FEATURES
Commercial and Small Scale
Cultivation o f the Mushroom,
Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Sing.
James P. San Antonio1
U.S. Department o f Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
The world’s total production of
cultivated fleshy fungi is estimated to be
about 6 x 10^ kg/year. Approximately
75% of this production is of one species,
the so-called cultivated mushroom
or champignon, Agaricus bisporus.
Shiitake, L entinus edodes (Berk.) Sing.,
is second in importance with about 20 %
or 1.2 x 10° kg. Included in the
remaining production of 2.5 x 10^ kg
are species of Volvariella (Paddy straw
m u s h r o o m ) , P le u r o tu s (o y ste r
m u s h r o o m ) , T u b e r , (tru ffle s ),
Auricularia (ear fungus), and Tremella
(jelly fungus) (16, 40, 46). Flam m ulina
velutipes (Fr.) Sing, (winter mushroom)
also is cultivated commercially. About
1/4 of the world’s production of
Agaricus bisporus , 1.3 x 10$ kg, was
produced in the U.S. in 19742. Present
farm value of the U.S. mushroom crop
is about $123 million. Today, especially
in Europe and Asia there is considerable
interest in commercial production of
cultivated mushrooms other than A.
bisporus.
A lth o u g h m ushroom s are an
im p o rta n t minor vegetable crop,
firsth a n d stu d y of A. bisporus
cultivation is not included ordinarily in
most horticultural curricula in the U.S.
One reason is about 65% of the
production is still centered in the
northeastern U.S., with almost 60% in
Pennsylvania2. However, the increasing
importance of mushroom production in
California and Michigan indicates that
this situation is slowly changing.
Mushrooms were produced in 26 states
in the U.S. in 1974. Secondly, unlike
m ost vegetable crops, growing
mushrooms on a small scale suitable for
1 R esearch H orticu ltu rist, Agricultural
Research Service, Northeastern Region,
Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville,
Maryland 20705.
2Mushrooms, Release: August 21, 1974.
Statistical Reporting Service, Crop Reporting
Board, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture.
Ho r t Sctfncf V ol ! 0f5V Oc t o b e r 1975
class study or demonstration has not
been practical. Use of commercially
available mushroom-growing kits is
unsatisfactory because these involve
only the last few steps of mushroom
cultivation.
Important changes and developments
have occurred during the past 10 years
in all aspects of the commercial
production of A. bisporus (2, 29, 44).
This report reviews the essential steps
and recent developments in commercial
mushroom production and describes a
re la tiv e ly sim ple procedure for
cultivation of mushrooms on a small
scale. The procedure illustrates all the
major stages in cultivation of A.
bisporus except spawn making and is
useful for demonstration and class
study.
COMMERCIAL MUSHROOM
PRODUCTION
The major stages in cultivation of
Agaricus bisporus are outlined in Fig. 1.
Because A . bisporus is a hetero-
trophic organism, substratum prepar­
ation is the essential first step in
mushroom cultivation. The substratum
used univ ersally in commercial
m ushroom production is compost
obtained by fermenting (composting)
organic waste materials. However, the
production of mushrooms on other
substrata, e.g., nutrient-supplemented
calcined earth and vermiculite ( 8 , 47),
straw and seedmeal mixtures (53), and
rye grain (38) indicates that neither
compost nor any specific product of the
composting process per se is a biological
requirement for the growth and fruit
production of A. bisporus. To insure
that A. bisporus colonizes such a
n o n -co m p o sted su b stra tu m , the
substratum is sterilized, inoculated
aseptically with A. bisporus , and
m ain tain ed aseptic or otherwise
protected until the substratum is
completely colonized by mushroom
m ycelium . D espite considerable
ingenious development, however, this
James P. San Antonio
approach (18, 19) is not yet a practical
commercial alternative to composting.
On the basis of economics, compost
continues to be the most satisfactory
substratum for commercial mushroom
production.
Substratum preparation
R aw materials. Mushroom growers
traditionally have used horse manure
(specifically: straw bedding, droppings,
and urine) to prepare mushroom
com posts. Mushroom growth and
fruiting do not require, however, the
inclusion of any animal manure in
composts. A variety of materials
properly supplemented and composted
have been used to grow mushrooms
(4, 6 , 50). Depending on economic,
m aterial availability, and handling
factors, synthetic composts, e.g., corn
cobs and hay supplemented with
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, have
been used in recent years by many
mushroom growers.
C o m p o s tin g . Composting, i.e.,
decomposition by microorganisms, has
become increasingly important as a
means of utilizing wastes, controlling
d i s e a s e s , and prod u cin g soil
amendments (11, 12, 15, 22, 33, 36).
Obviously, the primary objective of
composting in mushroom cultivation is
th e production of a substratum
satisfactory for the growth and
development of A. bisporus. Regardless
of composting objective(s), however,
the principles and practices of all
composting are essentially the same (13,
14, 15).
Traditional composting usually took
4 — 7 weeks and could not be relied
upon always to produce uniform
com post of th e type required.
Important progress in understanding
and controlling the composting process
began early in the 20 th century ( 11, 12 ,
15, 57). By 1940, the principles and
451
m eth o d s o f rapid aerobic, high
temperature composting had been
a p p lie d to m aking m ushroom
substratum. Commercial application of
two of these methods, i.e., composting
in a revolvin g drum (52) and
co m p o stin g e n tir e ly within the
mushroom house (25, 26), was not
practical at that time. However, Sinden
and Hauser’s “Short Method” of
composting (45) typifies the practical
approach to m odern “outdoor”
composting in the mushroom industry.
Although traditionally regarded as an
o u td o o r a c tiv ity , composting is
frequently done under a roof for
p r o te c tio n against the weather.
R egardless o f th e predominant
temperature within the compost pile
(70-85°C in Short Method or 50-60°C
in longer procedures) commercial
composting requires rigorous control of
the (a) composition; (b) density,
dimensions, and shape; (c) water
content; and (d) turning or mixing for
aeration of the compost pile.
The first step in composting for
m ushroom c u ltiv a tio n as most
com m only practiced today is to
assemble the thoroughly wetted raw
materials in long heaps (1.5—3.0 m wide
and 1.5—2.0 m high, depending on the
method used). Approximately 30 kg of
gypsum/ton fresh weight (FW) of
materials is added during this initial
stack in g o p era tio n to decrease
“greasiness” (a condition resulting from
undesirable colloid formation) during
composting. Specially designed, large,
self-propelled machines (“Turners”) are
used to turn the heaps, automatically
forming new heaps, at scheduled 1—4
day intervals. At the times that compost
is mixed and aerated, water and
supplements are added to the compost
as req u ired . Supplementation of
com post, usually to increase the
nitrogen content, is an important aspect
of the art of composting in the
mushroom growing industry. Any of a
variety of materials containing 4% or
more of nitrogen/dry weight (DW) basis,
e.g., brewers’ grains, fish oils, or chicken
manure, are added as supplements. This
aerobic fermentation, at 50-85°C for
5—20 days, called “Phase I,” yields a
d a r k -c o lo r e d , h o m o g e n e o u s ,
partially-broken down product.
This partially decomposed material
containing 70-75% water is placed in
wooden trays or beds (the “filling”
operation) placed or located within a
specially constructed room. Subsequent
compost treatment, “Phase II,” mostly
depends on the degree of decomposition
of materials achieved in Phase I. Phase II
treatment includes a continuation of
composting under carefully controlled
aerobic conditions and elimination of
mushroom pests, e.g., harmful fungi,
insects, mites, and nematodes from the
com p ost an d i n t e r i o r room
452
environment. Although fumigants have
been used to eliminate pests in a
specially modified compost-preparation
procedure (17, 56), pasteurization at
60-70°C for 4—6 hr sometime during
Phase II is used most commonly to
control mushroom pests (27, 44). The
room is closed and steam is injected into
the room usually to supplement the
heat generated by metabolism of
microorganisms to obtain the desired
p a s te u r iz a tio n and co m p o stin g
temperatures. Whatever temperatures
and aeration regimen is used during the
3—10 days of Phase II, the cooled
finished compost should be free of pests
and ammonia and contain approx 2.2%
N (DW).
Spawn and spawn making
The mushroom grower obtains the
spawn used to inoculate finished
compost from a commercial spawn
maker. Grain spawn (44), the kind used
alm ost universally in commercial
mushroom production today consists of
the vegetative stage, the mycelium, of
A. bisporus grown aseptically on cereal
grain, e.g., rye, sorghum, or millet (38,
5 1 ). Spawn makers preserve and
maintain aseptic growing stock cultures
of different spawn strains. In the U. S.,
spawn makers sell specific strains of A.
bisporus spawn for the production of
white, brown, or intermediate color
mushrooms. Results of recent studies of
spawn preservation (21, 41) and the life
cycle and genetics of A. bisporus (34)
help provide a basis for the future
breeding of better mushroom strains.
The average commercial rate of
spawn used to inoculate compost is
approx. 0.5 - 1% spawn/compost (FW)
or 1 liter spawn/ 1.5m2 of bed surface.
Casing. A . b is p o r u s -colonized
compost is covered (cased) with a thin
layer of soil-limestone or peat-limestone
mixture to promote fruiting. Although
many mushrooms growers in the U.S.
use soil for casing, peat is used almost
universally in Europe. Before the soil
and peat mixtures are used for casing,
h o w e v e r , th ey are fu m ig a ted ,
pasteurized, or treated with aerated
steam (3, 27, 44, 58, 60) to kill
organisms injurious to mushroom
mycelium. In addition, a fungicide, e.g.,
benomyl (59) is often applied to the
casing layer.
Though the biology of the change
from vegetative to fruiting stage is not
completely understood (10, 20), fruit
initiation is readily controlled in
practice by adjustment of temperature,
casing moisture, and ventilation (42,
54).
Picking. Mushrooms are harvested
presently by hand though picking
machines are being currently developed
(31, 32, 43). Picking systems in which
the trays are moved past the mushroom
H o r t Sc i e n c e V o l . 10T5V O c t o b e r 1975
pickers have been developed for
commercial use.
Yield. The present average
commercial yield of A. bisporus in the
U.S. is about 13 kg of mushrooms/m^
per crop (2.6 lb/ft2 per crop). The
“production efficiency” of commercial
mushroom crops is 0.5—1 kg of
mushrooms (FW)/kg of compost (DW)
at spawning time. Approximately one
half of the yield is obtained within the
first 30 days of harvest. After the 2nd
flush there is a marked and continuing
decrease in the number and total weight
of mushrooms in succeeding flushes.
Depending on the temperature, depth of
substratum, market, and economics of
t h e g r o w in g o p e r a t io n , the
mushroom-picking stage is 30-150 days.
However, a 40-55 day harvest period is
common in commercial practice.
When diminished returns no longer
justify continued cropping, mushroom
beds are termed “spent.” The biology of
spentness is not well understood.
Despite the often strong mushroom
odor and healthy appearance of the
mushroom mycelium in spent beds,
there is yet no way known to rejuvenate
these mushroom beds.
Spent compost (containing about 2%
N (DW)) is usually pasteurized at 60°C
for 4 hr before it is removed from the
mushroom house (“clean out”). Spent
compost (includes the casing) is used as
nursery and garden mulch, replaced on
land in a 3-5 year program to make new
casing (7), or used as an ingredient in
making new substratum (30, 53).
Material handling and
environmental control
In c o m m e r c ia l m u s h r o o m
cultivation, 4-8 tons of compost (FW)
are required to produce 1 ton of
mushrooms (FW). Production units
necessitating the handling of 80-350
tons of compost are common. New
systems and equipment are continually
being developed to more efficiently
handle substratum and control
environment.
In the presen t typ ical tray
(“two-zone”) system of commercial
mushroom cultivation, pasteurization,
spawn run, and fruiting-picking occur in
separate specially equipped room s. The
crop unit of this usually highly
mechanized system is a large wooden
tray co n ta in in g 300-600 kg of
substratum. Such trays are moved at the
proper time to special machinery for
automatic filling, spawning, and casing.
Plastic bags are used now in some
modifications of this system.
In the older “bed” system, the
mushroom house contains fixed beds
that are filled with compost substratum.
A fter the fillin g operation, all
operations and cultivation stages occur
in the same mushroom-house structure.
Some operations in this system, i.e.,
filling, spawning, and clean out are
mechanized. Though there is indication
of change, the bed system is still the
more common production system in the
U.S. mushroom industry.
Reports on completely controlled
fermentation in special bins (5, 35) and
control chambers (28, 52) indicate a
continual interest in other methods and
systems (48) for substratum preparation
and mushroom growing.
In a recent procedure, Express
Preparation o f Substratum (23),
shredded material is wetted, mixed, and
filled into trays “outdoors” ; but the
entire subsequent completely controlled
fermentation-pasteurization process (7
days) occurs in special rooms.
Both substratum preparation, Phases
I and II, and the spawn run are done in
the same controlled environment tunnel
in a recent commercial development.
During these 3 cultivation stages, the
non-shredded material is handled in
bulk, i.e., as a continuous pile approx 2
m high throughout the tunnel (60 x 4.5
x 4.5 m). After spawn run is completed
- approx by the 26th day, the
colonized compost is packed into beds,
trays, or bags.
As with aerobic, rapid outdoor
com p ostin g, completely controlled
ferm e n ta tio n procedures require
sp ecia lly d esign ed facilities and
m a c h in e r y . F uture w idespread
commercial use of such new approaches
to substratum preparation depends
mostly on the economics of large-scale
production of substratum.
Today, newly constructed mushroom
production plants almost invariably are
equipped for control (often automatic)
o f tem p era tu re, hum id ity, and
ventilation. As a protection against
m ushroom virus infection, some
mushroom growers use filters to remove
particles greater than 0.2 micron
diam eter from the air entering
pasteurization and spawn running
rooms.
Most older mushroom houses in the
U.S. are equipped now with cooling
units topermit growing mushrooms
during the summer. Operations using
mine galleries for mushroom growing
rooms have special structures equipped
for environmental control outside the
m ine area. Filling, pasteurization,
spawning, spawn run, and casing occur
outside the mine; the cased trays are
then transported into the mine for
fruiting and picking.
Mushroom Worker’s Lung. Following
exposure to compost dust, sensitized
individuals develop a condition known
as “Mushroom Worker’s Lung” (37).
This variant of “Farmer’s Lung” is
associated especially with exposure
during the spawning and clean out
operations (24, 49). Precautionary
U /\nirC nT rv T n r \T r \ T 1 C \i
measures and recognition of symptoms Dry shredded horse manure is
(1) are important aspects of farm safety probably the best raw material for
in the cultivated mushroom industry. illustrating the making of a fibrous-type
compost substratum for A. bisporus,
and its use helps to insure obtaining a
SMALL-SCALE CULTIVATION
satisfactory compost. Its appearance
OF Agaricus bisporus
and breakdown during composting are
There are often several different similar to that of materials used in the
ways to obtain a given stage of mushroom industry. Successful use of
mushroom growth or development. In other compost ingredients is more likely
com m ercial cultivation, moreover, after experience with composting horse
practices necessarily are influenced by manure.
e c o n o m ic considerations. In the Dry the fresh horse manure by
procedure to be described, mushroom spreading it in a 5—10 cm thick layer on
cultivation practices were adapted as a polyethylene plastic sheet in a
required to cultivate mushrooms on a ventilated area protected from the
small scale. The stages of mushroom weather. Occasionally turn the material
cultivation in this procedure are the during a 3—7 day period until it
same as those outlined in Fig. 1, except becomes air dry (max 10% moisture).
th a t {xast e u r iz a t ion p reced es Use a shredding machine or lawnmower
composting. to chop the dry material so that the
Although the composting process can maximum straw length does not exceed
be simply and easily demonstrated in 5—10 cm. Store the chopped dry horse
the laboratory (55), a more elaborate manure in a tightly-closed polyethylene
procedure is required to use the plastic bag (size a). For class study, it
co m p o stin g p rocess to prepare may be more convenient to dry and
substratum for A. bisporus. In the shred a greater quantity of horse
following procedure the substratum for manure (20-40 kg FW) at one time.
growing mushrooms is made by means Such dry chopped material may be
of controlled fermentation (5, 23, 28, stored for several years before use.
35). Grain spawn used in commercial
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
10 kg FW (or more as Horse manure, straw not sawdust bedding
required to provide
2 kg dry matter)
10 m 2 Polyethylene plastic sheet, 4 mil thick
1 Compost shredder or lawnmower
Polyethylene plastic bags (size a), clear, 4 mil thick, approx
2
1.0 x 1.5 m
100 g Dried brewers’ grains
1 Watering can with rose nozzle
1 Styrofoam3 plastic picnic basket approx 30 x 50 x 30 cm deep,
with lid
Wooden sticks, each approx 25 cm long and 2.5 cm in diam
1 pc, 0.5 x l m Galvanized hardware cloth, 4 mesh, 23 gauge
1 Steam-producing electrolytic vaporizer with reservoir, e.g.,
Prak-T-Kal mod #909. (Prak-T-Kal Vapordynamics Corp.,
Elizabeth, N.J.)
Autotransformer, variable, 0-140 v, 10 amps, e.g., Fisher Scientific
Co., #9-521-100, Pittsburg, Pa.
Thermometer, centigrade, 30 cm
Laboratory jack support
Ring support stand
Split ring support
Gallon glass bottle, with rubber tubing (15 cm long, I.D. 2.5 cm,
wall thickness 4 mm) securely fitted over opening
Hemostat or clamp to close 2.5 cm rubber tubing
Pan (size a), metal or plastic approx 20 x 40 x 5 cm deep
Roll of labeling tape, 2 cm wide, e.g., Scientific Products,
#L 1600-75, Evanston, 111.
Polyethylene plastic bags (size b), clear, 4 mil thick, approx
50 x 60 cm
1 Roll of pH 6-10 indicating test paper
200 g Dried mushroom spawn
1 Pan (size b), metal, 20 x 40 x 15 cm deep
600 g Spaghnum peat, dry, compressed
600 g Ground agricultural limestone, 80-95% CaCC>3
1 Water sprayer (either a spray attachment on a garden hose or the
spray nozzle and plastic container from commonly available
household spray cleaners can be used to deliver a fine spray
of water).
^Mention of a trademark or proprietary product does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of
the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and does not imply its approval to the
exclusion of other products that may also be suitable.
H r TA D I7D 10 7 ^
 at other end of basket (Fig. 6 , D); 6
Aseptic culture of holes, diam 1.5 cm, 3 in each of the
mushroom mycelium (obtained from long sides of the basket, openings
on grain should be 5 cm above the bottom inside
spawn maker) the basket and spaced evenly along each
side (Fig. 2 and 6 , A). Evenly space and
cut 6 holes, diam 1.5 cm, in the basket
lid (Fig. 3, E).
SPAWNING With dense Styrofoam, condensate
(inoculation of finished may leak through the bottom of the
RAW MATERIALS basket during operation. To prevent
com post with spawn) this, line the bottom of the basket with
COM POSTING a sheet of aluminum foil.
New Styrofoam baskets usually have
DAY 14 ■■■DAY 1 4 - 2 8 ^ ^ » a faint but distinct chemical odor due to
PASTEURIZATION FINISHED residual styrene. It is recommended that
SPAWN RUN the pasteurizing-composting heating
COM POST (growth of mushroom procedure be done with the chamber
(substratum) mycelium throughout empty at a temperature of 60—80°C for
4-8 hr or until the odor disappears.
compost) B. Screen Support to Hold Compost.
Use tin snips to cut a piece of galvanized
hardware cloth with the shape and
■■DAY 38-46M dimensions indicated (Fig. 3). Form the
■■DAY
support by bending the screen down at
|xDAY 28 IDAY 28-38;:’ .\; A. PINNING
CASING a right angle all along the dotted line
p Mushroom ^ r o w h lo f l i (formation of indicated.
(addition of a C. Water Reservoir. Cut a hole, diam
Mycelium |M u ||ro c)m || | mushroom
2-3 cm layer 3.5 cm, in the top of the reservoir
Colonized fruit initials) container (Fig. 6 , R) to permit insertion
of soil or peat) | M p e i i u m ' | | | l | |
Com posts W s T O n ll of rubber tube from water bottle (B).

IDAY 46-521
Growth and Development
of Mushrooms producing
the first of a series of
FLUSHES
Mushroom PICKING <DAY 52'112>
(fruit occurs in 4 day flushes, 10 days apart)
Fig. 1. Diagrammatic summary of the culture of Agaricus bisporus.
mushroom cultivation requires special Dept, of Agriculture, Hyattsville, MD
shipping and is not always available in 20782.
sm all quantities. Dried mushroom Construction. A. Pasteurization and
sp a w n (“ m anure process spawn” ), Com posting Chamber. A picnic basket
however, may be obtained in small made of light density Styrofoam plastic
quantities (about 500 g) through the is more satisfactory as a steaming
mail. Dried mushroom spawn is simply chamber than one of heavy density
compost substratum that has been Styrofoam.
colonized aseptically by A. bisporus and Use a sharp knife to cut 8 openings
dried. Such spawn remains viable for in the basket and 6 openings in the
6-12 months at room temperature. At basket lid: 1 large central opening in the
present, the white variety of mushroom bottom and end panel at one end of the
only is used to prepare this type of basket (Fig. 2, VH), opening should be
spawn. This spawn may be purchased large enough to admit about Vi of the
from spawn makers or garden supply vaporizing head, there should be 0.5 —
companies. A list of spawn makers is 1.0 cm space between the vaporizer
available from the Information Division, head and the Styrofoam, (Fig. 6 , VH); 1
Agricultural Research Service, U.S. hole, diam 1 cm, in center of lower edge
Procedure
A s s e m b lin g an d m ix i n g th e
ingredients. The use of a polyethylene
plastic bag (size a) permits convenient,
rapid, and dust-free mixing of compost
ingredients. Place 2 kg of dry chopped
horse manure and 100 g of dried
brewers’ grains in the plastic bag. Entrap
air in the bag and close the bag by
gathering and twisting about 1/3 of the
upper part of the bag. Holding the
twisted plastic firmly in one hand, mix
the dry ingredients by tumbling the
plastic “balloon” on the ground for 1-2
min (Fig. 4). This mixture will contain
about 1.5% nitrogen on a dry weight
basis.
Add 3.5 liters of tap water at
65—75°C to the dry mixture to obtain a
moisture content of about 70%. For
uniform wetting: spread the compost
materials in a shallow layer inside the
bag; use a watering can with rose nozzle
to spray the water; mix the materials
each time after adding about 1/3 of the
water.
Preparation fo r pasteurization and
c o m p o s t in g . B ecause of o d o r,
pasteurizing and composting should be
done in a laboratory hood or
well-ventilated area.
Place a vertical wooden stick in the
center and in each corner of the
sp ecially-modified Styrofoam picnic
basket. Without delay, transfer the
mixed warm ingredients onto the screen
support inside the basket (Fig. 5). Do
not compress the ingredients. There

454 H o r t Sc i e n c e . V o l . 10(5V O c t o b e r 1975


Fig. 2. View from underside of Styrofoam
picnic basket shows central opening (VH)
that fits around the vaporizer head. The
hole (A) is 1 of 6 provided to admit fresh
air. The holes (E) on the basket lid are 2
of 6 provided for exhaust of hot air and
vapor from the basket. The cross of white
tape covering a 3rd hole in the lid
illustrates a simple means for regulating
ventilation.
Fig. 4. Mixing compost ingredients.
should be about 2-5 cm of head space.
Before removing the sticks, wiggle each
stick to form a 5-10 cm diameter
vertical shaft in the compost. Such
sh afts help provide for uniform
ventilation and distribution of heat
during pasteurization and composting.
Place the lid on the basket.
Fill the vaporizer reservoir (Fig. 6 , R)
with tap water to the manufacturer’s
water-level mark. Attach the vaporizing
head to the reservoir. Support the
U n D T O r ir M r i: \T r \i 1C \fZ \ O rT r \D rD
Fig. 3. Pattern for making wire screen support
to hold compost in picnic basket. The
dimensions L and W are those inside the
picnic basket 10 cm above the bottom of
the basket. Each of the 5 flaps extends 10
cm beyond the dotted line. The length of
the gap (G) should equal the diameter of
the basket opening for the vaporizer head.
Fig. 5. Styrofoam basket filled with wet
compost ingredients and showing sticks
used to form ventilation shafts in the
compost.
basket filled with compost ingredients
on the reservoir so as to enclose the
vapor orifice and about 1/2 of the
vaporizing head in the basket (Fig. 6 ).
Install the bottle of water (B) as
follows. Fill the bottle with tap water to
about the middle of the attached rubber
tubing and clamp the tubing. Invert the
bottle, place it on the ring support, and
insert the lower end of the tubing into
the reservoir. Adjust the height of the
ring support so that the end of the
107^
tubing is about 0.5 cm below the
water-level mark. Remove the clamp
from the rubber tubing. Connect the
vaporizer head to the transformer and
plug the transformer into a 115 volt AC
source.
Caution and comments
The use of an electrolytic vaporizer
to heat a very small “mushroom house”
(!) is not one intended by the
manufacturer. This appliance should be
employed to heat compost ingredients
only in the manner to be described. It is
im p o rta n t to re alize that this
application involves the same hazards as
those associated with the use of
electrolytic vaporizers in the home ( 9 ).
Because an electrolytic vaporizer
produces steam by electrically charging
water , the possibility o f electrical sh o ck
as well as burn hazards always exist in
any use o f such an appliance.
Observe m an u fa ctu rer’s precautions
regarding good repair o f all electric
parts. A lw a ys disconnect the vaporizer
before adding water , working on the
experim ental setup, or cleaning the
vaporizer electrodes. A lw ays properly
immerse and operate the vaporizing
elem ent in the reservoir provided by the
manufacturer. Do n o t a tte m p t to use
the vaporizing elem ent separately in any
manner.
The heating of compost is affected
by a number of difficult-to-control
factors. For instance, vapor production
is influenced by the condition of the
vaporizer, the depth of the water in the
reservoir, and the initial and continually
increasing mineral content of the
reservoir water. Secondly, the quantity
of “dry” heat supplied to the compost
by the vaporizer depends partly on how
much of the vaporizer head is inside the
basket. Another variable source of heat
is that generated by the metabolism of
compost microorganisms. Finally, the
temperature and movement of ambient
air affects the compost temperature in
the basket. Because of such factors, the
transformer settings given for this
procedure should be considered as a
guide only. Different ingredients and
e q u ip m en t may require different
transformer settings.
Pasteurization and composting. I.
The warm ingredients are heated
w ith o u t delay in an alm ost closed
basket to kill pests. Turn the vaporizer
on at the line voltage, i.e., at
transformer setting #120. Insert the
thermometer about 1 cm into the
ingredients through one of the lid holes
furthest from the vaporizer. (The
temperature at this location and depth
will be the minimum temperature of the
compost.) Cover the other 5 lid holes,
the basket drain opening, and the 6
holes in the sides of the basket with
tape. Place a weight on top of the lid to
ASS
 hr) in the undisturbed basket.
The cooled finished compost is
colonized throughout by actinomycete
IK TH growth. In commercial composting, the
ease with which compost straws may be
pulled apart with the fingers is used
often to help in determining the degree
of decomposition of ingredients. Straw
breakdown in stages I-III is less than in
commercial composting.
There is an average total decrease of
about 25% of the initial dry weight
during stages I-III. The water content of
the finished substratum is 70-75%.
The compost substratum should be
spawned as soon as it has cooled.

Spawning (Day “1 4 ”). The finished

6—7 day compost corresponds to
14-day compost in commercial practice.
The day of spawning in this procedure is
designated as day 14 so that the time in
D days in the following description
corresponds with that in Fig. 1.
Transfer the substratum from the
basket to a new plastic bag (size b). To
Fig. 6. Arrangement of equipment during pasteurization and composting. For the purpose of avoid contaminating the substratum, use
illustration, the front side of both the picnic basket (PB) and the screen support (SC) have clean hands to handle the compost.
been cut away and the basket only partially filled with wetted compost ingredients (I). A During this transfer, spawn the compost
large opening at one end allows the basket to rest on the water reservoir (R) so that about V2
of the steam-producing vaporizer head (VH) is inside the basket. Another support (SU) by mixing 100-200 g of crumbled dried
serves to hold the basket at a slight incline so that condensed water can drain out through a mushroom spawn evenly throughout the
hole (D) into the pan (P). During operation, water from the bottle (B) maintains a constant compost. (When grain spawn is used,
water level in the reservoir (R). Steam production to heat the ingredients (see CAUTION distribute the uncrushed individual
and COMMENTS in text) is controlled by a variable transformer (TR) which regulates
electric current to the vaporizer. Steam is discharged into the 10 cm-high space beneath the grains throughout the compost.) Lightly
ingredients. Three of the 6 holes through which fresh air enters this space are visible on the pack the spawned substratum in the
back side of the basket. To measure compost temperature at different locations, a bag. Reserve about 10 g of the spawn to
thermometer (TH) is inserted in the ingredients through one of the 6 exhaust holes in the lid sprinkle on the top surface of the
(LI).
c o m p o s t . C lo se th e bag by
loosely-folding over the upper part of
the bag. (Never tightly close or seal the
insure that the lid fits tightly. During decrease to 55-65°C. After 16 hr of plastic bag containing the mushroom
pasteurization (and composting) keep stage II composting, ammonia is not culture.) Cut 6 holes (about diam 5
the water bottle filled to maintain the detected usually. During this stage, the mm) evenly spaced in the plastic on the
initial level of water in the reservoir. surface color of the straw continues to bottom of the bag; and cut off the two
U nder th ese c o n d itio n s, the d ark en and actinomycete growth basal ear-like corners of the bag to
minimum temperature of the compost becomes visible on the compost surface permit drainage. Incubate the culture in
increases steadily reaching 60°C after as patches of white specks. After 40 hr a pest-free environment at 24°C. Do not
2— 4 hr steaming. Note the time and of stage II composting, actinomycete incubate the mushroom culture in a
continue heating for the next 3—4 hr at growth (commonly called “fire fang” by B.O.D. type incubator. The excessive air
transformer setting #120. During this mushroom growers) is apparent over the movement and culture drying in such a
3— 4 hr pasteurization period, the entire compost surface. cabinet makes it difficult if not
minimum temperature of the compost impossible to obtain mushroom fruiting.
approaches 70°C and the odor of the III. The ingredients are com posted atOrdinary natural or artificial room light
exhaust air becomes acrid. Usually, 4 5 -5 5 °C w ith m axim um ventilation fo r has no apparent effect on the growth
ammonia cannot be detected in the 3 - 4 days. To begin stage III, set the and development of A . bisporus.
exhaust air during stage I. tra n sfo rm e r at # 1 0 0 . Compost
temperature will decrease to 50-60°C Spawn R u n (Day 14-28). Mushroom
II. The ingredients are com posted atw ithin several hours. T hereafter as m y c e liu m becom es apparent after
5 5-65°C with m axim um ventilation fo r re q u ire d , ca refu lly ad ju st th e several days as a white cottony mass of
40-48 hr. Begin stage II by removing the transformer setting 2-3 divisions at 4 hr fungal threads about the spawn
tape from all lid and basket openings. in terv a ls to m ain tain com post particles. Mushroom mycelium usually
Continue to operate the vaporizer at temperatures at 45-55°C. (Disregard begins to invade and colonize the
transformer setting # 120 . temperatures exceeding 55°C in the compost 4—6 days after spawning.
Ammonia can be detected in the compost immediately adjacent to the Avoid large fluctuations of temperature
exhaust air by odor and the reaction of vaporizer). Continue composting at this during spawn run to prevent excessive
moistened pH test paper within the first temperature range for 3—4 days. During wetting of the compost by condensed
30 min of stage II. Occasionally, insert this stage, ammonia is not detected water. Discard any bag of spawned
the thermometer through each of the 6 usually in the exhaust air which assumes compost that develops a sour or
lid holes in turn to determine the progressively a characteristic fresh fermenting odor or green-colored mold
co m p o st temperature at different compost odor. At the end of this stage, growth on more than 10% of the
locations and depths. After the first turn the vaporizer off and allow the compost surface. After 14 days of
several hours, compost temperatures compost to cool to 24-28°C (about 6 spawn growth, the substratum should

456 HORTSCIENCE, VOL. 10(5), OCTOBER 1975

appear thoroughly colonized by A.
bisporus and have a strong characteristic
mushroom odor.
Preparation o f casing. Although
discussed here, the casing may be
prepared at any convenient time and
stored until required.
Add 2 liters of water at 65-75°C to
600 g of sphagnum peat in a
polyethylene plastic bag (size b).
Thoroughly mix as described previously
for compost preparation. Mix 600 g of
ground limestone with the wet warm
peat. The resulting casing material has a
pH of approx 7 and a moisture content
of about 65%.
Fill a metal pan (size b) with the
freshly prepared casing mixture and
place the pan on the screen support in
th e m o d ified Styrofoam basket.
Pasteurize the peat casing at 60-66°C
for 4 hr using the procedure described
for pasteurization of compost (stage I).
After the pasteurized casing mixture has
cooled, transfer the peat mixture to a
new polyethylene plastic bag (size b).
R eplace any w ater lost during
pasteurization by mixing enough water
in the casing to bring the weight of the
casing to approx 3200 g. When such
casing is squeezed in the hand, water
should appear between the fingers.
Casing may be stored in the
tightly-closed plastic bag for 6-12
months before use.
Casing (Day 28). Level the top
surface of the mycelium-colonized
compost by gently raking the surface
with the fingers. Cover (case) this
surface evenly with about 5 cm of
pasteurized casing containing approx
65% water. Do not compress this layer.
B ecom e fam iliar with and learn to
recognize this m oisture level in casing
by carefully feeling the casing surface
with the palm o f the hand . Close the
bag and continue incubation at 24°C.
G rowth o f m ushroom m ycelium into
the casing (Day 28-38). Scattered fuzzy
patches of A. bisporus may appear on
the casing surface as early as 3—4 days
after casing. Begin to inspect the casing
surface at 1—2 day intervals keeping the
bag closed between observations. When
mushroom mycelium covers 10-25% of
the casing surface, use the water sprayer
to forcibly spray the casing surface with
10-25 ml of water. The mushroom
mycelium apparently disappears or
remains as small patches of flattened
mycelium as a result of this watering
(mycelium “knockdown”).
Pinning (Day 38-46). In commercial
m ushroom grow ing, the grower
carefully and often precisely controls
the initiation, growth, and development
of mushroom fruit. However, such
control is not possible with the
fo llo w in g simple though reliable
method.
Immediately after the suppression of
surface mycelium, cut 6 holes (diam 2.5
H o n t Sp i f m c f V ox 1fW^ O rT O u n n 1Q74;
cm) in the plastic evenly spaced around
the bag opposite the casing- compost
interface. Cut another 6 holes (diam and
spacing as above) in the plastic at about
the midpoint of the compost. Close the
bag and incubate the mushroom culture
at 14-16°C in a well-ventilated but
draft-free area.
When the mushroom mycelium again
becomes apparent on 10-25% of the
casing surface, forcibly spray the casing
surface with 15-25 ml of water to
inhibit mycelial growth.
To promote initiation of mushroom
fruit bodies, the culture hereafter
should be ventilated regularly. To do
this, open the bag and allow the
self-supporting plastic sleeve to remain
open for 20-30 min at the beginning and
end of each day. Water the casing to
inhibit surface mycelium growth and to
maintain casing moisture at about 65%.
With proper conditions, it should not be
necessary to water the casing more than
once in 2-3 days. Whenever the casing is
watered, spray several ml of water also
on the inside surface of the plastic bag
to help maintain a high relative
humidity above the casing. (For pin
formation and fruit development in
com m ercial mushroom production,
ventilation is gradually increased to
about 3 m3 of fresh air per m2 of
mushroom bed per hr (10 ft3/ft2/hr).)
Daily ventilation coupled with
inhibition of surface mycelial growth
eventually results in the formation of
mushroom fruit primordia. These pins
or pinheads first appear as white, dense,
smooth-surfaced clumps of mycelium
(diam 1-5 mm) on or just below the
casing surface. Few if any pins are
form ed on casing covered with
mycelium. Add about 100 ml of water
at the beginning of this and each
succeeding flush to promote fruit
growth and development.
G r o w th and d e v e lo p m e n t o f
m ushroom s (Day 46-52). Continue
i n c u b a tio n at 14-16°C , daily
ventilation, and inhibition of mycelial
growth as the mushroom fruits grow
and develop. Depending on the
mushroom variety and the growing
c o n d itio n s, m ushroom s may be
produced in a clump at the first break
(Fig. 7). At the first break often, pins
may be few in number and not evenly
distributed over the casing surface.
However, an increasing number of pins
should become apparent during the next
6-12 days.
M ushroom picking (Day 52-112).
Mushrooms may be picked and eaten at
any stage of fruit development. In
commercial production in the U.S.
mushrooms are picked usually before
the veil begins to stretch (“tight
buttons”). Avoid excessive disturbance
of the casing during picking by twisting
each mushroom before pulling it from
the casing.
Fig. 7. Well developed 1st break, showing a
clump of mushrooms (white variety). The
mycelium-colonized compost substratum
is visible through the plastic. Card shown
measures 12.5 x 20 cm.
After all the mushrooms of a flush
have been picked, add water to the
casing to bring its water content to
about 65%. Continue incubation at
14-16°C, daily ventilation and watering
as required to obtain succeeding flushes
of mushrooms until the mushroom bed
is judged to be “spent.”
D epending on v a ria tio n s in
te m p e ra tu re and air movement,
adjustment in ventilation and watering
may be n ecessary . A too-high
concentration of CO2 (insufficient
ventilation) inhibits pinning and early
fruit development. Later, insufficient
ventilation is indicated by fruit with
abnormally small caps and elongated
stipes. Excessive watering is indicated
by a continually soaking-wet casing and
water-soaked or rotting fruit. Too little
water is indicated by dry casing, slow
development of the break, or discolored
and cracked fruit surfaces.
Substratum and casing prepared as
described should be free of pests. To
demonstrate the important effect of
pests on mushroom production, add
several grams of dry chopped horse
manure to the compost during spawn
run. A simple incubation technique (39)
may be used to help detect and observe
pests and their effects.
This procedure for the small-scale
cultivations of mushrooms has been
used successfully to produce about 60
separate crops of A . bisporus during a
period of several years. A. bisporus
produced 0.5 — 1.0 kg of mushrooms
(FW) per 60 picking days on the
compost recipe described. This yield is
c o m p a r a b le to th a t o b ta in e d
commercially.
The procedure suitably modified was
used also to grow other edible
mushroom, e.g., Agaricus bitorquis
(Quel) Sacc., Volvariella volvacea (Bull,
ex Fr.) Sing., and species of Pleurotus.
AS 1
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C/n i r x T / n r \ T r\ t 1 C \t C\ C \ r ^ T r \ t» T? t> 1 0^7 C