses jambes, et maudirent sa bruyante ivresse par un
concert de jurements.
 —Taisez-vous! reprit Raphaël. Chiens, à vos niches! Émile, j’ai
des trésors, je te donnerai des cigares de la Havane.
—Je t’entends, répondit le poète, Fœdora ou la mort! Va ton
train! Cette sucrée de Fœdora t’a trompé. Toutes les femmes sont
filles d’Ève. Ton histoire n’est pas du tout dramatique.
—Ah! tu dormais, sournois?
—Non! Fœdora ou la mort, j’y suis.
—Réveille-toi, s’écria Raphaël en frappant Émile avec la Peau de
chagrin comme s’il voulait en tirer du fluide électrique.
—Tonnerre! dit Émile en se levant et en saisissant Raphaël bras-
le-corps, mon ami, songe donc que tu es avec des femmes de
mauvaise vie.
—Je suis millionnaire.
—Si tu n’es pas millionnaire, tu es bien certainement ivre.
—Ivre du pouvoir. Je peux te tuer! Silence, je suis Néron! je suis
Nabuchodonosor.
—Mais, Raphaël, nous sommes en méchante compagnie, tu
devrais rester silencieux, par dignité.
—Ma vie a été un trop long silence. Maintenant, je vais me
venger du monde entier. Je ne m’amuserai pas à dissiper de vils
écus, j’imiterai, je résumerai mon époque en consommant des vies
humaines, et des intelligences, des âmes. Voilà un luxe qui n’est pas
mesquin, n’est-ce pas l’opulence de la peste! Je lutterai avec la
fièvre jaune, bleue, verte, avec les armées, avec les échafauds. Je
puis avoir Fœdora. Mais non, je ne veux pas de Fœdora, c’est ma
maladie, je meurs de Fœdora! Je veux oublier Fœdora.
—Si tu continues à crier, je t’emporte dans la salle à manger.
—Vois-tu cette Peau? c’est le testament de Salomon. Il est à moi,
Salomon, ce petit cuistre de roi! J’ai l’Arabie, Pétrée encore.
L’univers à moi. Tu es à moi, si je veux. Ah! si je veux, prends
garde? Je peux acheter toute ta boutique de journaliste, tu seras
mon valet. Tu me feras des couplets, tu règleras mon papier. Valet!
valet, cela veut dire: Il se porte bien, parce qu’il ne pense à rien.
A ce mot, Émile emporta Raphaël dans la salle à manger.
—Eh bien! oui, mon ami, lui dit-il, je suis ton valet. Mais tu vas
être rédacteur en chef d’un journal, tais-toi! sois décent, par
considération pour moi! M’aimes-tu?
—Si je t’aime! Tu auras des cigares de la Havane, avec cette
Peau. Toujours la Peau, mon ami, la Peau souveraine! Excellent
topique, je peux guérir les cors. As-tu des cors? Je te les ôte.
—Jamais je ne l’ai vu si stupide.
—Stupide, mon ami? Non. Cette Peau se rétrécit quand j’ai un
désir... c’est une antiphrase. Le brachmane, il se trouve un
brachmane là-dessous! le brachmane donc était un goguenard,
parce que les désirs, vois-tu, doivent étendre...
—Eh! bien, oui.
—Je te dis...
—Oui, cela est très-vrai, je pense comme toi. Le désir étend...
—Je te dis, la Peau!
—Oui.
—Tu ne me crois pas. Je te connais, mon ami, tu es menteur
comme un nouveau roi.
—Comment veux-tu que j’adopte les divagations de ton ivresse?
—Je te parie, je peux te le prouver. Prenons la mesure.
—Allons, il ne s’endormira pas, s’écria Émile en voyant Raphaël
occupé à fureter dans la salle à manger.
Valentin animé d’une adresse de singe, grâce à cette singulière
lucidité dont les phénomènes contrastent parfois chez les ivrognes
avec les obtuses visions de l’ivresse, sut trouver une écritoire et une
serviette, en répétant toujours: Prenons la mesure! Prenons la
mesure!
 —Eh! bien, oui, reprit Émile, prenons la mesure!
Les deux amis étendirent la serviette et y superposèrent la Peau
de chagrin. Émile, dont la main semblait être plus assurée que celle
de Raphaël, décrivit à la plume, par une ligne d’encre, les contours
du talisman, pendant que son ami lui disait:—J’ai souhaité deux cent
mille livres de rente, n’est-il pas vrai? Eh bien, quand je les aurai, tu
verras la diminution de tout mon chagrin.
—Oui, maintenant dors. Veux-tu que je t’arrange sur ce canapé?
Allons, es-tu bien?
—Oui, mon nourrisson de la Presse. Tu m’amuseras, tu
chasseras mes mouches. L’ami du malheur a droit d’être l’ami du
pouvoir. Aussi, te donnerai-je des ci...ga...res de la Hav...
—Allons, cuve ton or, millionnaire.
—Toi, cuve tes articles. Bonsoir. Dis-donc bonsoir à
Nabuchodonosor? Amour! A boire! France... gloire et riche... Riche...
Bientôt les deux amis unirent leurs ronflements à la musique qui
retentissait dans les salons. Concert inutile! Les bougies
s’éteignirent une à une en faisant éclater leurs bobèches de cristal.
La nuit enveloppa d’un crêpe cette longue orgie dans laquelle le récit
de Raphaël avait été comme une orgie de paroles, de mots sans
idées, et d’idées auxquelles les expressions avaient souvent
manqué.
Le lendemain, vers midi, la belle Aquilina se leva, bâillant,
fatiguée, et les joues marbrées par les empreintes du tabouret en
velours peint sur lequel sa tête avait reposé. Euphrasie, réveillée par
le mouvement de sa compagne, se dressa tout à coup en jetant un
cri rauque; sa jolie figure, si blanche, si fraîche la veille, était jaune et
pâle comme celle d’une fille allant à l’hôpital. Insensiblement les
convives se remuèrent en poussant des gémissements sinistres, ils
se sentirent les bras et les jambes raidis, mille fatigues diverses les
accablèrent à leur réveil. Un valet vint ouvrir les persiennes et les
fenêtres des salons. L’assemblée se trouva sur pied, rappelée à la
vie par les chauds rayons du soleil qui pétilla sur les têtes des
dormeurs. Les mouvements du sommeil ayant brisé l’élégant édifice
de leurs coiffures et fané leurs toilettes, les femmes frappées par
l’éclat du jour présentèrent un hideux spectacle: leurs cheveux
pendaient sans grâce, leurs physionomies avaient changé
d’expression, leurs yeux si brillants étaient ternis par la lassitude.
Les teints bilieux qui jettent tant d’éclat aux lumières faisaient
horreur, les figures lymphatiques, si blanches, si molles quand elles
sont reposées, étaient devenues vertes; les bouches naguère
délicieuses et rouges, maintenant sèches et blanches, portaient les
honteux stigmates de l’ivresse. Les hommes reniaient leurs
maîtresses nocturnes à les voir ainsi décolorées, cadavéreuses
comme des fleurs écrasées dans une rue après le passage des
processions. Ces hommes dédaigneux étaient plus horribles encore.
Vous eussiez frémi de voir ces faces humaines, aux yeux caves et
cernés qui semblaient ne rien voir, engourdies par le vin, hébétées
par un sommeil gêné, plus fatigant que réparateur. Ces visages
hâves où paraissaient à nu les appétits physiques sans la poésie
dont les décore notre âme, avaient je ne sais quoi de féroce et de
froidement bestial. Ce réveil du vice sans vêtements ni fard, ce
squelette du mal déguenillé, froid, vide et privé des sophismes de
l’esprit ou des enchantements du luxe, épouvanta ces intrépides
athlètes, quelque habitués qu’ils fussent à lutter avec la débauche.
Artistes et courtisanes gardèrent le silence en examinant d’un œil
hagard le désordre de l’appartement où tout avait été dévasté,
ravagé par le feu des passions. Un rire satanique s’éleva tout à coup
lorsque Taillefer, entendant le râle sourd de ses hôtes, essaya de les
saluer par une grimace; son visage en sueur et sanguinolent fit
planer sur cette scène infernale l’image du crime sans remords. Le
tableau fut complet. C’était la vie fangeuse au sein du luxe, un
horrible mélange des pompes et des misères humaines, le réveil de
la débauche, quand de ses mains fortes elle a pressé tous les fruits
de la vie, pour ne laisser autour d’elle que d’ignobles débris ou des
mensonges auxquels elle ne croit plus. Vous eussiez dit la Mort
souriant au milieu d’une famille pestiférée: plus de parfums ni de
lumières étourdissantes, plus de gaieté ni de désirs; mais le dégoût
avec ses odeurs nauséabondes et sa poignante philosophie, mais le
soleil éclatant comme la vérité, mais un air pur comme la vertu, qui
contrastaient avec une atmosphère chaude, chargée de miasmes,
les miasmes d’une orgie! Malgré leur habitude du vice, plusieurs de
ces jeunes filles pensèrent à leur réveil d’autrefois, quand
innocentes et pures elles entrevoyaient par leurs croisées
champêtres ornées de chèvrefeuilles et de roses, un frais paysage
enchanté par les joyeuses roulades de l’alouette, vaporeusement
illuminé par les lueurs de l’aurore et paré des fantaisies de la rosée.
D’autres se peignirent le déjeuner de la famille, la table autour de
laquelle riaient innocemment les enfants et le père, où tout respirait
un charme indéfinissable, où les mets étaient simples comme les
cœurs. Un artiste songeait à la paix de son atelier, à sa chaste
statue, au gracieux modèle qui l’attendait. Un jeune homme, se
souvenant du procès d’où dépendait le sort d’une famille, pensait à
la transaction importante qui réclamait sa présence. Le savant
regrettait son cabinet où l’appelait un noble ouvrage. Presque tous
se plaignaient d’eux-mêmes. En ce moment, Émile, frais et rose
comme le plus joli des commis-marchands d’une boutique en vogue,
apparut en riant.
—Vous êtes plus laids que des recors, s’écria-t-il. Vous ne
pourrez rien faire aujourd’hui; la journée est perdue, m’est avis de
déjeuner.
A ces mots, Taillefer sortit pour donner des ordres. Les femmes
allèrent languissamment rétablir le désordre de leurs toilettes devant
les glaces. Chacun se secoua. Les plus vicieux prêchèrent les plus
sages. Les courtisanes se moquèrent de ceux qui paraissaient ne
pas se trouver de force à continuer ce rude festin. En un moment,
ces spectres s’animèrent, formèrent des groupes, s’interrogèrent et
sourirent. Quelques valets habiles et lestes remirent promptement
les meubles et chaque chose à sa place. Un déjeuner splendide fut
servi. Les convives se ruèrent alors dans la salle à manger. Là, si
tout porta l’empreinte ineffaçable des excès de la veille, au moins y
eut-il trace d’existence et de pensée comme dans les dernières
convulsions d’un mourant. Semblable au convoi du mardi-gras, la
saturnale était enterrée par des masques fatigués de leurs danses,
ivres de l’ivresse, et voulant convaincre le plaisir d’impuissance pour
ne pas s’avouer la leur. Au moment où cette intrépide assemblée
borda la table du capitaliste, Cardot, qui, la veille, avait disparu
prudemment après le dîner, pour finir son orgie dans le lit conjugal,
montra sa figure officieuse sur laquelle errait un doux sourire. Il
semblait avoir deviné quelque succession à déguster, à partager, à
inventorier, à grossoyer, une succession pleine d’actes à faire,
grosse d’honoraires, aussi juteuse que le filet tremblant dans lequel
l’amphitryon plongeait alors son couteau.
—Oh! oh! nous allons déjeuner par-devant notaire, s’écria de
Cursy.
—Vous arrivez à propos pour coter et parapher toutes ces
pièces, lui dit le banquier en lui montrant le festin.
—Il n’y a pas de testament à faire, mais pour des contrats de
mariage, peut-être! dit le savant, qui pour la première fois depuis un
an s’était supérieurement marié.
—Oh! oh!
—Ah! ah!
—Un instant, répliqua Cardot assourdi par un chœur de
mauvaises plaisanteries, je viens ici pour affaire sérieuse. J’apporte
six millions à l’un de vous. (Silence profond.) Monsieur, dit-il en
s’adressant à Raphaël, qui, dans ce moment, s’occupait sans
cérémonie à s’essuyer les yeux avec un coin de sa serviette,
madame votre mère n’était-elle pas une demoiselle O’Flaharty?
—Oui, répondit Raphaël assez machinalement, Barbe-Marie.
—Avez-vous ici, reprit Cardot, votre acte de naissance et celui de
madame de Valentin?
—Je le crois.
—Eh bien! monsieur, vous êtes seul et unique héritier du major
O’Flaharty, décédé en août 1828, à Calcutta.
—Bravo, le major! s’écria le jugeur.
—Le major ayant disposé par son testament de plusieurs
sommes en faveur de quelques établissements publics, sa
succession a été réclamée à la Compagnie des Indes par le
gouvernement français, reprit le notaire. Elle est en ce moment
liquide et palpable. Depuis quinze jours je cherchais
infructueusement les ayants cause de la demoiselle Barbe-Marie
O’Flaharty, lorsque hier à table...
En ce moment, Raphaël se leva soudain en laissant échapper le
mouvement brusque d’un homme qui reçoit une blessure. Il se fit
comme une acclamation silencieuse, le premier sentiment des
convives fut dicté par une sourde envie, tous les yeux se tournèrent
vers lui comme autant de flammes. Puis, un murmure, semblable à
celui d’un parterre qui se courrouce, une rumeur d’émeute
commença, grossit, et chacun dit un mot pour saluer cette fortune
immense apportée par le notaire. Rendu à toute sa raison par la
brusque obéissance du sort, Raphaël étendit promptement sur la
table la serviette avec laquelle il avait mesuré naguère la Peau de
chagrin. Sans rien écouter, il y superposa le talisman, et frissonna
violemment en voyant une assez grande distance entre le contour
tracé sur le linge et celui de la Peau.
—Hé bien! qu’a-t-il donc? s’écria Taillefer, il a sa fortune à bon
compte.
—Soutiens-le, Châtillon, dit Bixiou à Émile, la joie va le tuer.
Une horrible pâleur dessina tous les muscles de la figure flétrie
de cet héritier: ses traits se contractèrent, les saillies de son visage
blanchirent, les creux devinrent sombres, le masque fut livide, et les
yeux se fixèrent. Il voyait la MORT. Ce banquier splendide entouré
de courtisanes fanées, de visages rassasiés, cette agonie de la joie,
était une vivante image de sa vie. Raphaël regarda trois fois le
talisman qui se jouait à l’aise dans les impitoyables lignes imprimées
sur la serviette: il essayait de douter; mais un clair pressentiment
anéantissait son incrédulité. Le monde lui appartenait, il pouvait tout
et ne voulait plus rien. Comme un voyageur au milieu du désert, il
avait un peu d’eau pour la soif et devait mesurer sa vie au nombre
des gorgées. Il voyait ce que chaque désir devait lui coûter de jours.
Puis il croyait à la Peau de chagrin, il s’écoutait respirer, il se sentait
déjà malade, il se demandait: Ne suis-je pas pulmonique? Ma mère
n’est-elle pas morte de la poitrine?
 —Ah! ah! Raphaël, vous allez bien vous amuser! Que me
donnerez-vous? disait Aquilina.
—Buvons à la mort de son oncle, le major Martin O’Flaharty!
Voilà un homme.
—Il sera pair de France.
—Bah! qu’est-ce qu’un pair de France après Juillet? dit le jugeur.
—Auras-tu loge aux Bouffons?
—J’espère que vous nous régalerez tous, dit Bixiou.
—Un homme comme lui sait faire grandement les choses, dit
Émile.
Le hourra de cette assemblée rieuse résonnait aux oreilles de
Valentin sans qu’il pût saisir le sens d’un seul mot; il pensait
vaguement à l’existence mécanique et sans désirs d’un paysan de
Bretagne, chargé d’enfants, labourant son champ, mangeant du
sarrazin, buvant du cidre à même son piché, croyant à la Vierge et
au roi, communiant à Pâques, dansant le dimanche sur une pelouse
verte et ne comprenant pas le sermon de son recteur. Le spectacle
offert en ce moment à ses regards, ces lambris dorés, ces
courtisanes, ce repas, ce luxe, le prenaient à la gorge et le faisaient
tousser.
—Désirez-vous des asperges? lui cria le banquier.
—Je ne désire rien, lui répondit Raphaël d’une voix tonnante.
—Bravo! répliqua Taillefer. Vous comprenez la fortune, elle est un
brevet d’impertinence. Vous êtes des nôtres! Messieurs, buvons à la
puissance de l’or. Monsieur de Valentin devenu six fois millionnaire
arrive au pouvoir. Il est roi, il peut tout, il est au-dessus de tout,
comme sont tous les riches. Pour lui désormais, les Français sont
égaux devant la loi est un mensonge inscrit en tête du Code. Il
n’obéira pas aux lois, les lois lui obéiront. Il n’y a pas d’échafaud,
pas de bourreaux pour les millionnaires!
—Oui, répliqua Raphaël, ils sont eux-mêmes leurs bourreaux!
—Oh! cria le banquier, buvons.
 —Buvons, répéta Raphaël en mettant le talisman dans sa poche.
—Que fais-tu là? dit Émile en lui arrêtant la main. Messieurs,
ajouta-t-il en s’adressant à l’assemblée assez surprise des manières
de Raphaël, apprenez que notre ami de Valentin, que dis-je?
Monsieur le marquis de Valentin, possède un secret pour faire
fortune. Ses souhaits sont accomplis au moment même où il les
forme. A moins de passer pour un laquais, pour un homme sans
cœur, il va nous enrichir tous.
—Ah! mon petit Raphaël, je veux une parure de perles, s’écria
Euphrasie.
—S’il est reconnaissant, il me donnera deux voitures attelées de
beaux chevaux et qui aillent vite! dit Aquilina.
—Souhaitez-moi cent mille livres de rente.
—Des cachemires!
—Payez mes dettes!
—Envoie une apoplexie à mon oncle, le grand sec!
—Raphaël, je te tiens quitte à dix mille livres de rente.
—Que de donations! s’écria le notaire.
—Il devrait bien me guérir de la goutte.
—Faites baisser les rentes, s’écria le banquier.
Toutes ces phrases partirent comme les gerbes du bouquet qui
termine un feu d’artifice, et ces furieux désirs étaient peut-être plus
sérieux que plaisants.
—Mon cher ami, dit Émile d’un air grave, je me contenterai de
deux cent mille livres de rente; exécute-toi de bonne grâce, allons!
—Émile, dit Raphaël, tu ne sais donc pas à quel prix?
—Belle excuse! s’écria le poète. Ne devons-nous pas nous
sacrifier pour nos amis?
—J’ai presque envie de souhaiter votre mort à tous, répondit
Valentin en jetant un regard sombre et profond sur les convives.
 —Les mourants sont furieusement cruels, dit Émile en riant. Te
voilà riche, ajouta-t-il sérieusement, eh bien! je ne te donne pas deux
mois pour devenir fangeusement égoïste. Tu est déjà stupide, tu ne
comprends pas une plaisanterie. Il ne te manque plus que de croire
à ta Peau de chagrin.
Raphaël craignit les moqueries de cette assemblée, garda le
silence, but outre mesure et s’enivra pour oublier un moment sa
funeste puissance.

L’AGONIE.

Dans les premiers jours du mois de décembre, un vieillard

septuagénaire allait, malgré la pluie, par la rue de Varennes en
levant le nez à la porte de chaque hôtel, et cherchant l’adresse de
monsieur le marquis Raphaël de Valentin, avec la naïveté d’un
enfant et l’air absorbé des philosophes. L’empreinte d’un violent
chagrin aux prises avec un caractère despotique éclatait sur cette
figure accompagnée de longs cheveux gris en désordre, desséchés
comme un vieux parchemin qui se tord dans le feu. Si quelque
peintre eût rencontré ce singulier personnage, vêtu de noir, maigre
et ossu, sans doute, il l’aurait, de retour à l’atelier, transfiguré sur son
album, en inscrivant au-dessous du portrait: Poète classique en
quête d’une rime. Après avoir vérifié le numéro qui lui avait été
indiqué, cette vivante palingénésie de Rollin frappa doucement à la
porte d’un magnifique hôtel.
—Monsieur Raphaël y est-il? demanda le bonhomme à un suisse
en livrée.
—Monsieur le marquis ne reçoit personne, répondit le valet en
avalant une énorme mouillette qu’il retirait d’un large bol de café.
—Sa voiture est là, répondit le vieil inconnu en montrant un
brillant équipage arrêté sous le dais de bois qui représentait une
tente de coutil et par lequel les marches du perron étaient abritées. Il
va sortir, je l’attendrai.
 —Ah! mon ancien, vous pourriez bien rester ici jusqu’à demain
matin, reprit le suisse. Il y a toujours une voiture prête pour
monsieur. Mais sortez, je vous prie, je perdrais six cents francs de
rente viagère si je laissais une seule fois entrer sans ordre une
personne étrangère à l’hôtel.
En ce moment, un grand vieillard dont le costume ressemblait
assez à celui d’un huissier ministériel sortit du vestibule et descendit
précipitamment quelques marches en examinant le vieux solliciteur
ébahi.
—Au surplus, voici monsieur Jonathas, dit le suisse. Parlez-lui.
Les deux vieillards, attirés l’un vers l’autre par une sympathie ou
par une curiosité mutuelle, se rencontrèrent au milieu de la vaste
cour d’honneur, à un rond-point où croissaient quelques touffes
d’herbes entre les pavés. Un silence effrayant régnait dans cet hôtel.
En voyant Jonathas, vous eussiez voulu pénétrer le mystère qui
planait sur sa figure, et dont tout parlait dans cette maison morne; le
premier soin de Raphaël, en recueillant l’immense succession de
son oncle, avait été de découvrir où vivait le vieux serviteur dévoué
sur l’affection duquel il pouvait compter. Jonathas pleura de joie en
revoyant son jeune maître auquel il croyait avoir dit un éternel adieu;
mais rien n’égala son bonheur quand le marquis le promut aux
éminentes fonctions d’intendant. Le vieux Jonathas devint une
puissance intermédiaire placée entre Raphaël et le monde entier.
Ordonnateur suprême de la fortune de son maître, exécuteur
aveugle d’une pensée inconnue, il était comme un sixième sens à
travers lequel les émotions de la vie arrivaient à Raphaël.
—Monsieur, je désirerais parler à monsieur Raphaël, dit le
vieillard à Jonathas en montant quelques marches du perron pour se
mettre à l’abri de la pluie.
—Parler à monsieur le marquis, s’écria l’intendant. A peine
m’adresse-t-il la parole, à moi son père nourricier.
—Mais je suis aussi son père nourricier, s’écria le vieil homme. Si
votre femme l’a jadis allaité, je lui ai fait sucer moi-même le sein des
muses. Il est mon nourrisson, mon enfant, carus alumnus! J’ai
façonné sa cervelle, cultivé son entendement, développé son génie,
et j’ose le dire, à mon honneur et gloire. N’est-il pas un des hommes
les plus remarquables de notre époque? Je l’ai eu, sous moi, en
sixième, en troisième et en rhétorique. Je suis son professeur.
—Ah! monsieur est monsieur Porriquet.
—Précisément. Mais monsieur...
—Chut, chut! fit Jonathas à deux marmitons dont les voix
rompaient le silence claustral dans lequel la maison était ensevelie.
—Mais, monsieur, reprit le professeur, monsieur le marquis
serait-il malade?
—Mon cher monsieur, répondit Jonathas, Dieu seul sait ce qui
tient mon maître. Voyez-vous, il n’existe pas à Paris deux maisons
semblables à la nôtre. Entendez-vous? deux maisons. Ma foi, non.
Monsieur le marquis a fait acheter cet hôtel qui appartenait
précédemment à un duc et pair. Il a dépensé trois cent mille francs
pour le meubler. Voyez-vous? c’est une somme, trois cent mille
francs. Mais chaque pièce de notre maison est un vrai miracle. Bon!
me suis-je dit en voyant cette magnificence, c’est comme chez
défunt monsieur son père! Le jeune marquis va recevoir la ville et la
cour! Point. Monsieur n’a voulu voir personne. Il mène une drôle de
vie, monsieur Porriquet, entendez-vous? une vie inconciliable.
Monsieur se lève tous les jours à la même heure. Il n’y a que moi,
moi seul, voyez-vous? qui puisse entrer dans sa chambre. J’ouvre à
sept heures, été comme hiver. Cela est convenu singulièrement.
Étant entré, je lui dis: Monsieur le marquis, il faut vous réveiller et
vous habiller. Il se réveille et s’habille. Je dois lui donner sa robe de
chambre, toujours faite de la même façon et de la même étoffe. Je
suis obligé de la remplacer quand elle ne pourra plus servir, rien que
pour lui éviter la peine d’en demander une neuve. C’te imagination!
Au fait, il a mille francs à manger par jour, il fait ce qu’il veut, ce cher
enfant. D’ailleurs, je l’aime tant, qu’il me donnerait un soufflet sur la
joue droite, je lui tendrais la gauche! Il me dirait de faire des choses
plus difficiles, je les ferais encore, entendez-vous? Au reste, il m’a
chargé de tant de vétilles, que j’ai de quoi m’occuper. Il lit les
journaux, pas vrai? Ordre de les mettre au même endroit, sur la
même table. Je viens aussi, à la même heure, lui faire moi-même la
barbe et je ne tremble pas. Le cuisinier perdrait mille écus de rente
viagère qui l’attendent après la mort de monsieur, si le déjeuner ne
se trouvait pas inconciliablement servi devant monsieur, à dix
heures, tous les matins, et le dîner à cinq heures précises. Le menu
est dressé pour l’année entière, jour par jour. Monsieur le marquis
n’a rien à souhaiter. Il a des fraises quand il y a des fraises, et le
premier maquereau qui arrive à Paris, il le mange. Le programme
est imprimé, il sait le matin son dîner par cœur. Pour lors, il s’habille
à la même heure avec les mêmes habits, le même linge, posés
toujours par moi, entendez-vous? sur le même fauteuil. Je dois
encore veiller à ce qu’il ait toujours le même drap; en cas de besoin,
si sa redingote s’abîme, une supposition, la remplacer par une autre,
sans lui en dire un mot. S’il fait beau, j’entre et je dis à mon maître:
Vous devriez sortir, monsieur? Il me répond oui, ou non. S’il a idée
de se promener, il n’attend pas ses chevaux, ils sont toujours attelés;
le cocher reste inconciliablement, fouet en main, comme vous le
voyez là. Le soir, après le dîner, monsieur va un jour à l’Opéra et
l’autre aux Ital... mais non, il n’a pas encore été aux Italiens, je n’ai
pu me procurer une loge qu’hier. Puis, il rentre à onze heures
précises pour se coucher. Pendant les intervalles de la journée où il
ne fait rien, il lit, il lit toujours, voyez-vous? une idée qu’il a. J’ai ordre
de lire avant lui le Journal de la librairie, afin d’acheter des livres
nouveaux, afin qu’il les trouve le jour même de leur vente sur sa
cheminée. J’ai la consigne d’entrer d’heure en heure chez lui, pour
veiller au feu, à tout, pour voir à ce que rien ne lui manque; il m’a
donné, monsieur, un petit livre à apprendre par cœur, et où sont
écrits tous mes devoirs, un vrai cathéchisme. En été, je dois, avec
des tas de glace, maintenir la température au même degré de
fraîcheur, et mettre en tous temps des fleurs nouvelles partout. Il est
riche? il a mille francs à manger par jour, il peut faire ses fantaisies.
Il a été privé assez long-temps du nécessaire, le pauvre enfant! Il ne
tourmente personne, il est bon comme le bon pain, jamais il ne dit
mot, mais, par exemple, silence complet à l’hôtel et dans le jardin!
Enfin, mon maître n’a pas un seul désir à former, tout marche au
doigt et à l’œil, et recta! Et il a raison, si l’on ne tient pas les
domestiques, tout va à la débandade. Je lui dis tout ce qu’il doit
faire, et il m’écoute. Vous ne sauriez croire à quel point il a poussé la
chose. Ses appartements sont... en... en comment donc? ah! en
enfilade. Eh bien! il ouvre, une supposition, la porte de sa chambre
ou de son cabinet, crac! toutes les portes s’ouvrent d’elles-mêmes
par un mécanisme. Pour lors, il peut aller d’un bout à l’autre de sa
maison sans trouver une seule porte fermée. C’est gentil et
commode et agréable pour nous autres! Ça nous a coûté gros par
exemple! Enfin, finalement, monsieur Porriquet, il m’a dit: «Jonathas,
tu auras soin de moi comme d’un enfant au maillot. Au maillot, oui,
monsieur, au maillot qu’il a dit. Tu penseras à mes besoins, pour
moi.» Je suis le maître, entendez-vous? et il est quasiment le
domestique. Le pourquoi? Ah! par exemple, voilà ce que personne
au monde ne sait que lui et le bon Dieu. C’est inconciliable!
—Il fait un poème, s’écria le vieux professeur.
—Vous croyez, monsieur, qu’il fait un poème? C’est donc bien
assujettissant, ça! Mais, voyez-vous, je ne crois pas. Il me répète
souvent qu’il veut vivre comme une vergétation, en vergétant. Et pas
plus tard qu’hier, monsieur Porriquet, il regardait une tulipe, et il
disait en s’habillant: «Voilà ma vie. Je vergète, mon pauvre
Jonathas.» A cette heure, d’autres prétendent qu’il est monomane.
C’est inconciliable!
—Tout me prouve, Jonathas, reprit le professeur avec une gravité
magistrale qui imprima un profond respect au vieux valet de
chambre, que votre maître s’occupe d’un grand ouvrage. Il est
plongé dans de vastes méditations, et ne veut pas en être distrait
par les préoccupations de la vie vulgaire. Au milieu de ses travaux
intellectuels, un homme de génie oublie tout. Un jour le célèbre
Newton...
—Ah! Newton, bien, dit Jonathas. Je ne le connais pas.
—Newton, un grand géomètre, reprit Porriquet, passa vingt-
quatre heures, le coude appuyé sur une table; quand il sortit de sa
rêverie, il croyait le lendemain être encore à la veille, comme s’il eût
dormi. Je vais aller le voir, ce cher enfant, je peux lui être utile.
 —Minute, s’écria Jonathas. Vous seriez le roi de France, l’ancien,
s’entend! que vous n’entreriez pas à moins de forcer les portes et de
me marcher sur le corps. Mais, monsieur Porriquet, je cours lui dire
que vous êtes là, et je lui demanderai comme ça: Faut-il le faire
monter? Il répondra oui ou non. Jamais je ne lui dis: Souhaitez-
vous? voulez-vous? désirez-vous? Ces mots-là sont rayés de la
conversation. Une fois il m’en est échappé un.—Veux-tu me faire
mourir? m’a-t-il dit, tout en colère.
Jonathas laissa le vieux professeur dans le vestibule, en lui
faisant signe de ne pas avancer; mais il revint promptement avec
une réponse favorable, et conduisit le vieil émérite à travers de
somptueux appartements dont toutes les portes étaient ouvertes.
Porriquet aperçut de loin son élève au coin d’une cheminée.
Enveloppé d’une robe de chambre à grands dessins, et plongé dans
un fauteuil à ressorts, Raphaël lisait le journal. L’extrême mélancolie
à laquelle il paraissait être en proie était exprimée par l’attitude
maladive de son corps affaissé; elle était peinte sur son front, sur
son visage pâle comme une fleur étiolée. Une sorte de grâce
efféminée et les bizarreries particulières aux malades riches
distinguaient sa personne. Ses mains, semblables à celles d’une
jolie femme, avaient une blancheur molle et délicate. Ses cheveux
blonds, devenus rares, se bouclaient autour de ses tempes par une
coquetterie recherchée. Une calotte grecque, entraînée par un gland
trop lourd pour le léger cachemire dont elle était faite, pendait sur un
côté de sa tête. Il avait laissé tomber à ses pieds le couteau de
malachite enrichi d’or dont il s’était servi pour couper les feuillets
d’un livre. Sur ses genoux était le bec d’ambre d’un magnifique
houka de l’Inde dont les spirales émaillées gisaient comme un
serpent dans sa chambre, et il oubliait d’en sucer les frais parfums.
Cependant, la faiblesse générale de son jeune corps était démentie
par des yeux bleus où toute la vie semblait s’être retirée, où brillait
un sentiment extraordinaire qui saisissait tout d’abord. Ce regard
faisait mal à voir. Les uns pouvaient y lire du désespoir; d’autres, y
deviner un combat intérieur, aussi terrible qu’un remords. C’était le
coup d’œil profond de l’impuissant qui refoule ses désirs au fond de
son cœur, ou celui de l’avare jouissant par la pensée de tous les
plaisirs que son argent pourrait lui procurer, et s’y refusant pour ne
pas amoindrir son trésor; ou le regard du Prométhée enchaîné, de
Napoléon déchu qui apprend à l’Élysée, en 1815, la faute
stratégique commise par ses ennemis, qui demande le
commandement pour vingt-quatre heures et ne l’obtient pas.
Véritable regard de conquérant et de damné! et, mieux encore, le
regard que, plusieurs mois auparavant, Raphaël avait jeté sur la
Seine ou sur sa dernière pièce d’or mise au jeu. Il soumettait sa
volonté, son intelligence, au grossier bon sens d’un vieux paysan à
peine civilisé par une domesticité de cinquante années. Presque
joyeux de devenir une sorte d’automate, il abdiquait la vie pour vivre,
et dépouillait son âme de toutes les poésies du désir. Pour mieux
lutter avec la cruelle puissance dont il avait accepté le défi, il s’était
fait chaste à la manière d’Origène, en châtrant son imagination. Le
lendemain du jour où, soudainement enrichi par un testament, il
avait vu décroître la Peau de chagrin, il s’était trouvé chez son
notaire. Là, un médecin assez en vogue avait raconté sérieusement,
au dessert, la manière dont un Suisse attaqué de pulmonie s’en était
guéri. Cet homme n’avait pas dit un mot pendant dix ans, et s’était
soumis à ne respirer que six fois par minute dans l’air épais d’une
vacherie, en suivant un régime alimentaire extrêmement doux. Je
serai cet homme! se dit en lui-même Raphaël, qui voulait vivre à tout
prix. Au sein du luxe, il mena la vie d’une machine à vapeur. Quand
le vieux professeur envisagea ce jeune cadavre, il tressaillit; tout lui
semblait artificiel dans ce corps fluet et débile. En apercevant le
marquis à l’œil dévorant, au front chargé de pensées, il ne put
reconnaître l’élève au teint frais et rose, aux membres juvéniles, dont
il avait gardé le souvenir. Si le classique bonhomme, critique sagace
et conservateur du bon goût, avait lu lord Byron, il aurait cru voir
Manfred là où il eût voulu voir Childe-Harold.
—Bonjour, père Porriquet, dit Raphaël à son professeur en
pressant les doigts glacés du vieillard dans une main brûlante et
moite. Comment vous portez-vous?
—Mais moi je vais bien, répondit le vieillard effrayé par le contact
de cette main fiévreuse. Et vous?
—Oh! j’espère me maintenir en bonne santé.
 —Vous travaillez sans doute à quelque bel ouvrage?
—Non, répondit Raphaël. Exegi monumentum, père Porriquet,
j’ai achevé une grande page, et j’ai dit adieu pour toujours à la
science. A peine sais-je où se trouve mon manuscrit.
—Le style en est pur, sans doute? demanda le professeur. Vous
n’aurez pas, j’espère, adopté le langage barbare de cette nouvelle
école qui croit faire merveille en inventant Ronsard.
—Mon ouvrage est une œuvre purement physiologique.
—Oh! tout est dit, reprit le professeur. Dans les sciences, la
grammaire doit se prêter aux exigences des découvertes.
Néanmoins, mon enfant, un style clair, harmonieux, la langue de
Massillon, de M. de Buffon, du grand Racine, un style classique,
enfin, ne gâte jamais rien. Mais, mon ami, reprit le professeur en
s’interrompant, j’oubliais l’objet de ma visite. C’est une visite
intéressée.
Se rappelant trop tard la verbeuse élégance et les éloquentes
périphrases auxquelles un long professorat avait habitué son maître,
Raphaël se repentit presque de l’avoir reçu; mais au moment où il
allait souhaiter de le voir dehors, il comprima promptement son
secret désir en jetant un furtif coup d’œil à la Peau de chagrin,
suspendue devant lui et appliquée sur une étoffe blanche où ses
contours fatidiques étaient soigneusement dessinés par une ligne
rouge qui l’encadrait exactement. Depuis la fatale orgie, Raphaël
étouffait le plus léger de ses caprices, et vivait de manière à ne pas
causer le moindre tressaillement à ce terrible talisman. La Peau de
chagrin était comme un tigre avec lequel il lui fallait vivre, sans en
réveiller la férocité. Il écouta donc patiemment les amplifications du
vieux professeur. Le père Porriquet mit une heure à lui raconter les
persécutions dont il était devenu l’objet depuis la révolution de juillet.
Le bonhomme, voulant un gouvernement fort, avait émis le vœu
patriotique de laisser les épiciers à leurs comptoirs, les hommes
d’état au maniement des affaires publiques, les avocats au Palais,
les pairs de France au Luxembourg; mais un des ministres
populaires du roi-citoyen l’avait banni de sa chaire en l’accusant de
carlisme. Le vieillard se trouvait sans place, sans retraite et sans
pain. Étant la providence d’un pauvre neveu dont il payait la pension
au séminaire de Saint-Sulpice, il venait, moins pour lui-même que
pour son enfant adoptif, prier son ancien élève de réclamer auprès
du nouveau ministre, non sa réintégration, mais l’emploi de proviseur
dans quelque collége de province. Raphaël était en proie à une
somnolence invincible, lorsque la voix monotone du bonhomme
cessa de retentir à ses oreilles. Obligé par politesse de regarder les
yeux blancs et presque immobiles de ce vieillard au débit lent et
lourd, il avait été stupéfié, magnétisé par une inexplicable force
d’inertie.
—Eh! bien, mon bon père Porriquet, répliqua-t-il sans savoir
précisément à quelle interrogation il répondait, je n’y puis rien, rien
du tout. Je souhaite bien vivement que vous réussissiez...
En ce moment, sans apercevoir l’effet que produisirent sur le
front jaune et ridé du vieillard ces banales paroles, pleines
d’égoïsme et d’insouciance, Raphaël se dressa comme un jeune
chevreuil effrayé. Il vit une légère ligne blanche entre le bord de la
peau noire et le dessin rouge; il poussa un cri si terrible que le
pauvre professeur en fut épouvanté.
—Allez, vieille bête! s’écria-t-il, vous serez nommé proviseur! Ne
pouviez-vous pas me demander une rente viagère de mille écus
plutôt qu’un souhait homicide? Votre visite ne m’aurait rien coûté. Il y
a cent mille emplois en France, et je n’ai qu’une vie! Une vie
d’homme vaut plus que tous les emplois du monde. Jonathas!
Jonathas parut. Voilà de tes œuvres, triple sot, pourquoi m’as-tu
proposé de recevoir monsieur? dit-il en lui montrant le vieillard
pétrifié. T’ai-je remis mon âme entre les mains pour la déchirer? Tu
m’arraches en ce moment dix années d’existence! Encore une faute
comme celle-ci, et tu me conduiras à la demeure où j’ai conduit mon
père. N’aurais-je pas mieux aimé posséder la belle lady Dudley que
d’obliger cette vieille carcasse, espèce de haillon humain? J’ai de l’or
pour lui. D’ailleurs, quand tous les Porriquet du monde mourraient de
faim, qu’est-ce que cela me ferait?
La colère avait blanchi le visage de Raphaël; une légère écume
sillonnait ses lèvres tremblantes, et l’expression de ses yeux était
sanguinaire. A cet aspect, les deux vieillards furent saisis d’un
tressaillement convulsif, comme deux enfants en présence d’un
serpent. Le jeune homme tomba sur son fauteuil; il se fit une sorte
de réaction dans son âme, des larmes coulèrent abondamment de
ses yeux flamboyants.
—Oh! ma vie! ma belle vie! dit-il. Plus de bienfaisantes pensées!
plus d’amour! plus rien! Il se tourna vers le professeur. Le mal est
fait, mon vieil ami, reprit-il d’une voix douce. Je vous aurai largement
récompensé de vos soins. Et mon malheur aura, du moins, produit le
bien d’un bon et digne homme.
Il y avait tant d’âme dans l’accent qui nuança ces paroles
presque inintelligibles, que les deux vieillards pleurèrent comme on
pleure en entendant un air attendrissant chanté dans une langue
étrangère.
—Il est épileptique, dit Porriquet à voix basse.
—Je reconnais votre bonté, mon ami, reprit doucement Raphaël,
vous voulez m’excuser. La maladie est un accident, l’inhumanité
serait un vice. Laissez-moi maintenant, ajouta-t-il. Vous recevrez
demain ou après-demain, peut-être même ce soir, votre nomination,
car la résistance a triomphé du mouvement. Adieu.
Le vieillard se retira, pénétré d’horreur et en proie à de vives
inquiétudes sur la santé morale de Valentin. Cette scène avait eu
pour lui quelque chose de surnaturel. Il doutait de lui-même et
s’interrogeait comme s’il se fût réveillé après un songe pénible.
—Écoute, Jonathas, reprit le jeune homme en s’adressant à son
vieux serviteur. Tâche de comprendre la mission que je t’ai confiée!
—Oui, monsieur le marquis.
—Je suis comme un homme mis hors la loi commune.
—Oui, monsieur le marquis.
—Toutes les jouissances de la vie se jouent autour de mon lit de
mort et dansent comme de belles femmes devant moi; si je les
appelle, je meurs. Toujours la mort! Tu dois être une barrière entre le
monde et moi.