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Structural Engineering Handbook, 5th Edition
Structural Engineering Handbook, 5th Edition
Structural Engineering Handbook, 5th Edition
Engineering
Handbook
The photos on the front cover are courtesy of Thornton Tomasetti (Chicago office) and Jacobs
(New York office). Mustafa Mahamid is grateful to the two firms for their contributions.
Structural
Engineering
Handbook
MUSTAFA MAHAMID
EDWIN H. GAYLORD, JR.
CHARLES N. GAYLORD
Fifth Edition
ISBN: 978-1-26-011599-4
MHID: 1-26-011599-2
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MHID: 1-26-011598-4.
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About the Editors
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.E., P.Eng., F.SEI, F.ASCE, F.ACI, is a clinical associate
professor in the Department of Civil and Materials Engineering at the University of Illinois-
Chicago and is a member of the AccessEngineering Faculty Advisory Board. He previously
worked as a practicing structural engineer at GRAEF and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and
currently is a consultant for various structural engineering firms in the United States and
abroad. He is a Fellow of ASCE, a Fellow ofACI, and a Fellow of ASCE's Structural Engineering
Institute (SEI) and is active on various ACI and ASCE/SEI technical committees.
The late Edwin H. Gaylord, Jr. was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Illinois-
Urbana-Champaign.
The late Charles N. Gaylord was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Virginia.
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Contents
Contributors xv
Prmice xbc
Yll
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 17. Industrial Buildings Jules Van de Pas, John Rolfes •••••••• 559
17.1 Planning Industrial Buildings. ................................................ . 559
17.2 Code Requirements and Industrial Loads ..................................... . 563
17.3 Framing Systems ............................................................ . 566
Refer.nctis .......................................................................... . 573
Chapter 30. Structural Glass and Glazing Rul de 5. Camposlnhos ••••• 833
30.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 833
30.2 Glass: Produdlon and Propatl• ............................................. . 834
30.3 Glass as a Structural Material ................................................. . 835
JOA Actions .................................................... .. ................ . 839
30.5 Codes and Standards ...................................... ... ......... . ..... . 842
30.6 Plllte Buckling ............................................................... . 850
30.7 Latentl-Torslonal Budding ................................................... . 854
30.8 Glass Columns ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8515
References .......................................................................... . 858
Index 9'9
Contributors
Bulent Akbas. Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University. Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8}
M. Shahrla Alam Professor, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna,
British Columbia, Canada (Chap. 2}
Bulent N.Alemdar, Ph.D., PE Principal Research Engineer. Bentley Systems, Inc., Carlsbad, California
(Chap.4)
O. Salem All, Ph.D., PEEngineering Manager, Structural Technologies (Chap. 31)
Farhad Ansari Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois
at Chicago (Chap. 25}
Charles A. Bartlett, PE, CVS (Chap. 32)
Zdenik P. Balant McCormick Institute Professor and Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Material Science and Engineering,
Northwestern University, Evanston, minois (Chap. 6)
Richard Bennett Professor and Director ofEngineering Fundamentals, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee (Chap. 13)
Charles Bnjak, PE, SE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
David P. Bllllngton Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering, Princeton University (Deceased)
(Chap. 19)
Preetam Blswas. PE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
Victor Bochicchio Executive Vice President, Hamon Custodis, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey (Chap. 24)
Rul de S. Camposlnhos Coordinator Professor with Aggregation, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal
(Chaps. 30, 33)
American Institute ofSteel Construction, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 8}
CharllesJ.Cartllr, Ph.D., PE, SE
James Carter IllConsulting Engineer, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 15)
Helen Chen, Ph.D., PE American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C. (Chap. 9}
Sheng-Wei ChL Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Jullan A. Dumltrucu Consulting Structural Engineer, Raytheon Engineers and Constructors
(Retired) (Chap. 19)
David A. Fanella, Ph.D., SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (Chaps. l, 11)
Shu-Jin Fang Consultant, and Former Associate and Senior Manager, Sargent & Lundy, Chicago,
nlinois (Chap. 24}
Craig D. Foster, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Vineeth Kumar Gattu Chemical and Fuel Cycle Technologies, Argonne National Laboratory
(Chap. 6)
Ramez B. Gayed Adjunct Professor, University of Calga~ and Senior Structural Engineer,
thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (Canada) Inc. (Chap. 21)
llY
xvi CONTRIBUTORS
Edmond Sallklls California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo (Chap. 19)
Jos•ph W. Schul•nb•rg Assistant Clinical Professor of Civil Engineering, University of minois
at Chicago (Chap. 7)
Lasll• D. Scott Chief Engineer, Tank Industry Consultants, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana (Chap. 22)
Onur Sear, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8)
Jay Shen, Ph.D., PE. SE Department of Civii Construction and Environmental Engineering,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa (Chap. 8)
Tony Shkurtl Consulting Engineer, Chicago, minois (Chap. 15)
RobtirtSmllowltz, Ph.D., PE Senior Principal, Thornton Tomasetti (Chap. 28)
Sri Srltharan Wilkinson Chair of Interdisciplinary Engineering and Professor of Structural
Engineering, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State
University. Ames, Iowa (Chap. 12)
Eric Ston• Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 15)
Jules Yan de Pu Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Greenwood Village, Colomdo (Chap. 17)
Thomas Williamson, PE Retired Vice President of Quality and Technical Services, APA-The
Engineered Wood Association (Chap. 14)
Chang Yu, Ph.D., PE University of North Texas, Denton, Texas (Chap. 9)
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Preface
AB a practicing structural engineer and as an educator, I have always believed that structural
engineers and architects should have knowledge ofthe design of the various types of structures
and of their components, various analysis and design methods, the technologies used in this
analysis, and the design and production of engineering drawings. The Structural Engineering
Handbook provides established engineers, young engineers preparing for license exams, archi-
tects, and civil engineering students a comprehensive reference on the planning and design of
a variety of engineered structures. It also gives the designer the information likely needed for
all design phases.
The handbook covers various types of structures, such as tall buildings, industrial buildings,
bridges including railroad bridges, thin-shell structures, arches, cable-supported roofs, steel
tanks for liquids, retaining structures, blast-resistant structures, bins and silos for granular
material, steel transmission towers and poles, and chimneys. Structural loads for the various
types of structures are also covered, and there is comprehensive coverage of classical structural
analysis methods, finite-element analysis, and computer applications in structural engineering.
Additionally, earthquake-resistant design has been covered based on the most recent codes
and standards. Design of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, structural steel, cold-formed
steel, masonry. wood, and aluminium are covered. A chapter on soil mechanics, soil exploration,
and foundation design is also provided. Design against fatigue and fracture is covered for concrete,
composites, and steel
In this fifth edition, all chapters have been rewritten, some chapters in previous versions
of the handbook have been removed due to recent developments in design or construction
practices, and 12 new chapters have been added. The new chapters cover structural loads,
fracture mechanics of concrete and composites, railroad bridges, health monitoring of struc-
tures, building information modeling (BIM), structural fire engineering, progressive collapse
and blast-resistant design, strengthening of concrete using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP),
structural glass, design of foundations for machines, value engineering, and stone cladding.
The 33 chapters of the handbook have been written by 66 contributors. They have pre-
sented their material in a ready-to-use form with flowcharts to show step-by-step procedures
wherever possible. Therefore, derivations of formulas are omitted in all but a few instances,
and many worked-out examples are given. Background information, descriptive matter, and
explanatory material have been condensed or omitted. Because each chapter treats a subject
that is broad enough to fill a book by itself, the contributors have had to select the material that,
in their judgment, is likely to be the most useful to the greatest number of users. References
and sources of additional material are noted for most of the topics that could not be treated
in sufficient detail.
I am very grateful to the contributors for their tremendous efforts in writing, reviewing,
and editing their work, and for their patience during the time it has taken to complete the
fifth edition.
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.B., P.Bng.
University of Illinois at Chicago
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Structural
Engineering
Handbook
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Chapter 1
Structural Loads
BY
MUSTAFA MAHAMID, Ph.D., SE. PE. P.Eng. University of Illinois at Chicago
DAVID A. FANELLA. Ph.D~ SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
1.1 INTRODUCTION a building or structure and do not include construction loads, environ-
mental loads (such as wind loads, snow loads, rain loads, earthquake
Applicable nominal loads on a structure are determined from the
loads, and flood loads), or dead loads (IBC 202).
general building code under whic.b the project is to be designed and
IBC Table 1607.1 contains nominal design values of uniformly dis-
constructed. Chapter 16 ofthe IBC (Ref. 1) contains the minimum mag-
tributed and concentrated live loads L 0 as a function of occupancy or
nitudes of some nominal loads and references ASCE/SEI 7 (Ref. 2) fur
use. The occupancy description listed in the table is not necessarily
others. For a specific project, the governing local building code should
group-specific (occupancy groups are defined in IBC Chapter 3). For
be consulted fur any variances from the IBC or ASCE/SEI 7.
example, an office building with a Business Group B classification may
It is common for nominal loads to be referred to as service loads.
These loads are multiplied by load factors in the strength design
method Exceptions are the wind load effect Wand the earthquake load Tllble1.1 Summary of Loads Addl'91Hd In the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7
effect E: Both are defined to be strength-level loads where the load fac-
Notation Load Code •ection
tor is equal to 1.0.
Table 1.1 contains a list of loads from the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7. D Dead load IBC 1606
Comprehensive information on the determination of structural loads n, Weight of ice Chap. 10 of ASCFJSEI 7
can be found in Ref. 3. B Combined effect of horizontal and IBC 1613 and
vertical earthquake-induced forces ASCEJSEI 12.4.2
u de£lned in ASCEISF.I 12.4.2
1.2 DEAD LOADS
E., Maximum seismic load effect of IBC 1613 and
Nominal dead loads D are the actual weights of construction materials horizontal and vertical forces u ASCEJSEI 12.4.3
and fixed service equipment that are attached to or supported by the 1et forth in ASCFJSEI 12.4.3
building or structure. Specific examples of such loads are listed under p Load due to fluids with well-defined
the definition of •dead load" in IBC 202. pressures and mu:imum heights
Dead loads are considered to be permanent loads because their mag- F, Flood load IBC 1612
nitude remains essentially constant over time. H Load due to lateral earth pressure.1, IBC 1610 (soil lateral loads)
Superimposed dead loads are permanent loads other than the weights ground water preasure, or pressure
of the structural members and include the following: floor finishes of bulk tnale!lal1
and/or topping; walls; ceilings; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning L LiV<! load. tteept roofllV<! load. IBC 1607
(HVAC) and other service equipment; fixed partitions; and cladding. including any permitted liV<!
Minimum design dead loads for various types of common con- load reduction
struction components are provided in ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-la, and L, RoofllV<! load including any IBC 1607
minimum densities for common construction materials are given in permitted live load reduction
ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-2. In cases where information on dead load is R Rain load IBC 1611
unavailable, values of dead loads used in design must be approved by s Snow load IBC 1608 and Chapter 7
the building official (IBC 1606.2). of ASCE/SF.I 7
T Cumula!M effect. of oelf-straining See ASCEISEI 2.3.4 and
forces and effect. 2.4.4
1.3 LIVE LOADS w Load due to wind pressure IBC 1609 and Chapters 26
1.J,1 G•n•..I to 31 of ASCEISEI 7
Live loads are transient in nature and vary in magnitude over the life w, Wind-on-ice load IBC 1614 and Chapter 10
of ASCEISBI 7
of a structure. These loads are produced by the use and occupancy of
:Z CllAl'TH ONE
a1'o have~ areas that may warrant live loads of 125 or 250 J15f (6.0 or InSI Units
12.0 kN/m2) depending 011 the type of storage, which are greater 1han
the preaaibed oJBc:e live loacb. Structural me.mben are designed on the
buis ofthe muimum effects due t.o application of either a uniform load
L•L.(0.25+Jxu.Ar
4.75 )
or a concentrated load and need not be dalgned for the effects of both In thU equltlon, Ku. la the li'YI: load element factor given In me
loads applied at the U1De time. The building offiGial mu.rt approve live fible 1607.11.1, and Ar ii the tributary area mpported by the member
lOldt that are not 1pecl6cally listed ill the table. mtquare feet (1quare meters).
Putltiom that can be relocated (i.e., thoae typef that are not perma- The live load element factor Ku. c:onvertl the tributary area Ar Into
nently attached t.o the ltrudure) arc conaidered to be live loads In office an Influence area. which b contldeud to be the adjacent floor area from
and other buildinp. A live load equal 1D at leut 15 psi (0.72 kN/m2) which the member cleriva m load. In other wordt,
muat be Included for movable putiliom if the nominal unl.funn floor
Im load la lea than 80 pet (3.8 kN/m2 ). Ku = .infhience area/tributary area
IBC Table 1607.1 pretaibet a minimum roof live load of 20 psi
(0.96 kN/m2) for typical roof lltnlctures; larger live loads are required Figure l.l llluttratahawthereduction multiplier 0.25+15!(.JKuAr )
for roofi UJed u garden.1 or plau1 of 111embly. vvte. wtth respect to the J.nfluence area Ku.Ar. Induded In the figure
ASCE Table 4.3-1 abo contain• minimum unl.funn and concentrated are the minimum influence area of 400 lqUUC kct and the limits of O.S
Im load., and IOJlle of thcae value1 diffi:r from those ill IBC Table and 0.4, which are the muimum permitted reduction1 for memben
1607.1. ASCE Tables CU-land C4.3-2canbe11.ted u a guide in mab- eupportlng one floor and two or more tloors, reapeciively.
liahing live load. for some commmily encountered occupancies. ONB-WAY SLABS
1.3-2 RedllCtlan In Uw! a-. Li:9e load reduction on one-way slab. is pennitted provided that the
Bel;aU1e liw loads are tranlient in nature. the probability that a struc;- tributary area. A,.. doea not exceed an area equal to the slab epan timea a
tur.d member will be mbjected t.o the full effect. from nominal live width normal t.othe epan af 1.5 timeathe dab cpan (I.e., u area wtth an
loadt decreuea u the area 1upported by the member illaeaaee. Euept upcct ratio of 1.5). The live load will buomewhat higher for a one-way
for uniform llw load. on roofs, the minimum Wliformly distributed liYI: slab with an uped ratio of 1.5 than Cm a two-Wlly slab with the same
loadt L, ln me Table 1607.l are permitted t.o be reduced In accordance upect ratio. Thia recognizes the benefits of higher redundancy that
with the methodt in IBC 1607.11.1 ar 1607.ll.2. The general method results from two-way actio11..
of live load reduction ill IBC 1607.11.1 ii alto given ill ASCB/SBI 4.7. ASCE/Sfil 4.7.6 lw the aame requirementa for live load reduction on
Reductlon of roof liYI: loada must confwm t.o IBC 1607.13.2. one-way dab. u that in IBC 1607.11.l.l.
1.0
0.9
0.8
..• 0.7
i.
E 0.8
:I
:Iii I
c 0.5 - ~ ----------------
l '
0 I
I I
0.4 -L------------------'------------------------------
« 0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 2,000 4,000 6 ,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
KuAr (sq ft)
fllure 1.1 Wuctionmult:iplier for live load in aa:orclanc:e with me 1607.11.l.
STRUCTURAL LOADS J
In buildings that support relatively large live loads, such as storage GROUP A (ASSEMBLY) OCCUPANCIES
buildings, several adjacent bays may be fully loaded; as such, live loads Due to the nature of assembly occupancies, there is a high probability
should not be reduced in those situations. Data in actual buildings that the entire floor is subjected to full uniform live load. According to
indicate that the floor in any story is seldom loaded with more than Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1, live load reduction is not permitted in
80 percent of the nominal live load. Thus, a maximum live load reduc- assembly areas, CX(:ept for follow spot, projection, and control rooms,
tion of 20 percent is permitted for members that support two or more unless specific ~ons ofIBC 1607.11 apply.
floors, such as columns and walls. Flowchart 1 shown in Fig. 1.2 can be used to determine basic uniform
PASSENGER VEHICLE GARAGES live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.1.
The live load in passenger vehicle garages is not permitted to be reduced,
except for members supporting two or more floors; in such cases, the 1.JA Alternirtlvtt Uniform Live l.Olld Reduction
maximum reduction is 20 percent, but L must not be less than that An alternative method of uniform live load reduction, which is based on
calculated byIBC 1607.11.1(IBC1607.11.1.3). Thus, live load reduction provisions in the 1997 Uniform Building Code (Ref. 4), is given in IBC
is not permitted except for members that support two or more floors. 1607.11.2. IBC Equation 16-24 can be used to obtain a reduction factor
FLOWCHART1
Yes
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
FlOWCHART1
No Yes
No Yes
R for members that support an area greater than or equal to 150 square
=l~.2-0.0001.A,
for A, S 200 square feet
feet where the live load is less than or equal to 100 psf.
Flowchart 2 shown in Fig. 1.3 can be used to determine alternative R1 for 200 square feet< A, < 600 square feet
uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2. 0.6 for A, ~ 600 square feet
1.3.5 Roofl.oltd1
~ =j~.2-0.0SF
forPS4
In general, roofs are to be designed to resist dead, live, wind, and, where
applicable, rain, snow, and earthquake loads. A minimum rooflive load for 4<F<l2
of 20 psf is prescribed in IBC Table 1607 .1 for typical roof structures, 0.6 for F~l2
while larger live loads are required for roofs used as gardens or places
of assembly. A, = tributary area (span length multiplied by effective width) in
IBC 1607.13.2 permits nominal roof live loads on flat, pitched, and square feet supported by a member
curved roofs and awnings and canopies other than fabric construction P = the number of inches of rise per foot for a sloped roof
supported by a skeleton frame to be reduced in accordance with IBC =the rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32 for an arch
Equation 16-26: or dome
No live load reduction is permitted for members supporting less than
or equal to 200 square feet as well as for roof slopes less than or equal
where L 0 =unreduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof to 4: 12. In no case is the reduced roof live load to be taken less than
projection supported by the member 12 psf. The minimum load determined by this equation accounts for
L, = reduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof occasional loading due to the presence of workers and materials during
projection supported by the member repair operations.
STRUCTURAL LOADS 5
FLOWCHART2
Alternative Unifonn Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)
Yes
No Yes
A ~ 0.5(slab span)2
No Yes
No Yes
* Live loads lor members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced
by a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1607.11.2(1); also see exception in that section].
- Live l0&ds for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by
a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1807.11.2(2)].
t Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control rooms are
permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1 .3 Alternative uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2 (Flowchart 2).
Llve loada are permitted to be reduced on areas of occupiable roofs elements must also be designed fur the combined effects of snow and
using the provisions ofIBC 1607.11 for floor live loada (IBC 1607.13.3). wind loads in accordance with IBC 1608 and 1609.
Llve loads that are greater than or equal to 100 psf at areas of roofs
that are classified as Group A (assembly) occupancies are not permit-
ted to be reduced unless specific exceptions of IBC 1607.11 apply (see 1.3.6 Crane Loads
Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1). Design provisions fur runway beams that support moving bridge cranes
A minimum rooflive load of 20 psf is required in unoccupied land- and monorail cranes are given in IBC 1607.14. In general, the sup-
scaped areas on roofs (IBC 1607.13.3.1). The weight of landacaping port structure of the crane must be designed fur the maximum wheel
material is considered a dead load and must be determined based on load, vertical impact, and horizontal impact as a simultaneous load
the saturation level of the soil combination.
A minimum roof live load of 5 psf is required for awnings and A typical top-running bridge crane is depicted in Fig. 1.4. The trol-
canopies in accordance with IBC Table 1607.1 (IBC 1607.13.4). Such ley and hoist move along the crane bridge, which is supported by the
6 CMAPTHONE
FLOWCHART2
Alternative Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)
(continued)
No Yes
L=L0 [l-(R/IOO)]
=
R O.OS(A - ISO)
{
~ percent for horizontal. members
~ smalle.tt of 60 percent for vertical members
23.1(1 + DILJ
Vertical
Bridge Runway
Beam (typ.)
Support
Column (typ.)
Hook
ruinftY beams and support colwmis. The entire crane asKmblage can
also move along the length of the runway beuns.
The maximum wheel loads that are to be used in the design af the
supporling member' are due to the weight af Che bridge plus the rum
of the rated capacity and the we.lght of the trolley. The trolley Is to be
p04ltloned on IU rwnw.y u the location where the muhlng load effect
SlRUCTURALLOADS 7
runway beams with electronically powm<I trolleys is to be taken equal 2. The additional depth of water on the 1111deftec:ted roof @ave the
to 20 perunt of the rum oCthe rated capa.clty of the crane and the weight inlet of the secondary drain.age system at its duign Bow (dh).
of the hoist and ttolley. It is wumed that thla load acta horlzontlllly at The static head d, u the dlltance from the primary drain to the sec-
the tractlo.n surface of the runway beam and that lt ls distributed to the ondary drain and ls determined in the design of the ((lm.bined drainage
runway beam uid supportlDB structure (sw:h as ((INmns) based on the system.
lateral stiffness of the members. The rainwuer depth dA (which it alto nifem!d to u the hydraulic
A longitudlnal force is generated on a crane runway beam by acceler- head) is a function of the .rainfall intenaity i at the site, the area of roof
ation, decderatl.on, and braking of the crane bridge beam (see Fig. 1.5). A that ls serviced by that drainage system, and the &1ze of the drainage
This load is taken u 10 percent of the muimum wheel loads of the system.
c:rane and is usumed to a.ct horizontally at the traction surface of the IBC Figunl 1611.1 provides the rainfall ra.tell for a storm of I-hour
runway beam in either direction parallel. to the beam (me 1607.14.4). duration Chat has a 100-year return period. The.te ratet have been deter-
Bridge aanes with hand-geared bridges are eumpt from this provision. mined by a mttsttcal analysis ofweather .records. Both the primary and
Refuence 5 ((llltt/Jns adcll1lona1 informa1ion on the determination o( the SC(Olldary drainage ~s mutt be designed fur the pmaibed
c:rane loads for indumial buildingl. rainf.ill rate (see Section 1108 of the IPC on how to lize serondary
drainage syJtems). n ill always good practice to check with local build-
1.J.7 ~rWlllund Parddons
ing a11thorltiea to ensure that the proper raln1ill rate la wed In dea!gn.
Interior walls and partitions (lncludlng their finishing materials) that are In genera), dh depends on the type and size of the secondary drainage
greater than 6 feet in height are required to be daigned for a horizontal system and the flow rate Qit mu.st handle. The following equmon from
load. o( 5 psf (IBC 1607.15). Thil requimnent is intended to provide C8.5 can be used to determine the Bow rate through a single secondary
sufficient at.rength and durabillty of the wall framing and ib finished drainage system:
construction when subjected to nomiilal impact loads, suc:'h. as those
from moving furniture or equipment and from HVAC piess11riution. Q=0.0l04Ai
Requimnenbl for fabric partitions that exceed 6 feet in height are ln this equation, Q iJ in gallons per minllk.. A i• in squaR feet. and i iJ
givenlnlBC 1607.15.1.Ahorlzontalload equal to 5 psfla to be applied in inc:'h.et per hour. The constant 0.0104 ill obtained based on the units
to the partitlo.n framing. Additlonally, a 40-pound load. must be applied associated with the variables In the equation:
over an 8-in.-diameter area of the fabric face et a height of 54 in. above
the floor. This condition ill meant to simulate the loa.d caused by a per- Comtant=ft2 x l.D.x_!!_x 7Mgalx....!..!!!.....=O.Ol04
son leaning against the fabric using their hand as the point of contact. hr 12 in. tt3 60 min
The following equa.tiom relue the Bow rate Q in gallons per minute to
1.A RAIN LOADS the hydraulic head dA in inches for channel- and closed-type scuppers
1.4.1 G-.11 (see Fig. 1.6 and Ref. 7):
me 1611 and ASCEISBI Chapter 8 contain requirements for design =
Clwmel-type ICUppers: Q 2.9 ~.5 when h ~di.
rain loads. The nominal rain load R ls determined based on the amount
of water that can accumulate on a roof UNlillng that the primary roof Ooeed-type 8'uppen: Q=2.9 b[t1l -(d11 -ht.s Jwhen h < t111
5
drainage system is bl~. When this O«lllt, water will rue above the
primary roof drain until it reaches the elevation of the roof edge or the where b and h are the width and depth of the Jtupper, respectively, in
secondary drain.age aystem.. The depth of water above the primary drain inches. Note that the channel-type acuppen equation is also applicable
at the deaign raln1ill l.Dten<y is bued on the flow rate of the secondary to closed-type scuppers when It ~ dir
~which "f'ariet widely depending on the type of ae<:0ndary symm
that is wed.
The type and location of the aecondary dra!n8 and the amount of
rainwater above their Inlets under dulgn ccndltlons must be known
in order to determine R. Coo.rdination among the design team (archi-
teciura!. structural. and plumbing) ill very important when establishing
.rain Joa.di.
Chapter 11 of the lnte.matlonal Plumbing Code• (IPC&) colltllns
req,ulremenu on the design of roof drainage symms. lncludlng the b
req,uiRd size and number of drains based on the area that is serviced.
(Rei. 6). Ramfa1I. rate$ are given fur varlou& dtie.t In the United Sta.tea
In Appendix B of the lPC. These rates are based on the mapa In IPC Channel- type Scupper
Figure 1106.1, which have the same origin u the mtpS in the IBC (11«
the following d.i.scuss:ion).
1.4.2 Desitft Rllft I.old
me Equation 16-35 or ASCE/SEI Equation 8.3-1 is used to determine
the rain load R:
R=5.2(d,+di.)
The constant in this equation ill equal to the unit load per inch depth
of rainwater, that is, the denalty of water divided by 12 ill. per foot:
62.4/12 =5.2 psf per inch. b
The total depth o( rainwater on a roof that is to be uaed in deten:nin-
ing R ((Insists of two parts:
1. The depth of water on the undetlecte.d roof up to the Inlet of Closed- type Scupper
the secondary dnlnage aystem. when the primary drainage system is
bloclced (dJ. Flfu19 1.6 Roof tcappen.
t CMAPTHONE
Parapet
Figure 1.7 Wala' deptha, tl, and t.llP in accardance with IBC 1611 fur typical perimeter KUf'PC?L
ASCE/SEI Table C8-1 give& flown.tee in gallone per minute and cor- 1.4.4 Controllld Dreln1e-
iuponding hydraulic heads for circular drain, channel-type scupper. ln some Juriadlcttons, the rate of rainwater flow from roofs Jnto storm
and closed-type scupper drainage symm.. drains Is limited. Controlled-ilow drains are typically ut1li7.ed in such
Figure 1.7 illwrtrate.1 the rairxw.Ua' depth! tl., and dh that are to be used. cues and arc dmgned in accordance with lPC 1110 (Ref. 6). The drain-
in determining R for the case of a scupper secondary drainage syrtem. age ftow rate provided by the primary drainage S}'ltem (controlled-ftow
while Fig. 1.8 illustntes these water depths for a typical interior drallar dra!ns) 18 lea.t than the rainfall rate and mter inte.ntJonally accumulate
secondary drainage~ on the roof.
Where buildings are configured. such that rainwater will not collect According to me 1611.3 and ASCE/SEI 8.S, a SC«lllduy drainage
0.11 the roo( no rain load b required in the design of the root; and a sec-
l}'Jtml at a higher elevation must be provided when controlled-ftow
ondary drainage system is not needed. What la important to .note Is that dra!ns are used. u the primary drainage system; th1a .18 meant to limit the
the provWons ofIBC 1611 and ASCB/SEI Chapter 8 must be considered accumulatJon of water on the roof above that elewtion. Note that con-
wherever the potential aim that water ma:y accumulm on die roof. trolled drainage hardware must not be u.ed on the •econduy drainage
1.u Ponding lmablltty l}'Jtml became the secondary system is the backup in caJe the primary
ly3tem u blocked.
ln sl.tuttions where roofs do not hm: adequate slope or ha~ insuffl.dent Roof\! must be designed in mch cases to support the stormwater
and/or blocked drains to remove water due to rain or melting snow, Wllporuily supported on them, dmilu to traditional roof drainage
water will tend to pond in low areas, which will cause the roof structure
~
to deflect. These low areas will subseq,ue.ntly attract even more water, Ponding instability in accordance with me 1611.2 or ASCE/SEI 8.4
leading to addil.lonal defl«tton. Sufllclent stiffness must be provided must also be checl<ed.
so that d.efl~on• will not continually inc~ until innability o~
resulting in localiud failure.
The provision• in ASCE/SEI U are provided to help emure that 1.S SOIL LATERAL LOADS
susceptible bays ha~ adequue stiffnetlS to preclude progressive ddlec:-
tion and adequate mength. to resin the ponding load plus the ~pli~le 1.S.1 G-.11
design rain load (JBe 1611.2). Swrceptible bays are detined in ASCBJSEI Poundation walh of a building or structun: and retaining wll11s murt be
8.4 and illustrated in ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-1. det!gned to mist the lateral loadt cau.ed by adjacent aoll. A geotechni-
ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-2 shows a roof with. inte.rlor primary drains <:al investigation is uaually unde.rtab.n to determine the magnitude of
and perimeter overftow (secondary) drains. All bays are suscep- die soil prusure. In cue. where the results of such an investipti.on are
tible in this s:itwllion regardle.u of the roof slope becawe water can be not available, the lateral soil loadt in me 'Ilible 1610.1 are to be wed
impounded on the roof when the primary drainage system b blocked. (aimilar de&ign lateral loads are provided in ASCE/SEI Table 3.2-1).
L
----- -- ---------------------------
Roof Drain --......
ds
The design 1atera1 soil load. H, depencls on the type of •oil and the In certain paru of the United States, atmospheric tu loads must be
boundary conditiona a1 the top of the wall Walh that are reatrictecl. to conddered in the design a! all structure. and structural elemenu that
.move a1 the top are to be deaigned for the at-rert p.nmurea tabulated in are exposed to the element.t. Chapter 10 of ASCB/SE.I 7-16 c:ontaina
me Table 1610.1, while walls that are free to deflect and rotate at the top prov:isi.ona on how to determine ice loads due to fnaing rain on a.
are to be clesiped fur the ac:tivc pre11S111'e$ in that table. variety of structural ahapes, objects, and configurations as a function of
Foundation walls that clo not extend more 1han 8 feet bc:low grade the design Ice thickness.
and are laterally rupported at the top by fl.Wble diaphragms are permit-
ted to be dCl!gned for the actift pressure values given in the table. 1.6.2. AltRoofSnowloads
IAkra1 soil preaum are not provided for the expansive IOils Identi- Once a ground mow load has bee.n established, a flat roof snow load,. Pp
fied by Note bin IBC Table 1610.1 becau1e thete soils ha.ve unpredict- ls determined by Eq,UUl.on 7.3-1 a! ASCEJSEI 7:
able characterlstla. These soib absorb water and tend to shrink and
swell to a higher degree than other soils. As these soils swell, they are p1=o.1c,c11,p1
capable of exerting relatively large force. on the aoil-retalning ruucture. The 0.7 factor in Che equation above ii a co1t1ervative ground-to-roof
As such, apanaiTe soils are not suitable u backfill (see Note b). snow load convenlon factor. C, Is the aposure factor, accounts for the
In addition to lateral pres.'lllrel from soil, walls mutt be designed wind at the die, and is related to the type of terrain and the ezposure of
to mist the effects of bydroitattc pre.uure due to undrained bacldlll the roo£ Valu~ of C, are given in ASCB/SEI 7 Table 7.3-1 as a function
(unless a drainage system Is inml!ed) and to any surdlarge loads that of the surfac:e roughness c.:ategory a.nd the type of roof a:posure. Surfac:e
<:all R"1lt from sloping backfills or from d.rivewa}" or parking space. roughne.u categories B, C, and D are defined in 26.7 fur wind deilgn
Chat are close to a. wall Submerged or ~d soil pressuret include (see Table 1.2).
Che weight a! the buoyuit aoil plua the hydrostatic p.ressure.
ASCB/SEI 3.2.2 contains requirements for the de'1gn of any horl- 'hble 1.2 Surfaa Rough MU c:.t.toriu
zontal element supported directly on •oil. auc.:h as slabs on grade and
ba.tement slabt. Full hydrostatic pressure mu.rt be applied over the entinl
area of such elemel!U where applicable. Elem.enta that are supported by
apansive soils must be designed to accommodate the upward loads B Urban and ll1lba.cball. ueu, wooded-, or o1her temm
c.:au.ed by the es:pansive soil. or the expansive soil is to be remOV\ld or 'With~ closely rpaccd. obst:rui:t!one having the
ltlbiliud a.round and beneath the ltlucture.. me of angle-family dwellillp or larger
c Open temlin with ICl!teml obmucticma having height»
gcneraJly 1ea than 3D feet; this a1e80iy ll1dudes flat
1.6 SNOW AND ICE LOADS open country and grastlands
1.6.1 lninlcllldlon D Flat, unob11r11Cted am.t and water A1'faces; lhis category
Struciural memben that are a. part of :coo&, balconies, canopie1, and in.c:lwm smooth mudflm, aalt flm. and unbmbn ice
llmllar atructurea that are expoeed to the e.nviroa.me.nt must be deaigned
fur the effi:cts of mow loacls in th04e geographic areas whe.re snowfall Roof aposun:s are defined as fully expC*d. partially exposed, and
<:all oc;c;ur. sheltered (1ee Footnote a. in Table 7.3-1). A fully exposed condition
Loacls on buildings and oeher structure.I due to snow are determined e:d.rul where a roof la eq>o$ed on all sides with no shelter provided by
based on the anticipated ground mow load. the occupancy of the build- a.dJoWng terrain, higher structuru, or trees. Roofs wi1h large mechani-
.Ing, the aposure, the thermal resistance of the roof structure, and the cal equipment, parapets that extend aboft the height of the balanc.:ed
shtpe and slope of the roof. Partial loading. unbalanced mow loacls mow load. or other similar obstructions a.re not conaidmid to be fully
due to roof configuration, drif\ loacls on lower or adjacent roofs and on exp011ed because such conditions can provide some shelter to the wind.
projections such as parapea and mechanical equlpme.nt. sliding snow Obstructions are defined as providh'lg shelter when they are loc:ated
loads, and ra!n-on-&iow loacls muft also be considered when designing within a dlmnce a! 10h0 from the roof; where h0 is the helglit of the
fur the dfectll &om snow. obstruction above the roof(see Footnote bin Table 7.3-1). The c:onifers
me 1608.1 niquires 1hat de1ign mow loads be d.ewmined by the pro- depicted 111 Fig. 1.9 provide shelter to the building roof if Che dlmnc.:e.
vision• of Chapter 7 ofASCB/SBI 7. In-depth information ii given in the x, between the center!Jne of the building and the tree line is less than or
following sections on the•e provisions along with pertinent background equal to 10h0 • In cases where deciduous trees that are leafless in winter
.Information on the methodologies that iue utilized. aum11111d the site, the fully aposed c:aleiO'Y is applic:able.
x Centerline of building
..-~~~~~~~~~~-.iii
Partially exposed roof exposures are to be used where fully exposed 1.6.4 Slopad Roof Snow l.Ndt
and sheltered conditions do not apply. This is generally the most common Design snow loads fur all structures are based on the sloped roof snow
roof exposure. load, p,. which is determined by the equation
Similar to surface roughness categories, a roof exposure condition must
represent the conditions that are expected during the lifi: of the building.
p,=e,p,
et is the thermal factor; it accounts for the amount of heat loss
through the roof. Values of et are given in ASCE/SEI 7 Table 7.3-2 as a The slope factor, e,, depends on the slope and temperature of the roof,
function of the thermal condition. Like terrain categories and exposure the presence or absence of obstructions, and the degree of slipperiness
conditions, the thermal condition that is chosen must represent the of the roof surface.
anticipated conditions during winters for the lifi: of the building. Figure 7 .4-1 of ASCE/SEI 7 contains graphs of C, fur warm and cold
I, is the importance factor; it adjusts the snow load based on the roof conditions, and C7.4 contains equations for e,. Flowchart 4 in
occupancy of the structure. Risk categories for buildings and other Fig. 1.11 shows the procedure for finding the roof slope factor snow
structures are defined in IBC Table 1604.5, and values of I, are gm:n in load, and Flowchart 5 in Fig. 1.12 shows the procedure for finding the
ASCE/SEI Table 1.5-2. sloped roof snow load.
1.AU Minimum Snow Loads for Low-Slope Roofs 1.6.5 Partl•I LHdlng
ASCE/SEI 7.3.4 contains provisions for minimum snow loads, p,,., for The partial loading provisions of 7.5 of ASCE/SEI 7 must be satisfied
low-slope roofs, which are defined as follows: for continuous roof framing systems and all other roof systems where
• Monoslope, hip, and gable roofs with slopes less than 15 degrees. removal of snow load on one span (by wind or thermal effects) causes
• Curved roofs where the vertical angle from the eaves to the crown an increase in stress or deflection in an adjacent span. For example, an
is less than 10 degrees. increase in bending moment and deflection will occur in the span of a
Flowchart 3 shown in Fig. 1.10 shows the procedure fur finding the cantilevered roof member that is adjacent to the cantilever span where
flat roof snow load. half the snow load is removed.
fLOWCHART3
Flat Roof Snow Load, P/
• A ftat roof is defined as a roof with a slope that is less than or equal to 5 degrees.
.. "CS" in the maps signifies areas where a site-specific study must be conducted to
determine Pg· Numbers In parentheses represent the upper elevatlon llmll In feat for
the ground snow load values given below. Site-specific studies are required at
elevations not covered in the maps.
Minimum snow loads for low-slope roofs Pm are specified In 7.3.4. Low-slope roofs are
defined in 7.3.4.
Figure 1.10 Flat roof snow load (Flowchart 3).
STRUCTURALLOADS 11
FLDWCHAAT4
No Yes
No Yes
• Portions of curved roots having s slope exceeding 70 degrees shall be considered free of
snow load, that is, c.~ o (7.4.3).
FLOWCHART4
No Yes
No Yes
FLOWCHART4
No Yes
•• See 7.4 for definitions ot unobstructed and sllppery surfaces. An R-value for a roof Is
defined as Its thermal resistance.
t See 7.4.5 for an additional uniformly diStributecl load that is to be applied on overhanging
portions of warm roots due to fonnatiOn of ice dams and icicles along eaves.
Figure 1.11 (Conlinud)
There will be (n-1) possible combinations for this case where n is equal
FLOWCHARTS to the number of spans in the continuous beam system.
Sloped Roof Snow Load, p, Case 1 can occur when two different snow events that correspond to
half of the balanced snow load are separated by an event that prevents
the lower half of the roof snow from drifting. The intervening event can
be sleet or freezing rain, for example. After the second snowfall occurs, a
Determine flat snow load PJ strong wind blows across the roof, removing snow from all of the spans
from Flowchart 3 and depositing it on all of the downwind spans. Case 1 in Figure 7.5-1
depicts the case for wind blowing from right to left.
Wind blowing from left to right must also be considered, and this is
Detennine roof slope factor c, covered in Case 2 for a wind of shorter duration than that in Case 1. In
from Flowchart 4 particular, the wind event in Case 2 is long enough to remove the snow
from the first span and deposit it on the adjoining spans.
The load pattern depicted for Case 3 in Figure 7.5-1 could cor-
respond to a case where there is an obstruction on the roof (such as
Detennine sloped roof snow a parapet) that blocks the wind from blowing the snow behind the
loadp, = C,p1 by Eq. 7.4-1 obstruction.
Partial loading provisions need not be considered for structural
Figure 1.12 Sloped roof snow load (Flowchart 5). members that span perpendicular to the ridgeline of gable roofs with
slopes between 2.38 degrees ('f.i on 12) and 30.3 degrees (7 on 12)
because this loading case is addressed in the unbalanced snow load
For simplicity, only the three load cases given in Figure 7.5-1 of provisions of 7.6.1, which are covered in the next section.
ASCE/SEI 7 need to be investigated; comprehensive alternate span (or 1.6.6 UnlMlllnmd RoofSn-LIHld1
checkerboard) loading analyses are not required:
OVERVIEW
• Full balanced snow load on either of the exterior spans and half of
the balanced snow load on all other spans. Unbalanced snow load occurs on sloped roofs from wind and sunlight
• Half of the balanced snow load on either exterior span and full bal- and in most cases can be considered a drift load. Wind tends to reduce
anced snow load on all other spans. the snow load on the windward portion of a roof and increase the snow
• All possible combinations of full balanced snow load on any two load on the leeward portion. Provisions for unbalanced snow loads are
adjacent spans and half of the balanced snow load on all other spans. given in 7.6.1 for hip and gable roofs; in 7.6.2 for curved roofs; in 7.6.3
$1RUCTURAL LOADS 13
fur multlple folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roofs; and in 7.6.4 In CUC$ where W is Jen than 20 feet. a wlue of W equal to 20 feet
fur dome rooh. When determining unbalan~ mow loads on a root it ii used in Equation 4.3. In such cues, the mow drift height. Ii,,, deter-
ill important to consider wind from all directions. mined. by Equation 4.3 need not be tabn greater than
HIP AND GABLB Roo11s ~I,p1W/4y
Depicted. In Fig. 1.13 is unM!an~ mow load. on a hip aid gable roof whe.re W ls the actud fetch distance, not the minimum fetch distance
of a building due to wind. The shape of the roof drift can t.wically be of20 feet.
characterized u a triangle located. close to the ridgeline: the turchuge is The density of snow, y, ill determined by Equa1ion 7.7-1:
essentially zero at the ridge, and the top sumce of the surcharge I• basi-
cally horizontal. Loading (Ollcli1lon• meant to represent thl• behavior ')'=0.13p,+14S: 30 pc(
arc giTen in 7.6.1.
Flowchart 6 in Fig. 1.15 can be used to determine the unbalanced roof
mow loads for hip and gable roofs.
.....
Wind
Windward Leeward
CuRVJIJ> ROOI'
Provisions for balanced and unbalanced mow loads on curved roo& are
given in 7.6.2. Any portion of a curved roof that has a slope that exceecb
70 degreu can be comidered free of1now loads. Note that the roofJlope
is measured from the horizoatal. to the tan.gent of the curved roof at that
point In cases where the roof •lope a<:l:ed.a 70 degree«, the point on the
roof at a slope of 70 degree1 is (Ollsiderecl to be die eave.
Balanced and unbalanced. load cases that are applicable to curved roo&
are given In Figure 7.4-2 aa a function of the dope of the roof at the eave.
It Is Important to note that these provisions are not applicable to
c:urved roof's that are co.ncavc upward. In such caset. u wdl as in cases
for other roof geometries and complicated site (Ollditions, wind tunnel
model studiet should be wed to establish design snow loads (see C7.14).
Flgin 1.13 U~ mow load on• hip or gable roo£ The unbalanced. load.ls very similar to Cue 2: the windward portion of
the roof between the windwvd eave and the crown ls auumed. to be free
Unbalanced. mow loads mlllt be considered. for roofs with 1lope.1 of* of mow, and there are two cases to comi.der for die leeward portion ofthe
on 12 (2.38 degrees) Chrough 7 on 12 (30.3 degree.). Drift» typically do roof depending 011 whether or not the ground or another roof abuts the
not form on roofs with. slopes less than and greater than tht$e llmiting curved roof w.ilhiD. 3 reet of.Its eaves (see Figure 4.8 In Ref 3).
whle.. Bdanced. and unbalan«d load conditlons that must be addressed Flowchart 7 in Fig. 1.16 cm be used to detx!rmine the unbalan«d roof
for hip and gable roofs arc illumab!d in Figure 7.6-2 (see Fig. 1.14). mow loads for curved roo&.
MUL'l1PL£ FOLDBD Pu.'1'11, SAWTOO'l'B, AND
8hd..fS/3 BAJl!UlL VAULT ROOFS
I' 'I Provisions for unbalanced mow loads on folded plate, sawtooth, and
0.3ps f ! : hdy/./S bane! vault roofs are given in 7.6.3. Unbalanced loads need to be con-
Unbalanced
All other cases
..,~~.~-.--
. .--.i.~ i i t t Ps
dde.red when the slope e:ui!eds" .ln.fft (1.79 degrea).
Similar to curved roofs. unbalanced. loads are equal to O.S!J at
the crown or ridge of the roof and are equal to 2pJ' C, at the valleys.
IDllS!raled in Figure 7.6-3 are the balanced and unlialanced loads for a
sawtooth roof.
Unbalanced
w s 20 feet w ith t t t t t lsPg Flowchart 8 in Fig. 1.17 can be used to detx!rmine the unbalan«d roof
mow loads for folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roo&.
roof rafter system
DoMll Rool'S
Acco.rding to 7.6.4, unbalanced snow loads for dome roof's are to be
determined in the same manner u for curved rooti. Unbalanced loads
Balanced t I I I I I I I i Ps are to be applied to the downwind 90-degrc:e sector of the dome in plan
(see Fig. 1.18). The load decreases linearly to zero over 22.5-degree sec-
tors on either side ofthis aec:tor. No anow load. I• taken on the remaining
225-degree upwind sector.
The balan~ and unbalanced. load di..ruiblllions depend on the slope
[d
of the roofat die eaves. In the unbalanced load case, the mow load at the
eave or where the slope .Is equal to 70 degrees dec.rease& llneady to zero
over the 22.S-degree sector on each side of the 90-degree downwind
a«tor of the root:
s 1.6.7 Drlfb on Lowtr Roots
0v:u.VIBW
Section 7.7 contains provl.slo.ns for snow drifts that can oc<:Ur on lower
roo& of a building due to die following:
1. W'md depositing mow from higher portion• of the same building
or an adjacent building or terrain feature (sw:h u a hill) to a lower roof
2. Wlnd depositing snow from the windward portion of a hnm roof
FltuM 1.14 Balanced and unbalanced snowloadt fur hip and gable rooft. to the portion of the lower roof adjaCCI1t to a taller part of the building
FLOWCHART&
No Yes
No Yes
No Yes
• hd Is the drift height from Fig. 7.6-1 wllh W substituted fort u• y = snow
density detennlned by Eq. 7.7·1, and S =roof slope run for a rise of one.
Figure 1.15 Unbalanced roof snow loads-hip and gable rooti (Flowchart 6).
FLOWCHART7
No Yes
Unbalanced load shall consist of: Unbalanced snow loads are not
• No load on the windward side required to be applied
• The applicable load distribution depicted
in Cases 1, 2, or 3 shown in Fig. 7.4-2 (see
Figs. 4.6, 4.7, and 4.6)**
• Portions of curved roofs having a slope> 70° shall be considered free of snow.
- See Fig. 4.10 for application ol unbalanced snow loads on a dome roof.
Figure 1.16 Unbalanced roof snow loads-cur-1 and dome rooti (Flowchart 7).
14
$1RUCTURAL LOADS 15
fLOWCHART8
No Yes
Unbalanced snow loads are not Unbalanced load shall consist al'*
required to be applied • o.s pt at the ridge or crown
• 2 p/C, atthe valtey-
• Figure 7.6-3 and Fig. 4.9 illustmte batanced and unbalanced snow !Oads for a
eawtooth roof.
•• Snow eurfal::& above th& valley shall not b& at an &levation higher than th& snow
above th& ridg&. Snow d&pths shall be det&rmin&CI by <IMclng th& snow load by th&
snow density given by Eq. 7.7·1.
Figure 1.17 UD.balaD<:cd roof «llOW loadt-mllltlple fu1dcd plait. sawtooth. md ham! '9all!t roaff (Plowdwt 8).
The first type of drift Is cailed a leeward drift. and the •econd 18 a In the case ofleeward. drlft8, the height of the drift. h.,. at the roof step
windward. drift. Both types of drifts are lllusmited in Figure 7.7·1 (see is determined from Figure 7.6-1 by substituting the length of the upper
Fig. 1.19). root lClf!Pd' for l,. and using the mow importance factor. I,:
In cases where there is a change in elevation between roan, mow
Wind
)
i upper
Ps
/iower
in this way assuming that the upper roof Is blown clear of snow in There may be caS« where the drift width. w, aceeda the le.ngth of the
the vicinity of the drift. While this assumption is generally valid for lower root ei.,_. Jn these situations. the drift load ii to t<iper linearly to
windward dritling, it is not necessarily accurate for leewvd. drifting wo at the iiir end of the lower level roof. This provision may be appli-
because there may still be anow on the upper level roof when the drift cable to canopiea over an entranceway to a building. Figure 1.21 ahow»
has stoppe<l growing. For simplicity; the ume assumption is used for the the proper load dlstr:lbution to use where w > ti..-.
clur height regard!~ of the type of drift that is formed
The height of the balanced mov.s h"' ii determined 111ing the magni-
tude of the balanced snow load, p., and the density of the snow, -y:
,,. p, p,
y 0.13p,+14
where yneed not be taken greater than 30 pd {see Equation 7.7-1).
The width of the drih. w, depends on the clear height. h., as follows:
Jfit Is found that the governing drift height, ""' aceeds the clear height,
h" then the drift height is set ~u.al to h.., The drift width in dm cue has
been ertablished by equating the crou-sectional area o( the triangular
drift that 18 llmiled to h, (i.e., h, x w/2) with the cross-sectional area of
the triangular drift that Is not llmlted to h, [I.e., (114 x 411/2)). The upper
limit of drift width 811i i• baled on studi« that showed that additional
mow accumulation i.'I not er;pectlld within a rise-to-run railo range of RguN 1.21 Load ~n where the drift width 1£ graier thaD the lezl8th
1:6.5 to 1:10. of the lowerroo£
STRUCTURALLOADS 17
According to 7.7.1, drift loads need not be 'onsidered where the ratio to existing ones within a horizontal distance of20 feet have the potential
hjhb is less than 0.2. In sum 'ases, the roof step is relatively small so that to increase the snow loads on the existing roof when the new roof is
the drift formation is negligible. higher than the existing one. In particular, both drift and sliding snow
loads must be considered on the existing roof due to the presence of
ADJACENT STRUCTURES
the new roof. Additionally, the existing roof will most likely be partially
Leeward drifts = form on the roof of a stru,ture that is close enough
to an adjaant one that has a higher roof. A"ording to 7.7.2, leeward
exposed or sheltered by the new building or alteration; if it were fully
exposed previously, an increase in snow load will be realized due to this
drifts form on lower roofs of adjacent buildings when the horizontal change in exposure.
separation distance, s, between the two is less than 20 feet and is less ASCE/SEI 7.12 requires that owners or agents for owners of an exist-
than 6 times the vertkal separation distance, h. The drift surcharge is ing building with a lower roof be notified for the potential of in'reased
determined using the provisions of 7.7.1. See Ref 3, Section 4.2, fur snow loads when a new building or alteration with a higher roof is to be
details on drift calculations at adjacent structures. lo'8ted within 20 feet of the existing building.
INTERSECTING DRIFTS AT Low ROOFS
GENER.AL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE
ASCE/SEI 7.7.3 contains provisions for snowdrifts that =
o"ur at SNowLoAns
reentrant 'omers and parapet wall 'omen Three-dimensional drifts
The following general procedure, which is based on that given in C7,
form at sum locations due to wind acting in multiple directions. The
can be used to determine design snow loads in accordance with Chapter 7
provisions in 7 .7.1 are to be used to determine the individual two-
of ASCE/SEI 7:
dimensional snowdrift geometries for both leeward and windward
1. Determine ground snow load, p~ (7.2).
intersecting snow drifts. Referen'e 3 Section 4.2 'ontains details on the
2. Determine flat roof snow load, Pt• by Equation 7.3-1 (7.3). The
determination of intersection drifts at low roofs.
procedure is shown in Fig. 1.10 (Flowcliart 3).
Roop PROJECTIONS AND PARAPETS 3. Determine sloped roof snow load, p,. by Equation 7.4-1 (7.4).
The pro,edUie is shown in Figs. 1.11 and 1.12 (Flowchart 4 and
Drift loads on sides of roof projections (including rooftop equipment)
Flowchart 5).
and at parapet walls are determined by the provisions of 7.8, which are
4. Consider partial loading (7.5).
based on the drift requirements of7.7.1.
5. Consider unbalanced snow loads (7.6). The procedure is shown
The drift that is formed adjai:ent to a parapet wall is a windward drift,
in Fig. 1.15 (Flowchart 6) for hip and gable roofs, Fig. 1.16 (Flowchart 7)
and the height of the drift is equal to three-quarters of h11 from Figure 7 .6-1.
for curved and dome roofs, and Fig. 1.17 (Flowchart 8) for multiple
SLIDING SNOW folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roofs.
6. Consider snow drifts on lower roofs (7.7) and roof projections
The load 'awed by snow sliding off of a sloped roof onto a lower roof
(7.8). The procedure to determine snow drifts is shown in Fig. 1.22
is determined by the provisions of 7 .9. Sum loads are superimposed on
(Flowchart 9).
the balan'ed snow load of the lower roof and need not be used in com-
7. Consider sliding snow (7.9).
bination with drift, unbalanced, partial, or rain-on-snow loads.
8. Consider rain-on-snow loads (7.10).
Sliding snow loads are applicable for upper roofs that are slippery
9. Consider ponding instability (7.11).
with slopes greater than % on 12 and for upper roofs that are not slip-
10. Consider existing roofs (7.12).
pery with slopes greater than 2 on 12.
The snow load provisions in the ~ussions above 'onsider load effects OVERVIEW
due to light rain on snow; effects due to heavy rain are not directly taken An ice-sensitive structuTe is defined as one in which the effects due to
into acc:ount in the SO-year ground snow loads. At locations where the atmospheric ice loading governs the design of part or all of the struc-
ground snow load is greater than 20 psf, it is assumed that because of ture (IBC 202 and ASCE/SEI 10.2). Examples include the following:
the relatively deep snow pad, heavy rains have a less likely chance of (1) lattice structures, (2) guyed masts, (3) overhead lines, (4) light sus-
permeating through the snow pack and draining away; as sum, rain-on- pension and 'able-stayed bridges, (5) aerial cable systems (e.g., ski lifts),
snow load effects have been captured in the ground snow load measure- (6) amusement rides, (7) open catwalks and platforms, (8) flagpoles,
ments, and an additional surcharge to account fur this is not required. and (9) signs.
A rain-on-snow surcharge load of 5 psf is to be added on all roofs that Freezing rain is rain or drizzle that falls into a layer of subfreezing
meet the conditions of 7.10. This surcharge load applies only to the bal- air in the earth's surface and freezes on oontact with the ground or any
anced load case and need not be used in 'ombination with drift, sliding, other exposed surface to form glaze (clear, high-density) ice. Compared
unbalanced, minimum, or partial loads. to in-doutl icing (which o"urs when a supercooled ~ud or fog drop-
lets that are carried by the wind freeze on impact with objects) and
PONDING INSTABILITY snow, freezing rain is considered the cause of the most severe ice loads
Provisions for ponding instability and progressive deflection of roofs in most of the contiguous United States. Because values of ice thickness
are given in 7.11and8.4 of ASCE 7. Sus~ble bays, that is, bays with for in-cloud icing and snow are not 'Uirently available in a form that
a roof slope less than ~ in. per foot or those where the primary drain is suitable for inclusion in ASCE/SEI 7, only data for freezing rain are
system is bloclted and the secondary drain system is functional, must given in Chapter 10.
be analyzed for the effects from the larger of the snow load or the rain Ice that is formed on exposed surfaces increases the size of the surface,
load assuming the primary drainage system is bloclted. The roof stru'- which increases the projeded area that is exposed to wind. Chapter 10
ture in these bays must be designed with adequate stiffness to preclude contains requirements that address the proper wind loads that must be
ponding instability. used on ice-covered ~tures.
Roof surfaces with a slope greater than or equal to 14 in. per foot The provisions of Chapter 10 do not apply to structures that are
toward points of free drainage need not be 'onsidered susceptible to covered by national standards (e.g., electric transmission systems and
ponding instability. communication towers and masts). In such cases, the standards and
guidelines in 10.1.3 are to be used where appli,able.
EXISTING RoOFS Design for dynamic load effects resulting from galloping. ice shedding.
Requirements for increased snow loads on existing roofs due to addi- and aeolian vibrations, to name a few, are not covered in Chapter 10. Such
tions and alterations are covered in 7.12. New structures built adjacent effects must be considered in certain types of ice-sensitive structures.
18 CHAPTER ONE
FloWCHART9
• ''CS* in the maps signifies areas where a site-specific study must be conducted to determine p1 . Numbers
in parentheses represent the upper elevation limit in feet for the ground snow load values given below.
Slte-speclftc studies are required at elevallons not covered In Iha maps.
•• Height of balanced snow hb = p,lyor p1fy(7.7.1).
t See 7. 7.2 and Figs. 4.14 and 4.15 for drift loads caused by adjacent structures and terrain features.
See 7.8 for drift loads on roof projections and parapet walls.
Figure 1.22 Drift on lower roof of a structure (Flowchart 9).
Dllllgn le11 Tbkknns far Freezing R.-ln The design Ice thickness, t"' that For wind on ice-covered solid freestanding walls and solid signs, wind
Is to be used In calculating ice weight is the nominal ice thickness, t, mul- loads are determined for solid freestanding walls and solid signs using
tiplied by the modification factors noted above (see Equation 10.4-5): Equation 29.3-1:
ttl = tIJ.(Ka )0.35 F=qhGCfA,
Ice Weight Ice load is determined using the ice weight, D~ that is where q4 is determined by Equation 29.3-1 at height h, which is defined
formed on all exposed surfaces of structural members, guys, compo- in Figure 29.3-1, and G is determined in accordance with 26.11.
nents, appurtenances, and cable systems. The cross-sectional area of ice, c
The force coefficients, 1, given in Figure 29.3-1 and the gross area,
Ai· to be used in the determination of D1 in such cases is determined by A,. of the solid freestandiD.g wall or solid sign must be based on the
Equation 10.4-1: dimensions including ice.
2 Wind loads are determined using Equation 29.4-1 using the force coef-
A,= itr
ficients, c1, from Figure 29.4-3 and the gross area, A1 , based on the
In this equation, r is the radius of the maximum cross section of a dome dimensions, including ice.
or a radius of a sphere.
WIND ON ICE-COVERED Gun AND CABLES
The ice volume given by Equation 4.16 is for a flat plate or projected
surface that is oriented perpendicular to the path of the raindrops. Because there is very little published experimental data for force coef-
ASCE/SEI 10.4.1 permits Equation 4.16 to be multiplied by 0.8 for verti- ficients fur ice-covered guys and cables, a single value of 1.2 is permitted
cal plates and 0.6 fur horizontal plates. to be used in all cases (10.5.5). The rationale behind using this value is
Once Ai or \./have been computed, the corresponding ice weight, D1, given in Cl0.5.5.
is determined by multiplying A 1or Vj by the density of ice. .According to
DESIGN TBMPBRATURBS POR FREEZING RAIN
10.4.1, the density of ice must not be taken less than 56 pd.
Figures 10.6-1 and 10.6-2 give temperatures concurrent with ice thickness
due to freezing rain for the contiguous 48 states and Alaska, respectively.
1.6.9 Wind on Ice-Covered Strudures The design temperature for ice and wind-on-ice that is to be used
OVERVIEW is the temperature from Figures 10.6-1 and 10.6-2 or 32°F, whichever
Ice that has formed on structural members, components, and appurte- gives the maximwn load effects. For Hawaii, the temperature must
nances increases the projected area that is exposed to wind and changes be 32°F.
the structure's wind drag coefficients. Ice accretions tend to round sharp 1.6.10 P•rtl•l lmldlng
edges, thereby reducing drag coefficients fur members lila: angles and
rectangular bars. It has been found that variations in ice thickness due to freezing rain at a
Ice-sensitive structures must be designed fur the wind loads deter- given elevation are usually small over distances of about 1000 feet. Thus,
mined by the provisions in ASCE/SEI Chapters 26 through 31 using partial loading from freezing rain does not usually produce maximum
increased projected area and the modifications set forth in 10.5.l load effects. However, in certain types of structures, partial ice loads
through 10.5.5. The loads determined in this fashion are defined as the can produce maximum effects, and this must be considered in design.
wind-on-ice loads, W;. Additional information on this topic can be found in Cl0.7.
GENERAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE
WIND ON ICE-CovERED CHIMNEYS, TANKS, AND
ATMOSPHERIC ICE LOADS
SIMILAR STRUCTURES
For chimneys, tanks, and other similar types of structures, design wind The following general procedure, which is based on that given in 10.8,
can be used to determine design ice loads in accordance with Chapter 10
loads are determined by Equation 29.4-1:
of ASCE/SEI 7:
F=q.GC1A1 1. Determine nominal ice thickness, t; the concurrent wind speed,
V,; and the concurrent temperature from Figures 10.4-2 through 10.4-6
The velocity pressure, q,, is determined by Equation 26.10-1 using the or from a site-specific study in accordance with 10.1.1 (10.4.2, 10.6).
topographic factor, K.,. determined in accordance with 10.4.5 and the 2. Determine height factor,/., for each design segment of the struc-
concurrent wind speed, V,: ture (10.4.3 ).
3. Determine importance factor, I;. (lo.4.4).
q, = 0.00256K,Kr1KtlK<V,2 4. Determine topographic factor, K.,. (10.4.5).
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K,, is determined from 5. Determine design ice thickness, t"' by Equation 10.4-5 ( 10.4.6).
Table 26. 10-1, and the wind directionality factor, K"' is defined in 26.6. 6. Determine the weight of ice, D;, using the applicable equations in
The ground elevation factor K, is defined in 26.9. 10.4.1 (10.4.1).
The gust factor, G, is determined in accordance with 26.11. For struc- 7. Determine the velocity pressure, q., for wind speed, v,. in accor-
tures with square, hexagonal, and octagonal cross sections, the force dance with 26.10.
coefficients, c1 , are given in Figure 29.4-1. 8. Determine the applicable wind force coefficients, Cp in accor-
Similarly, wind on ice-covered chimneys, tanks, and similar struc- dance with 10.5.
tures is determined by Equation 29.4-1: 9. Determine the gust effect factor, G, in accordance with 26.11.
10. Determine the design wind force, W;. in accordance with the
F=q,GC!Af applicable provisions of Chapter 29 (10.5).
20 CMAPTERONE
1.7 WIND LOADS 3-.ewnd averaging time is based on the mrponse c:.harac:tcristics of the
1.7.1 Introduction newer instrumentJ that are utiliud a1 the weather stalions.
Thundentnrma, hurricanu, toma.does, and special regional~ are
NATUllB 011 Wnm LOADS the d1matological ev=tsthat are ofprlmarytntemt when deGgn1ng build-
In genual. wind loading is the drea of the atmoaphere passing by a ings and struc:tu.res in the U.nted States. Fipre 1.23 illustratet 1he control-
stationary llrudure attached to the earth's surface. An in-depth dis,. ling climamlogical evmts tlllll produce es.t!l!me wind speeds in R'giom of
cusalon on the mechanics of atm.Oipherlc drculatlone can be found Che CClltemlinous United Stata h is evident from the figure 1hat the pre-
in Ref. 8. wlllng wind speeds are generated bythunderstonm in most afthe country.
Loads on build.inp and other structures due to the~ &om wind Wind speeds genmted by tomadoe~ are not included in the wind
are deta:mined by conllidering both almwpheric and aerodynamic speed maps in the me or ASCEISBI 7. The primary reason for this hu
efferu. The.te effects form the bw of the methodologies given in to do with Che s:igD!&mtly lower probability of occurrence of tomad.oet
ASCB/SE[ 7 for the determination of wind loads. compared to that for baac: wind speeds. Additional lnfunmtton on how
Atm01pheitc: Efl'ectll The atrnwpheric facton that have a direct to design for tornadoes is c:overed In Re£ 3.
impact on the magnitude of wind loading on a building or other struc- Special wind ngions can have wind speeds significantly greater than
ture are obtained from meteorological and boundary layer effecb. Chose in 1um>unding &Ras. Suc:.h rqiio.11al effects include wind blowing
MmorolOfT Meteorology is the study of the atmosphe.re, and wind over mowxtaln ranges or through gorges or valleys. The.te reglom are
climawlogy Is a branch within meteorology that focuse~ on the predlc:- identified u $l)edd wind regions on 1he bulc: wind tp«d maps.
lion of storm conditions. In particular, extreme wind speeds u1ociated ._,..,, """' Ruld 11JntartJa The layer of the earth's atmosphere
with d!Herent types of sto.r:ma and the probability of occurrence ofsuch that is localed from the surfa.c.e of the earth to appromnald.y 3300 feet
atmne wlues are analyzed at specl1lc geographical loc:atl.ons. Th.ls above the rurface .Is known as the boundary layer. The fluid dynamic
information is UJed in dm:lopiilg deaign wind sp«d maps In the IBC effi:c:ts that oc:c:ur within this layer have an important impact on the
and ASCE/SEI 7. Wmd Tdocity is used in calculating the maximum magnitude of wind loads on buildinp and other struc:tum.
des:igll wind loads that can be expected on a bull.ding or structure dur- In general, the surface of the earth exerts a horizontal drag force on
ing .Its life span. wind. which impedea ita flow. The more frictional reslatanc.e ii experi-
Wlnd speed meuurements that are utilized. in c:mitiDg the dWgD. enced, the closer the wind flow Is to the surface; thus, wind w!od.ty Is
wind spee<I map• in the IBC and ASCB/SEI 7 are obtained from essen- smaller at or near the ground levd compared to levels@ove the surfue.
tially two different sources. In non-huniCU1e regions, wind speed data Similarly. at. a given height @ove the surface. wind velocity is amaller
u collected from mndard three-cup ane.mometm that are located over rougher surfacea compared to smoother ones because of frlctio.c.
33 feet «hove the ground in open te.m1n (such as at alrpom) at 485 Figure 1.24 depicts the variation of wind speed with. respect to height
National Weather Service weather rtatiO.Ds throughout the United and rwfac:e roughness. Bo1h phenomen& are captured in the cunent
States thJrt have :;rt leut. S years of aVllilable data. Design wind speeds wind load provisions wring a modified venion of the power-law meth-
in hurric.:ane reglom are obtained from nat:iatJcal aimulatlom bued on odology that wu fint introduced in Ref. 9. Note that the wind velod-
historkal datt. since actual weather data on hurricmes at any partlc:ular ti« become con5tant above certain h.e.lghts fur the dlfftrent roughnw
location are picrally limited. categories; these heights are defined u gradient helghta in ASCE/SBI 7.
The wind speed that was recorded. at the afomnentioned weather MirodJn•mlc Eflllc:ta
statioiu fur many ,an wu the fastest-mile whld $pttd, which is the OnMnr Wmd tlow ii disturbed due to the preaenc:e of a bull.ding
muimwn wind speed average<l owr 1 mile of wind passing through an or atrw:ture in Its path. The resulting raponae• due to this disturbance
memometer. From this definition. It follows thJrt the cormpondlng aver- are governed by the laws of «erodynamia. In the c:ase of a bull.ding
aging time u equal to 3600 divided by the vdocil:y of wind in mile.1 per or o1her str\lc:ture that has an essentially block-like shape (which is
hour. M the Nltlonal Weather Service phased out the older equipment. referred to as a bluff body), bluff body aerodynamics is UJed to predict
the fastest-mile wind speed was replaced with a 3-staJnd gust speed. The Che eff'ect8 caused by placing the bluff body in Che flow of wind.
F1srure 1.23 The c.o111:rollillg clim.at.ologlcll ~that produce extttme wlJld apeeda ill iegiona of the
<»llte?mlnOllf United Stam!.
$1RUCTURAL LOADS 21
Heightz
Wind Velocity
In general, when wind oome.t into contact with a building or other by roles when determining the effects caused by lntemal pressures.
structure, the following premim are created: ASCE/SE[ 7 defines an opening u an aperture or hole in the build.Ing
1. I!xtenuil pressures. which act on aD oterior sur&us; th~ pm- envelope that allows air to Bow through the build.Ing envelope and that
lllml are caused by the effects that are generated when the wind strika ill designed. u open during design winds. Doors, operable windows.
the building or other structure. exhaum for ventilation systems, and gap• (deliberate or otherwise)
2. Intmtal prwum, which act on all interior surfaces; these pmsum around cladding are juat a f.ew examples of openlnga.
are due to leakage of air duough the o:terlor Nl'filce to the interior 'Pace. .A number of diffemlt cues need to be aamined iD. order to properly
It ii a11umed that the a.tern.al and intanal pressure a act perpendicu- understand the ~ that internal pressure can have on a building or
lar to the exterior and interior surfaces of the bull.ding or other struc- strucl:uni. In the caJe of a building that hu a relatively large opening
ture. respectively. A pressure Is defined as positive whe.n it acts toward. on the windward wall. the wind :flow will try to IDflate the build.Ing,
the sumce and negative when it «Ill away from the fU1'face.. Positive resulting in internal premire that Is positive (see Fig. 1..27). Convemly,
pressure is c:ommonly referred to as just pressure, and negative pre11ure an opening on the leeward wail, side walls, or roofwill tty to ddlate the
is also identified as sucl:loo. building and will result in negative internal pressure.
Emntol Preuure Figure 1.25 depicts idealized wind flow around luJ. open 'fnllldlng b de&ed by ASCEISEI 7 u atructum having at
a gable roof build.Ing. Wind velocity inaeue~ at di!tanr;es &bow the least 80 percent ope.11 at each waD..
surlac;e, u shown in the following equation below. The prasure p, at A pmtiaUy endosed building hu openinp that are large enough to
this point CUI be theoretically determined using Bemoulli'1 eq,uation: affect internal pres.rore and have bac:kp:iund porosity low enough to
allow internal pressure to build up.
p,=ipv1 luJ. endoJedbuildiD.g Is one that is neither open nor partially encloud.
The efrec:u of Internal piessure are accounted for in ASCEISEI 7 by
In this equation, p ii the atmospheric; air density. and V ii the wind intnnal pressure coefficients, the magnitude a of which are based on the
velocity at the elevation of the stagnalion point. enclosure clual&ation of the build.Ing or other structure. It is evident
The leeward wall and the aide walb all have negative praaure (the from Fig. 1.27 that internal preaure does .not contribute to the overall
negative pmsure on the leeward. wall is refured to as the wake). horizontd wind pressures that act on a structure because .uch preir
A generic repmentation of the external wind pn:uures on the walls sures caned out. However, internal pni.uumi must be c:omidered in the
and roof of the building depicted in Fig. 1.25 ii given in Fig. 1.26.
design of individual components (auc:h u walll and roof framing) and
The dimentlonle&1 pressure c,. which is commonly referred to as a cladding; the type of Jntemal pre.sure (positive or negative) that results
in the critlw load combination m\Ut be Ulled.
p1usurt coefficient, la de&ed as the preaaure pat any point on the bull.d- Glllt Efl'Ktl Wmd velocity typically changes dramatically with time;
ing or structure divided by the stagnation pressure: numeroUll peab and valley1 normally oc:cur over relatively short time
spans. In general. the average wind speed obtained from a wind event is
c, =-'-2
pV /2 larger when a shorter averaging time Is used. The peaks in wind velocity
are called gusts, and these effects must be comidered in design.
lnfllmal PnSNn Cid En"°""" CJaa:HJarcion Intemal preuure1 act Gust-d'ect facton are used in .ASCB/SBI 7 to account fur this
on all interior surfaces of a building or structure and are due to leak- phenomenon. In short. a gust-effect factor relates the peak to mean
age of air (pressure) through the exterior surt\ice to the Interior space. ~·e In terms of an equivalent mt.lc design load or load effect. The
The number and size of openinp in the envelope of the sttucture play method that ii wied to detennine auc:h fa.ctou ii based on the following
22 CMAPTERONE
Wind Flow
(
)
Windward Leeward
External pressure
Wind Flow
~ Negative internal pressure
Windward Leeward
Figure 1.26 Wind preuom on a pble roofbulldlllg. Ffgur.1 ZI ~of openlrigl on !D.tmial. pr~ d!mlblltion.
STIIUCTURAL LOADS U
u.umption: the fundamental mode of VlDrWon of a building or struc- l'llble 1 .J Summmy ofWlnd I.Nd Placedures In ASCE/SEI 7-16
ture has an iippromnmly linear mode mape. Additional information ASCl!ISEI 1-16
on the pioneering work In giut-efi'ect facton can be fuuncl. ill llet: 10. cb.apm Dacription
It 11 lmportaut to note that the gust-cfrcct factors ill ASCE/SEI 7 for
both rigid and flezible bulldinp (le., bulldlnp with a fundamental 27 DirectloDal proC*lure for blll.kliagl of. all
frequency pmr than or equal to 1 Hz and le11 than 1 Hz, n:rpectively) hdaJm
acccunt for the dfec:tJ ill the aloq-wind direction only. In the cue 28 lhrvtiope procedutt mrlow-me bai.J.dlnp1
of 11.cxible bulldingl or struc:tura. along-wind eff'ecta due to d}'IWDk 19 Directioml proadure fOr buil.clJng appm-
amplification an: alto acroW1ted for in the gust-effect facto?. tcnancc1 and O!hct llrUClma
Certain types of bui1dinp and ~eapec:ially those that are Sl Wind tmmel procedure for U1'f build.Ing or
relatively tall and llender-are suxeptible to one or more of the fullow- olhcr llNcture
.lng: (1) aaon-wlnd load effect,, (2) vorta aheddlng. (3) instability due so • linftlope procedure 111 Puts l or 2, or
to galloping or fluttu, or (4) dynamic torsional effects. The gust-effi:ct • .Dlredblal progcdure 111 Pam 3, 4. and 5
factor1 in ASCB/SBI 7 do not aac>Ullt for the loading ef£ectl CllWled by • Building opparwwica in Part 6
these phenomena; wind tunnel test. ahould be performed in such cues 31 • Wmd tunnel proc:eduft for U1'f building or
to properly capture these dR:ctl. other rtrucllll'e
.....
Wlnd
• G\llt effectJ (26.11)
• EndoJure daMi&M:lon (26.12)
• Iwma1 prenure a>efficienb (26.13)
Thae requirement. are uaecl in conjW1c:tion with the method. and
procedwa CODtalned ill Chapters 27 through 31.
The following teciions clilcull these requirements md provide addi-
tional bac.kground information on fundamental concepts.
the building or other strw:ture (note that In the IBC. the basic wind spel:d Where require4 the basic design wind speeds in Figures 1609.3(1)
ii designated Vob and ii defined. u the ultimate dlllign wind speed). dirough 1609.3(8) can be amvcrted to allowable smss design wind speeds,
Figures 1609.3(1) tbrougb.1609.3(8) in the IBC and Figure.t 26.5-1A v_ utlng Equation 16-33 in lBC 1609.3.1:
tluough 26.5-10 and Figura 26.5-2.A through 26.5-2D In ASCEISEI 7
are ldentkal and provide bask wind spee<ls bued on 3-secOild gum at v....,=v,.~
33 feet above ground for I!xposure C for d.ilferent ruk categories, whic:h Value. of V""' are tabulated in JBC Table 1609.3.1 for variom V..i.r
are defined. in IBC Table 1604.5.
Since the wind speeds are ultimate design wind speeds, the wind Wnm D11111CT10NAL1TY
load factors In the design load combinations are equal to 1.0 (see load The wind directionality factor JC,, that 18 given in 26.6 accounte fur the
c.ombinations in Sec. 1.10 of this chapter). Table 1.4 provideu summary statistical nature of wind flow and Che probability of the muimum
of the infonnailon usocimd with the..e maps. effe'ts 0"'1Iling at any partic;ular time for any given wind direction.
Table 26.6-1 contains Vlllues of K,, u function of struci:ure type. Thi1
'111111• 1A Summ1rr of Buie Wind SpeMI Mlpl In the 2011 factor 18 equal to 0.85 for the MWFRS and C&C of buildings.
IBC&ftdASCEISE.l 7·16
EXPosmt11
~no.
Rl.!k Return period Mnd Direction .nd Seeton According to IBC 1609.4 and ASCEJSBI
Localion IBC ASCE/SRI 1 cmgorf (yean) 26.7. an expoaure category must be determined upwind of a building or
Colltmnln0119 1609.3(') 26.S-lA I 300 other structure fur eac:h wind direction that I• conadered in design.
Ullited Stues 1609.3(1) 26.5-IB II 700 Wind lllU4t be assumed to come from any horizontal direction when
AlaP:a 1609.3(2) 26.S·lC m 1700 determining wind loads (IBC 1609.1.1 and ASCEJSBI 26.5.1). One
Pu«ln Rico 1609.3(3) 26.5-ID IV 3000 rational. way of satisfying this req_ul.rement ls to UNme that there are
Gaam e.lght wind directions: four that are perpendicular to the main axes of
Vlrgln Islands the building or other structure and four that are at 45..(1~ angles to
A.m~rfc:an Samoa die main am1. Figure C26.7-8, whic:h ii reproduced here as Fig. 1.29,
Hawall. 1609.3(8) 26.S-lA I 300 shows the sectors that are to be uted. to determine the 6POSure for a
1609.3(5) 26.>-2B II 700 selected wind direction (JDC 1609.4.1 and ASCEISEl 26.7.1).
1609.3(6) 26.S·2C m 1700 ~RouaflnessCMtfOIW Surtilce roughness categories are deflned
1609.3(7) 26.5-2D IV 3000 in IBC 1609.4.2 and ASCPJSBI 26.7.2 and are summariz.ed. in Tuble 1.5.
'See !BC Tlhle l(l(IU for ddlnlllom of rUk ~
The shaded areas on the wind speed ma~ are designated u spedal
wind Rgi.0111. These are area where unu.su.al wind <:onditions ailt. The
local authority having jurisdiction over the project should be <:onsulted De11C:ript!on
to obtain the loi;al de.tign wind apeed (ASCEISEl 26.5.2).
The \lltlmate dealgn wind speeds on the wind hazard maps do not B Urban and 111bmban-. wooded areu or other twain wUfi.
indude effects of tornado« (ASCE/SEI 26.5.4). However, ASCE/SEI mime!OILJ dotely rpaud obmuctions having the me of.
~e·family dwdlinp or larger
C26.5.4 coo:tain1 reference• and a toma.dic gust wind speed map of
the United Stlltes that cor~ondl to a return period of 100,000 years. c Open tenain with aaneml. obmuction1 hm%l8 heipt. gener-
ally1eit thall 30 feet; thlt cmgory IDcludel fiat open ('.()untry
The !Dformatio.a praented In this s~on can be used u a guide and grudaadl
in developing and designing buildings and other structures for the
effecu of tornadoes. Reference 11 also contains design guidance for D Flat. ~ded ucu. and water sarfacel; this category
indudn ll!llooth mudflallt, ..it ilat., and unbrakm ice
tornadoes.
North
7 2
x East
6 3
Building or other structure
EXPOSURE CATEGORIES Wind speed-up must be considered only when all of the five condi-
Exposure categories are based on the surface roughness categories tions in 26.8.1 are satisfied. When all of these conditions are met, Ku is
defined above and essentially account for the boundary layer concept of determined by Equation 26.8-1:
2
surface roughness. Table 1.6 contains definitions of the three exposure K.i = (1 + K 1K 2K 3 )
categories given in IBC 1609.4.3 and ASCE/SEI 26.7.3. Definitions
Values of K1, Kz, and K3 are obtained from Figure 26.8-1. K1 accounts
of Exposure Band Exposure Dare illustrated in Figures C26.7-l and
C26.7-2, respectively. for the shape of the topographic feature and the maximum speed-up
effect, K:z accounts for the reduction in wind speed-up with respect to
l'llble 1.6 Exposure Requlntments horizontal distance, and K3 accounts for the reduction of wind speed-up
with respect to height above the local terrain.
Exposure
category Definition Ground Elevation Effects The ground elevation factor, K., adjusts the
velocity pressure, q,. determined in accordance with 26.10 based on the
B • Mean roof height h ;;: 30 feet reduced mass density of air at elevations above sea level. Table 26.9-1
Surface roughness category B prevails in the upwind direction contains values of K., which can be calculated using the equation in
for a distance > 1500 feet Note 2 of the table where z is the ground elevation above sea level. A
• Mean roof height h > 30 feet
more complete version of Tifhle 26.9-1 that includes air density values is
Surface roughneu category B prevails in the upwind direction
for a distance > 2600 feet or 20 times the height of the builcling, provided in Table C26.9-l.
whichever is greater The constant 0.00256 in Equation 26.10-1 for qz is used to convert a
C Applies for all cases where Exposure B or D do not apply wind speed pressure based on the mass density of air for the standard
atmosphere, which is defined as a temperature of 59"F and a sea level
D • Surface roughness category D prevails in the upwind direction pressure of 29.92 in. of mercury. Values of air density other than the
for a distance > 5000 feet or 20 times the height of the building,
whichever is greater standard atmosphere values are adjusted using](,. It is permitted to tak£
• Surface roughne11 immediatdy upwind of the site is B or C, and K. = 1.0 for all elevations, which is conservative except for elevations
the sjte is within a distance of 600 feet or 20 times the building below sea level; however, using K, = 1.0 to calculate q, for all areas below
height, whichever is greater, from an E:r:posure D condition as sea level in the United States is not unconservative.
defined above
VELOCITY PRESSUIU!
According to ASCE/SEI 26.7.3, the exposure category that results in The velocity pressure q, at height z above the ground surface is deter-
the largest wind loads must be used for sites that are located in transi- mined by Equation 26.10-1; this is essentially Bernoulli's equation, and
tion zones between exposure categories. However, the exception in it converts the basic wind speed V to a velocity pressure:
26.7.3 permits an intermediate exposure category to be used provided
that it is determined by a rational analysis method defined in recog- q:< = 0.00256K:<Kz:tKaK.V 2
nized literature. An example of such an analysis is given in C26.7. The terms in the equation above are discussed below. Note that at the
mean roof height of the building, the velocity pressure is denoted qh,
EXPOSURE Ri!QUIRRMl!NTS
and the velocity pressure coefficient is denoted Kh; that is, the subscript
ASCE/SEI 26.7.4 contains exposure requirements that must be satisfied changes from z to h.
for all of the wind load procedures that are available in ASCE/SEI 7-16. Air Density The constant 0.00256 in the equation is related to the mass
A summary of these requirements is given in Table 1.7. density of air for the standard atmosphere (59"F and sea level pressure of
29.92 in. of mercury) and is obtained as follows (constant= one-half times
Table1.7 Exposure Requirements the density ofair times the velocity squared, where the velocity is in miles
Wind load
procedure
Directional
Chapter
27
buildings
Requirements
• MWFRS of enclosed and partially enclosed
x
ft 1 hr ]
1ml x 5280---;- x - -
hr ml 3600 sec
2
= 0.00256
• Open buildings with monoslope, pitched, or The numerical constant of 0.00256 should be used except where suf-
troughed free roofs ficient weather data are available to justify a different value.
Use the exposure category determined In
accordance with 26.7.3 from the eight sectors Velodty Pnt1sunt Exposure Coeffldent, Kz This coefficient modifies
that results in the highest wind loads wind velocity (or pressure) with respect to exposure and height above
Envelope 28 • MWFRS of all low-rise buildings designed using ground. Values of K. for Exposures B, C, and D at various heights above
this procedure ground level are given in Table 26.10-1. In lieu of linear interpolation
Use the exposure category determined in and for heights greater than 500 feet above the surface, ~may be calcu-
accordance with 26.7.3 from the eight sectors lated at any height z using the equations at the bottom of that table:
that results in the highest wind loads
(r
2
Directional 29 • Building appurtenances and other structures
Use an exposure category determined in 15 •
accordance with 26.7.3 in each wind direction 2.01 z, for zS15ft
C&C 30 • C&C K% =
2
Use the exposure category determined in
accordance with 26.7.3 from the eight sectors
that results in the highest wind loads
2.01 (:, y for 15ftszsz1
Topographic Effects Buildings or other structures that are sited on The constant a is the 3-second gust speed power law exponent, which
the upper half of an isolated hill, ridge, or escarpment can experience defines the approximately parabolic shape of the wind speed profile for
significantly higher wind velocities than those sited on relatively level each exposure (see Fig. 1.24). The nominal height of the atmospheric
ground. The topographic factor Kz:t in 26.8 accounts for this increase in boundary layer, which is also referred to as the gradient height, is denoted
wind speed, which is commonly referred to as wind speed-up. as z, Values of a and z1 are given in Table 26.11-1 as a function of exposure.
26 CHAPTER ONE
The above discussion on the determination of K,, is valid for the case Basic Wind Speed V The basic wind speed, V, is the 3-second gust
of a single roughness category (Le., uniform terrain). Procedures on speed at 33 feet above the ground in Exposure C (see IBC 1609.3 or
how to determine K,, for a single roughness change or multiple rough- ASCE/SEI 26.5.1).
ness changes are given in C27.3.l. Flowchart 10 (Fig. 1.30) can be used to determine the velocity pres-
Topogl'<lphic Factor K., This factor modifies the velocity pressure sures, q. and q4.
exposure coefficients for buildings located on the upper half of an iso-
lated hill or escarpment. See the «Topographic EffectsM section. GUST-EFFECT FACTOR
Wind Directionality Factor ~ This factor accounts for the statistical The effects of wind gusts must be included in the design of any building
nature of wind flow and the probability of the maximum effects occur- or other structure. The gust-effect factor defined in 26.11 accounts for
ring at any particular time for any given wind direction. See Figure 26.8-1 both atmospheric and aerodynamic effects in the along-wind direction.
and wind directionality section above for more information on how to The gust-effect factor depends on the natural frequency n 1 of the
determine Kd. structure. In particular, the method in which the gust-effect is deter-
Ground Elevation Factor K. This factor adjusts the velocity pressure, mined is contingent on whether the structure is rigid or flexible. By
q., determined in accordance with 26.10 based on the reduced mass definition, a rigid building or other structure is one where n1 ~ 1 Hz,
density of air at elevations above sea level. and a flexible building or other structure is one where n 1 < 1 Hz (26.2).
FLOWCHART 10
FLOWCHART 10
Yes
Topographic factor
Topographic factor K 11 = 1.0 K71 = (1 + K1KzK3) 2 where K1,
K 2, and K 3 are given in Fig. 26.8-1
Determine velocity pressure
exposure coefficients K, and K 11
from Table 26.10-1 (26.10.1)
Note that low-rise buildings that satisfy the definition in 26.2 (Le., ENCLOSURE CLASSIFICATION
buildings with a mean roof height h :!> 60 feet and h :!> least horizontal The following discussion covers definitions for each type of classifica-
dimension of building) are permitted to be considered rigid (26.11.2). tion and the requirements for protecting glazed openings in wind-borne
Figure 1.31 (Flowchart 11) contains step-by-step procedures on debris regions.
how to determine the gust-effect factor fur both rigid and flexible Any building or other structure must be classified as enclosed, par-
structures. tially enclosed or open based on the definitions in 26.2. A summary of
these definitions is given in Table 1.8.
APPROXIMATE NATURAL FREQUENCY
The quantities in Table 1.8 are as follows (see Fig. 1.32):
Many tools are available to determine the fundamental frequency 111 =
A 0 total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external
of a structure. Most computer programs that are used to analyze struc- pressure
tures can provide an estimate of 11 1 based on member sizes and material A, = gross area of wall in which A. is identified
properties that are used in the model. In the preliminary design stages, A.I= sum ofthe areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and
this information may not be known. Thus, 26.11.3 provides equations roof) not including A0
to determine an approximate natural frequency 11. fur concrete and steel A11 = sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope (walls
buildings that meet the height and slenderness conditions of26.11.2.1. and roof) not including A,.
1. Building height must be less than or equal to 300 feel Requirements fur buildings that comply with more than one clas-
2. Building height must be less than four times its effective length Leff> sification are given in 26.12.4. For a building that meets both open and
which is determined by Equation 26.11-1. partially enclosed definitions, the building is to be classified as open.
FLOWCHART 11
G=0.85
(26.11.4) Eq. 26.11-9
z=0.6h
~ Z:min
where zmin is given in Table 26.11-1 1
Q= 0.63
Eq. 26.11-8
1 +0.63 (B;zh J
•Notes:
1. Information on structural damping can be found in C26.11.
2. n1 can be determined from a rational analysis or estl mated
-
G - 0.925
(1+1.7g"-1&J
1 1 7 l- Eq. 26.11-6
+ · Kv i
from approximate equations given in 26. 11.3.
Figure 1.31 Gust-effect factors, Gand G1 (Flowcbart 11).
28 CHAPTER ONE
FLOWCHART 11
Gust-Effect Factors, G and G,
(continued)
FLOWCHART 11
Gust-Effect Factors, G end G,
(continued)
Lz=t[3;r Eq. 26.11-9
Q= 0.63
Eq. 26.11-B
1 +0.63 ( B~h )
:Z=0.6h
O! Zmin Detennine the basic wind speed V for the
where z.mn is given in Table 26.11-1 applicable risk category from Fig. 1609.3(1)
through 1609.3(8) or Fig. 26.5-1A through
26.5-D and 26.5-2A through 26.5-20*
lz= c[ 3
:r 115
Eq. 26.11-7
The situation is significantly different in certain regions where hur- accordance with 26.11.7, the gust-effect factor shall not be determined
ricanes can occur. Hurricane-prone regions are located along the Atlantic separately in the analysis.
Ocean and Gulf of Mexico coasts where the basic wind speed for Risk For partially enclosed buildings that contain a single, relatively large
Category II buildings is greater than 115 mph. Hawaii, Puerto Rico, volume without any partitions, the reduction factor Hi calculated by
Guam, Vugin Islands, and American Samoa are also classified as hur- Equation 26.13-1 may be used to reduce the applicable internal pressure
ricane-prone regions. Wind-borne debris regions are in hurricane-prone coefficient. This reduction factor is based on research that has shown
regions and are located as follows (IBC 202 and ASCE/SEI 26.12.3.1): that the response time of internal pressure increases as the volume of a
1. within 1 mile of the coastal mean high water line where the basic building without partitions increases; as such, the gust factor associated
wind speed (ultimate design wind speed-IBC) is greater than or equal with the internal pressure is reduced, resulting in lower internal pressure.
to 130mphor
2. in areas where the basic wind speed (ultimate design wind speed- 1.7.3 M•ln Wlnd-Forc11 Resisting Syst•rns
IBC) is greater than or equal to 140 mph. OVEilVIEW
Actual locations of wind-home debris regions are to be based on the Chapters 27, 28, 29, and 31 in ASCE/SEI 7-16 contain design requirements
wind speeds that are in the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7 figures, which are sum-
for determining wind pressures and loads on MWFRSs of buildings and
marized in Table 1.9 (IBC 202 and ASCE/Sfil 26.12.3.1). other structures (see Table 1.3). The provisions in Chapters 27 through
Special requirements are given in IBC 1609.1.2 and ASCE/SEI 26.10.3.2
29 are discussed in the following sections. Chapter 31, which contains
for the protection of glazed openings in wind-home debris regions. the requirements for wind tunnel procedures, is covered in this chapter.
INTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
Internal pressure coefficients (GCpl) are given in Table 26.13-1 and are DIRBCTIONAL PROCEDURE FOR BUILDINGS
based on the enclosure classificatiom defined in 26.12. These coef- (CHAPTBR 27)
ficients have been obtained from wind tunnd tests and full-scale data Scope The Directional Procedure of Chapter 27 applies to the deter-
and are assumed to be valid for a building of any height even though mination of wind loads on the MWFRS of enclosed, partially enclosed
the wind tunnel tests were conducted primarily for low-rise buildings. and open buildings of all heights that meet the conditions and limita-
Gust and aerodynamic effects are combined into one factor (GCp1); in tions given in 27.1.2 and 27.1.3, respectively.
$1RUCTURALLOADS 2t
FLOWCHART 11
FLOWCHART 11
Gust-Effect Factors, G and G1
Gust-Effect Factors, G and G, (continued)
(continued)
R11= I for'I} =0
where 1iand a are given in Table 26.11·1
Eq. 28.11-14
1
R,. =!---{1-e-2T!)tor11>0
TI 2r11
R,.= 1 for'l}=O
Gr= 0.92.S
1+1.7Iz ~irlfi2 + rR!(Z J Eq. 26.1 MO
[ 1+1.1g/t
F1fur• 1.J1 (~
Ddlnltion
For each wall ID. the bllildln8.
A,,~0.8A,
Partially encloacd bolldlng A bu!ldlng that oomplle.t with all of the followlllg
conditlont:
• A,,Hl.A.i
• A,, >lmerof4 equue feet or 0.01.A.1
• A,,;IA,; S0.2
A blllldillg that oompl!et with the followh:Jg
con~::wier of {o.OIA,
4 •quare feet
A9 =B x H
Partially open bulldlng A bulldlng that does not comply with the ~llire A0 : A 1 +A2 +A 3
menu for open, partiailr endofed or endotecl Ag .... 1.12 Deftbltlon ohrall opcl:1lnga fot deten:nlnalicm of enclOIU?e
bulldlnp
clasaftcatlo11.
30 CMAPTERONE
T1ble 1.9 1Mftd.8ame D4111rll Rtlglan Wind Speed Rgur• In order to qply these provislOlls, building• must be regularty
Flgllreno. shaped (i.e., mWlt have no unusual geometrical irregularities in spalial
form) and must ahiblt e.uentially along-wind rerponse characteristics.
• Rill: Category n bulld1ngt and other ~ l~.3(1) and 1609.3(5} Buildlngs of unurual. shape that do not meet these condition• must be
~ Pigllru 26.S-lB uicl 26.5-28 duigned by either .recognized llterwre that documents suc:h wind lOtAd
• Rhk Category m bulldlnp and other effea. or by the wind tunnel procedure in Chapter 31 (27.1.3).
structwa, except health care facl1lttet
Reduction in wind pressures due to apparent shielding of sum>und-
• Rill: Category m health &dli!ies ~ l~.3(2) and 1609.3(6)
.lng buildlnp, other structures, or terrain Is not permitted (27.1.4).
Pigllru26.5-1C and 26.5-2C
Removal of such features around a building at a later c1tte could mult
Pigllru l~.3(3) and 1609.3(7) in wind pressures that are muc:h higher than originally ac<:ounted for;
Pipra 26.5· lD ancl 26..5-ID
u sw:.h, wind p.re11ure1 mwrt be calculated. uauming that all shielding
effecb are not present.
A aumm.ary of the wind loa.d. procedures and their applicability for Minimum deaign wind prem1m and loads are gl.ven In 27.1.5,
MWFRSs in accordance with Chapter 27 are given In Table 1.10. whic:h are applicable to buildings de«igned usm, Part 1 or 2. In the
Part 1 In this chapter Is applicable to enclosed, putiall.y encloged, and case of enclosed or partially enclosed building!, wind pressures of
open buildings of all height.t; a. wide range of buildings iJ <:0vcred by 16 psf and 8 psf must be applied simultaneously to the vertical plane
the provisio.111 in tJlil part. In general, wind ~ are determined .normal to the assumed wind d.lreciion over the waD. and roof area of
u a funci!on of wind direction using equations that are appropriate for Che building. .respectively. Applli:atlon of the.e minimum wind pres-
each surfw: of the building. A aimpWled method for & spec.lal class of lllml are illustrmd in Fig. 1.33 for wind along the two primary ues of
buildinp up to 160 &et in height iJ provided. in Part 2, whic:h is based Che building. For open buildings. the minimum wind force h equal to
on the p.rov:illion.1 in Part 1. 16 psf multiplied by the area of the open building eJther norm.al to the
Tlble1.10 Su11111111iyof1MndLNdflroced-lnCh1pts27GfA5alSEl7·1fforMWFllh
Apfillc:abillty
ASCBISEI cb.apwr Part .Bullcllng type Helghtlimlt ConditloD.f
Enclosed • Regular-thaped bullcllng
• Bllllcllng cloa not h&ve 1"pOD.se characteri.ltiai making it 111bjed to ~
Partlally
l None wind loading. vortex shcddlng. l.ttmbilhy clue to pllopins or fiutta
aK!oted • Bullcllng Is not located at a site 'Where cbanne&g effedJ or baffetillg In the
Open wdce of'Qpw!nd ob•trlldionJ warrant 1peclal c<IDllklcn!ion
• Same CIOlld!tlomas ID Part 1
• Building mwit mm the ccnditinm for etha- a C1ua l or C1ua 2 builcling:
27 Claa 1 Building:
1. hS60!M
Bncloaed.
2. O.H LIB~ 5.0
2 aimple h~ 160!M
clUPingm 0.. 2 Buildins:
1. 60fed< h~ 160fM
2. 0.5 ~LIB~ 2.0
3. "1~1511i
• Bulldllli Is an en.doted tlmple diaphragm balldlJli as de&ed In 26.2
Rgure 1.3J .Appl!Wlon ofminimum d.ulgll wind prarures In accordance 'With 27.l.S.
STRUCTURALLOADS 31
wind direction or projected on a plane normal to the wind direction. It results in maximum base shear. Wmd tunnel tests are recommended
is important to note that minimum design pressures or loads are load for domes that are larger than 200 feet in diameter and in cases where
cases that must be considered separate from any other load cases that resonant response can be an issue (C27.3.l).
are specified in Part 1 or 2. The pressure and force coefficients in Figure 27.3-3 for arched roofs
P•rt 1-Enclased, P•rtilllly Enclosed, •nd Open Buildings of All Heights are the same as those that were first introduced in 1972 (Ref. 13). These
Overview Part 1 of Chapter 27 is applicable to buildings with any coefficients were obtained from wind tunnel tests conducted under
general plan shape, height, or roof geometry that matches the figures uniform flow and low turbulence. References 9 and 14 can be consulted
provided in this chapter. This procedure entails the determination of for pressure coefficients that are not specified in this figure.
velocity pressures, gust-effect factors, external pressure coefficients, The velocity pressure for internal pressure determination q; is used in
and internal pressure coefficients for each surface of a rigid, flexible, or capturing the effects caused by internal pressure. On all of the surfaces
open building. Table 27.2-1 contains the overall steps that can be used of enclosed buildings and for negative internal pressure evaluation in
to determine wind pressures on such buildings. partially enclosed buildings, q; is to be taken as the velocity pressure
Design Wind Preuures evaluated at the mean roof height qh. For positive internal pressure
Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Rigid and Flexible Buildings Design wind evaluation, 27.3.1 permits q; to be set equal to 'lz in partially enclosed
pressures p are calculated by Equation 27.3-1 for the MWFRS of buildings, where q., is the velocity pressure evaluated at the location of
enclosed and partially enclosed rigid buildings of all heights: the highest opening in the building that could affect positive internal
pressure. Note that it is conservative to set q; equal to qh in all cases
p =qGCP -tlJ(GCp1) where positive internal pressure is evaluated. In the case of low-rise
This equation is used to calculate the wind pressures on each surface buildings, the distance between the uppermost opening and the mean
of the building: windward wall, leeward wall, side walls, and roof. The roof height is usually relatively small, and this approximation yields
pressures are applied simultaneously on the walls and roof, as depicted reasonable results. However, this apprmimation can be overly conser-
in Figure 27.3-1 (sec also Fig. 1.28). The first part of the equation is the vative in certain cases, especially for taller buildings where the distance
external pressure contribution, and the second part is the internal pres- between the uppermost opening and the mean roof height is relatively
sure contribution. External pressure varies with height above ground on large. For buildings located in wind-borne debris regions with glazing
the windward wall and is a constant on all of the other surfaces based that does not meet the protection requirements of 26.12.3.2, q; is to be
on the mean roof height. determined assuming that the glazing will be breached.
The gust-effect factor G for rigid buildings may be taken equal to The velocity pressure q; is multiplied by the internal pressure coef-
0.85 or may be calculated by Equation 26.11-6. For flexible build- ficient ( GC ;). Both positive and negative values of ( GCp;) must be
1
ings, G1 determined in accordance with 26.11.5 is to be used in considered in order to establish the critical load effects.
Equation 27.3-1 instead of G. Open Buildings with Monoslope, Pitched, or Troughed Free Roofs Design
External pressure coefficients CP capture the aerodynamic effects that wind pressures p are calculated by Equation 27.3-2 for the MWFRS of
are discussed in Sec. 1.7.1 of this chapter and have been determined open buildings with monoslope, pitched, or troughed roofs:
experimentally through wind tunnel tests on buildings of various shapes
and sizes. These coefficients reflect the actual wind loading on each p=q,,GCN
surface of a building as a function of wind direction. In this equation, qh is the velocity pressure at the mean roof height
Figure 27.3-1 contains C values for windward walls, leeward walls, determined by the equation for velocity pressure in Sec. 1.7.2, and G is
side walls, and roofs for biilldings with gable and hip roofs, monoslope the gust-effect factor determined in accordance with 26.11. Net pres-
roofs, and mansard roofs. Wall pressure coefficients are constant on sure coefficients CN are given in Figures 27.3-4 through 27.3-7, which
windward and side walls and vary with the plan dimensions of the are based on the results from wind tunnel studies. Two load cases are
building (i.e., vary with the aspect ratio of the building LIB) on the identified in the figures: Load Case A and Load Case B. Both load cases
leeward wall. The table in the upper part of this figure also designates must be considered in order to obtain the maximum load effects for a
which velocity pressure to use-qr or qh-on a particular wall surface. particular roof slope and blockage configuration.
Roof pressure coefficients vary with the ratio of the mean roof height to For structures with free roofs that contain fascia panels where the
the plan dimension of the building (h/L) and with the roof angle (0) for angle of the plane of the roof from the horizontal is less than or equal to
a given wind direction (normal to ridge or parallel to ridge). All of these 5 degrees, the fascia panels are to be considered as an inverted parapet.
pressure coefficients are intended to be used with qh, and the parallel to The contribution of the wind loads on the fascia panels to the wind
ridge wind direction is applicable for flat roofs. It is evident from the loads on the MWFRS is to be determined using the provisions of ASCE/
figure that negative roof pressures increase as the ratio h/L increases. SEI 27.3.4 with 'lp in Equation 27.3-3 taken as qh.
Also, as 0 increases, negative pressure decreases until a roof angle is Roof O'lf!Thangs In the case of roof overhangs, the positive external
reached where the pressure becomes positive; this is consistent with the pressure on the bottom surface of a windward roof overhang is deter-
aerodynamic effect of the separation zone (see Fig. 1.25). Where two mined using the external pressure coefficient for the windward wall
values of CP are listed in the figure, the windward roof is subjected to (Cp = 0.8). This pressure is combined with the top surface pressures
either positive or negative pressure, and the structure must be designed determined in accordance with Figure 27.3-1 (see Fig. 1.34).
for both. Other important information on the use of this figure is given Parapets Design wind pressures Pp for the effects of parapets on the
in the notes below the tabulated pressure coefficients. MWFRS of rigid or flexible buildings with flat, gable, or hip roofs are
The external pressure coefficients in Figure 27.3-2 for dome roofs are calculated by Equation 27.3-3:
adapted from the 1995 edition of the Eurocode (Ref. 12) and are based
on data obtained from a modeled atmospheric boundary layer flow that Pp= qp(GC,.)
does not fully comply with the wind tunnel testing requirements given
in Chapter 31. Two load cases must be considered. In Case A, pressure In this equation, qi' is the velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the
coefficients are determined between various locations on the dome by parapet, and ( GC,.) is the combined net pressure coefficient, which is
linear interpolation along arcs of the dome parallel to the direction of equal to +1.5 for a windward parapet and -1.0 for a leeward parapet
wind; this defines maximum uplift on the dome in many cases. In Case It is important to note that Pp is the combined net pressure due to the
B, the pressure coefficient is assumed to be a constant value at a specific combination of the net pressures from the front and back surfaces of
point on the dome for angles less than or equal to 25 degrees and is the parapet.
determined by linear interpolation from 25 degrees to other points on The pressures on the front and back of the parapet have been com-
the dome; this properly defines positive pressures for some cases, which bined into one pressure, which is captured by the combined net pressure
32 CMAPTERONE
Roof GCp coeffidenu (GC,,.) fur wlnclward and leewucl parapetl. Since the wind
can occur in any direction, a parapet murt be designed for both fftl af
pressures. Note that the internal presNra wide the parapet cancel out
In the dekrmination af the combined praaure coefBdent.
The pressures determined on the puapets are comb!necl with. the
Roof overhang atcmal prem1m on the building to obtain the total wind prmum
on the MWPRS.
tmlgn Wind Load Cmes Bullding1 subjected to the wind preMUell
dete.r:mined by Chapter 27 mll!t be deaign.ed for the load c:aae~ depicted
Wind in Figure 27.3-8, which are reprodue«I here in Fig. US (in this figure,
~ the sublcripbl x and y refer to the principal axe1 of the building, and w
Wall GCp and r refer to the windward and leeward !aca, respectively). In Load
Cue 1, design wind p~ are applied along the prlndpal ue~ af a
building sepamely.
Load Cues 2 accounbl for the effiic:ta af nonuniform pres.rore on
different faces of the building due to wind tlow; the$4! pressure dis-
Windward wall tributions have been documentecl in wind twmel tats. NonW11form
pmN!'e$ Introduce tordon on the building. and this is ucounted for
Figure 1.ll4 Application of wind pn:NUret an a. roof o-.ahang, Part. I of
Ot.apter 27. in de1ign by subjecting the building to 75 percent of the de1ign wind
Load Case I
PW><§ ~ Pa
oil
illI
p/o/
e,=±0.158,
~
Load Case 2
er=±0.15Br
1~·::1
0.75pwy
0.75p1'/
0.563p~
MT= 0.563(p..,, + p,)Bxex
~1
Load Case4
0.563p_
0 r63pr
By
0.563p,
+ 0.563(pwy + Pt)Byey
e.=±0.15Bx
er=±0.15Br
pressures applied along the principal axis of the building plus a torsional Flowchart 12 (Fig. 1.36) can be used to determine design wind pres-
moment MT that is determined using an eccentricity equal to 15 percent sures on the MWFRS ofbuildings in accordance with Part 1 ofChapter27.
of the appropriate plan dimension of the building. Torsional effects are Pllrt 2-EndOHCI, Slmple Dlaph ...gm Bulldlngs with h !!: 160 Fl!l!t
determined in each principal direction separately. OWtlllew Part 2 of Chapter 27 is applicable to enclosed, simple dia-
A critical load case can occur when the design wind load acts phragm buildings with mean roof heights less than or equal to 160 feet
diagonally to a building. This is accounted for in Load Case 3, where that meet the additional conditions in 27.4.2 for either a Class 1 or
75 percent of the maximum design wind pressures are applied along the Class 2 building. Based on the procedures in Part 1, it is meant to be a
principal axes of a building simultaneously. simplified method for determining wind pressures on such buildings.
Load Case 4 considers the effects due to diagonal wind loads and According to 26.2, a simple diaphragm building is one in which both
torsion. Seventy-five percent of the wind pressures in Load Case 2 are windward and leeward wind loads are transmitted by roof and vertically
applied along the principal axes of a building simultaneously, and a spanning wall assemblies through continuous floor and roof assemblies
torsional moment is applied, which is determined using 15 percent of to the MWFRS. In other words, the wind loads are delivered to the ele-
the plan dimensions of the building. ments of the MWFRS via roof and floor diaphragms. As such, internal
In the case of flexible buildings, dynamic effects can increase the pressures cancel out in the determination of the total wind load in the
effects from torsion. Equation 27.3-4 accounts for these effects. The direction of analysis. Thus, in order for this approach to be valid, no
eccentricity e determined by this equation is to be used in the appropri- structural expansion joints are permitted in the system: expansion joints
ate load cases in Fig. 1.35 in lieu of the eccentricities ex and e1 that are interrupt the continuity of the diaphragm, resulting in internal pres-
given in that figure for rigid structures. An eccentricity must be consid- sures that do not cancel out Also, no girts or other horizontal members
ered for each principal axis of the building, and the sign of the eccentric- should be present that transfer significant wind loads directly to the
ity must be plus or minus, whichever causes the more severe load case. vertical members of the MWFRS.
FLOWCHART 12
Figure 1.36 Dmp wind preHures on the MWFRS of buildings in accordance with Part 1 of Chapter 27
(Flowchart 12).
FLOWCHART 12
Chapter 27, Part 1 - Buildings, MWFRS
{continued)
+ Notes:
1. Sae 27.3.5 and Fig. 27.3-8 for the load cases that must be
considered.
2. Minimum wind plBS&ure& of 27.1.5 must also be considered.
FLOWCHART 12
Chapter 27, Part 1 - Buildings, MWFRS
{continued) FLOWCHART 12
Chapter 27, Part 1 - Buildings, MWFRS
{continued)
Determine pressure coefficients cP for the walls Determine design wind pressures by Eq. 27.3-1 :
and roollrom Fig. 27.3-1, 27.3-2, or 27 .3-3 • Windward walls: P: = q,GC p - q, (GCpi)
•Leeward walls, side walls, and roofs: Ph = qhGCP- q1(GCpi)++
The conditions that define Class 1 and Class 2 buildings are sum- this section, a positive wind pressure equal to 75 percent of the roof
marized in Table 1.10 and are illustrated in Figure 27.4-1. Since Class 1 edge pressure from Table 27.5-2 for Zone 1 or Zone 3, whichever is
buildings are limited to a mean roof height that is less than or equal to applicable, must be applied to the underside of the windward overhang
60 feet, it assumed that these buildings are rigid and a gust-effect factor (see Figure 27.5-3).
of 0.85 has been used to calculate the tabulated wind pressures in this Flowchart 13 (Fig. 1.37} can be used to determine design wind
part (see 26.10 and 26.11.1). For Class 2 buildings, the requirement that pressures on the MWFRS of buildings in accordance with Part 2 of
the natural frequency must be greater than or equal to 75/h (where h Chapter27.
is the mean roof height in feet) is needed to ensure that the gust-effect
ENVBLOPl! PROCBDUllB FOR Bun.DINGS
factor that has been calculated and built into the design procedure is
(CHAPTER 28)
consistent with the tabulated wind pressures. This frequency (75/h) is
meant to represent a reasonable lower bound to values of frequencies Scope The Envelope Procedure of Chapter 28 applies to the determi-
found in practice. nation of wind loads on the MWFRS of enclosed or partially enclosed
The design procedures in this part apply to buildings with either low-rise buildings that meet the conditions and limitations given in
rigid or flexible diaphragms. For consideration of wind loading, dia- 28.1.2 and 28.1.3, respectively. This procedure is the former "low-rise
phragms constructed of untopped metal deck, concrete-filled metal buildingsM provision in Method 2 of ASCE/SEI 7-05 for MWFRSs. The
deck, and concrete slabs can be idealized as rigid (27.4.5). Diaphragms simplified method in this chapter is based on the provisions of Method 1
constructed of wood panels can be considered flexible. of ASCE/SEI 7-05 for simple diaphragm buildings up to 60 feet in height
Table 27.4-1 contains the overall steps that can be used to determine A low-rise building is defined in 26.2 as an enclosed or partially
wind pressures on Class 1 and Class 2 buildings. enclosed building with a mean roof height less than or equal to 60 feet
Df!slgn Wind l'ressures and a mean roof height that does not exceed the least horizontal dimen-
Woll and Roof Surfaces Net design wind pressures for the walls and sion of the building.
roof surfaces of Class 1 and 2 buildings can be determined directly from A summary of the wind load procedures and their applicability for
Tables 27.5-1and27.5-2, respectively. MWFRSs in accordance with Chapter 28 is given in Table 1.11.
Net wall pressures are tabulated for Exposures B, C, and D as a func- Part I in this chapter is applicable to enclosed and partially enclosed
tion of wind velocity V, mean roof height h, and building aspect ratio low-rise buildings that have a flat, gable, or hip roof. Like the method
LIB. The top pressure in the table is defined as Ph• and the bottom pres- provided in Part 1 of Chapter 27, wind pressures are determined as a
sure is deftned as p0 • Interpolation between these values is permitted function of wind direction using equations that are appropriate for each
(see Note 5 in Table 27.5-1). surface of the building.
Along-wind net wind pressures are distributed over the height of the In order to apply these provisions, buildings must be regularly
building as shown in Table 27.5-1 and Figure 27.5-1. The net pressures shaped (i.e., must have no unusual geometrical irregularities in spatial
are applied normal to the projected area of the building walls in the form) and must exhibit essentially along-wind response characteristics.
direction of wind. Buildings of unusual shape that do not meet these conditions must be
The pressure on the side walls is determined using Note 2 in designed by either recognized literature that documents such wind load
Table 27.5-1. In particular, the side wall pressures are calculated as a effects or the wind tunnel procedure in Chapter 31 (28.1.3).
percentage of the along-wind pressure Pn at the top ofthe building based Reduction in wind pressures due to apparent shielding of surround-
on the aspect ratio LIB. ing buildings, other structures, or terrain is not permitted (28.1.4).
A method of determining the distribution of the tabulated net wall Removal of such features around a building at a later date could result
pressures between the windward and leeward wall surfaces of a building in wind pressures that are much higher than originally accounted for;
is provided in Note 4 of Table 27.5-1. Having such a distribution can be as such, wind pressures must be calculated assuming that all shielding
useful when designing floor and roof diaphragm elements such as col- effects are not present.
lectors as well as shear walls that are a part of the MWFRS. l'llrt 1-Endosed and Partially Endosed Low-Ri• Buildings
Tabulated roof pressures are given in Table 27.5-2 for Exposure C as Onntif!w As noted above, Part 1 of this chapter is applicable to
a function of V, h, and roof slope. Exposure adjustment factors are pro- enclosed, partially enclosed, and open low-rise buildings that have a
vided in the table for Exposures B and D; the tabulated roof pressures flat, gable, or hip roof. This procedure entails the determination of the
are to be multiplied by the appropriate adjustment factors. velocity pressure at the mean roof height (which is determined as a
Roof pressures are applied perpendicular to the roof surfaces as function of exposure, height, topographic effects, wind directionality,
shown in Figure 27.5-1. The different zones over which these pressures wind velocity, ground elevation, and building occupancy). combined
are to be distributed are identified in Table 27.5-2 for flat, gable, hip, gust-effect factors and external pressure coefficients and internal pres-
monoslope, and mansard roofs. sure coefficients. Table 28.2-1 contains the overall steps that can be used
Roof pressure is given for two load cases, and both must be inves- to determine wind pressures on such buildings.
tigated where applicable. Load Case 2 is required when investigating Veloctty Prasure Velocity pressure, q., is determined by Equation
maximum overturning effects on the building due to the wind pressures. 26.10-1, where all the quantities in that equation are determined in
According to 27.5.1, pressures on the walls and the roof must be accordance with the appropriate sections in Chapter 26 (see Sec. 1.7.3
applied simultaneously to the building as shown in Figure 27.5-1. of this chapter).
Also, the MWFRS must be designed for the load cases defined in Dalgn Wind Pressures
Figure 27.3-8. Load Cases 2 and 3 (torsional load cases) need not be MWFRS Design wind pressures pare determined by Equation 28.3-1
considered in the following cases for buildings that meet the require- for the MWFRS of low-rise buildings that satisfy the conditions and
ments of Appendix D. limitations of Part 1 of this chapter:
Poropm According to 27.5.2, the additional pressure on the MWFRS p=qh[(GC!ef )-(GCp1))
due to roof parapets is equal to 2.25 times the wall pressure tabulated in
Table 27.6-1 using an aspect ratio of LIB= 1.0 and a height h, equal to In this equation, qn is the velocity pressure determined by Equation
the distance from the ground to the top of the parapet. This net hori- 26.10-1 evaluated at the mean roof height h, (GCpJ) are atemal pres-
zontal pressure accounts for both the windward and leeward parapet sure coefficients, and (GC,J are internal pressure coefficients, which are
loading on both the windward and the leeward building surfaces and is determined by Table 26.13-1. Wind pressures are determined on each of
applied to the projected area of the parapet surface simultaneously with the building surfaces identified in Figure 28.3-1.
the net wall and roof pressures (see Figure 27.5-2). The external pressure coeffidents (GC,P combine both a gust-effect
RoofOwrhongs ASCE/SEI 27.6.3 contains provisions to account for factor and external pressure coefficients for low-rise buildings and are
the effects of vertical wind pressures on roof overhangs. According to not allowed to be separated (28.3.1.1). Unlike the external pressure
36 CHAPTER ONE
fLOWCHART 13
Chapter 27, Part 2 - Buildings, MWFRS
fLOWCHART13
Chapter 27, Part 2 - Buildings, MWFRS
Determine the risk category of the building
(continued)
or structure using IBC Table 1604.5
Topographic factor
Apply the final net pressures on the walls
Topographic factor x,, = 1.0 x,,=Cl +K1 K~3 >2, whereK1 , and roof simultaneously (Fig. 27.5-1).+,++
X2 , and X 3 are given In Fig. 26.&-1
-Notes:
1. See Table 27.5-1 for distribution of net p'8ssure OV8rthe height of
the building.
2. Saa the notes in Table 27.5-1 for pressures on side walls and 1or
other important information.
* 111e net pressures from the table must be multiplied by the exposure
adjustment factors In this tabla for Exposu'8& B and D.
•Saa 28.5.2 and 26.5.3 for beslc wind speed In spacial wind
mglona and aetlmatlon ol baalc wind apeada 1rom mglonal • Minimum wind pressures of 27.1.5 must also be considered.
cllmellc data. Tomadoes have not bean considered In ++See 27.5.2 and Fig. 27.5-2 for additional load on MWFRS 1rom parapata
devaloping basic wind speed distributions shown in tha 1iguras. and 27.5.3 and Fig. 27.5-3 for wind on roof overharigs.
Figure 1.37 Design wind pressures on the MWPRS of buildings in accordance with Part 2 of Chapter 27 (Flowchart 13).
Tllble 1.11 Summ•rJ of Wind l.cNtd Procedures In Ch•plllr 21 of ASCE/SEI 7-16 far MWFRSs
Applicability
ASCE/SEI
chapter Part Building type Height limit Condition1
<:oeffici.cnu gi'fen in Figure 27.3-1 that reflect the~ pl'C881UC on It is evident &om Equation 28.3-1 that the efl'ecu &om internal pressure
each surface of a building as a function of wind direction. the ood- cancel out when evaluating the toUI horizontal wind pressure on the
:lld.eD.b m F.lgure 28.3-1 are easentially "pteudo* preaaure conditlom MWFRS of a low-rise building. ft can be a:itical, however, in one-ttory
that, when applied to a building, eo.Ydop the de«ired ruuctunl actions buildings with moment-rulstillg frame• and Jn the top ltory of build-
independent of wind direction. ings with moment-ml.sting frames.
The "pseudo* v.Wes of (GC.J were detmnined from the output.of wind Pampm The de.rign wind pressure for the effect of parapets on the
tunnel tests, which m.euure4Dending mome.ab. total hari2:omal farces, MWPRS of low-rise bulldinp w:lth flat. gable, or hJp,t roofil it deter-
and total uplift as a building was .rotated 360 degreu In 1he wind twmd mined by Equation 28.3-2, wbic:b. ls identical to .Equation 27.3-3 m
(see Ref. lS and Figure C28.H). Thwr. wlues of (GC.J produce mai- Put 1ofChapter27.
mum mea.mred structunl action.a and an: not the actuaflutt.ace prasures.. Roof Ow!rhangs Posilive e:s:temal pressures on the bottom llll'face
In order to capture all appropriate strw:tural. actlont, a building must of windwvd roof overhangs are to be determined using the presNre
be designed for all wind d!r«tlon' by considering in tum eac:b. corner coef&lent Cp = 0.7 In comblnatton with the top surface pressures
of the builcling as the windward (or reference) oomer; these (Ollclitions determined lfy Pigure 28.3-1. Appl!Qltion of thi• pressure is similar to
are illustnb!d in Figunl 28.3-1. At each comer, two load cues must be that shown in Fig. 1.34.
c:onsi.dm:d (Load Calle A and Load Case B), one for each range of wind Mlnbmtm Deslgn Wind Loads ASCE/SBI 28.3.4 prescribea 1he mini-
direction. In general, a total of 16 aeparate load caffi must be evaluated mum wmd pmsura In the design of an MWFRS for eo.c108ed or
since both positive md negUive internal prusure must be oon&!dered. partially enclosed low-rise buildings. The press1.UU of 16 psf on the
For symmetric:al buildings. some of the.e load cues will be repetitive projeacd. area of the walls and 8 psf on the projected area of the roof are
and can be eliminated. Figure 1.38 illustrates Load Case A and Load considered a Jeparate load cue &om any of the other load. cuea speci-
Cue B fur the aame windward corner of a low-rlae bulldin.g. :lled In th18 part (see Fig. 1.33).
The torsional load cases given In Figure 28.3-1 must be consldere<l ln Flowchart 14 (Fig. 1.39) can be used to determine design wind
the clmsn of all low-rise building• except for the following (see Note 5 pressures on the MWFR.S ofbuildinp in a«:ordance with Part 1 of
in tJlil figur1!): Chapter28.
• One-ttory buildlnp with a mean roof height of leH than or equal Put 2-EndOHd, Slmpl• D11phragm, a-RiH lulldlnp
to 30feet ov.m.w Put 2 is applicable to enclosed, &!mple diaphragm. low-
• Buildings two stories or less &amed with llsht-&ame construction ri.se buildings with flat. g«ble. or hip rooti that meet the conditions in
(i.e., structural systems made up ofrepetitive wood or cold-formed steel 28.5.2. Although there are eight conditions that need to be satimed
framing members or subaisembllet) (see Table 1.10), a large number of typical low-rise bulldlngs meet these
• Buildings two stories or lea with tlex!ble diaphragms criteria.
LOAD CASE A
~-W-i-nd_w.,..a?>a
Corner
1E
a Windward
~ Corner
W ind Direction
LOAD CASE B
Flfu191.31 .Buie load caaes for low-rise bulldlnga. Put 1 of Olaptu 28.
JI CHAPTER ONE
FLOWCHART 14
This method is based on Part 1 of Chapter 28 for simple diaphragm Horizontal pressure p, is determined by Equation 28.5-1:
buildings. Simple diaphragm buildings are structures where wind
loads are delivered to the elements of the MWFRS via roof and floor P, = l..K.iP,30
diaphragms. As such, internal pressures cancel out in the determina-
tion of the total wind load in the direction of analysis. In order for this Horizontal wall pressures on Zones A and Care the net sum of the wind-
approach to be valid, no structural expansion joints are permitted in ward and leeward pressures on vertical projections ofthe wall (see Figure
the system (expansion joints interrupt the continuity of the diaphragm 28.5-1, which is reproduced here as Fig. 1.40). Horizontal roof pressures
resulting in internal pressures that do not cancel out), and no girts or on Zones B and D are the net sum of the windward and leeward pres-
other horizontal members should be present that transfer significant sures on the vertical projection of the roof, and the vertical roof pressures
wind loads directly to the vertical members of the MWFRS. on Zones E, F, G, and H are the net sum of the external and internal
According to condition number 8 in 28.5.2, only buildings that pressures (using an internal pressure coefficient of ±0.18 for enclosed
are exempted from torsional load cases as indicated in Note 5 of buildings) on the horizontal projection of the roof. The pressure coef-
Figure 28.3-1 or those where the torsional load cases defined in this note ficients that were used to generate these pressures are from Figure 28.3-1.
do not control the design of any of the MWFRSs of the building are per- Due to the enveloped nature of the loads obtained by this method
mitted to be designed by this simplified procedure. The torsional load- for roof members, such members that are part of the MWFRS that span
ing in Figure 28.3-1 was considered to be too complicated to include in at least from the eave to the ridge or that support members spanning at
a simplified method of determining wind pressures. least from the eave to the ridge need not be designed for the higher end
a.sign Wind Prnsurn zone loads depicted in Fig. 1.40. The interior zone loads are applicable
MWFRS Simplified design wind pressures pJ30 for walls and roofs in such cases.
located at various zones on a building are tabulated in Figure 28.5-1 as Minimum Design Wind Loads ASCE/SEI 28.5.4 prescribes the mini-
a function of the basic wind speed V and roof angle for buildings with a mum wind pressures in the design ofan MWFRS for buildings designed
mean roof height of 30 feet that are located on primarily flat ground in by this method. The minimum load cases is defined by assuming that
Exposure B. Modifications are made to these tabulated pressures based the pressures p, for Zones A and C are equal to+ 16 psf, for Zones B and
on actual building height and exposure using the adjustment factor A. D are equal to +8 psf, and for Zones E, F, G, and H are equal to zero.
that is given in the figure. Such pressures must also be modified by the Flowchart 15 (Fig. 1.41) can be used to determine design wind pres-
topographic factor Ka where applicable. sures on the MWFRS of buildings in accordance with Part 2 ofChapter 28.
STRUCTURAL LOAl>S 39
Case A
Case B
Flgu.. 1M Appllc811on of wlDd preaura for low-rise bulldlnp. Pm 2 of <lllpter 21.
DlllB(;l'IONAL PROCJU:>'OIUI FOR BUD.DING The gun-effect f'actor G la determined &om 26.11. The term. A, is the
APPUR.TBMANCBS AND OTHU. STll.UCTUll.BS p11 area of the solid fremanding wall or sign.
(CHAPTER 29) Net me coefficients c1 are given in Figure 29.3-1 u a function of
SCllpe Chapta' 2911 appliahle to the cl.etermination ofwind loada on the geometrical propertlu of the wall or tlgn. These coeiBdents are
the MWFRSs ofbuilding appurtenances (indwilng rooftop structure and based on the results of boundary layer wind tunnd studies (see C29.3.l
rooftop equipment) and other rtructures (Including aol!d freatmding for more Information on thete studia u wdl u for an equation to that
wan.. free.st&ndl.og tol1d '1p. chimneys. tanb, open signs. lattice frame- can be used 1D determine C).
work, and truaed towen). The mndition11 of29.l.2 and the limitations of Three lOld cues muat tie lnveltlgated: Cases A, B, and C. Cue A
29.1.3 mlllt be aatis&ed in order fur thete provillom to be applied. and Cue B c:omidu the resultant wind load acting normal through the
Wind preacura are calculated using specific equatlom that are part of geometric center of the wall or sign md normal through a point at an
the Directional Procedure ID ~r 27. ecc;entricily from the geometrit tatter. mpettively. Cue C accounts for
the higher preaurea that occ.ur near the windward edge of a freestand-
S()l.IJ) F'Uu'l:ANDDfG WALLS AlllD SOLID SIGNS lng wall or 1tgn when it Ja subjected to an oblique wind dlrec:tion (i.e..
Solid F....mndl. . w.11 mnd So.1111 fl'Hdllndl. . Signs The declgn at a direction that is not nonml to the face of the wall or liga). Wind
wind for F for tolld freemnding wan. md solid freestmdlng slgm 11 tunnd tatt and full...cale test data have shown that the net preuures at
determined by Equation 29..3-1: the windward edges are lignilkantly redu.ced where retw:n cornea are
preaent. Reduction facton that can be u.ed to account fur thh reduced
P='IJ.GC1A, preuure are giYal UDder Cue C In the figure u a function of the return
length.
In thU equation. 1fi.1lthe velocity~ cletennined by Equation 29.1~1 Signa and walls an: conlidered to be solid in cue1 where any open-
at height II defined ID Figure 29.3-1. lnp compme leaa than 30 percent of the gl'Od8 area. Forte coeffidenta
40 CHAPTER ONE
FLOWCHART15
Chapter 28, Part 2 - Buildings, MWFRS
• See 26.5.2 and 26.5.31or basic wind apeed In 3. Load effects of the design wind pressures delennlned by Eq.
spaclal wind raglons and astlrnatlon of basic wind 28.5-1 shall not be 1998 than thoee from the minimum load case
speeds 1rom regional climatic data. Toma- . ol 28.5.4. n la assumed that the pressures p, for Zones A and C
have not been oonsiderad in developing basic are equal to+16 psi, Zones Band D are equal to +8 psi, and the
wind apeed diilribution11 shown in the figuree. pressures for zones E, F, G, and Hare equal too psi.
Figure 1.41 Design wind pressures on the MWFRS of buildings In accordance with Part 2 of Chapter 28 (Flowchart 15).
are permitted to be reduced by the factor in Note 2 of Figure 29.3-1 In this equation, q. is the velocity pressure determined by Equation 29.10-1
where such openings occur. at height z of the centroid of the area Af' and G is the gust-effect factor
Solid Attached Signs The provisions of Chapter 30 (C&C) must be determined in accordance with 26.11. The area Ais either the projected
used to determine wind pressures on solid signs that are attached to the area normal to the wind or the actual surface area depending on how
wall of a building that meet the following conditions: c
the force coefficient 1 is specified.
• Plane ofthe sign is parallel to and in contact with the plane ofthe wall. Force coefficients c1 are given in the following figures:
• The sign does not extend beyond the side or top edges of the wall. • Figure 29.4-1: Chimneys, tanks, rooftop equipment, and similar
This procedure is also applicable to signs that are not in direct contact structures
with the wall provided that the gap between the sign and the wall is less • Figure 29.4-2: Open signs and lattice frameworks
than or equal to 3 feet and the edge of the sign is at least 3 feet from the • Figure 29.4-3: Trussed towers
edges of the wall (Le., side and top edges and bottom edges of elevated The coefficients in Figures 29.4-1 and 29.4-2 are the same as those
walls). In any case, the internal pressure coefficient (GCp;) is to be set originally reported in Ref. 13.
equal to zero when calculating the pressures in accordance with Chapter 30. Values of c1 in Figure 29.4-1 are given for square, hexagonal, and
In essence, the attached sign should experience approximately the same round cross sections as a function of the height to cross-sectional
external pressure as the wall to which it is attached. dimension of the section. It is important to note that this figure is
valid for rooftop equipment on buildings that have a mean roof height
OTHER STRUCTURES greater than 60 feet; the requirements of 29.4-2 must be used in cases
The design wind force F for other structures-including chimneys, where h S 60 feet.
tanks, rooftop equipment for buildings with h > 60 feet, open signs, lat- The force coefficients in Figure 29.4-2 are applicable to open signs,
tice frameworks, and trussed towers-is determined by Equation 29.4-1: that is, signs with openings comprising more than 30 percent of the
gross area. Signs that do not meet this criterion are classified as solid,
F=q,GC1 A1 and the force coefficients in Figure 29.3-1 must be used.
$1RUCTURAL LOADS 41
Force coefficient. for trussed tower• with square and trW1glllar MINIMUM Dli$IGN Wnm l.oADING
aoss 1ections are given in Figure 29.~3. These 1implified coefficient.I The minimum de«ign wind load for other structures must be greater than
are com:istent with those in Re£ 16. or equal to 16 psf muhiplied. by the projec:ted area normal to the wind At
ROOl"l'OP STRUCTU.RBS AND EQUIPMENT FOR
(29.7}. Tim load case ii to be applied. as a uparate load case in addition
BmtDDIGS WITH h S 60 FEET to the other load cam sped1led in Chapter 29.
Flowchart 16 (Fig. 1.43) can be Uffd to detumine de'1gn wind pm-
Both btera1 and vertical wind loads must be determined for stJUcturell S'W'C$ on the MWFRS of other stru.cturn and building appurtenances in
and eci,uJpme.nt located on the rooftop of buildlnp with mean roof accordance with Chapter 29.
heigliu less than or equd to 60 feet. The lateral force Fi. Is determined
by Equation 29.-4-2: 1.7.4 Componentund Clllddlng
0vu.VIBW
~ =q,.(QCr)A,
Chapter 30 <Xmtains design wind load provisions for C&C. These
In1bis equ.ation.q11 isthevdocitypressure detm:nined by l!qua1io.n 29.1~1 requirement.I ma.y be wied. in the design of such elements provided. that
evaluated at the mean roof height of the building. and At is the vertical the condl.tiom and limitation• of 30.1.2 and 30.1.3 are satisfied. The fol-
projected area of the rooftop structure or equipment on a plane normal lowing sections discuss them: parts that are contained in this cl!.apter.
to the direction ofwilld (see Fig. 1.42, where At= h1B1). A summary of die wind load procedures and their applic:ability for
The combined. gust-effect hctor and prasure coefficient (GC,} C&C in accordance with Chapter 30 are given in Table 1.12
accounts for higher wind pressures due to higher conelalion of pn1- Similar to M~. reduction in wind presNreS due to apparent
sure1 a.cross the structure surface. higher turbulence 0.11 the roof of the shielding of surrounding buildings, other ruuctures, or tem1n Is not
building, and accelerated wind speed on Che roof. permitted in the design of C&C (30.1.4). Remowl of such featum
Equation 29..4-3 Is used to cdcU!ate the upllft force P. on rooftx>p around a building at a. lakr date could result in wind pnwurg that
rtructures and equipment: are much higher than origindly accounted for; as such, wind presNreS
must be calculated assuming that aD. shl.eldh'lg effects are not pr«ent.
~ =IJJi(GC,)A, Design wind pre8SU1CS determined by Chapter 30 are permitted to
This force Is disttibuted over the horizonttil projected area of the roof- be used in the design of air permeable roof or wall cladding. Rumplei
top structure or equipment A,. whicli is equ.al to Li,B1 in Fig. 1.42. of this type of cladding include aiding, premu:e-equaliud rain Jc.reen
wan.. ahin.glea, tiles, concrete roof paver•. and aggregue roof rurfadng.
PARAPETS Jn general this type of d.add.blg allows partial air pressure equalization
.ASCB/Slil 29.S refera to 27.3.S and 28.3.2 forwilld pre6SU1'eS on parapets between their e:s:tuior and interior surfaces. Additional infonnation
for buildings of all heights and for low-me buildinp, respectively. can be found in C30.l.5.
Rooftop structure
or equipment
__
/ _ _ _ B _ _____..,,/
fLowcHART 16
Chapter 29 - Structures Other Than Buildings•
No Yes
•see 29.4.2 for~ bins, silos, and tanks; 29.4.3 and 29.4.4 for rooftop solar panels;
29.5 for parapet&; and 29.6 for roof ovethangs.
FLOWCHART 16
Chapter 29 - Structures Other Than Buildings
(continued)
FLOWCHART 16
Chapter 29 - Structures Other Then Bulldlngs
(continued) Determine velocity pressure qh from Flowchart 1O
Determine gust-affect factor G from Flowchart 11 Determine lateral force F,. by Eq. 29.4-2:
F,. = q,. (GC,'JAJ
Figure 1.43 Delign wind preaaure.s on the MWFRS of other structUiea and building appurtenances in accordance with Chapter 29 (Flowchart 16).
42
STRUCTURALLOADS 43
lllble 1.12 Sum11111ry of Wind la•d Procedures in ASCEISEI 7-16 for C&C
Applicability
ASCE/SEI
chapter Part Building/element type Height limit Conditions
30 Enclosed, low-rise h s 60 feet and h s least • Regular-shaped building
Partially enclosed, low-rise horizontal dimension • Building doe• not have reaponse characteristics making it subject to
Enclosed with h s 60 feet h s 60 feet across-wind loading. vortez shedcling. instability due to galloping or
Partially enclosed with flutter
h s 60 feet • Building is not located at a site where channeling effects or buffeting in
the wake of upwind obstructions wvrant special consideration
• See additional conditions on 1dected figure(s) referenced in this part
2 Enclosed, low-rise h s 60 feet and h s least • Same first thzee conditions as in Part 1
Enclosed with h S 60 feet horizontal dimension • Building has with either a flat roof, a gable roof with 9 s 45 degrees, or a
h s 60 feet hip roof with 9 S 27 degrees
3 Enclosed h > 60feet • Same first thzee conditions as in Part 1
Partially enclosed • See additional conditions on selected figure(s) referenced in this part
4 Enclosed h s 160 feet • Same first thzee conditions as in Part 1
5 Open None • Same first thzee conditions as in Part 1
• See additional conditions on sdected figure(•) referenced in this part
in either direction (positive or negative) normal to the surface. Like in a.sign Wind Pru&ul'llS Design wind pressures p are determined by
the case of MWFRSs, this is a load case that need& to be considered in Equation 30.3-1:
addition to the other required load cases in this chapter.
Tribut.ry Arws Gruter Th•n 700 Squ•re Felli C&C elements that
support a tributary area greater than 700 square feet are permitted to be
designed for wind pressures using the provisions for MWFRSs. The In this equation, 'lh is the velocity pressure evaluated at the mean roof
700-square-foot tributary area is deemed sufficiently large enough so height of the building as determined by Equation 26.10-1, and (GCpi)
that the localized wind effects are not pronounced as is the case of C&C; are the internal pressure coefficients given in Table 26.13-1. Combined
as such, the wind pressures on these elements are essentially equal to gust-effect factor and pressure coefficients (GCp) are given in the fol-
those determined by the method for MWFRSs. lowing figures for walls and roofs:
Extem•I P11111ure Coefficients Numerous figures are provided in this • Walla: Figure 30.3-1
chapter that give values for the combined gust-effect factor and pressure • Roofs
coefficient (GCp) for C&C. The gust-effect factor and pressure coeffi- o Flat, gable, and hip roofs: Figures 30.3-2A through 30.3-2C
cients are not permitted to be separated (30.2.4). Additional informa- o Stepped roofs: Figure 30.3-3
tion on these coefficients is given in the following sections. o Multispan gable roofs: Figure 30.3-4
Velocity Pressure The velocity pressure q~ evaluated at height z is 0 Monoslope roofs: Figures 30.3-SA and 30.3-SB
determined by Equation 26.10-1. Additional information on how to o Sawtooth roofs: Figure 30.3-6
determine q~ is given in Sec. 1.7.3 of this chapter. 0 Domed roofs: Figure 30.3-7
FLOWCHART17
Chapter 30, Part 1 - Buildings, C&C*
• C&C elements wllh trlbutary arau graater than 700 aquara feat may
be designed using the provilion9 for MWFRS1 (30.2.3),
height h1 between floor tlabs. The following are the dkctlve wind areu - see 26.2 tor delirnon or 8lfeGtiY8 Mid area.
fur thete two wmponents:
• GWing panel: Larger af (s >< hJ or (1 >< 1/3)
* Minimum wind i:ir-urw ol 30.2.2 must also ba considared.
• Mullion: Larger of (1 >< h1) or (h1 x 111/3) AtuN 1AS DCllfcn wind~· on cac ofblllldlup 1n ~with
For both components, the first area ii the area tributary to the com- Part l of Chapta 30 (Plowclwt L7).
ponent. and the second i• that u.odlkd with the effective w:iddt. The
efi'edift wind uu. which ia defined u the larger of thete two areu,
depends on the ttlatM magnitudes of th.e tpam and heights for both Flowchart 18 ill Fig. U 6 can be u.ed to determine det!p wind pzes-
components. •ure• on Car<: ofbuilclinp in aGCOrdana with Part 2 af CUpter 30.
Flowchut 17 (Flf. 1.45) WI be u.ed to determine de,Jgn wind pm- Dltwdloalll l'ramdw
sures on C&C af build.inp in aocmdmce with Part I af Chapter 30. Xlo/R Paru 3 through 7 C011tain method. to determine wind J.oada
...rta~...,......,Slmpllhd on C&C ofbuildinp. parapetl, roof ovcrhanp. building appurteunces,
o..rwttw The limpllfi.ed method In Part 2 Is applkable to enclosed rooftop .tructure• and equipment, auac:hcd canopies, and nonbuilding
low-riae bulldinp and building• with a mean roof helgbt less than or lltructl1res that meet the amdilionl in Table 1.12. These parts are bued.
equal to 60 &et with flat, gable or hip roofl. Wmcl presaures on C&C on the Directional Procedure ill Chapter 27.
located at varioUI building surface• are detamined from the tlbulated !Wt J-lulldlnp with II> eo FMt
valuea in Figure 30.4-1 for a building with a mean roofhelght of 30 feet OnlvMw Part 3 if appllcable to encloaed or partially enclosed build-
located at a am clualfied u Expa.ure B. These pressure• are adjusted ings with a mean roaf height gnater than 60 feet with various types of
fur difkm:it building heights and o:pow.res using the adjustment &c:tor roof ahapea. De1lgn wind J'l'll"UlU are calculated ualng the appropriate
in the figure. atemal pressure codfldenu for walla and roo& gM::n Ill Figum 30.5-1,
Table 30.4-1 c:ontalm the overall steps that can be uaed to determine 27.3-3, and 30.3-7.
wind pressures 011 C&C of web. buildings. This procedw:e entails the determination of the velocity pressure
Dn1sn Miid , , . . _ Simplified design wind ~ P...oo for (which It determined u a function af apOIUtt, height, topographie
C&C located a:tvvioua ZOllet on a building are tabulatedin Figure 30.4-1 effects, wind direct!011allty, wind veloc.lty. and building occupmq). com-
u a function ofthe bulc wind apeed V and roof angle fur bulldlnga with billed gust-effect &cton. m d atcmal and intenW presiu.re coeffiden11.
a mean roof height of 30 feet that are located 011 primarily flat groU11d in Design wind prcuura are obtained. fur deaignated zones on the sm&.cel
Ezpo.ure B. Modifications are made to these tabulated presaure• based of buildings.
Oil actual building height and apo1ue using the adjustment factor ~ Table 30.5-1 cont.aim the overall atepl that can be used to detennllle
that 1' given in the figure. Such preaura must alao be modified by the wind pressurea on ~ of bulldlngs designed by thU method.
topographic factor Kis evaluated at 0.33h where applicable. Oalp Wind~ Dengn wind pmsures p Oil C&C aR deter-
Net det!p wind praslUe Pa11. u detmnined by Equation 30.4-1: mined by Equation 30.S-l :
p• 9(GC1 )- 9,(GC11)
p.,. = AKdP.oo
All ofthe terms in thU equation. acept fur the atemll premire coeffi-
The methodology of determining the wind p?CllUlel on C&C la esaen- cients (GC1). are the 1ame u thoae for MWFRSI. Elttemal prcnure coef-
tlllly the 1a111e u that for MWPRS. The tabulated wind preaumi in the ficients can be fOU11d in Figure 30.S-1 for walb and flat roofs, in Note 4
tbacled. uea1 afFigure 30.4-1are1- than the minimum wind preuure of Figure 27.3-3 fur arched roofl, in Figure 30.3-7 fur domed roo&, and
of 16 Pff piacribed In 30.2.2. The note at th.e bottom of thJa figure pointa In Note 6 ofFlguR 30.5-1 for other roof angles and geometrl~.
out that the final net p?eNure ddmnlned by the equation above must be The ~ in 30.5.2 permits design wind prcssure1 on the C&C
gremr than or equal to 16 I19f. of buildinp with mean roof heights greata' than 6(1 feet and les11 than
FLOWCHART 18
Chapter 30, Part 2 - Buildings, C&C*
Yes
Topographic factor
Topographic factor Kt.t = 1.0 K:,t=(l +K1K~-;J2. where Kv
K2 , and K 3 are given in Fig. 26.8·1
• C&C elemertls with 1ributary areas greater than 700 square feet may be designed
using the provisions for MWFASs (30.2.3).
.. See 26.5.2 and 26.5.3 for basic wind speed in special wind regions and
estimation of basic wind speeds from regional climatic data. Tornadoes have not
been considered In developing basic wind speed dlsb1butlons shown In the
figures.
FLOWCHART 18
Chapter 30, Part 2 - Buildings, C&C
(continued)
Figure 1 .46 Deoign wind preuurea on C&C of buildings In accordance with Part 2 of Chapter 30
(Flowchart 18).
45
46 CHAPTER ONE
90 feet to be determined using the external pressures coefficients that are located on primarily flat ground in Exposure C. These tabulated
(GC,,) from Figures 30.3-1 through 30.3-6 in Part 1 provided that the pressures are valid for an effective wind area of 10 square feet and have
height-to-width ratio of the building is less than or equal to one. The been determined using the applicable external pressure coefficients
external pressure coefficients from the envelope procedure have been from Part 3 (namely, Figure 30.6-1 for flat roofs; Figure 30.4-2A, 2B, and
deemed adequate to predict design wind pressures for buildings of these 2C for gable and hip roofs; and Figure 30.4-SA and SB for monoslope
proportions. roofs) and an internal pressure coefficient of ±0.18 for enclosed build-
Flowchart 19 (Fig. 1.47) can be used to determine design wind pres- ings. Modifications are made to these tabulated pressures based on the
sures on C&C of buildings in accordance with Part 3 of Chapter 30. actual exposure and effective wind area. Design wind pressures p are
Pllrt 4-Bulldlngs with 60 Feet< II :S 160 Ffft determined by Equation 30.7-1:
Dwtvlew Part 4 provides a simplified method of determining wind
loads on C&C of enclosed buildings with a mean roof height less than P =Piable(EAF)(RF}Kzr
or equal to 160 feel Wind pressures on C&C located on various surfaces
can be read directly from Table 30.7-2 for a building site classified as In this equation, (EAF) is the exposure adjustment factor given in
Table 30.7-2, which modifies the tabulated pressures in cases where the
Exposure C and an effective wind area of 10 square feel These pressures
are modified by an effective area reduction factor, exposure adjustment exposure at the site is different than Exposure C.
The effective area reduction factor (RF) is also given in Table 30.7-2
factor, and the topographic factor where applicable (see Table 30.7-2 and
Equation 30.7-1). and modifies the tabulated pressures for effective wind areas greater than
10 square feet. Reduction factors, which are based on the graphs of the
Table 30.7-1 contains the overall steps that can be used to determine
wind pressures on C&C of buildings designed by this method. external pressure coefficients in the figures in Part 3, are provided for
designated zones on walls and roofs for five different roof shapes and
Dftlgn Mnd l'IWSurn
Wall and RoofSurfaces Design wind pressures on designated zones of
for roof overhangs.
Flowchart 20 (Fig. 1.48) can be used to determine design wind pres-
wall and roof surfaces are determined from Table 30.7-2 as a function of
the basic wind speed V, mean roof height, and roof angle for buildings sures on C&C of wall and roof surfaces in accordance with Part 4 of
Chapter30.
Parapets Equation 30.7-1 in conjunction with the applicable edge and
comer pressures Ptable in Table 30.7-2 are used to determine parapet C&C
FLOWCHART 19 wind pressures. Pressures are applied to the parapet in accordance with
Figure 30.7-1. Two load cases must be considered, namely, Load Case
Chapter 30, Part 3 - Buildings, C&C* A, which is applicable to windward parapets, and Load Case B, which is
applicable to leeward parapets:
• Load Case A: Positive wall pressure from Zone 4 or 5 is applied
to the windward (front) surface of the parapet, and negative roof pres-
Determine velocity pressure q, for windward walls along sure from Zone 2 or 3 is applied to the leeward (back) surface of the
the height of the building and qh tor leeward walls, side parapet.
walls, and roof using Flowchart 10 • Load Case B: Positive wall pressure from Zone 4 or 5 is applied to
the windward (back) surface of the parapet, and negative wall pressure
from Zone 4 or 5 is applied to the leeward (front) surface of the parapet.
Determine external pressure coefficients, (GC;J, for zones The height that is to be used in determining Ptabte from Table 30.7-2
on the walls and roof from Figs. 30.5-1, 27.3-3, Note 4 for is the height to the top of the parapet. The pressures obtained by this
arched roofs, 30.3-7 for domed roofs, or Note 6 of 30.5-1 method are slightly conservative compared to those determined by
for other roof angles and geometries based on the Part 3.
effective wind area** Roof Overhangs Equation 30.7-1 in conjunction with the applicable
pressures Ptabte in Table 30.7-2 are used to determine roof overhang C&C
wind pressures. Pressures are applied to the overhang in accordance
with Figure 30.7-2.
Determine ql for the walls and roof using Flowchart 1 O In Zones 1 and 2, the pressures on the top surface of the roof over-
hang are set equal to the tabulated roof pressures in those zones, and
in Zone 3, the pressures are set equal to 1.15 times the tabulated roof
pressures in this zone. On the underside of the overhang, the pressure
Determine internal pressure coefficients (GCP;) from is set equal to the adjacent wall pressure. In all cases, these pressures are
Table 26.13-1 based on enclosure classification slightly conservative and are based on the external pressure coefficients
in Figures 30.4-2A to 30.4-2C of Part 3.
Pllrt 5-0pen Buildings
Overview Part 5 is applicable to open buildings with pitched,
Determine design wind pressures by Eq. 30.5-1: monoslope, or troughed roofs. Net design wind pressures on C&C are
p= q(GCp)- qi(GCpi)+ determined by Equation 30.8-1 using the appropriate net pressure coef-
ficients in Figures 30.8-1, 30.8-2, and 30.8-3.
• C&C elements with tributary areas greater than 700 square feet Table 30.8-1 contains the overall steps that can be used to determine
may be designed using the provisions for MWFRSs {30.2.3). wind pressures on C&C of buildings designed by this method.
Deign Wind Preuul'es Net design wind pressures on the C&C of
•• See 26.2 for definition of effective wind area. Also see the open buildings are determined by Equation 30.8-1:
exception In 30.5.2 tor buildings with 60 feet< h < 90 feel.
*q1= qh or q1= q depending on enclosure classification (see
2
p=qhGCN
30.5.2). q; may conservatively be evaluated at height h {q1= qh)
where applicable. In this equation, qn is velocity pressure evaluated at the mean roof height
ofthe building, and G is the gust-effect factor determined in accordance
+ Minimum wind pressures of 30.2.2 must also be considered.
with 26.9.
Figull! 1.47 Design wind pressure• on C&C of buildings in accordance with The net pressure coefficients CN are given in Figure 30.8-1 for
Part 3 of Chapter 30 (Flowchart 19). monosloped roofs, Figure 30.8-2 for pitched roofs, and Figure 30.8-3
STRUCTURALLOADS 47
Fl..OWcHAAT 20
Chapter 30, Part 4 - Buildings, C&C*
• C&C elementll wfth t~butaty areu greater lhan 700 square feet may Determine net design wind pressures
be daslgnad using the provisions for MWFRSs (30.2.3). See 30.6.1.2 for p = probi<(EAF)(RF)K., (Eq. 30.6-1) for
parapem and 30.6.1.3 far roa1 overhangs.
ZOnes 1 through s*
- See 26.5.2 and 26.5.3 far basic wind speed in special wind regions and
Mlimatian of basic wind spaed• from regional climatic data.
Tornadoes have not been considered in developing basic wind speed •See 26.2 for delinttion of effective wind area.
clatltbutlons shown In Iha figures. *Minimum wind pressures of 30.2.2 must also be considered.
Figure 1A8 Dcalgn wind pressures on C&C of wall and roof surfaces In accordance with Part 4 of Chapter 30 (Flowchart 20).
for troughed roofs based on the effective wind area. These coefficients In this equation, q1 is the velocity pressure evaluated at the top of the par-
include contributions from both the top and bottom surfaces of the apet, and (GCp1) are the internal pressure coefficients from Table 26.11-1
roof, which implies that the element receives pressure from both based on the porosity of the envelope of the parapet. The external pres-
surfaces. sure coefficients ( GC1 ) are determined from the same figures as those
Flowchart 21 in Fig. 1.49 can be used to determine design wind in Parts 1 and 3 for Walls and various roof configurations (see 30.9 for a
pressures on C&C of wall and roof surfaces in accordance with Part 5 comprehensive list of applicable figures).
of Chapter 30. Similar to the requirements of Part 4, Load Case A and Load
Pilrt 6-Bulldlng Appurtellilnces •nd Raoftvp Stnictunis Md Equipment Case B must be considered for the windward and leeward parapets,
""-""- Part 6 contains methods to determine wind pressures on respectively. Figure 30.9-1, which illustrates these load case, ls essen-
C&C of parapets (30.9), roof overhangs (30.10), and rooftop structures tially the same as Figure 30.7-1 in Part 4 with the exception that the
and equipment for buildings with h :!> 60 feet (30.11). pressures in Part 6 must be determined from the applicable figures
This procedure entails the determination of velocity pressure (which noted in 30.9.
is determined as a function of exposure, height, topographic effects, Table 30.9-1 contains the overall steps that can be used to determine
wind directionality, wind velocity, and building occupancy), combined wind pressures on C&C of parapets designed by this method
gust-effect factors, and external pressure coefficients and internal pres- Flowchart 22 (Fig. 1.50) can be used to determine design wind pres-
sure coefficients. Design wind pressures are obtained for designated sures on C&C of parapets in accordance with Part 6 of Chapter 30.
zones on the surfaces of buildings. Roof overhanp. Design wind pressures p for C&C elements of roof
O.sJgn Wind Prwuu,.s overhangs are determined by Equation 30.10-1:
Poropets Design wind pressures p for C&C elements of parapets
for all building types and heights, except for enclosed buildings with a p= qh[(GCp)-(GCp;)l
mean roof height less than or equal to 160 feet (see Part 4) are calculated
by Equation 30.9-1: In this equation, qh is the velocity pressure measured at the mean roof
height, and (GC.J are the internal pressure coefficients from Table 26.11-1.
The external. pressure coefficients (GCp) for overhangs are given
in Figures 30.4-2A to 30.4-2C (flat roofs, gable roofs, and hip roofs,
48 CHAPTER ONE
FLOWCHART 23
Determine the gust-effect factor G from Chapter 30, Part 6 - Roof Overhangs, C&C*
Flowchart 11
Determine design wind pressures by Eq. 30.7-1: Determine intemal pret1sure coefficients (GC,i) from
Table 26.13-1 based on enclosure classification
p=qhGCl·
* C&C elements with tributary areas greater than 700 square feet Determine design wind pressures by Eq. 30.9·1:
may be designed using the provisions for MWFRSs (30.2.3). p = qh[(GCp)- (GCp;)J*
** Saa 26.2 for definition of effective wind area.
* Minimum wind pressures of 30.2.2 must also be oonsidared.
• C&C elements with tributary areas greater 1han 700 square
Flgu19 1.49 Design wind pressures on C&C of wall and roof surfaces in fee1 may be designed using 1he provisions for MWFRSll
accordance with Part 5 of Chapter 30 (Flowchart 21). (30.2.3).
•• See 26.2 for definition of ellective wind area.
* Minimum wind pressures of 30.2.2 must also be considered.
FLOWCHART 22
Figure 1.51 Design wind pressures on C&C of roof overhangs in accordance
Chapter 30, Part 6 - Parapets, C&C- with Part 6 of Chapter 30 (Flowchart 23).
Determine design wind pressures by Eq. 30.8-1: Determine design wind pressures by Eq. 30.11-1:
p = qp[(GCp)- (GCp;)J* p = qh(GCp):f:
• C&C elements with tributary areas greater than 700 square feet * C&C elements with tributary areas greater than 700 square
may be dBlligned using Iha provisions for MWFRSs (30.2.3).
feat may be designed using the provisions for MWFRSs
- See 26.2 for definition of effective wtnd area. {30.2.3).
* Two load cases must be considered c- Fig. 30.8·1). Also, ** Saa 26.2 for definition of effective wind area.
minimum wtnd pressures of 30.2.2 must also be considered.
Rooftop Structull!S and Equipment for Buildings with h;;; 60 Feet The provi- values to be reduced. C3 l provides a comprehensive discussion on the
sions of 29.5.l that are applicable in the design of MWFRSs are to be reasons behind these limitations.
used in determining the design wind pressures on the C&C of rooftop
structures and equipment for buildings with a mean roof height less 1.8 EARTHQUAKE LOADS
than or equal to 60 feet.
See Chap. 5 of this handbook.
The design wind pressures on the walls and roof are determined by divid-
ing the horizontal and vertical wind loads obtained from Equations 28.5-1
1.9 FLOOD AND TSUNAMI LOADS
and 29.3-1, respectively, by the corresponding projected areas of the
structure or equipment. The wall pressures can act inward or outward 1.9.1 Ow!rvlew of Flood and Tsunami LHds
while the roof pressure acts outward. In general, flooding is the overflow ofexcess water from a body of water
{river, stream, lake, ocean, etc.) onto adjoining land. Depending on local
1.7.5 WlndTUnnel Procedure topography, one or more bodies of water can contribute to flooding
OveRv1ew at a particular site. Storms usually generate the most significant flood
The Wind Tunnd Procedure in Chapter 31 can be utilized to detennine hazards in areas other than those where tsunamis need to be considered.
wind loads on MWFRSs and C&C of any building or other structure IBC 202 defines flooding as a general or temporary condition of par-
in lieu of any of the procedures in the Chapters 27 through 30 and must tial or complete inundation of normally dry land from
be used where the conditions of these procedures are not satisfied {in 1. the overflow of inland or tidal waters or
particular, where a structure contains any of the characteristics defined 2. the unusual or rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters
in 27.1.3, 28.1.3, 29.1.3, or 30.1.3). from any source.
Wind tunnd tests should be seriously considered where buildings or Along coastlines and the shorelines of large lakes, flooding is caused
other structures are not regularly shaped, are flexible and/or slender, by wind-driven surges and waves that push water onshore, while along
have the potential to be buffeted by upwind buildings or other struc- streams and rivers, flooding results from the accumulation of rainfall
tures, or have the potential to be aubjected to accderated wind flow runoff that drains from upland watersheds.
from channding by buildings or topographic features. In the case of tall, In order to correctly characterize the potential hazards caused by
slender buildings, only a wind tunnd test can properly capture any p<>1- floodwaters, the following parameters must be investigated at any site
sible effect1 due to vortex shedding, galloping, or flutter. For building1 regardless of the source:
in the heart of a city, a wind tunnel test is mandatory aince Exposure• B • Origin of flooding
through D cannot properly capture the conditions in such cases. Every • Frequency of flooding
project has its own unique characteristics, and engineering judgment • Depth of floodwaters
also plays a role in the decision-making process. When detennining • Velocity of floodwaters
whether a wind tunnel test is required, it is always very important to • Direction of floodwaters
keep in mind the limitations in Chapters 27 through 30, especially the • Duration of flooding
general one related to along-wind response. • Effects due to waves
Of all of the methods that are contained in ASCE/SEI 7-16, the wind • Effects due to erosion and scour
tunnel procedure is generally considered to produce the most accurate • Effects due to flood-borne debris
results. For certain types of buildings, the results from a wind tunnd test It is evident from the aforementioned parameters that a variety of load
will be significantly amaller than those from any ofthe other methods. On types can be exerted on buildings due to flooding. The effects of these
the other hand, wind tunnd tests will yield results that are greater than low can be intensified by erosion and scour, which can lower the ground
those obtained from the other methods under certain conditions; as such, surface around foundations, causing loss of bearing capacity and resistance
it is important to understand when such tests are required in order to to uplift due to lawal low. Because it is not always possible to quantify
adequately design the building or other atructure for the effects of wind. each of the above parameters for a particular site, conservative estimates
Information on the three basic types of wind tunnd test models that need to be made in order to define the corresponding flood loads.
are commonly used is given in C31. Wind tunnd tests can also provide A tsunami is basically a series of waves with variable long periods,
valuable information on snow loads, the effects of wind on pedestriana, which typically result from ttunamigenk earthquakes. These types of
and concentrations of air-pollutant emissions, to name a few. References earthquakes occur along major subduction zone plate boundaries, such
are provided in C31 that provide detailed information and guidance for as those bordering the Pacific Ocean, where a tectonic plate is subduct-
the determination of wind loads and other types of deaign data by wind ing under an adjoining plate {see Figure C6.7-2). Tsunamis can also be
tunnel tests. generated by landslides near a coast or by underwater and undersea
volcanic eruptions.
'fl!sT CONDITIONS The effects on structures due to this coastal flooding hazard can be
Basic requirements for test conditions of wind tunnel tests or any other catastrophic, especially for one- and two-family dwellings and low-
tests that employ a fluid other than air are given in 31.2. These seven rise buildings oflight-frame construction. According to C6. l, it is not
conditions must be followed when any such test is conducted. practical to include tsunami design requirements for these types of
Additional information on the basic procedures ofconducting a wind low-rise structures because, based on forensic engineering surveys of
tunnel test can be found in the references in C3 l. major tsunami events of the past decade, such structures do not survive
significant ttunami loading.
DY1i!AMIC RESPONSE Tsunami loads and effects on structures are based on inundation
The test conditions of 31.2 are to be used when determining the depth and flow velocities ofwater during inflow and outflow stages at the
dynamic re1ponse of a building or other structure. Mass distribution, site. The types of loads that need to be considered are like those required
stiffness, and damping must be properly accounted for in the model and for flooding, as noted above. Because the characteristics of future tsu-
in the subsequent analysis. namis cannot be adequately determined using only historical records,
a probabilistic design approach is used instead of a deterministic one.
LOAD EFFECTS
ASCE/SEI 31.4.2 prescribes limitations on the wind speed used in the 1.9.2 Ovtlrvlew of Cade Requirements
telts, and 31.4.3 gives lower limits on the magnitude of the principal All structures and portions of structures located in flood hazard areas
loads that are to be applied to a building or structure for both the must be designed and constructed to resist the effects of flood hazards
MWFRS and C&C. Two conditions are given that permit the limiting and flood loads (IBC 1612.1). IBC 1612.2 requires that the deaign and
50 CMAPTERONE
(Xlllruuction ofbuildinp ancl muctum lo~ in ftoocl hazard areas. equated or oceeded In any given Y\W· Sample PIRM• a.re shown in
including Coutll High Hazard Areas and Coutll A Zones, must be Figure Cl-3 of Ref. 11 and Fig. 1.53.
in accordance wilh Chapter 5 of ASCE/SEI 7-16 and Re£ 11. Where A FIRM that is produced in a. digital format is detignated a. Digital
a building or structure Is located In more thm one flood zone or .Is Flood lmuranc.e Rate Map (DFIRM). A .ample DFIRM 18 glve.n In
partlally located in a flood zone. the entire buiklinB or structure mUBt Fig. 1.53. FIRM• and DFIRMs for specific areu can be obtained from
be de.Ugned and constructed according to the requirements of the more the FEMA Flood Map Scrri.c:e Center webmc ~://rnsc:.fema.gov/
restrictive tlood zone. portal).
In the case of tsunamis, IBC 1615.1 requlm that the deQgn. and con- In regards to the mum period for flood.a, the term "100-year flood• is
struction ofl.Usk <Asegory ID and IV buildings and ruuctures loc:ated in a misnomer. Contrary to popular belief, it is not the flood that will oc<:Ur
the Tumami Design Zones ddined in the 1Sunami Design Geodaubue once evr:cy 100 years but rather the ilood elevmon that has a 1 percent
must be in accordance with Chapter6 of ASCPJSEI7-16. AppendlxM in c.hance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. The •100-year
the me provides tsunami vertical ewcuatton planning criteria fur those :flood• could oc<:Ur more than once in a relatively abort period of time.
coutal communities where a tsunami hazard. u shown in a Ttunami The flood elewtion that hu a 1 percent chance of being equaled or
Detign Zone Map. is evident. m:eeded in uy given YQt is the mndud 1Uecl by most government
Ha2anb and loads that need to be consi.dm:d fur rtruct\Ues lo~ agencies and the NPIP fur floodplain management and to determine the
in flood hazard areas and Jn tsunami-prone regions are gtve.n in the need for tlood iniUl'iD.Ce.
following se<:tlons. In addition to showing the ateut of flood hazuds, the FIRMs and
DPIRMs also show BF.Es and floodwa)'8. The BFE is the height 1o which
FLOOD l..oADs ftoodwalml will rise during passage or occunence of the base flood
Flood lllmlrd Min The first atep In the deatgn for flood loads ls to relative to the datum that is used on the flood hazard map. Stat!atical
determine lf a building or structure 1s located in a tlood hazud area or methods and computer methods that take into account the shape and
not. By definition. aflrxxl hazard #Tea iJ the gr~ of the CollCl'lrinf two nat\m! of the iloodplain (ground contours and the pr«cnce of any
areu (IBC 202): buildingt, bridges, and culverts) were used by FBMA to obtain the BPBI
l. The area within a floodplain Bllhject to a 1 percent or greater along riven and stJ:ealni. In auch cue&, the BF& a.re provided next to
chance of flooding In any year river CJ'OSS se<:tlons on the flood hazard maps (see Fig. 1.54). Along
2. The area designated u a flood hazard area on a community's ftood coutal areu. BF.Es inc:lude wave heights and are established (Xllldder-
hazard map or otherwile legally designated ing hi.rtorical storm and wind pattern•. The BFE.! for coastal and lake
The first oftht$e two areas h typically acquired from Flood Insurance areas are shown in partnth~ immediately below the flood zone on the
Rate Maps (FIRMs). which are p.repared by the Federal Emergency 1lood hazard maps (see Figs. 1.53 and 1.54).
Management Agenc:y (FEMA) duough the National Flood Insurance Floodways a.re channels of a river, creek or o1her watucoune and
Program (NPIP). Conducting ilood hazard studiet and providing adjaamt land arns that must be reserved in order to dischaJie the base
PIRMs and Flood Insurance Studie1 (FISs) for participatlng commwtl- iloodwaten without cumulatively increasing the water surface elevat.10.11
ties are major activities undertaken by the NFIP. Included In FISs are the by more than a deagnated height. As suc:h, tloodwa}'8 must be kept dear
FIRM, the Flood Boundary and Floodwv.y Map (FBFM), the bas<! ftood of encroachments (such u BD or builcllnp) so that the base flood CUI be
elCMllion (BFE), and supporting tec.bnical data. discharged without increasing the water rudace elevations by more than
A FIRM is the official. map of a. community on which PBMA h.u the de1ignated height given in flood.way data. tablet in FIS1. A tloodway
delineated both the q>edal flood hazard areas and the risk p.re.mium schematic i.t given in F.lgure Cl-2 of Ref. 11.
zones that are applicable to the community. In general. FIRMs show Some local jurisdictions develop and subsequently adopt flood
flood hazard areas along bodies of wUei wh~ there iJ a ruk of flood- hazard. maps that are more mensi:ve than F.f!MA maps. In Nch cues,
ing by a base flood. that is, a tlood having a. 1 pen;ent chance of being ilood de1ign and collllruction requirements must be sailsfied in the
ZONEX
WAY
500-YEAR FLOOD
DISCHARGE
MAINTAINED IN CULVERT
To be daNifi~ as a Coastal A Zone. the princ:ipal 8-0urce of ilooding the applic:ation ofthe standW and the applic:ation ofthe chapters in the
must be from utnmomical tidu, storm surgu, seichu, or tsunamis and standard, :n:spectively.
not from riverine flooding. Additionally, atJllwater flood depth& .muat The provia:lone contallled in me Appendix G, Flood-Ralstant
be greater than or equal to 2.0 feet, and breaking wave heights must be Construc:tloo. are intended to ful1lll. the tloodplaln .management and
greater than or equd to 1.5 feet during the base flood «mclitlons {see adminlstratlve requirements of NFIP that are not inc;luded in the IBC.
ASCB/SE[ C5.2). Stillwa.ter depth is the vertical dimnce between me appendix chapters are not mandalory unless they are specitlcally
the ground and the fl:IIlwater elevation, which h the elevation that the referenced in the adopting ordinance of the jurlsdlc:tlon.
surface of water would assume In the absence of waves. The stillwater Other provisions related to construc:tlon In tlood hazard areas worth
elewtion ls referen~ to the North Ameriam Vertlcd Datum (NAVD), noting are found In IBC Chapter 18. IBC 1805.5 con1ains requiremenu
the National Geodetic Vertical Dal:Um. (NGVD), or other datum, and it for grading and fill in flood hazard areu. lBC 1805.1.2.1 requins raised
it d.oc:umented in PIRM9. iloor buildings in tlood hazard areu to ha.ve the &iahed grade eleva-
The principal sourcu of flooding In Noncoastal. A Zone11 are runoff tion under the floor (suc:b. as at a c:rawlspac:e) to be equal to or higher
from l'tl.infaII. snowmelt. or a comb.lnation of both. than outdde finished grade on u leut one side. The exceptton permlu
According to Section 4.1.1 of Ref. 11, CouUI A Zones are those loca- under-floor apaGU in Group R-3 ruidential buildingl to cmnply with
tions (1) landward of a V Zone or shoreline and seawvd. of the Limit of Ref.17. This bulletin providu guidance on aawlspa.ce «mstruction and
Moderate Wave Action (IJMWA) ifthe IJMWA is delineated on a FlRM givee the mlnimwu NFIP requirements for cra.wlspaca ooDBtructed In
or (2} deslgnate<l by the autho.rity having jurisdic:tion. The IJMWA is Sped.al Flood Hazard Areu.
defined a.s the line shown on a FIRM that indicates the inland limit of
the 1.5-foot breaking Wll.ve height during the base flood. FEMA indi-
DESlGN FLOOD ELr.V.ATION
cate. IJMWA lines on reriaed FlRMs prepared after December 2009.
A schematic: of & Coastal A Zone is given In Figure Cl-I of Ref. 11. The design flood elevation (DFE) is used in the determination of flood
The definition of a Coastal A Zone in Ref. 11 is the 1ame as that in loads and is defined as the elevation of the delign ilood including wave
ASCB/SE£7. height {see Fig. 1.55). For c:ommunitiu that have adopted minimum.
h lB rec:ommended to check with Che local building ofllcial for the NFIP .requireme.nt.9, the DFE la identical to the BFE. The DFE e:uteda
most CUJ'l'e.llt information on flood hazard areas prior to designing a Che BFE In communities that have adopted requirements that exceed
mucture in a flood-prone ueL minimum NFIP re<iuirements. Freeboard ls defined as 1he additional
depth of wa%1:1' above the BFE thathu been approved by a local juri.ldiction.
DllllGM AND CONSl'llUCTION This is e99elltially a factor of safety to account for uncertaintiea in the
Ac:cordlng to me 1612.2, the deQgn and construction ofbulldings and determinatl.on offlood elevations. As such, it provides an Increased level
struc:tum loca1ed in &od hazard areas must be in llQXlrdance with of ftood protection, whlc:h c:ould reduce ftood lnNl'fJlce premiums for
Chapter S of ASCPJSEI 7 and ASCBJSEI 24-14 {Rd. 11). Section 1.6 of structures localed. in flood hazard areu.
ASCE/SEI 24 requires that design flood loads and their combination The D.FE ls also l.19ed in determining the minimum elevation of the
widi. other loads be determined by ASCEISEI 7 (ASCE/SEI 24 rererencu top of the lowest floor of a building or structure. In general, Che lBC and
ASCE/SEI 7-10, which was the current edition of the mndard at that ASCE/SEJ 24 m;iulre that the lowest ftoor be el"*d to or ~ the
time). DPB. Table 2-1 in ASCE/SEJ 24 conbins the minimum elevation of the
The provisions of ASCE/SEI 24 are Intended to meet or exceed the top of the lowest floor as a.function of Che Flood Design Cius ofBuildlngs
requirements of the NFlP. Figures 1-1 and 1-2 In ASCE/SEI 24 must.rate and Strw:tures, whic:b. are defined in Table 1-1, for :flood hazard a.reu
Wave trough
.............................. ~ G ...... ,
GS Erosion
G = Ground elevation
These two C<Iu.atiom pro'Yide lower and upper bound mimate• of the
Code ted!Oll design flood velocity, respectively. In thete eci.uatio11.1, t= 1 Jecond andg
la the ac.c.eleration due to gravity (32.2 ftJH<.1). The lower bound velocity
A Top of the lowest floor ('l9lllking IBC 1612.4 mould be used ifthe ate Is
fllriace) ASCEISEI 24 Section 2.3 • distant &om die flood source.
v .Bottom of. the !owe.it horlzolltal IBC 1612.4 • located in Zone A,
Coutal A ltrllctura1 member 111pportillg ASCB/SEI :U Section 4.4 • on t1at or gently ~ping terrain, or
lhelowcrtfioor • unaffected by other buildings or obstructions.
The upper bo11.11d velocity Is tppropriate if the site Is
other dian Coutal. High.Hazard Areas. Coastal A Zones, and High-Risk • near the flood source,
Flood Hazard Areal. Similar information i• p.roridecl in Table 1.14 of • in Zone v;
ASCE/SEI 24 for struci:un:ll localed in Coa.ttal. High-Hazard Areu and • in Zone AO adjacent to Zone V.
Coastal A Zonee. Table 1.14 contains a summary of the lowest floor • in Zone A subject to vdodty ftow and "MtVe act.Ion,
.reference based 011 flood hazard zones. • on stuply sloping terrain, or
• adjacent to other large buildings or obstzui:;tiom that will confine
ST!ll.WATBR P.l.OOD DEPTH or redirect floodwaten and J.nc:reue local flood velodtlef.
The stillwuer dood depth. d,. is also used in calculating ilood loa.dt. Shown In Fig. 1.56 are the lcnm: and upper bound wlodtlee, V, as a
This is defined as the vertical distance between the eroded ground elew.- Nni:;tion of the 8tillwau!r flood depth, d,. The~ diKUS11ion on the
tlon and the stlllwatu elevation. Unle11$ local jurisdictions have adopted determination oftlood velocity is applicable to non-bunami litualiom.
a mOR! severe de.Ugn flood, the stillwuer elevation in merine and lab
'IYPBS 011 FLOOD loADS
areas is equal to the BPB published i.c the PIS and shown 011 the FIRM.
In coastal areas, the stillwater elevation ls the avenge water level Floodwaten <:a11 c;reatc loadll or pnu11m on surfa(:e$ ofbuildinp and
including wave. and Is published in the FIS (such value~ are not shown s!J:uctl.lrg that are of two buic type1: hydrostatic and hydrodynamic.
on FBMA FlRMs). Note diat die mtlwater elevalion must be rmnnced Wave loads are generally conatdered a epedal type of hydrodynamic
to the same datum that wu wed in eatabtwung the BPB and the DFB load. ObJe<ts that are transported by moving 1loodwaten am strike a
(aee F.lg. 1.SS). Guidance on estimating e.rosion in coastal areas can be struct\1l'e causing an impact load.
fu11.11d in Re£ 18. Also, any freeboud that has been added to the 100- The following Joa.di are niferenced in ASCE/SEI 5.4:
yar flood ahould not be u.sed to ini:;reast! d, because the load factors in • Hydrormtic loads (ASCE/SEI 5.4.2): Hydrostatic loads occur when
ASCE/SEI 7 are developed for the 100-year flood load. mgnant or slowly moving water (velocity less Chan S feet per second;
see ASCE/SEI CS.4.2) comes into comaa with a building or building
BllBAXrNG WAVE H1m)HT component. The water can be above or below the ground sur:fac:e.
Design breaking wave height, H.- iJ an important design parameter • Hydrodynamic loads (.ASCE/SEI 5.4.3): Hydrodynamic loads
in the calculation of flood loadll a1 coutal site1. Wave heighu a1 such are caused by water moving at a moderate to high velocity above the
eltea are to be calculated u the heightt of depth-limlted breaking wave.t ground level. Similar to wind loads. the loads produced by moving
(Le., wave he.lghts that are limited by the depth of the water}. which are water include an impact load on the uplltnlam face of a building. drag
eci.uivalent to 78 percent of the stillwater depth (see Fig. 1.55). Seventy forcet along the slde.t, and a. negative fon:e (suction) on the downrtream
percent of the breaking wave height lies above the llillwater elevation. face.
• Wave loada (ASCE/SEI S.4.4): Wave loads result &om water wv.ves
DB41GN FLOOD VBLOGITY p.ropapting over the Nrf.u:e ofthe water and striking a building or other
Dmgn ftood velocity. V, Is u.sed in determining hydrodynamic flood object. Such loadll can be separated into the following four categories:
loa.dt. o Nonbreaking waves: The effects of nonbreaking wavea can
The following equations can be wied to elll:lmate des:ign flood velod- usutlly be determined using the procedures in ASCE/SEI 5.4.2 for
tle. In coastal areas (Ref. 18 and ASCE/SEI CS.4.3): bydiwtatii:; loads on walls and in ASCE/SEI 5.4.3 for hydrodynamic
loa.dt on piles.
V=d' o Breaking wavee: Theee loads are auued by wava breaking 011
t any portion of a building or structure. Although theae loads are of
short durmon. they generally produce the largest magnitude of all of
V =(p, )OS the different types of wave Joa.di.
25
20
~ 15
~
> 10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
ds (feet)
Rg .... 1.56 Velodty Vel'llllt dealp. stlllwatu tlood depth.
54 CHAPTER ONE
o Broken waves: The loads caused by broken waves are similar to Fa is the sum of the hydrostatic load, F,,,.; the hydrodynamic load, Fd)oi;
hydrodynamic loads caused by flowing or surging water. and the impact load, F(F0 = F,,,. + Fdyrs + F).
o Uplift: Uplift effects are caused by wave run-up striking any Breaking wave loads need not be considered in A Zones except at
portion of a building or structure, deflection or peaking against the sites that are subject to coastal Wllves loads. Determination of Fa for
underside of surfaces. such sites is the same as that for Coastal A Zones and V Zones where
• Impact loads (ASCE/SEI 5.4.5): Impact loads occur where objects the breaking wave load is equal to Fp fur piles and columns or F" F.,. or
carried by moving Wllter strike a building or structure. The magnitude F.,, as applicable, for walls.
of these loads is very difficult to predict; however, reasonable allow- Flood l.Olld Combinations in Coashll A Zones 1ndV Zones In a Coastal
ances can be made fur them considering a number of different inherent A Zone or a V Zone, hydrodynamic loads, breaking wave loads, and
uncertainties. impact loads must be considered.
Reference 19 divides impact loads into three categories: (1) normal For the analysis of the entire (global) foundation with n piles or col-
impact loads, (2) special impact loads, and (3) extreme impact loads. umns, it is reasonable to assume that one of the piles or columns will be
Normal impact loads result from the isolated impacts of commonly subjected to the impact load, F, and that the remaining piles or columns
encountered objects. The size, shape, and weight of waterbome debris will be subjected to the hydrodynamic load, Fdyrs; thus, the total flood
may vary according to region; thus, that which is common in one area load is F.= F+ (n - l)Fd)oi.
may not be common in another. Special impact loads result from large It is usually unrealistic to assume that impact loads occur on all piles
objects such as broken up ice floats and accumulations of Wllterbome or columns at the same time as breaking wave loads. As such, fur the
debris. The loads are caused by these objects either striking or resting case of an individual pile or column in the front row (i.e., in the row that
against the building or structure. experiences the initial effect of the floodwaters), Fa is equal to the larger
Extreme impact loads result from very large objects (such as boats, of Fd)oi and Fp plus F[F. =larger of (Fd)ol, Fp) + F].
barges, or parts of collapsed buildings) striking a building or structure. As noted previously, solid foundation walls are not permitted by the
Design for such extreme loads is usually not practical in most cases IBC or ASCE/SEI 24 in Coastal A Zones or V Zones.
unless the probability that such an impact load during the design flood
is high. TsUNAMI Lo.Ans AND EPPECTS
Because most impact loads generated by waterborne debris are of Overview ASCE/SEI 6.2 defines a tsunami as a series of Wl!Ves with
short duration, a dynamic analysis of the building or structure may be variable long periods that typically result from earthquake-induced
appropriate. In cases where the natural period of the structure is much uplift or subsidence of the seafloor. Landslides near a coast or underwa-
greater than 0.03 second, the impact load can be treated as a static load ter volcanic eruptions can also generate tsunamis.
applied to the structure. When a tsunamigenic earthquakes occurs, the seafloor is uplifted
Determination of these loads is based on the design flood, which and down-dropped, which pushes the column of water above the fault
is defined as the greater of the base flood (a flood having a 1 percent up and down. The potential energy that results from pushing the
chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year) and the flood water above mean sea level is transferred into kinetic energy in the
adopted by the local jurisdiction. form of horizontal propagation of two oppositely traveling tsunami
Loads on walls that are required by ASCE/SEI 24 to break away waves.
(i.e., breakaway walls) are given in ASCE/SEI 5.3.3. The minimum As the waves travel outward from the source, amplification of the
design load must be the largest of the following loads: (1) wind load in waves occurs. The first part of the wave to reach the shoreline is a
accordance with ASCE/SEI Chapter 26, (2) seismic load in accordance trough, which is followed by very strong and fast-moving tides. Run-up
with ASCE/SEI Chapter 12, or (3) 10 psf. The maximum permitted occurs when the wave travels past the shoreline onto land and is a
collapse load is 20 psf, unless the design meets the conditions of measure of the height of Wlller onshore above a reference datum. The
ASCE/SEI 5.3.3. maximum horizontal inland extent of flooding due to a tsunami is
Reference 3 covers the flood load types in detail. defined as the inundation limit (see Fig. 1.57, which is based on ASCE/
SEI Figure 6.2-1).
FLOOD Lo.An COMBINATIONS Run-up elevation, R, is the vertical distance above ground elevation at
While Chapter 5 of ASCE/SEI 7 provides the methods to determine the the maximum tsunami inundation limit. This must include any relative
various types ofloads due to floodwaters, it does not specify how these change in sea level, which could be caused by ocean rise and/or ground
individual flood loads get combined into the flood load, F., that is to subsidence due to the tsunami. According to ASCE/SEI 6.2, run-up
be used in the appropriate load combinations specified in IBC 1605.2.1 elevation is measured with respect to the North American Vertical
and ASCE/SEI 2.3.2. The following discussion provides insight on how Datum 1988 (NAVO 88) reference datum. EfTucts of relative sea level
F0 should be determined for the building or structure as a whole and fur change and seismic subsidence on tsunami inundation are summarized
individual structural members. in Figure C6.l-2.
It is evident from the information presented in the previous sections The grade plane is the horizontal reference plane at the site of the
that the presence of an individual flood load depends on the flood zone structure; it represents the average elevation of finished ground level
in which the building or structure is sited as well as the building or adjoining the structure at all exterior walls. In cases where the finished
structure type. Thus, the proper determination of F0 depends on these ground level slopes away from the exterior walls, the grade plane is
attributes as well. determined using the lowest points that are within the area between the
Flood Load Combinations in A Zones In an A Zone where the source structure and the property line. If the property line is more than 6 feet
of the floodwater is from a river or lake, it is reasonable to assume fur from the structure, the area to be used in determining the grade plane
the analysis of the entire (global) foundation with n piles or columns is that between the structure and 6 feet from the structure. The depth of
that one of the piles or columns will be subjected to the impact load, F, water at the grade plane of a structure, including any relative sea level
and the remaining piles or columns will be subjected to the hydrody- change, is defined as the inundation depth.
namic load, Fdyrs; thus, the total flood load is F0 = F+ (n - l)Fdyrs. General Requirements The tsunami requirements in Chapter 6 of
The flood load, F., on an individual pile or column that sup- ASCE/SEI 7-16 are applicable to the following states: Alaska, California,
ports the structure is equal to the sum of the hydrodynamic load, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington. These states have designated
Fdyrs• and the impact load, F(F. = F">'n + F). These same individual Tsunami-Prone Regions (TPR), which, by definition, are coastal regions
flood loads are used to determine Fa on a solid foundation wall with where tsunamigenic earthquakes determined in accordance with the
flood openings that conform to the requirements of ASCE/SEI 24 Probabilistic Tsunami Hazard Analysis method in Chapter 6 can cause
Section 2.7.1. a tsunami inundation hazard with a run-up greater than 3 feet.
In the case of a solid foundation wall without flood openings that Certain structures in TPR must be analyzed and designed for inun-
meets the dry-floodproofed requirements of ASCE/SEI 24 Section 6.2, dation based on the Maximum Considered Tsunami (MCT), which
$1RUCTURAL LOADS 55
Run-up
Elevation
is defined as 11. probabi&tic: tsww:ni having a 2 percent probability of buildings of any height without (1) mez.zanlne• or any oc:c:upiable roof
being aceed in a. SO-year period (ie., a :Z.475-year mean recummce level and (2) a.ny critical equipment or aystmis. The aeamd exception
interval). More information on the MCT can be found in CU. permltt the TDZ, inundation limitJ, and run-up elevatiom to be deter-
The Tswwnt Design Zone Map (TDZM) In Figure 6.1-1 deslpatelo mined by (1) the slte-spedfic procedures of 6.7 fur coastal .regions that
the potential horlzonttl imlndulon limflll of the MCT for the five ttms. are .ubject to tsunami Inundation that are not c:overed In Figure 6.1-1
The Tsunami Design Zone (TDZ) is an area identified on the TDZM or (2) the procedures in 6.5.1.1 for 1lrunami Risk Category n or
between the shoreline and the inundation limit. mstructure•.
The ASCE Thmami Design Geodatabue co!Xtaim maps that graphi-
cally depict the ment of lnWldatlo.n (i.e., the TDZ) due to the MCT TSUNA.MI RlsK CATBOORIBS
(https://asce7tsunamionline). A me can be located by addrus, by A«Xll'\'ling to 6.4, Tsunami Risk Categories are the same as the Risk
latitude and longitude, or by die.king on the map. The diltance from Categories defined in 1.5 with the following mocliticationa:
the shoreline to the .Inundation limit can be obta.lned by utilizing the 1. Federal. state, local or tribal governmem are permitted to
·Thamect"' feature of the program. In 11.dclitlon to the TDZ, run-up designate Critical Fadlltles {such u power-generating stations, water-
elevations and inundations depth• are aho providecl at numeI'O\lt tremnent W:ilitiea for potable waser. waatewater tremnent W:ilitiea.
pointJ (which are designated by red triangles and red circlu, respec- and other public utility facilities not indudecl in RUk Category IV) to
tively). Note that a state or local juriadiction may have 11.dopted a TDZ Tsunami R!ak CategoryDI. Additional information on thle modlflcation
and other data that are d!ffe.rent from those In the Goodatabase, so it can be found in C6.4.
is good practice to check with the local authoritie. prior to performing 2. The following struc:tum need not be included in Tsunami Risk
the analysis. Category rv; and mte, local, or tribal governments are pennitted to
ASCB 7-16 Tsunami Design Zone Maps fur Selected Locations designate them to Tsunami Risk Category n or m:
(httpa://asc;e1!brary.org/dol/book/10.1061/9780784480748) contain TDZM a. F.lre stations, ambulance tiadlities, and emergency vehicle garages
in high-molution PDF fonnat fur the 62 locations indicated by c;lrcle• b. Euthquake or hurricane dielten
in Figure• C6.l-l(a.) to (i).For the purpose of identifying the TDZ, c. Emergency aircraft hangars
d1e1e downloadable PDP maps are conaldered equiwlem to the re.tuht d. Police stations that do not have holding ce1b and that are not
obtained from the .ASCE Tsunami Dulgn Geodatabue. uniquely required fur postdl.saster emergency response u a Critical
According to 6.1.1, the following buildings and other structure• Fll.dlity
loca.tlld within a. TDZ mUJt be designed for the MCT: 3. Tumami Vertical Bnc:ual:ion Refuge Stzu.Gtum (TVERS) must be
• Tsunami Risk Ca~ry IV buildings and st:ructum, included mTsunami Risk CatqJory IV:
• Tsunami RiaJc Category m buildings and structures with an inun- The Eue.ntial Faclllties !Jated .In Item 2 above do not need to be !nduded
dulon depth. greater than 3 feet at my location within the footpriilt of in Thmami Risk Category IV because these facllltiea should be evacu-
the 8trllcture, and ated prior to the arriwl of the tsunami Additional information on these
• where required. by a stale or locally adopted building code statue modifications can be found in C6.4.
to include design for taunami. effecta, T8unaml. RiaJc Category ll build- A TVERS is a structure designated and de&lped to serve ae a point of
ings with a mean he.lght abow the grade plane greuer than the he.lght refuge where people can evacutte above a tsunami (6.14). More infor-
delignatecl in the statue and with an inundation depth greater than mation is given in C6.l4.
3 f«t at any loc:alion within the footprint of the building. Tsunami Risk.
Categorlea are ddlned in 6.4. ANALYIIS 01' DBSIGN INmlDAnON D.lu>TB
Two exceptions to theae requlremew are given in 6.1.1. In the flnt AND FLOW VlloClTY
m:eption, tsunami loads and ~ determined in acc;ordanc:e with Ana~ Pl'OG!durH 'l'wo pro~um are given in Chapter 6 to deter-
Chapter 6 nud not be applied to Tsunami RiJk. Category n single-story mine the inundalion depth and t1ow velocities due to the MCI' at a 1ite:
56 CHAPTER ONE
,..ble 1.15 lnund•tlon Depth •nd Flow Velodty An•lysls Tsunami Risk Category III Critical Facilities and Tsunami Risk
Pl'OC'lldures Where Run-Up Is Ginn In Figure 6.1-1" Category IV buildings and other structures located within the TDZ
TIWWDic riak category must be designed to satisfy the following three requirements:
1. Operational nonstructural components, equipment required for
IV essential functions, and the bottom of any horizontal structural mem-
Excluding bers supporting such components and equipment must be located
Analyah proceduu II III TVERS TVERS above the inundation elevation of the MCT.
2. Structural components and connections in occupiable levels and
Energy Grade Line Analym Required Required Required Required
(6.6)
foundations must be designed in accordance with Immediate Occu-
pancy Structural Performance criteria; that is, the structure is safe to be
Slt.:-Spedfic Probabilist.le Permitted Permitted Required"" Required occupied after a design basis tsunami event. Also, occupiable levels are
Tsunami Hazard Analysis
(6.7)
permitted where the elevation of such levels equals or exceeds the MCT
inundation elevation.
'Chapter 6 doeo not apply to Towwnl Riok Category Il and IIl buildlng.o and other llltuc- 3. Buildings and other structures designated as TVERS must also
tura where the MCT lnundatiOJI depth S 3 feet.
"A ait&-specilk P1HA need not be paformed wh..., the !JlundatlOJI depth reoultlng from comply with 6.14.
EGLA lo determiJled to be leH than 12 fut at any polllt within the 1ocatioJI of the atrw:turo.
STRUCTUllAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
(1) Energy Grade Line Analysill (EGLA) in 6.6 and (2) site-specific Structures must be designed for strength and stability considering the
Probabilistic Tsunami Hazard Analysill (PTHA) in 6.7. Table 1.15 indi- three tsunami load cases in 6.8.3.1. These load cases are based on inun-
cates the required analysis procedures in accordance with the provisions dation depths and associated flow velocities.
of 6.5 based on Tsunami Risk Category for locations in Figure 6.1-1,
Load Cue I (Buoyancy): At an exterior inundation depth that is less
which include run-up. than or equal to the maximum inundation depth or the lesser of one
For TPR that are not covered in Figure 6.1-1, the exception in 6.5.1 story or the height of the top first-story windows, combined hydrody-
requires that the procedures of 6.5.1.1 must be used to determine the namic force with buoyant force must be evaluated with respect to the
ratio of tsunami run-up elevation to Offshore Tsunami Amplitude, depth of water in the interior. The interior water depth is evaluated in
RJ HT, for Tsunami Risk Category II and III buildings and other struc- accordance with 6.9.1. According to the exception to these require-
tures. The Offmore Tsunami Amplitude is the MCT amplitude relative ments, open structures and structures where the soil properties or
to the reference sea level, which is measured where the undisturbed foundation and structural design prevent detrimental hydrostatic pres-
water depth is equal to 328 feet (see Fig. 1.57). Values ofHT are obtained surization on the underside of the foundation and the lowest structural
from the Geodatabase. slab need not be designed for Load Case 1.
Table 1.16 indicates the required inundation depth and flow velocity The primary purposes of Load Case 1 are to check (1) overall stabil-
procedures in accordance with the provisions of 6.5 based on Tsunami ity of the structure and (2} foundation anchorage against net uplift. The
Risk Category for locations where ( 1) the inundation depth ill not shown maximum buoyant force on the structure is based on the associated
in the TDZM of Figure 6.1-1 and (2) the Offshore Tsunami Amplitude hydrodynamic force. The uplift force, which is calculated in accordance
is given in Figure 6.7-1. with 6.9.1, depends on the differential inundation depth exterior to the
structure and the flooded depth within the structure.
See Ref. 3 for details on the analysill procedures in Table 1.16.
Load Ca1e 2 (Mui.mum Velocity): Two-thirds of maximum inunda-
tion depth when flow velocity and specific momentum flux (hu2) are
T•ble 1.16 lnund•tlon Depth •nd FlowVelodty An•lysls maximum. Both incoming and receding directions of water flow must
PnKl!dures Where Run-Up Is C.lcul.ted from Figure t..1-1 • be considered.
The maximum hydrodynamic: forces on the structure are calculated
Tsunamic rilk category
in Load Case 2.
IV Load Case 3 (Mui.mum InundlUion Depth): Maximum inunda-
Excluding
tion depth when the flow velocity is assumed to be at one-third of its
AnalyaU proceduu n m TVERS TVERS maximum. Both incoming and receding directions of water flow must
be considered.
RJH Ana1yaU (6.5.l.l.) Required Required Not permitted Not permitted Hydrodynamic forces associated with maximum inundation depth
Energy Grade Line Required Required Required Required are calculated in Load Case 3.
Analysi1 (6.6)
Site·Specific Permitted Permitted Required Required TSUNAMI IMPORTANCE FACTORS
Probabilistic Tsunami importance factors, Im.. are given in Table 6.8-1 (see Table 1.17).
Tsunami Hazard These importance factors are to be applied to the tsunami hydrody-
Analyals (6.7)
namic and impact loads in 6.10 and 6.11, respectively. Information on
'Chapter 6 doe1 not apply to Towwni RWc Category Il and IIl buildinp and other the derivation of the importance factors is given in C6.8.3.2.
ttnu:tur.1wb= the MCT inundation depth ii 5: 3 feet.
loAD COMBINATIONS
during such an event. Principal tsunami forces and effects are to be l'llbl• 1.1• l.olld Effects
combined using Equations 6.8-la and 6.8-1 b: Notation Load effect Notes
Thus, IBC Equation 16-5 (ASCE/SBI load combination 6) can be written information on how to develop such load criteria that is consistent with
as follows: the methodology used in ASCE/SEI 7 can be found in ASCE/SBI C2.3.5.
(1.2 + 0.2 Svs)D+l.2F+pQ11 + f,L+l.6H + fzS 1.10.4 l.Olld Comblnlltlons Using All-bi•
Streu Design
In IBC Equation 16-7 (ASCE/SEI load combination 7), the seismic load OVERVIEW
effect that is to be used is E = En - E,. (see ASCE/SEI 12.4.2). Therefore, The basic load combinations where allowable stress design (working
this equation can be written as follows: stress design) is used are given in IBC 1605.3. A set of basic load com-
binations is given in me 1605.3.l, and a set of alternative basic load
(0.9-0.2 Svs)D+0.9F+pQ11 +1.6H combinations is given in IBC 1605.3.2. Both sets are examined below.
Refer to ASCE/SBI 7 12.4.2.2 for exceptions related to vertical seismic BASIC 1oAD COMBINATIONS
load effects. The basic load combinations ofmc 1605.3.1 are summarized in Table 1.20.
Fluid load effects, F, occur in tanks and other storage containers due
to stored liquid products. The stored liquid is generally considered to Tablll 1.20 Summary of Bllslc Load Combinations Using
have characteristics of both a dead load and a live load. It is not a purely Allowable Stress Design (IBC 1605.3.1)
permanent load because the tank or storage container can go through Equation no. Load combination
cycles of being emptied and refilled. The fluid load effect is included in
IBC Equations 16-1 through 16-5, where it adds to the effects from the 16-8 D+P
other loads. It is also included in me. 16-9 D+H+P+L
Equation 16-7 counteracts the effects from uplift due to seismic load 16-10 D+H + F+{L,.orSor R)
effects, E. Because the wind load effects, W, can be present when the 16-11 D+H+ P+0.7SL + 0.75(1.,.orSor R)
tank is either full or empty, Fis not incorporated into IBC Equation 16-6;
16-12 D + H + P + (0.6W or 0.7E)
that is, the maximum effects occur when F is set equal to zero.
The load combinations given in IBC 1605.2 are the same as those in 16-13 D + H + P + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75L + 0.75(L,. or Sor R)
ASCE/SBI 2.3.1 with some indicated in these sections. 16-14 D + H + P + 0.75(0.7E) + 0.7SL + 0.75S
According to IBC 1605.2.1, the load combinations of ASCE/SBI 2.3.2 16-15 0.6D+0.6W+H
are to be used where flood loads, F., must be considered in design (flood 16-16 0.6(D + F) + 0.7E + H
loads are determined by Chapter 5 of ASCE/SBI 7). In particular, the
following modifications are to be made:
These load combinations apply to the design of all members in a
• V Zones or Coastal A Zones
structure and also provide for overall stability of a structure.
1.0W in IBC Equations 16-4 and 16-6 must be replaced by
The seismic load effect, E, is a strength-level load. A factor of
I.OW+ 2.0F4 •
0.7, which is approximately equal to 1/1.4, is applied to E in IBC
• Noncoastal A Zones
Equations 16-12, 16-14, and 16-16 to convert the strength-level effects
1.0W in IBC Equations 16-4 and 16-6 must be replaced by
to service-level effects. Similarly, a factor of 0.6 is applied to W in IBC
0.5W + l.OF4 •
Equations 16-12, 16-13, and 16-15.
Definitions of Coastal High Hazard Areas (V Zones) and Coastal A
The seismic load effect, E, that is to be used in IBC Equations 16-12
Zones are given in ASCE/SEI 5.2.
and 16-14 (ASCE/SEiload combinations 8 and 9) is equal to E =En+ E.,
The load factors on F. are based on a statistical analysis of flood
Thus, me Equations 16-12 and 16-14 (ASCE/SBI load combinations
loads associated with hydrostatic pressures, pressures due to steady
8 and 9) can be written as follows:
overland flow, and hydrodynamic pressures due to waves, all of which
IBC Equation 16-12:
are specified in ASCE/SBI 5.4.
In cases where self-straining loads, T, must be considered, their effects (1+0.14 Sns)D+H +F+0.7pQ11
in combination with other loads are to be determined by ASCE/SBI 2.3.4
(IBC 1605.2.1). Instead of calculating self-straining effects based on IBC Equation 16-14:
upper bound values of this variable like other load effects, the most (1+0.105 Sm )D + H + P + 0.525pQz + 0.75L + 0.75S
probable effect expected at any arbitrary point in time is used. More
information, including load combinations that should be considered in In IBC Equation 16-16 (ASCE/SEI load combination 10), the seismic
design, is given in ASCE/SEI C2.3.4. load effect that is to be used is E = Eh - E,.. Therefore, this equation can
IBC 1605.2.1 requires that the load combinations of ASCE/SBI 2.3.3 be written as follows:
be used where atmospheric ice loads must be considered in design. (0.6-0.14 Sm)D+0.6F+0.7pQ11 +H
The following modifications to the load combinations must be made
when a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads The exceptions applicable to these load combinations are given in
(atmospheric and wind-on-ice loads are determined by Chapter 10 of ASCE/SEI 12.4.2.2 and in IBC 1605.3.1. See Ref. 3 details of these
ASCE/SBI 7; see IBC 1614): exceptions.
• O.S(L, or S or R) in ASCE/SEI combination 2 (IBC Equation 16-2) Increases in allowable stresses that are given in the materials chapters
must be replaced by 0.2D; + O.SS. of the IBC or in referenced standards are not permitted when the load
• 1.0 W + 0.5(L,. or S or R) in ASCE/SEI combination 4 (IBC Equation combinations of IBC 1605.3.1 are used (IBC 1605.3.1.1). According to
16-4) must be replaced by D; + w,+ 0.5S. IBC 1605.3.1.2, the load combinations of ASCE/SEI 2.4.2 are to be used
• I.OW in ASCE/SBI combination 5 (IBC Equation 16-6) must be where flood loads, F0 , must be considered in design. In particular, the
replaced by D; + W;. following modifications are to be made:
• I.OW+ L + O.S(L,. or S or R) in ASCE/SEI combination 4 (IBC • V Zones or Coastal A Zones
Equation 16-4) must be replaced by D1• l.SF0 must be added to the other loads in IBC Equations 16-12,
See ASCE/SEI C2.3.3 for more information on the load factors used 16-13, 16-14. and 16-1s, and Eis set equal to :zero in me Equations 16-12
in these equations. ASCE/SEI 2.3.5 provides information on how to and 16-14.
develop strength design load criteria where no information on loads or • Noncoastal A Zones
load combinations is given in ASCE/SEI 7 or where performance-based 0.75P must be added to the other loads in IBC Equations 16-12, 16-13,
design in accordance with ASCE/SEI 1.3.1.3 is being utilized. Detailed 16-14, and 16-15 andise.qual to :zero in IBC Equations 16-12and16-14.
STRUCTURALLOADS 59
Where self-straining loads, T, must be considered in design, the in ASCB/SEI Equation 12.44 may be taken as zero when proportioning
provisions of ASCB/SEI 2.4.4 are to be used to determine the proper foundations using these load combinations.
combination of T with other loads (IBC 1605.3.1.2). ASCE/SEI C2.4.4 The two exceptions in me 1605.3.2 for crane hook loads and for
provides load combinations for typical situations. combinations of snow loads, roof live loads, and earthquake loads are
IBC 1605.3.1.2 requires that the load combinations of ASCE/Sfil 2.4.3 the same as those in IBC 1605.3.1, which were discussed previously.
be used where atmospheric ice loads must be considered in design. The me 1605.3.2.1 requires that where F, H, or T must be considered in
following modifications to the load combinations must be made when a design, each applicable load is to be added to the load combinations in
structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads: IBC Equations 16-17 through 16-22. As noted previously, the effects of
• 0.7D1must be added to ASCB/Sfil combination 2 (IBC Equation 16-9). T in combination with other loads must be determined in accordance
• (L,. or Sor R) in ASCB/SEI combination 3 (IBC Equation 16-10) is with ASCE/SEI 2.4.4.
to be replaced by 0.7Di+ 0.7W1+ S. ASCE/SEI 7 does not contain provisions for the alternative basic load
• 0.6W in ASCE/SEI combination 7 (me Equation 16-15) is to be combinations ofIBC 1605.3.2.
replaced by 0.7Di+ 0.7W1•
• 0.7D1must be added to ASCBJsm combination 1 (IBC Equation 16-8). LOAI> COMBINATIONS WITH OVEll.STRENGTH
The following load combinations, which are given in ASCE/Sfil 2.3.6
ALTERNATIVE BASIC loAI> COMBINATIONS and 2.4.5, must be used where required by ASCB/SEI Chapters 12, 13, and
The alternative basic load combinations can be found in me 1605.3.2 15 instead of the corresponding load combinations in IBC 1605.2
and are summarized in Table 1.21. and 1605.3 (see IBC 1605.1 and ASCB/SEI 12.4.3):
Basic Combinations far Strength Design with Oventrength
Tabi. 1.21 Summary of Alternative Buie IBC Equation 16-5:
Load Combinations Using All-•ble Stress
Design (IBC 1605.l.2) (1.2+0.2 Sos)D+noQB + fi.L+ f2S+l.2F+l.6H
Equation no. Load combination me Equation 16-7:
16-17 D+L + (L,or Sor R)
(0.9-0.2 SDS)D+00 QB+0.9F+l.6H
16-18 D+L+0.6mW
16-19 D+L+0.6mW+S/2 Basic Combinations far All-abi. Stress Design with Onrstrength
16-20 D+L+S+0.6mW/2 IBC Equation 16-12:
16-21 D +L+S+Bll.4
(1+0.14 SDS)D+0.700 QE+H +F
16-22 0.9D+E/l.4
IBC Equation 16-14:
These load combinations are based on the allowable stress load com-
(1 +0.105 SDS)D+0.52500 QB +0.75L+0.75S +H +F
binations that appeared in Ref. 20 for many years.
Unlike the basic load combinations of IBC 1605.3.1, allowable me Equation 16-16:
stresses are permitted to be increased or load combinations are permit-
ted to be reduced where permitted by the material chapters of the IBC (0.6-0.14 SDS )D+0.700 Q8 +0.6F+H
(Chapters 18 through 23) or by referenced standards when the alterna-
tive basic load combinations of IBC 1605.3.2 are used. This applies to Alternatlve Basic Combinations for Allowable S1re11 Design with
those load combinations that include wind or earthquake loads. Overstrength
The alternative allowable stress design load combinations do not me Equation 16-21:
include a load combination comparable to me Equation 16-15 for dead
load counteracting wind load effects. Instead of a specific load com- 0.2 s )D+~+L+S
() Q
bination, IBC 1605.3.2 states that for load combinations that include ( l+_____Qt
1.4 1.4
counteracting effects of dead and wind loads, only two-thirds of the
minimum dead load that is likely to be in place during a design wind me Equation 16-22:
event is to be used in the load combination.
As noted in the preceding discussion, the seismic load effect, E, is
a strength-level load. This strength-level load is divided by 1.4 in IBC (
0.9- 0.2 Sns
1.4
)n + OoQE
1.4
Equations 16-21 and 16-22 to convert it to a service-level load. Similarly,
W is multiplied by 0.6 in IBC Equations 16-18 through 16-20. where E,,. =Em11 +By= D.oQ8 + 0.2Srul) for use in IBC Equations 16-5,
The coefficient ro in IBC Equations 16-18 through 16-20 is equal 16-12, 16-14, and 16-21 (see ASCE/SEI 12.4.3)
to 1.3, where wind loads are calculated in accordance with ASCB/SEI =Emh - By= iloQ8 - 0.2Srul) for use in IBC Equations 16-7,
Chapters 26 through 31 and where allowable stresses have been 16-16, and 16-22 (see ASCE/Sm 12.4.3)
increased or load combinations have been reduced as permitted by the ilo = system overstrength factor obtained from ASCB/SBI Table
material chapters of the IBC or the referenced standards in IBC Chapter 12.21 for a particular seismic force resisting system
35. In all other cases, the coefficient w is to be taken as 1.0. It is shown When the simplified procedure of ASCBJSEI 12.14 is utilized, the
in Sec. 1.7 of this chapter that the wind directionality factor, which is seismic load effects defined in ASCE/SEI 12.14.3 are to be used in the
equal to 0.85 for building structures, is explicitly included in the velocity referenced load combinations.
pressure equation for wind. In earlier editions of ASCB/SEI 7 and in ASCB/Sfil 2.4.5 permits allowable stresses to be increased by a
the legacy codes, the directionality factor was part of the load factor, factor of 1.2 where allowable stress design is used with seismic load
which was equal to 1.3 for wind. Thus, for allowable stress design, effect including overstrength. This increase is not to be combined with
m = 1.3 x 0.85 = 1.0, and for strength design, w = 1.6 x 0.85 = 1.3. increases in allowable stresses or reductions in load combinations that
ASCB/SEI 12.13.4 permits a reduction of foundation overturning due are otherwise permitted in ASCB/SEI 7 or in other referenced materials
to earthquake forces, provided that the criteria of that section are satis- standards.
fied. Such a reduction is not permitted when the alternative basic load The provisions of ASCB/SEI 12.3.3.3 apply to structural members
combinations are used to evaluate sliding, overturning. and soil bearing that support discontinuous frames or shear wall systems where the
at the soil-structure interface. Also, the vertical seismic load effect, E~,. discontinuity is severe enough to be deemed a structural irregularity.
60 CHAPTER ONE
Provisions for structural integrity are given in IBC 1616 and are appli- 1. International Code Council (ICC). 2018. International Building
cable to buildings classified as high-rise buildings in accordance with Code. IBC, Washington, DC.
IBC 403 and assigned to Risk Category III or IV with frame structures 2. Engineering Institute (SEI) of the American Society of Civil
or bearing wall structures. A high-rise building is defined in IBC 202 as Engineers (ASCE). 2016. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
a building with an occupied floor located more than 75 feet above the Other Structures. ASCE/SEI 7-16. ASCE/SEI, Reston, VA.
lowest level of fire department vehicle access. 3. Fanella, D. 2018. Structural Loads 2012 IBC and ASCE/SEI 7-10,
ASCE/SEI 1.4 also contains general structural integrity requirements International Code Council (ICC). ICC, Washington, DC.
that are applicable to all structures. 4. International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO). 1997.
These minimum strength criteria help ensure that structural integrity Uniform Building Code. ICBO, Whittier, CA.
is maintained for anticipated and minor unanticipated loading events 5. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). 2004. Industrial
that have a reasonable chance of occurring during the life of the struc- Buildings-Roof to Anchor Rods, Steel Design Guide No. 7, 2nd ed. AISC,
ture. Guidelines for providing general structural integrity are given in Chicago.
ASCE/SEI Cl.4. 6. International Code Council (ICC). 2012. International Plumbing
The load combinations for general structural integrity loads are given Code. ICC, Washington, DC.
in ASCE/SEI 2.6 for strength design and allowable stress design: 7. Factory Mutual Insurance Company (FMIC). 2011. Roof Loads
Strength Design Notlon11l l.cNid Combln.tlons for New Construction. FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
a. l.2D + l.ON + L + 0.2S 1-54. FMIC, Johnston, RI.
b. 0.9D + 1.0N 8. Simiu, E., and Scanlan, R.H. 1996. Wind Effects on Structuru:
All-ble S1rus Design Notional l.a•d Combinations Fundamentals and Applications to Design. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons,
a. D+0.7N New York.
b. D+0.75(0.7N)+0.75L+0.75(L, or Sor R) 9. Davenport, A.G. 1960. "Rationale for Determining Design Wind
c. 0.6D+0.7N Velocities;" Journal ofthe Structural Division 88:39-68.
The effects from the loads specified in ASCE/SEI 1.4.1 through 1.4.4 10. Smith, B.S., and Coull, A. 1991. Tall Building Structures: Ana(ysis
are defined as notional load effects, N. Note that wind load effects, W, and De.sign. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
and seismic load effects, E, are not included in these load combinations. 11. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2011. Taking
ASCE/SEI Cl.4 also contains information on general collapse and Shelter from the Storm: Building a Safe Room for Your Home or Small
limited local collapse and provides case studies of the former. Business. FEMA 320, 3rd ed. FEMA, Washington, DC.
12. European Committee for Standardi7.ation. 1995. Eurocode 1: Basis
ExTRAORDINARY LOADS AND EVENTS
of De.sign and Actions on Structures, Part 2-4: Actions on Structuru-
Requirements for extraordinary loads and events are given in ASCE/ Wind Actions, Brussels, Belgium.
SEI 1.4.5, which references ASCE/SEI 2.5. That section provides mini- 13. American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 1982. Minimum
mum requirements for strength and stability of a structure where it has De.sign Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. ANSI A58.l-1982.
been required by the owner or code having jurisdiction that the struc- ANSI, New York.
ture be able to withstand the effects from extraordinary events. 14. Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects (SIA). 1956. Normen
In general, extraordinary events arise from service or environmental fur die Belastungsannahmen, die Inbetriebnahme und die Uberwachhung
conditions that are not traditionally considered in the design of ordi- der Bauten. SIA Technische Normen No. 160. SIA, Zurich, Switzerland.
nary buildings because their probability of occurrence is low and their 15. American Society ofCivil Engineers. 1961. Wmd Forces on Strudure$.
duration is short. Fires, explosions, vehicular impact, and tornadoes are Transactions of the ASCE, 126(2): 1124-1198.
all examples of such events. The purpose of these requirements is to 16. Davenport, A.G., Surry, D., and Stathopoulos, T. 1978. Wind
help ensure that buildings and structures have sufficient strength and Loads on Low-Rise Buildings. Final Report on Phase III, BLWT-SS4.
ductility and are adequately tied together so that damage caused by the University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
extraordinary event is relatively small. 17. International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures. 1991.
A load combination for checking the capacity of a structure or struc- Structural Standards for Steel Antenna Towers and Antenna Supporting
tural element to withstand the effects of an extraordinary event is given Structuru. ANSI/EIA/TIA-222-E-1991.
in ASCE/SEI Equation 2.5-1: 18. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 2014. Flood Resistant
(0.9or1.2)D+Ak +0.5L+0.2S De.sign and Construction. ASCE 24-14. ASCE, Reston, VA.
19. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2001. Crawl-
In this equation, Ak is the load or load effect that results from the space Construction for Buildings Located in Special Flood Hazard Areas.
extraordinary event A. Similar to what is done in the strength design FEMA/FIA-TB-11. FEMA, Washington, DC.
load combinations, the load factor on Ak is set equal to 1.0 because it 20. Federal Emergency Management Agency {FEMA). 2011. Coastal
can be considered a strength-level load. Construction Manual. FEMA P-55. FEMA, Washington, DC.
A factor of 0.9 is to be used on the dead load effect, D, if the dead load 21. Walton, T.L., Jr., Ahrens, J.P., Truitt, C.L., and Dean, R.G. 1989.
has a stabilizing effect; otherwise, a load factor of 1.2 should be used. Criteria for Evaluating Coastal Flood Protection Structuru. Technical
The load factors on L and S correspond approximately to the mean of Report CERC 89-15. U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers, Waterways Experi-
the yearly muimum live and snow loads. Roof live loads, Lr' and rain ment Station.
loads, R, are not included in this load combination because they have 22. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1995. Flood Proofing Regulations.
short durations in comparison to S, and thus the probability of their EP 1165-2-314. Office of the ChiefofEngineers.
occurring with Ak is negligible. 23. Ellingwood, B. 1981. "Wind and Snow Load Statistics for Proba-
ASCE/SEI Equation 2.5-2 is to be used to check the residual load- bilistic Design." Journal of the Structural Division 107(7): 1345-1350.
carrying capacity of a structure or structural element following the 24. Galambos, T.V., Ellingwood, B., MacGregor, J.G., and Cornell,
occurrence of a damaging event. In particular, selected load-bearing C.A. 1982. "Probability-Based Load Criteria: Assessment of Current
members are to be removed from the structure assuming that they have Design Practice." Journal ofthe Structural Division 108(5): 959-977.
been critically damaged (i.e., they have essentially no load-carrying 25. International Conference of Building Officials. {ICBO) 1997.
capacity), and the capacity of the damaged structure is to be evaluated Uniform Building Code. ICBO, Whittier, CA.
by the following load combination: 26. Applied Technology Council (ATC). ATC Wlndspeed by Location.
https://www.atc:ouncllorg/windspeed.
(0.9or1.2)D+0.5L+0.2(L, or Sor R)
Chapter 2
Structural Analysis
BY
ALY~· SA~D Associate Professor, Architectural Enginlllll'ing, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pennsylvania
ANAS S. ISSA Postdoctoral Fellow, Applied Laboratory far Advanced Materials & Stnu:tuTeS
(ALAMS), Universit)' of British Columbia, ~lowna, British Columbia, Canada
M. SHAHRIA ALAM Professor, School of Enginlllll'ing, Universit)' of British Columbia ~lowna,
British Columbia, Canada '
PART A
FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS TO
STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORKS
11
62 CHAPTER TWO
translations and three rotations with a given system of coordinates. A considered as the fundamental variables and the joint displacements and
planar truss has 2j degrees offreedom: the two Cartesian components of strains as derived variables. The selection of different fundamental vari-
displacement ofeach joint, where j is the number of joints (a special case ables leads to different approaches of structural analysis. The displace-
based on the absence of bending moments in trusses). A planar frame ment method and the force method are the two best known such general
has 3j degrees of freedom: two displacements and a rotation for each methods. Various hybrid methods have also been developed, particularly
joint In each of these cases, the degree of freedom is a physical, natural for the finite-element analysis of plates and shells.
choice used to define the deformed shape of the structure. However, the
degrees of freedom can be chosen in a rather more abstract manner, 2.2.2 Bllsk Prlnclples
which is very beneficial in some cases. For instance, a degree of free- When solving any structural analysis problem, the structural variables
dom may simply be a multiplier or amplitude of a particular deflected must satisfy three basic physical laws, which are described here in the
shape or configuration of the structure. A good example in structural context of a truss:
dynamics is the set of mode shapes of vibration of the structure. A Equilibrium: The member forces (stresses) and the externally applied
general deflected shape of the structure can be specified as a linear loads must satisfy the equations of static (or dynamic) equilibrium.
combination of these mode shapes. The amplitude of each of these Compatibility: The member elongations (strains) and the joint
mode shapes in that linear combination is a degree of freedom. Another displacements must be geometrically compatible to ensure the preserva-
example is a simply supported beam. The beam rotations at either end tion of structural continuity.
supports can be defined as the (two) degrees of freedom for the beam. Constitutive laws: The axial force (stress) and elongation (strain) of
Otherwise, the deflected shape can be defined by the superposition of each member must satisfy the behavior laws for the particular material
two special shapes: a symmetric deflection shape in which the rotations of which the member or structure is constructed.
at the ends of the beam are of equal magnitude but in opposite direc- For the simple planar truss shown in Fig. 2.1, these relationships are
tions and an antisymmetric deflection shape in which the rotations are
of equal magnitude and in the same direction. The contribution of each Ji + /2 cosa = Px4
of these shapes that is existing in the general shape can be designated as
a degree of freedom. In these latter cases, the independent shapes (the
/ 2sina+ /3 = P,. (2.1)
JOINT"3"
MEMBER "1" JOINT"4"
l
v
JOINT"2"
J
..__-----H-------'
In the general case of a plane or space truss, Bqs. (2.1) through (2.3) member dimensions for design, which must usually be performed in an
can be written as follows: iterative design/analysis cycle. A second major implication is that, when
inelastic behavior occurs, causing changes in localized stiffness of the
Hf=p (2.4) structure, a redistribution of internal stresses occurs if the structure can
e=Cu (2.5) stand the associated deformations. Alternative load paths can accord-
ingly develop in indeterminate structures. Determinate structures, in
f=lle (2.6) contrast, have no such ability for stress redistribution and therefore do
not possess any additional safety margin.
in which the degrees of freedom are encompassed in the displacement
vector u, the member forces (stresses) in f, and the member elonga- 2.2A Superposition
tions (strains) in e. ff the plane truss has j joints, b members, and r ~ 3 The main characteristic of linear systems is that solutions can be
restrained degrees of freedom, the equilibrium matrix His (2j - r x b), superposed. Accordingly, if loads p 1 and P.i produce displacements u 1
the compatibility matrix C is (b x 2j - r), and the matrix E, which con- and~ respectively, then a load p 1 + P.i produces a displacement u1 + u..z.
tains member stiffness information, is (b x b). Equations (2.4) through Consequently, the principle of superposition applies for small displace-
(2.6) display the general approach which appears throughout structural ments of elastic systelllJI. This principle is used in developing many of the
analysis, from simple trusses to finite-element models of very complex methods of linear structu:ral analysis and also as a mean of simplifying
structures. In the latter case = (usually numerical), integrations over calculations.
element volumes are necessary. The force vector Hf is often called the
internal resistingforce vector i It contains simply ofthe member internal 2.2.5 Symmetry
forces resolved into the directions of the global degrees of freedom. Symmetry properties can be used as an organizing concept for under-
2.2.l Static DetermlnKJ and Stability standing the behavior of particular classes of structures. Furthermore,
these properties of structures are routinely used in analysis in order
Several important special cases can be identified from Eqs. (2.4) through to reduce the amount of necessary computation, especially in the case
(2.6). ff the equilibrium matrix H of a plane truss is square (2j - r = b) of large structures. Symmetry is often utilized by the engineer when
and nonsingular, the truss is statically determinate and statically stable the external load also possesses some degree of symmetry. However,
(with appropriate geometric configuration); the member forces f can be although the structure must possess some particular geometric sym-
calculated from the equations of joint equilibrium, Eq. (2.4), and the metry properties in order for these methods to be utilized, the external
member elongations and joint displacements can be consequently load need satisfy no particular symmetry conditions.
determined. If 2j - r > b, the truss is unstable; there are insufficient The simple portal frame shown in Fig. 2.2a possesses symmetry
member forces to satisfy statics for all possible loading conditions. ff about a vertical plane x-x'. The applied loading can be split into two
2j - r < b, the truss is statically indeterminate. It is possible that a truss loading conditions: one symmetric with respect to the symmetry plane
is unstable even if 2j - r ~ b. This condition corresponds to a geometric and one antisymmetric with respect to this plane.
arrangement of members and/or supports that produces instability.1 The reduced structure (one-half of the original structure) can then be
Instability, as examined here, refers to the possibility of (possibly small) analyzed under two different sets of boundary conditions at the plane
rigid-body motions of the entire structure or ofsubstructures within the of symmetry, as shown in Fig. 2.2b, and the results superposed. While
structure taking place without requiring member deformations. Such reflection symmetry is most common, many other kinds of symmetry
rigid-body modes are called kinematic modes. This type of instability occur in structures. Rotational symmetry, for example, describes the
must be distinguished from elastic instability or buckling. synthesis of a structure by rotation of a substructure. Symmetry in the
If the truss is statically indeterminate, the compatibility and stress- calculated results can provide an additional check, even when it is not
strain relations must be used in the solution. In this case, the joint used to reduce the amount of computation.
displacements can be expressed as
in which the matrix K = HEC is the structure stiffness matrix. The Energy principles provide alternative means of viewing some of the
=
relation HT C can be verified for the example shown in Fig. 2.1 and basic results and methods of structural analysis.2 They also lead to
Eqs. (2.1) through (2.3). It is true in general, as will be shown later. The extremely capable techniques for obtaining approximate solutions, for
matrix E is symmetric and positive definite. Consequently, the structure example, in the finite-element analysis of plates and shells and general
stiffness matrix K has the same properties. two- and three-dimensional solids.
CoNSEQUBNCES OF STATICAL INDETERMINACY
2.3.1 Principle of Virtual Work
In statically indeterminate structures, particular systelllJI of internal The principle of virtual work states that if a body (or mechanical
forces can exist in the absence of external loads. These systems of inter- system) in equilibrium under the action of a system of forces is given a
nal forces are sometimes referred to as prestress, residual stress, autostress, small (or virtual) displacement, the "virtual" work done by the system
or self-stress. The classification of a structure as statically determinate or of forces during this displacement is equal to zero. This principle
indeterminate is not simply for the purposes of analysis. Both types of can be regarded as an alternative, parallel statement of the conditions
structures behave in a fundamentally different manner. Some of these of equilibrium. The principle is not restricted to any particular material
differences in behavior (and their consequences) can be concluded from behavior assumption, which makes it equally applicable to inelastic and
Eqs. (2.4) through (2.7). For instance, in a statically determinate struc- elastic systems.
ture undergoing small displacements, the internal forces are determined The concepts involved in this principle can be shown by studying the
directly and uniquely from the external loads. If the loads are zero, so equilibrium of a rigid particle in a plane (Fig. 2.3 ). The particle is con-
are the internal forces. No states of residual stress are possible. Thus, sidered to have zero dimensions; that is, it is a point in two-dimensional
in a statically determinate structure, no internal stresses are generated
by, for example, differential temperature changes, differential support
space. A system of forces 1\,
F2 , •• •, .F. acts on the particle. The resultant
movements, or a lack of fit of the structural members. Alternatively, in of this system of forces is R= L:=•
~- The virtual displacement Oil is
an indeterminate structure, these effects can produce internal stresses, defined as an arbitrary reversible displacement consistent with the con-
which can be significant. On the other hand, it is clear from Eqs. (2.4) straints. The virtual displacement is arbitrary in both magnitude and
through (2.7) that relative member stiffnesses influence internal force direction. Therefore, since the rigid particle in the plane has two degrees
distributions in indeterminate structures. This has implications on of freedom, there are two independent values needed to specify the
64 CHAPTER TWO
I I I
I
I
I
I + I
I
I I I
I I I
IX' IX' IX'
(a)
IX IX
Only vertical I Rotation and
displacement ~horizontal
allowed displacement
I
iII + I
I
allowed
I I
I I
Ix' Ix'
{b)
Figure 2.2 Use of symmetry: (a) decomposition ofload into symmetric and antisymmetric components and (b) symmetric and
antisymmetric structures of reduced size.
Figure 2.3 Principle of virtual work for a particle: (a) rigid particle in
Tbe virtual work is now given by the expression aw = L:=I(fi, .00;)'
two dimenaions under a system of forces and (b) resultmt force and virtual or
diaplacement.
virtual displac:ement. Rather than magnitude and direction, these 'ould whim gives the three equations of static equilibrium in the plane:
instead be taken as the (:Omponents mlx and l)jj1 of~ with respect to ~n F-=O,~n F-=O ,and ~n M-=O.
Cartesian axes (x, y). The work done by any fur.;:e .fj were it to move ~j = I %1 L,,i = l 1' ~i = l II
through the displac:ement mi would be F, ·oo . Therefore, the virtual The body under consideration need not be rigid for the foregoing
work aw done by the system of for'es is relations to apply. Tbe virtual displacement was simply mosen as if the
body were rigid, but this virtual displacement 'an equally be imposed
on a deformable body. Tbus, imposition of rigid-body virtual displace-
liW=~n
"-'•=l(E1 ·1lii)=R·oo ments on a deformable body generates the overall equations of static
equilibrium.
Tbe principle of virtual work is that the particle is in equilibrium if and A deformable body may also be subjected to virtual displacement
o
only if W = 0 for an arbitrary OU. The latter condition is essential, as patterns, whim, if they were ac:tual displac:ements, would induce defor-
it excludes the special (:UC in whim OU is orthogonal to R. Therefore, mations in it. Sum virtual displacement patterns offer information
o W =0 requires that R =0 for equilibrium. The virtual work can also about the internal forces. For instance, the simple plane truss shown in
be expressed as Fig. 2.1 has two degrees of freedom: u%4 and u14 • Let virtual displace-
ments Oux 4 and 01414 be applied to the structure. These nodal virtual
ow=(~n
~i = l
F.)0ux =(~n F.)0u'
L,,i= l ,,
displac:ements defiiie a deflected shape of the entire structure that is a
X1
perturbation from the equilibrium position, as illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
Therefore, OW = 0 is completely equivalent to L~= /ld = 0 and
Sum a virtual displac:ement pattern would, if it were actually applied
to the structure, produce deformations in some or all of the structural
~ n F"' = 0, the two equations of static equilibrium. Earn equation members. Ac.;:ordingly, the internal forces, whim would resist sum
"-•=l ,.
of equilibrium corresponds to a degree of freedom of the system. Tbe manges, must contribute to the virtual-work expression in this case.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS f5
y y
~L6~
F.
~Uy
I
,;1flr IYi
x "\ x
~8.z
I 6u,,
0
lmpatibilil
Equilibrium
position
SuT. p = oeT . f
LJ
Equilibrium (2.13)
In .Bq. (2.13), the internal force f and the ate.rnal load p satisfy
equilibrium, Eq. {2.4). The (virtual) joint d.iJplac::ements 8a ancl the
c:oneaponcling (virtual) member elongations & sati.lfy compatibility,
Eq. (2.5). Material beha'eior desalptlom are not involved in this rela-
tion, and it thus applies to inelastlc mate.rials equally. Equation (2.13)
may be considered u & gmmil m:ip10C41 relimon that relate# tmy com-
pi.rtr1le set ofkinenurtic variobks (&a,,&) and any equililmned set ofstatic
varl4bks (p, f). For some purpo1es, h is c::onvenlent to comider Che1e
F1tur. 2.5 Virtual dltplaoeme.ot from equilibrium polltlon.
compatible kine.matte varlable. cau. &) as the actual d!1place.ments and
elongation• and the equillbrmd static: variables (p, f) u & comeniently
It i1 imponant to note that the forus do 11ot change during the 'llirlrl.cil cha1en auDliary load .,..rem. This ii the foundation for the unit dl.lmmy
defomuitlotl of the structure. load method (Article 2.13).
Since the Joints of Che truss can be regarded as rlgid parttcla, the pre-
ce<ling rela!ion.s can be directty applied to them. Equlllbrlum at Joint 4 2.3.2 Prlncl)llt of _,I mum Pottn'd1t EIMl'fi'
can be apmsed using .Bq. (2.1). Thua. the virtual WOik can be written u The pr:lndple of mlnimum potential energy handles the displacements
or degrees of &eedom of the structure u primary variables. It i• similar
3W=[p,., -(/i + / 2 c:oaa)]·&u.., +[p1 , - ( /2 sina+ / 3 ))·8",, (2.9) to the diJpla.cement or stiffness methods of rtructural analysis. The
(total) potenttal energy Il is equal to Che sum of the (internal) stmm
Tim apremon can be aeparaied into two components: the tint
lfttrgy u and the load pote.DtlaJ. or extertull potential energy, n These
accounting for extemal loade, Wied the extmtal virtual work 8Wat>
and the second accounting for iDtemal forces, cdled the internal virtual quuititie. are defined as follows.
work3Wmt=
STRAIN ENllGY
3W• =p,,, ·8",., + p1 , ·&u1 , (2.lOa} The stJ:ain energy ill Che irtored energy of deformation. For a one-
aw1nt =-Lti ·&u,.4 + / 2 ·<&u,.4 c:oso+liM,.c sino)+ fs ·&u,,J dlmemional atructural member with an intemal. force w. elongation
relation u shown in Fig. 2.6, the strain e.11ergy is the work done by the
=-£Ji·&.+ h. ·&z + fs ·lit,] (2.lOb) forc::e in generating the c:urrent elongation. Tlrus,
In the general cue, Eq1. (2.4) through {2.6), the virtual work can be
~du u<e>= f:f<e)tle
ISW=&iT ·(p-Bf) (2.11) which Is the uea under Che curve up to the current elongation e.
The gradual change of f-orce with elongation is accounted for in this
and the external mcl internal virtual vrork can be wriUen u calculation.
awm =&r · p c2.12a} This quantity involves not only the materlal response but also the
cross-leCtlond area and length of the member. Accordingly. it is better
6W1Dt =-&IT ·Bf=-6(HTU)T ·f=-&? ·f (2.12b) instead to define a strain energy per unit volume (density), U"' which
H CHAPTER TWO
(2.17)
....
g This equation for strain energy in terms of the stiffness matrix K is
general.
S2
Iii ExT!!RNAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
E
J!! For conservative external loadings, a potential energy '2 of the loads
.E can be defined such that '2 = -uT • p.
PoTENTIAL ENERGY
Uo(E)= f: a(e)de
satisfy equilibrium make the potential energy an absolute minimum.
The potential energy is expressed as
~l~'---"-'~ ""'--l~~--""
pound trusses, which are statically determinate overall, do not require
a simultaneous solution of the equations of joint equilibrium, Eq. (2.4).
A simple truss can be defined as one that can be assembled by starting
with a simple triangular-shaped panel and then individually connecting
new joints, using two new members for each joint. A compound truss
Load case 1 Load case2 consists of simple-truss substructures. For these two particular configu-
rations, the reactions and member forces can be calculated using the
Figure 2.7 The reciprocal theorem. method ofjoints and the method of sections. These two methods are also
useful for verification of results of analyses of indeterminate structures.
2.4.2 k111111.nclF111mes
The reciprocal theorem indicates that P1d12 = P 2~ 1 • It is sometimes Rigid frames, or moment frames, consist of members connected
stated in terms of unit loads, that is, for the special case P 1 = P2 = 1, together by joints that are assumed to transfer moments between con-
where it is known as Maxwell's law. Moments and rotations can be necting members. In some cases, more complicated structural models
considered in this relationship as well as fol"(:es and displacements. The may be used in which some of the joints are assumed to be frictionless
terms that appear must be work-conjugate pairs. pins or in which there are other types of force or moment releases. Each
The two configurations need not be restricted to single loads. The such release limits or constrains the internal force system at a given
generalization to multiple loads is usually called Betti's law. It can be location in the structure and accordingly provides additional information
stated in the following form. The work done by the first loading system that augments the equations of equilibrium. These additional equations
acting through the displacements produced by the second loading is are sometimes referred to as equations ofcondition.
equal to the work done by the second loading system acting through For plane frames, the criterion for static determinacy is that 3b + r =
the displacements produced by the first loading. The main use of these =
3j + c, in which c number of releases and the remaining symbols are as
relationships is in demonstrating symmetry of stiffness and flexibility defined in Article 2.4.1. For space frames, the criterion for static determi-
coefficients and in developing a method (the Miiller-Breslau principle2) nacy is that 6b + r= 6j +c. The degree ofstatic indeterminacy is (3b + r) -
for constructing influence lines. (3j + c) and (6b + r) - (6j + c), respectively, when these indices are
positive. These criteria govern whether or not the complete set of
reactions and internal forces can be calculated from the equations of
2.4 ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE statics (statical determinacy). As with trusses, it is possible that external
STRUCTURES
reactions can be calculated (if r = 3 + c for plane frames or r = 6 + c for
Statically determinate models of structurea are often useful. For example, space frames) or that some member forces can be determined, even if
a truss model in which each member carries only axial fol"(:e can capture the structure is statically indeterminate overall, as determined by these
the important aspect. of structural behavior in many cases, even though criteria.
the assumption of frictionless pin jointt connecting the members is far
REACTION CALCULATIONS USING
from accurate. Furthermore, the detailed analym of members it often
VIRTUAL WORK
carried out as a final (postprocetsing) step after the analysis of the full
(statically indeterminate) structure. In this case, the indeterminate Throughout structural analysis, there are two alternative approaches:
structural analysis provides sufficient information so that the detailed (1) direct application of the basic principles (equilibrium, compatibility,
member analym can proceed as if the member or substructure were constitutive laws) and (2) a work-energy approach, using virtual work
statically determinate. as the fundamental tool In the case of statically determinate structures,
reactions can be determined by directly using the equations of static
equilibrium. Alternatively, virtual work can be used to determine exter-
2.4.1 Plane .ncl Space Tr111H1 nal reactions by applying suitably chosen rigid-body virtual displace-
Idealized trusses have frictionlest pin joints at which the centroidal axes ments that violate the constraint corresponding to the reaction under
of connecting members meet (no eccentricities) and are subjected to consideration, that is, to allow the appropriate reaction to do some
loads only at these joints. As a result, only axial force, either tension virtual work. For complex but statically determinate structures with
or compression, is transmitted by each member. One main require- force releases, the virtual-work approach is likely to be more convenient
ment is that loads are applied only at the joints. Truss analysis with than the direct equilibrium approach.
both a rigid-jointed frame model and an ideal truss model of the same Figure 2.8 shows a simple portal frame that is pinned at the base and
structure generally yield axial forces that agree closely with each other that has a moment release at one of the beam-to-column connections.
when loads are applied only at the joints. Additional internal forces In order to calculate the vertical reaction R, a virtual-displacement
(shears and bending moments) exist in the truss, but these are due only pattern is chosen in which the right-hand support is moved verti-
to compatibility effects and are not required for equilibrium. The addi- cally. The resulting pattern is such that the angle between column
tional stresses due to these bending effects are called secondary slTtwes and girder at the moment of release can change; however, the angle
and are often in the range of 15 to 20 percent or less of the stresses due between column and girder at the rigid joint must remain a right
to the Biial forces. angle. The virtual work of the reaction is R · Su, while the virtual work
Plane and space trusses are described in general by Eqs. (2.4) through of the applied distributed load is -wH · Yi H/L · ilu. These are both
(2.6). For plane trusses, the criterion for static determinacy is that contributions to the external virtual work ii Wui· The internal virtual
b + r = 2j, in which b =number of members, r =number of independent work is zero in this case since the virtual-displacement pattern is that
reaction components, and j = number of joints. For space trusses, the of a rigid body. Thus, by setting ilW = ilWui = 0, the reaction is found
criterion for static determinacy is that b + r = 3j. The degree of static =
to be R wH2/2L. A main advantage of the virtual-work approach is
indeterminacy is (b + r) - 2j and (b + r) - 3j, respectively, when these that it is often possible to avoid calculating auxiliary information that
indices are positive. These criteria govern whether or not the complete may not be of interest.
set of reactions and internal forces can be determined from the equa- The full analysis of a frame can be considered to cover the determi-
tions of equilibrium (statical determinacy). In some cases, external nation of external reactions and internal forces in each member at the
reactions can be calculated, or some member forces can be calculated, joints of the frame. The subsequent determination of internal fol"(:eS in a
even if the structure is statically indeterminate overall, as determined given member at a given member cross section can be handled as beam
by these criteria. analysis. The relations between load, shear, and bending moment in the
68 CHAPTER TWO
Virtual displacement sections is equal to the area under the shear diagram plus the resultant
pattern external moment acting on the beam between those two cross sections.
2A.3 a..m Dllflectlons
Methods for the calculation of beam deflections are of two general
r
types: they are based either on (1) the integration of the differential
equation for beam deflections (using double integration or one of its
many equivalents, such as the moment-area method or conjugate beam)
Pin on (2) work-energy methods (e.g., dummy unit-load method).
l
BEAM DEFLECTIONS
Equations (2.20) relate load to shear and shear to bending moment.
Two additional differential relations complete the definition of beam
response as follows:
d0 M
ds El
------L------- dy =tan0
dx
Figure 2.8 Frame reaction using virtual work. where El. = flexural stiffness of beam
e = angle between x-uis and tangent to beam axis
beam are determined by examining a free body of a differential element Ifrotations of the beam axis are small, 02<<1 (in radians), the curvature
of the beam (Fig. 2.9), which gives d0Jds can be approximated as d0/dx and the slope dyldx =tan 9 as 9 so
that these equations can be written as
dV
dx = p(x) d0 = M(x)
(2.20) dx El.
dM (2.22)
-;i;-=Y(x)+m(x)
dy =0(.x)
dx
where p(x) = distributed lateral load
m(x) = distributed applied moment Equations (2.22) are often combined into the single relation:
The sign convention is shown in Fig. 2.9. d2y _ M(x)
Equation (2.20) provide expressions for the slopes of the shear and
moment diagrams at any axial coordinate in the beam. They can be
dx 2 -m
integrated between two arbitrary cross sections of the beam x = a and For a statically determinate beam, the equation for bending moment
x = b to provide the following relations: can be determined by statics, and then the deflected shape from this
equation can be determined by double integration or a number of alter-
native equivalent methods.
V(b)-V(a)= J:p(x)dx+ !,Pc; Table 2.1 gives some common beam formulas, showing in most cases
n (2.21) maxi.mum values of shear, moment, slope, and deflection.
M(b)-M(a)= J:V<x)dx+J:m(x)dx+ I,Ma
n
For the first case in Table2.l, the bendingmoment M(x)=M0 (1-x/L).
which show that the change in shear between two cross sections is equal Two successive integrations of d2y/dx2 =m(x)/Bl give
to the resultant external load acting on the beam between those two
cross sections, and the change in bending moment between two cross y(x)= Mo
EI
("2 -"3 J+ C1x +C2
2 6L
Moment C)
Simply mpparl£d bram
~Mo SA=_ M. Ma
9A=~ M.,L'
.Ji A B 2>... L 3lll y.,..=O.o62m
r----__ 9--~
,.- 6EI
at:i:=0.4221
~.
iw w
SA=z Me=4
WL WL'
eA =-e.= iw
WJ!
re= 41BI
JS. A c 92>...
At;
-----------
0tb 92>...
Wb
SA=L
M =Wah
• L
Wah
OA = 6EIL (L+b) Wa b
1 2
y. = 3JilL
Wa Wah
~ S.=--
L
e, =-m{L+a}
w
S _wL wr!
1!* I I I I f
c ?il A-
2 Me=a
wJ}
OA =-0, =iiiii
5wL'
Ye =3i4ijj
~
it~-
2 1wLl
SA=wL M- =D.1164 wL wL'
6 9A=360EI r .... =0.oo652m
at:i:=D.577L
S,=- wL &wr! at:i:=0.5191.
~ 3 0.=- 36DBI
~.
w wL wL' swr! wL'
~ SA=4 Me=U QA =-8, = 19lB.I Ye=l20BI
°'c. C z:. B
~
!w w
SA=z
WL
Me=-8-
OA=S.=O
Ye= ~
WL'
1
0.
c ~ B
~
v ~
a i wb Wb'
SA=T(3a+b)
M __ Wab' 0A=8-=D Wa>bl
0. ~ ~ B A- Lz Ya= 3BIJ!
waz
~ S.=-7(3b+a) MB=-~
Wba'
~
"'1
w 9A=8,=0
S _wL wL2 wL4
0. ~ I I I I I cI I ! I I ~8 A-
2 MA=MB=-U Ye= l114RI
..,....---.....
v ~
w 0A=8-=D
A ~ ==x=crrrq B
S =3wL
A 20
wL1
MA=-30
wr.'
r .... =o.00131fil
....----.. 7wL
S.=-- wt• atx=D.525L
v "l 20 M.=-20
w
5wL2 9A=9-=0 0.7wL4
o.~~~8
SA=wL
4 MA =M, =-""'96" Ye= l84lll
....------...._
v ~
7G CHAPTER TWO
A(-Mo
Strudule
"8
0
Shear H
M.
Mommt (")
8 _MoL
A--
EI
Slope ~
YA=- ~
DeBedion
2BI
•
I I
A ~W
w MB=-WL WL2 WI]
8A=-m YA= 3JII
~ B
~
w S.=-wL wt'f wL3 wL'
At i i i i i f f! ~s M,=-2 8A=- 6E[ YA= 8BI
~
wL wJ} wI! wL'
-c=eecrrfl1lws S.=-- MB=-6 8A =- 2.4J!I
A 2 TA= 30BI
~
:~
wL wl! wL' 11w1.•
S.=-- M1=-2 8A=-m
B 2 YA= 120EI
~
Propped caDtileftr
(ftlS Mo
A ~ El
3M
SA=-=2. M1=-~ 8A=~ MoL'
2L 2 4BI r .... = 27BI
r:::=:---..._. L
atx=-
f-- x ---.J 3
A c;
tw ~B
S.1.=.5W
16
M,=-3WL
16
WLZ
e... =32.EI Y- =0.00932m
WL'
c 5WL atI=0.447L
~ Mc=32
~. '-...J
Ac;
0 rb ~B
Wb'
SA =lif{a+2L) M1 =- Wab(
L2
a+~)
2
Wu?
e... = 4EIL
Wa2b3
Y. = l2BIL (3L+a)
~ S.=- Wa(3L'-a•J
21.'
"'-I
w 3wL wJ} wL3 wL'
A~! I I ! I f t ff~ B SA=· M1=-S 8A =- 4&J!I y.,.. = 0.0054fil
~ atI=0.422L
f--,.. "'1
s... = wL M.,..=o.o3wL2 wLs wL'
Aa.-:=cr:rrrrq w
s 10 8 y.... =0.00239m
"'=120m
...--------.... at•=O..U?L
wL2
ltI=0.447L
f--. x "'1 M1=-15
wr..•
:fDTro:r=- ~ B SA=llwL
40
M,,_ =O.IM23wL2
atx=0.329L
wL'
e... = 80l!I Y- =0.00305m
,..------..___ 7wL2
M1=-ll0
lt:i:=0.402L
1--x ~
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 71
this analogy. The moment-area method is presented in a geometrical The dummy unit-load formula given by Eq. (2.23) can, therefore, be
approach that emphasizes visualization of the beam's deflected shape. It written as
is usually stated in the form of two moment-area principles that specify
procedures for computing (1) changes &0 in the beam tangent angle
between two beam cross sections and (2) deflection of the beam at a
&= t[ nkek + J:: 0
(mic+uy+")th J (2.25)
given section with respect to the tangent drawn from another section.
The methods used for calculating these quantities in the moment-area for the case of planar bending, in which the (constant) axial force n,
bending moment m, shear force 1l, and torsional moment t are the
method are equivalent to Eq. (2.21) for calculating changes in shear
and bending moment in the beam, using the curvllture M/EI as the internal force system associated with the dummy unit load and e, 1', e.
load. These methods can be used to compute deflections due to gen- and ell are the corresponding actual deformations causing the general-
eral inelastic strains by substituting the actual curvature, however it is ized deflection &. The summation is over all members in the structure.
The deflection formula, Eq. (2.25), separates the total deflection into
caused, for the term M/EI.
distinct terms, axial length changes, and flexural, shear, and torsional
THE DUMMY UNIT-loAD METHOD deformations. Additionally, the actual deformations need not be caused
Deflection can be also calculated using work-energy methods. The by loads-they may be due to, for example, temperature changes in the
structure. In the case ofload-produced deformations, the deformations
dummy unit-load method is one of the most versatile of this class of
methods. Alternatives such as Castigliano's second theorem1 are similar are related to the internal forces N, M, V, and T by
to the dummy unit-load method. The dummy unit-load method uses the
NL M V T
principle of virtual work, displayed in Eq. (2.13) for trusses. The actual e = - 1C=- y = - cjl=- (2.26)
strains and displacements of the structure are chosen as the compat- Ae EI A,G GJ
ible set of kinematic Vllriables. The equilibrated set of static Vllriables
is selected as an external load of unit magnitude, the dummy unit-load The effective shear area A, that appears in Eq. (2.26) accounts for the
(placed on the structure so that it is work-conjugate to the desired dis- nonuniform distribution ofshear stress over the beam cross section. For
placement), and its associated internal forces. Thus, the expression for rectangular cross sections, it is typically taken as A, = Al 1.2. For WF
the external virtual work reduces to OuT · p = 1 · &, where & is the desired sections, a good approximation is A,= A,..i,. The calculation of torsional
displacement The dummy unit-load method can then be expressed in deformations does not account for warping torsion effects.
the general form
l!IAMPLE
Nk~ T
Elongations, eit = At,. E.. ~
A
c
,___ _ _ _ _ 4@10ft -----~
(a)
M~~,-~~
1
(b)
Figure 2.10 'Ihw deflection by dummy unit-load method. (11) Actual load. (b) Dummy unit load.
&gin ~ M
o
ml
L
I mor----- L
~m,
L
morlm• L !-12
I
L/ 2
Ll
L LL-lM, M,
M
l L
I
mML
!.mMoL
2
!mML
2 l
!.mLCMo
2
+M,) ~mM,L
3
!mML
3 l
!mL(2Lfo-M1 )
3
Mo~ !m.,ML
2
!mgM.L
3
!m,,M1L
6
!m,,L(2Mo + M,)
6
!"'oM1L
3
.!_m,,M1L
12
.!.moL(5M.,-M1 )
12
L
~M, !m1ML
2
!m,M.,L
6
!m,M1L
3
!m,L(2M, +Mo)
6
!m,M1L
3
!m,M1L
4
!m,L(M.-M,l
4
L
M
odM1 L
l
iML(m,, +m,)
I
'M.,I.(2mo + m,)
I
6M1L(m0 + 2m,)
L
6[m0 (2Mo +M1 )
+m1(2M, +M0 ))
l
3M1L(mo+m,)
l
iiM1Umo +3m1) L [ mo(5Mi,-M1) ]
U +3111i(M0 -M1)
I
p
U1 U2
~~
p
A j
LS.A ::Id- D
LS
LJ"B
Tc TD II
i.}-~
R, ~
p II
LS
j ~~
7J. R,"0 R:!=O
U1"0 U2" 0
+
+
J [ ~. ~. J
~
~-1
~~xu,
~f21 Xffi
7J' ~=O U1 =1 U2 =D
+
+
[6 ~]
~~r22 x~
[~~~
~ ~ ~ x~
U1" 0 U2" 1
(a) Force method (b) Displacement method
FiguM 2.12 Compartaon of (a) force and {b) diapla.:eme.nt methods.
74 CHAPTER TWO
FORCE METHOD fixed-end forces or fixed-end moments. The generalized force at each
Consider a structure that is statically indeterminate to the nth degree. degree of freedom must be equal to the specified (externally applied)
For the beam shown in Fig. 2.12a, n = 2. A statically determinate stable generalized force-the joint load. In the example shown in Fig. 2.12b,
structure, the primary structure, is produced by introducing sufficient the two degrees of freedom are joint rotations at B and C. The equa-
releases that render the structure statically determinate. The generalized tions are
forces corresponding (in a work-conjugate sense) to these releases are 0
k,,1U1 + lti2U2 +ii.= Pi =0
the redundants. The primary structure is now subjected to n + 1 load- (2.32)
ing cases: the first of these is the external loading condition, and each ki1U1 +k:z2U2 +Pz =P2° =0
of the remaining n loading cases corresponds to a unit value of one
redundant with all other redundants set equal to zero. The generalized Thus, the equations of the displacement method express equilibrium
displacements at the releases in each of these loading cases are defined conditions that are satisfied by choosing the appropriate combination
as the flexibility coefficients. The flexibility coefficientf;. is the general- (i.e., the values of the degrees of freedom UJ of the n loading cases to
ized displacement work-conjugate to redundant R; due~ a unit value of superpose on the external load case.
redundant R; with all other redundants equal to zero. In general, the equations of the displacement method have the form
A superp05ition of the n + 1 loading cases is constructed to generate K·U+P=P 0
expressions for the total generalized displacement at each release, as (2.33)
indicated in Fig. 2.12a. For this example, these two generalized displace- K·U=P
ments are the vertical displacements at supports C and D, which must where K = symmetric, positive definite structure stiffness matrix
be zero in the indeterminate beam. The equations for this example are
p = pO_p
f11R1 + fi.2~ +Di = D~ = 0
(2.30) P = generalized force in fixed-end structure due to element loads
f21R1 + /22~ +D2 =D~ =0 pO =specified (externally applied) generalized force at degrees of
Thus, the equations of the force method define compatibility con- freedom, that is, joint loads
ditions that are satisfied by choosing the appropriate combination
(i.e., the values of the redundants Ri) of the n loading cases to superpose 2.6 FORCE METHOD
on the external load case.
In general, the equations of the force method have the form The steps involved in the force method are (1) selection of redundants,
8
(2) calculation of gene~ displacements in the primary structure
F·R+D=D for the external loading D1, (3) calculation of the generalized displace-
(2.31)
P·R=D ments (the flexibility coefficients /~) for the n unit redundant loading
cases, (4) imposition of compatibility conditiom work-conjugate to the
where P = symmetric, positive definite structure flexibility matrix redundants, (5) solution of the simultaneous equations for the values of
D=D0 -fi.i) then redundants ~and (6) back substitution for member forces and
deformations.
=generalized displacement of primary structure due to external Difficulties arise in setting up a procedure for making a standardized,
load &ym=atic choice of redundants. This resulted in a strong preference
1)11 = specified generalized displacement at releases (often equal to for displacement methods in computer codes for structural analysis.
zero) Nonetheless, for specific classes of structures, the force method can be
very efficient.
DISPLACEMENT METHOD
Consider a structure that is kinematically indeterminate to the nth 2.6.1 Structure Flnlblllty Coefficients
degree. This means that there are n unknown degrees of freedom U;. The generalized displacements D1 and f~ of the primary structure can be
Kinematic indeterminacy in the displacement method corresponds calculated using any method for calculating displacements in statically
to static indeterminacy in the force method. In the beam shown in determinate structures. Both direct methods and work-energy methods
Fig. 2.12b, the degree of kinematic indeterminacy (the number of are usable. The dummy unit-load method is illustrated in the following
=
degrees of freedom) is n 2. There is, in general, no particular correla- article.
tion between the degree of indeterminacy of a structure and the number
of degrees of freedom it has. 2.6.2 DumlllJ Unlt-lolld Method Eumples
The first step in the displacement method is to produce a kinemati- STATICALLY INDETERMINATE Tlluss
cally determinate structure by restraining all degrees of freedom. This
fixed-end structure is the entity in the displacement method that corre- The planar truss shown in Fig. 2.13 is two degrees statically indetermi-
sponds to the primary structure in the force method. It is usually highly nate (r = 3, j = 8, b = 15; b + r -2j = 2). The redundants R1 and ~ are
statically indeterminate. selected as the internal forces (tension positive) in members CF and CH.
For simplification, external loads are separated into two types of Accordingly, releases are inserted in members CF and CH, consisting
loads: element loads that are applied to the members and joint loads. of infinitesimal cuts. The generalized displacements that are work-
The fixed-end structure is now subjected to n + 1 load cases. The first conjugate to the redundants are therefore the relative displacements
consists of the external member loads acting on the fully restrained (i.e., opening or closing) of the cuts. Whenever internal generalized
structure. Each of the remaining n loading cases corresponds to a unit forces (as opposed to external reactions) are chosen as redundants, the
value of one of the degrees of freedom with all other degrees of freedom corresponding generalized displacements are relative quantities of this
equal to zero. The generalized forces at the degrees of freedom in each type. The relative displacements due to the external loads are D1 and D2.
of these loading cases are known as the stiffness coefficients. The stiffness To calculate the relative displacement Di, the required dummy unit-
coefficient ~ is the generalized force work-conjugate to the degree of l~ad system is a pair of unit forces that induce bar forces nj. Thus,
freedom U; which is due to a unit value of degree of freedom ~ with all =
D1 !,~e1, where e1 are the member elongations in the primary struc-
other degrees of freedom equal to zero. ture due to the external actions. If these external actions consist only
A superposition of the n + 1 cases is constructed to generate expres- =
of mechanical loads, then e1 N; L/A; Ev where N 1 are the bar forces
sions for the total generalized force at each degree_of freedom. The due to the external loads. The same dummy unit-load system is used to
element loads give rise to a set of generalized forces P; often called the calculate the relative displacements/ 11 andfi. 2due to the loadings R1= 1,
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 75
T
=
0
.....
J...
,______ _ _ _ 4@1 Oft
/WXJ~'9-
&:..
Elongations
N
f11 = ;[ n 1n1 _I_
L
"' I I A;E;
~
.6.
= =
'9-
R1 0 R2 1
2 L;
n; - -
A1E1
f12=
N
rn- n·-'-
'"' I
1 2
I
L·
A1E1
f22 = r•
"' I
2 2 L
n· n· - '-
I A1E1
R:i = 0 and R 1 = O, R2 = 1, respectively. Thill dummy unit-load system is support D in the primary structure can be calculated as indicated in
~e same as the load system for R 1 = 1, R2 = 0. The relative displacements Fig. 2.14. Table 2.3 gives formulas for integrals M 1M 2 dx. &:cordingly, J
D2, A1, and /21. are calculated in a similar way using a dummy unit-load 3 3
D.= wL H ll21V• and / 11 =2H /3E,1, + H Ll~I•. Hence, the redun- 2
system consisting of a pair of unit forces that induce bar forces n'f. dant force R1 is
This second dummy unit-load system ill the same as the load system
for R 1 = 0, R2 = 1. The formulas for the flexibility coefficients shown in 1 wL2 1
=
Fig. 2.13 verify that / 11 > O, /21. > O, and / 12 A1 • Ri = H H 1+2a/3
Table 2.4 summarizes the calculations. The redundants R 1 and R2 are
found from in which a= (E•I•IL)l(E,I,IH) represents the beam-to-column relative
stiffness. The maximum positive and maximum negative bending
0.01732 0.00200] [R 1] = [0.1224]
5 moments in the frame are shown in Fig. 2.15 as a function of the
[ 0.00200 0.01732 R:i 0.1224 beam-to-column relative stiffness. Shear and axial deformations can be
accounted for by adding the appropriate terms shown in Eq. (2.25).
Ri
[ R:i
]=[ 6.34 ]
6.34
2.6.3 lhree-Mornant Equation for
Continuous Bt11ms
The total member forces in the indeterminate truss are found as a final The three-moment equation is a special force-method solution for
2
step from N; = N; +nlR1 + n; R:i. continuous beams in which the bending moments over the interior
supports are selected as redundants. The general form of the equation
STATICALLY INDBTBRMINATE FRAME relates bending moments in the continuous beam at three adjacent inte-
The portal frame shown in Fig. 2.14 is one degree statically indeterminate. rior supports. This results in a standard solution for 'ontinuous beams
The horizontal reaction at the base of the columns is chosen as the that can be simply applied, yielding well-conditioned simultaneous
redundant R1 . The dummy unit-load sys~ that is required in order equations with a narrow bandwidth (the bandwidth is 3).
to calculate the hori2ontal dillplacements D1 and / 11 at the support D in The primary structure, created by releasing internal bending
the primary structure consists of a unit hori2ontal force at D . &:count- moments over all interior supports, consists of a number of adjacent
ing solely for flexural deformations, the horizontal dillplacement at the simply supported spans (Fig. 2.16b). Accordingly, the basic element
76 CHAPTER TWO
=Di =D,
'Force units arc kips; longth unit> arc !noheo; Il =30,000 .bi.
T:r 1.
l
t---- L ---I
Curvatures
Moments
W L"
8 Ei, lb
9'c 9'o E
(a) (b)
U6EI 0
R, = 1
LS )( ~ ~ '9
2U3EI USEI
U6EI 2U3EI
J
R2 =1
LS ~ )( ~ '9
[~]
.1004PL
Rs= 1 0.0268PL
[
0.0067PL
(c) (d)
0.25 PL
~
9 -9
+
0.0268 PL
~~~
-0.1004 PL --0.0067 PL
p 0.1998 PL
~~~~
II
0.0268PL
-0.1004 PL --0.0067 PL
Figure 2.16 Three-moment equation for continuous beam: (a) four-span continuous beam,(&) primary structure, (c) unit-load syatema, (d) compatibility equations of
force method, and (e) contruction of bending-moment diagram.
and for the calculation of the stiffness coefficients k3' and kw from which it is found that k.,, = fW,1• The flexibility coefficients can be
found by using the dummy unit-load method, in which, for example,
shear deformations can be included, as can flexural deformations.
The full 4 x 4 stiffness matrix is found by using equilibrium and the
fact that the stiffness matrix must be symmetric. Equilibrium entails
In these two sets of simultaneous equations, the flexibility coefficients that k.o = T.b · kbb and k .. = T.i. ·k,,_, where
are assumed to be known, and the stiffness coefficients are sought. The
flexibility coefficient matrix is the same in both cases, so they can be
combined into -1 0 ]
T.b= [ -L -1
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 79
LJ6EI U3EI
.LX........................
....... _____________ ,,.,.,~
,...,,.,,,.,.,.~
L,EI
L,EI
w
p
ll l l l l l l l l l l j l l l l
~................ ~//4 .cs:...............................
L/2 j U2
~,.../'~
wl3/24EI .......... ____________ ........ wL3/24EI 2
-------------- PL /16EI
L,EI L,EI
LS,,
a I b
,......-b
,, //
and symmetry entails that k.b = kr.,. Accordingly, the 4 x 4 stiffness expressions for the beam deformations y(x), e (x), and ')'(x) in terms of
matrix for the planar beam is the degrees of freedom involve shape functions, shown in Eq. (2.38) for
the beam deflection y(x):
k -[T.&kbbT.b T.&kbb] (2.36)
- kb&Tl kw.
Figure 2.21 shows the explicit form of this stiffness matrix expanded to
a 6 x 6 matrix to encompass the axial degrees of freedom.
1Cx)=[N/ ,Nl, Nj, Nl{ ~] (2.38)
~
as V(x)= A,G7 (x),M(x)= EI de(x)/dx, andthenodalgeneralizedfurces
are determined from p 1 = V(O), p2 = - M(O), p3 = - V(L), p, = M(L).
The coefficients of the generalized coordinates u1, II:!• u3, u4 in these (2.39)
expressions for p 1, P2> p,, p4 are the stiffness coefficients shown in
Fig. 2.21. Axial displacements are included, inserting the axial stiff-
ness coefficients in the stiffness matrix as in Fig. 2.21. The analytical
+r p,,
10 CHAPTER TWO
UM= u, k22
U, = 0, U2 = 1
(a)
k:z1
~E:! sin a
0
~
AE [ cos2a
+ ---1......l.
0 L2 cos a sin a
(c)
Figure 2.18 Structure stiffneu coefficients: (a) unit <kgrees of freedom and definition of structure stiffness coefficients, (I>) joint equilibrium, and (c) structure
stiffness assembled from member contributions.
The member fixed-end forces are found from the solution of a statically considering, in turn, each of the unit displacement cases shown in
indeterminate structure, the fixed-ends beam, subjected to the specified Fig. 2.23, paired with the fixed-end loaded member. This leads to an
loading. The specified element loading may encompass mechanical expression for member fixed-end forces due to a distributed force p(x):
loads (distributed or concentrated forces and distributed or concen-
[~ =-I: NINI
trated moments), distortions (relative displacements or rotations, useful N'1
for generating influence lines), or inelastic deformations, such as those
due to temperature changes. p(x)dx (2.40)
The solution for member fixed-end forces can be performed using any p3
of the methods used to determine the stiffness coefficients. A convenient p4
formulation ls obtained using the reciprocal theorem (Article 2.3.4) N' 4
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 81
r.
k21
k31
k41
k'12
k'ZI
k32
k''2
k'13
k2s
k3a
k',3
\L~ \ /
x
Element coordinate system (x', y')
Global coordinate system (x, y)
C = cos a S = sin a
Flgull! 2.19 Stlffne.. matrix fur planar truJ& member.
Figure 2.24 illustrates member fixed-end forces in a planar flexural imposed unit degrees of freedom. Axial deformations of the memben
beam (ignoring shear deformations) for common loading, including arc taken into account, but shear deformations are disregarded.
two cases of unit distortions. Figure 2.25 summarizes member fixcd- The joint equilibrium equations for the portal frame arc illustrated
cnd forces in a planar shear beam (ignoring flexural deformations) for in Fig. 2.29. H axial deformations arc assumed to be zero, then the joint
the same loading conditions. In the general case in which there arc both equilibrium equations are as shown in Fig. 2.30.
flexural and shear deformations, the fixed-end forces arc
2.7.5 Slo pe-Deflection Equations
- = -1- ·P1n
p - • -
+--·p.., (2.41) The slope-deflection equations are a set of stiffness relations for a pla-
i++ l+' nar flexural beam. The expreNion for the end moment p2 , Eq. (2.39),
in which 4> =A,Gl12EIL2 is zero when there is no shear deformation and ilp2 =(4EI/L)u2 +(2El!L)u, + (6EI/L2 )(u, - u.. )+ p2 • In the uaual
infinite when there is no flexural deformation. notation associated with the slope-deflection method, p2 = Mob• u2 =
90 ,u4 =9b• and the chord rotation 'flu is defined as '1'u =(u3 - 14i)/L.
2.7.4 Portal Frame~ Dllplacement Method The fixed-end moment p2 is usually written as M;b. With these changes
The portal frame shown in Fig. 2.26 has fixed supports and carries a in notation, the generic slope-deflection equation is expressed as
horizontal force P at girder level. The unsupported frame (i.e., before 2EI p
applying boundary conditions at A and D) has 12 degrees of freedom Ma =-(290 + 9. - 3'!'.b)+ M.,,
L
(Fig. 2.27b). The boundary conditions constrain six of these to zero, and
there remain six degrees of freedom (two displacements and a rotation Expreasions for the end shears are usually not written explicitly
at Band at C) as shown in Fig. 2.27c. Generally, in analyses of such in terms of the degrees of freedom; they are •ubsequcntly found from
structures, it is assumed that axial length changes in the members are equilibrium. Axial deformations are neglected, and joint moment equi-
negligible; this assumption introduces an additional three constraints, librium equations arc formulated. When joint translations take place
one of which is a relative constraint; that is, the horizontal displace- (away), the corresponding equilibrium equations are derived by fint
ments at B and at C arc equal. For an analysis in which uial length expreaaing joint forces in terms of member end moments.
changes are assumed to be zero, there are three degrees of freedom as
shown in Fig. 2.27d. 2.7.6 Moment Distribution
The structure stiffness coefficients shown in Fig. 2.28 are determined The moment-distribution method1 is a quick numeric:al solution tech-
as the sums of the appropriate member contributions for each of the nique used for certain classes of framed structures. It is well suited as a
12 CHAPTER TWO
--------_--; If f-43
33
(a) (b)
Figuni2.20 Coefficient• for plane beam: (11) stlffne11 and (b) flexibility.
hand-calculation technique for small structur~ especially continuous by applying a concentrated moment M1 to the joint. This creates end
beams, in which joint translations (sway) do not occur. The method moments in each memb~connected to joint i. The sum of these
stam by first calculating the fixed-end moments in the fully restrained member end moments is M1, and the distribution factor determines
structure. Then one joint at a time allowed to rotate to an equilibrium the fraction of the imbalance to be transferred to each member; the
position (unlocked), with all other joints restrained. This unlocking of distribution factor for a member at a joint is the ratio of its rotational
a single joint initiates a redistribution of bending moments and shears stiffness to the total rotational stiffness of the joint. For prismatic
in members connected to that joint. This is called balancing the joint. members, the member rotational stiffness is 4EI/L. Since the far end
The balanced joint is then relocked in its new equilibrium position, and of each member connected to joint i is fixed against rotation while the
the process is replicated for a new joint. Each cycle of joint balancing balancing is done, a moment is generated there as well. This moment
further satisfies equilibrium in the structure until the process is ter- is calculated as a carryover factor times the member end moment at
minated. The procedure is approximate only and is usually concluded the balanced joint. For prismatic members, the carryover factor is 0.5.
when there is small equilibrium imbalance. This is one of the appeal- An example of the use of moment distribution for a continuous beam
ing features of the method; approximate results can be achieved very is shown in Fig. 2.32.
quickly, and additional cycles of joint balancing can be performed if Various refinements of the basic moment-distribution procedure
higher accuracy is needed have been developed: an approach of stiffness condensation can be
The balancing of a single joint is achieved using distribution factors utilized when the bending moment in a member at a joint is known;
and carryover factors, which are ~ermined as shown in Fig. 2.31. member rotational stiffnesses can be altered to account for symmetry
The equilibrium imbalance, say -M;, at a given joint i is eliminated or antisymmetry.8
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 83
1 2 3 4 5 6
-r ------- -,-
I I
1 I AE -AE I
I
I
I
L ---r- I
I
I I
2 I 12EI 6EI -12EI 6EI I
I I
I L3(1 + ljl) L2(1 + cp) L3(1+cp) L2(1 + cp) I
I I
4 -AE AE
L L
2.7.7 Mnrix Formulnlon of the For a plane truss member, the transformation matrix is shown in
Dl1plilcemant Mathad Fig. 2.19.
The displacement method can be formulated into a systematic proce- The relation between the n x 1 nodal displacement vector of an
dure that applies to all types of structures.~·10 The details of element element and the N x 1 structure nodal displacement vector is
formulation are confined to the most basic level of the procedure in
which element stiffnesses and fixed-end forces (or element equivalent (2.42b)
nodal loads) are calculated and element stresses are back-calculated.
Transformations of element stiffnesses and loads from the element in which the n x N localizing matrix~•) encompasses only ls and Os and
coordinate system to the global coordinate system, assembly of the is very sparse. This set of matrices, one for each element, incorporates
structure stiffness matrix and structure load vector, and solution of the the element connectivity information needed to assemble the structure
systenI of joint equilibrium equations are fundamental algorithms used stiffness matrix and load vector. In practice, this information is stored
for all structures. for each element in a compact form, the n x 1 destination vector, rather
The element nodal displacements u'(e) in the local element coordinate than in the sparse localizing matrix. The destination vector is a list
system are transformed to the global structure coordinate system by the encompassing the structure degree of freedom corresponding to each
transformation matrix Tc-l using element degree of freedom.
A virtual-work approach is preferred since it can be applicable to
(2.42a) all types of structural elements. The virtual work of an assembly of
84 CHAPTER TWO
y(x) = U1[-1++1-(1-3!;2+2!;3)+-•-(1-i;)l
1++ J
+Lu2[-l-(i;-21;2 + !;3 )+ _j__!_ (i;-i;2 )l
1++ 1++2 J
AU2~~-------
+u3 [-1 (3i;z-2i;3)+-+ (i;)l
1++ l+cjl J
+Lu4 [-l-(-l;2+!;3)+_j__!_(-l;+l;2)l
l+cjl 1++2 J
[ - (-6~+6~ )1
L0(x)=u1
1 2
1++ J
+L~ [- -~-4~+3!;2 )+-•-(1-~)l
l+cjl
1
1++ J
N 3 = (3~'-2~')
+L~ [l~cjl(~)]
+U3 [l~. (-1)] EI,L
+Lu4 [-l
1++
(.!.)]
2
Figure 2.23 Beam (Hermitian) shape functions.
12EI
Note:+=--
2
A.GL nodal displacements u1, u 20 "3• and u 4 • The interpolation functions
for one-dimensional line elements are often chosen as the exact solu-
Figure 2.22 Beam ahape functions. tions for the unloaded member subjected to imposed nodal degrees of
freedom. Cubic polynomials of this type, shown in Fig. 2.23, are exact
solutions for an unloaded beam. Llkewise, for a truss element, the shape
elements (a structure or substructure) is the swn of the virtual-work
functions are taken as linear polynomials N1 = 1-x/L, N 2 = x/L. For this
contributions of the individual elements. ThUll, class of elements, the direct approach yields the same result as virtual
work. However, for plates, shells, and two- or three-dimensional solids,
the direct approach is not applicable; exact solutions are not obtainable
for element deformed shapes under imposed unit nodal degrees of
freedom. It is for this latter class of structural elements that the virtual-
work approach is necessary. Now, Eq. (2.45) represents an asswned
(2.43) approximate element displacement field. The strain-displacement rela-
tions for the particular structural element are then used to obtain the
The internal virtual work of an element is expressed as element generalized strains as
- - -
p, P2 P3 p4
p
\f' I
[~
b Pb"(3a + b) Pab" Pa'(a + 3b) -Pab"
L' ---c> L' ---er-
L
[)
p
\f l./2 J l./2
14
p
--y -8-
PL p
-2-
-PL
--a
p, w Pa
\~ 111111111111111 ~ ) wl
--y
wl2
12
wl
-2-
-wl'
12
P•
\~~) p.
3wl
20
wl2
30
7wl
20
-wl2
20
\{~ "[) P•
-~~I (b - a) -~; 1 (a -2b) GL~I (b-a) 2L~I (2a - b)
- 1 - .. -
p= 1++•P._+ 1+9'P•k""'
Figure 2.24 Fixed-end member forces for planar flexunl beam.
Pb 1 Pab Pa -1 Pab
T 2T T 2L
p PL p -PL
2 8 2 -8-
p, w ~
\~111111111111111~) 2
wl wl2
12 2
wl -wl2
12
p4
wl wl2 wl -wlz
fi 24 ~ 24
\;f~ l) p.,
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
- 1 - + -
p= 1++P11a+ 1++P •._,
Figure 2.25 Fixed-end member forces for planar shear beam.
T
::c:
B c work can be expressed as
a(•)= E(•l · fi•l (2.54)
1 A D
and the element internal virtual work can be expressed as
i----- L---1
llW(.)1ni=llu(;j ·[ J(B; ·E(•) ·B(.i)d\.(.)]·u(.)
v«l (2.55)
Figure 2.26 Fixed-hue portal frame. = -llu(;j · k (.J · u(.>
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 87
14E.,A,G,El,L
U
~ U4 X
D
Yc.i
The internal resisting force vector becomes
I=K·U (2.57)
(a) (b)
where the structure stiffness matrix is
-----~u,
="'-"-'--'
c
u,
.=+=~~--'-----------i--~
B
K= I,Lr,) ·k(<) ·L(•)
(r)
(2.58)
a a a a
.----.;:::;:::::.=--~~~~~~o~AlE 0 6El.=bJ2El 0 ~
H2 H3 + L
r+-=-=:...._-------~
Ui =1
12Ela + AcE
~
3
6Elg H
-12Elg L2 a
--v-
~=1 Lis= 1
-6El 8
2
4El 8 ~ L
L + H
U:i =1
- 2 3 4 5 6
2 3
M =E.l::L• ~
- 2 1 +6a
_ El 9 /L
Note a - El. IH
Substitution of Eq. (2.57) into the equilibrium equations Eq. (2.53) The beam displacement v(x) is interpolated using the cubic Hermitian
yields the set of simultaneous linear equations polynomials shown in Fig. 2.23:
(2.60)
Following the solution of Eq. (2.60) for the nodal displacements of the
structure, element displacements, strains, and stressea are calculated
uaing back-substitution.
.(x)=[N,.N,.N,,N,I [~] (2.61)
l Balanclng joint I
I
I
'-'m"'m~--!)• = ~:• 9
M,.+ Mb+ M~= M,
4LE1 1 + 4LE1, + 4LE•pl 0 = M",
[ II ~ ~ J I
or, K, 0, = M,
~a
L,, , M,. -
-~
L e, b
Distribution factors
M ;, = ..i§&_
L,. 0 I
Canyover factors
M .. = ~0
L,. I
M
" -[~]
= L,. .M
~
- "
L.,
or M., = COF..-M,,
The beam curvature is the generalized strain and is determined from The stiffness matrix given by Eq. (2.65) is the same as that shown in
Fig. 2.21 for the four flexural degree. of freedom, with the shear param-
<=+>(>J"=+[N~N;,N;Na[~]
eter 1j> set equal to zero.
The element equivalent load vector c:orreaponding to a distributed
(2.63) load p(x) is c:alc:ulated as follows:
k(,) =ElL t 0
Bf.) ·B,d~ (2.65) The load vector -"j'(•) given by Eq. (2.65) is shown for multiple c:ases
in Fig. 2.24.
90 CHAPTER TWO
t - - - - - 2 0 · - - - - - - - - 2 0 · - - - i - - - - 15' - - - t
-0.1 0.1
83.0
Bending
moment
ft-kips
-114.5 -51.0
Figure 2.32 Moment distribution for continuous beam.
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 91
PARTB
ARCHES AND RIGID FRAMES
2.1 INTRODUCTION in Fig. 2.34. In a uniformly loaded parabolic arch, if the pressure line
Arches and rigid frames are commonly categorized by the develop- overlaps with the axis of the structure, all cross sections are subjected to
ment under vertical loads of inclined rather than vertical responses. compression force, with no moment or shear. H the pressure line falls
Mixed construction is selected by the main characteristic:; therefore, within the kern of the section, there will exist bending moment, shear,
Fig. 2.33 is referred to as a rigid-frame bridge. Rings are completely and thrust but no tension force on the cross section. If, finally, as in
bounded arches or rigid frames. Fig. 2.34c and 2.34d, the shape of the structure differt from the pressure
Cross sections are designed for moment, shear, and thrust, with line, moment may become dominant. A survey of proximate approaches
magnitudes determined by the location of the pressure line as shown based on sketching deflected shapes is given in Re£ 11.
I Approach slab
Paving notch
A
i'B Deck
A lntrados I lntrados
S rin in line
Knee
<r_isymm.
Le Axis
i - - - - - - - - - - - - - - C l e a r Span
Footin
. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - E f f e c t i v e span L
111111111111 IIIIIII II II
I \
\
Pressure line
Pressure line ~
Deck
Spandrel column
S andl81
Extrados or back)
Clear Centerline
rise rise
Skewback
Clear span
(surface)
Effective span L
2.8.1 CusHIClltlon of intrados at the crown above the springing line. The skewback is the
Arches may consist of multiple parallel ribs or of a single curved sheet inclined surface on which the arch rests. The centerline rise is the height
or barrel (Fig. 2.35). Components-wise, the croton is the highest point of the axis of the arch at the crown above the axis at the skewback..
of the rib or barrel; the soffi.t and back are the under surface and the top In bridges, the spandre/ is the space between the back of arch and
surface of the arch, respectively; and the springing line is the intersection roadway. Depending on whether this space is left relatively open or
of the abutment or pier and the soffi.t. Intrados and extrados are lines of filled with earth, one has either an open-spandrel arch (Fig. 2.35) or a
intersection of soffit and back with a vertical plane through the crown fil/ed-spandrel arch. Arches in which a structural tie is built between
and springing lines. The haunch is the midsection of the arch rib or reaction points to take the horizontal thrust are called lied arches. Types
barrel between the crown and springing line. The clear rise is the height of arches are shown in Table 2.5.
Fixed Three degrees indeterminate. Requires good foundations. Relatively rigid and theoretically slightly more economical. High-temperature
rlres$es with flat arches. Most common usage in reinforced concrete.
One-hinged Two degrees indeterminate. Rarely used.
Two-hinged One degree indeterminate. Common usage in steel, timber, aluminum. Less rigid than fixed arch, but thrust line is definitely located at
abutments. Relatively insensitive to rotations and to moderate differential deflections of supports.
Three-hinged Statically determinate. Common usage in steel and timber. Free from temperature stresses and insensitive to foundation settlements.
Two- or three-hinged, tied Does not require musive abutments. Not affected by settlements of supports.
Through and half-through Overhead lateral bracing may be obje~tionable aesthetically. Overcome by using slender rib1 with relatively heavier tie girder deck
(Langer arch-stiffened girder).
Deck Rib usually o;arries all the load, though occuionally deck. girder made to participate (Langer arch-stiffened girder).
Solid rib Loads brought to individual ribs by beams, shella, or other tranaverae elementa.
Barrel In bridge1, the spandrel fill gives acessive dead weight. Path of loads to barrel uncertain.
Braced rib (lattice)
Open spandrel Clearer path of load to ribs.
Spandrel-bnced Analysis aa a truued framework.
Semicircular
Segmental (arc of circle)
Multicentered Use of segmenta of circles facilitates fidd layout.
Parabolic Funicular line for uniformly distributed load.
Elliptical
Catenary Shape of inverted free-hanging string.
Gothic
Flat Large horizontal thrust. Luge effect of rib shortening and temperature.
High-rise Reduced horizontal thrust. Reactions may approach vertical.
STRUCTURALANALYSIS !llJ
Rings. Similar to arches and rigid frames, the nomenclature and Stress analysis on curved members is based on the assumption that the
classification of rings follow the same pattern. Cross sections may be cross-sectional dimensions of the member are small relative to the radius
constant or variable, curvatures may be constant or variable, and mem- of curvature; therefore, stresses may be calculated by formulas that are
bers may be straight or curved. The ring may rest on point supports or, valid for straight members. For very sharp curvatures, curved-beam
as in the case of ducts, on a continuous earth support having either rigid, formulas for angle changes and stresses have to be used. It is also pre-
elastic, semielastic, or plastic characteristics. sumed, except where otherwise noted, that the arch can be analyzed by
Bents are rigid frames composed of columns supporting trans- first-order, or so-called elastic, theory. This theory states that the effect
verse members. Several types are presented in Fig. 2.36. Similar to of deformations on the bending moments may be neglected and that
rings, frames may have members of constant or variable cross section the principle of superposition will apply. For buckling investigations in
(Fig. 2.33). Rigidity of joints, in terms of continuity of members of the long spans, deformation theory (second-order theory) has to be applied.
frame, is essential for structural stability. In case elasticity or inelasticity
ofjoints has to be taken into account, special methods of frame analysis 2.!11.2 Karn llei.tlonshlps
for semirigid joints are used. In designing/ checking cross sections for combined axial loads and
Rigid frames are shaped to optimize the utilization of the interior bending moments, it is usually helpful to use the kern relationships. The
space better than arches, as would be the case with a bridge crossing limiting points of the kem are the "kem points; which have eccentrici-
a major road with restricted vertical clearances. The approximately ties ek from the center of gravity given by
straight deck, rigidly connected to piers and abutments, highlights
,2
practical features for artistic treatment. e~= (2.67)
Although moments are amplified at the laps ofrigid frames, the moments c
at the cenrer ofspan are small compared to a simple span ofthe same length. where r = radius of gyration
The narrower depth at midspan gives better clearance and appearance, c =distance to extreme fiber
lowers the approach lengths of the overpassing road, and increases the The extreme fiber stresses f for an unsymmetrical section (Fig. 2.37)
underpassing road, and ridge excavation or fill is reduced, land procure- are given by the following equations:
ment is lowered, and the total cost is reduced. Additionally, maintenance
and replacement costs are low, and widening is easily executed in the future.
Upper flange: f, = !!_ + McM =
" A I
N(e+ ~J 'u = M1a; 5!..
'• I I
(2.68)
2.!11 ANALYSIS OF ARCHES
2.!11.1 Assumptions
Analysis of a final design is required to validate that the shape and cross Lowerflange: N Mc1
fi=-+-=N
A
( e+-
I
c1
r -=Mkf-
2
er
J'Ir I
(2.69)
sections are to produce stresses/deformations within allowable values under
the given system of loads. While analysis is thus a terminal step. it also Each stress f may be maximized by creating the influence line for the
provides the basis for many estimates that are useful Jn preliminary design. suitable M1e
l{a) Rectangular
i~rin (b) Sloping legs (c} Gable (d) Arched
.. "
N
·~ e
l
-7-=
J I ·~ ·~
Cu ek E
- !---------- ::! __E:~
----- ---- --------------- -------- --------~ --
eu
Ci _J 1.::-k" "
,
2.9.3 Finite-Element Analysis the shear-energy effects are ignored, the torsional term does not apply,
In finite element analysis, a structure is divided into segments linked and the equations reduce to a consideration of normal forces, flexural
at the joints, and equations of continuity, compatibility, and boundary effects, and temperature.
conditions which are set up in matrix form, based on the elastic proper- Equation (2.70) maybe written in matrix form:
ties of the structure and the extemal loading conditions. The solution
of the equations generates the deflections and forces at all joints, which
can be used for the final design or verification of existing sections. This
6.. 15.w 15.,][x•] [Ii• -15. 0
o,,. libb 15k x. = 6,,-libo -01n
-o.,l
analysis technique is now mostly adopted in computer application pro- [o.. Oct o"' x, Ii, -li, lia
0 -
grams. Input commonly consists of the following data:
• Support conditions or AX=K
• Loading conditions
• Description and type of structure which may be solved by inversion:
• Member orientation and properties X=A- 1K
• Geometry of structure as defined by the joint coordinates
It should be highlighted that although these programs are easy to use,
the engineer has to understand the behavior of the structure and prac- 2, 10 DESIGN OF ARCHES
tice engineering judgment in setting up the structural model in order to
appropriately assess the results obtained from the output 2. 10.1 General Procedure
Design of a ring, arch, or rigid frame includes a series of phases each
2.9A Energy Methods
introducing a refinement of the previous one. This is mainly true for
With a typical fiud arch (Fig. 2.38), indeterminate to the third degree, indeterminate structures, in which preliminary but controlled calcula-
tions of design shears, moments, and thrusts are required, whereas in
1·a. = a.0 + XlJ.,. + xbo•b + x,o.., +oot determinate systems, the statical values may be obtained accurately at
a.0 + x.lik + xbow. + x,lik + libt
1 · lib = (2.70) the beginning.
1·6, = o,0 + x.o,. + Xboct + X,6"' + Oa The first phase includes planning with respect to the character of the
spanned opening, rise, span, loading, clearance requirements, architec-
where x.. xb, x, = three redundants ture, and aesthetics.
a•. o,,, Ii,= displacements in the directions of x.. xb, and ~ The second phase proceeds with finding the general shape and
respectively estimated design shears, moments, and thrusts from which tentative
600, o"°' lir:11 =displacements in the directions of x., x,,, and ~ cross sections are obtained. Such values are typically derived from esti-
respectively, due to the applied external loads acting mated influence-line data On the other hand, the cross sections can be
on the determinate base system assumed from data on similar designs that have demonstrated satisfac-
o,.,n
= displacement in the direction of x,., due to =1 x,, tory performance or from empirical relationships based on experience.
o.,.
lilrP o,t =
displacements of the base system in the directions of Recurrently, as in the case of concrete arches and steel rigid frames, an
X0, x,,.
and X., respectively, due to uniform tempera- intermediate phase of design refinement is possible at this point, using
ture change I" and/or a differential temperature &<> available design charts or tables, some of which are comprehensive
between top and bottom fibers enough to yield a final design needing very slight future modification.
The displacements are given byo The final phase of design for indeterminate structures is the formal
analysis of the structure, to validate deformations and stresses, and to
0 =O =JM.,Mnds +JN.,Nnds +JT.,Tnds +JkV,,.Vnds (2.7l) make slight adjustments if needed.
"'" ""' EI EA GJ AG
For temperature effects I" and ll.I", 2.10.2 Preliminary Selection of Shllpe
To decrease bending moments, the arch axis should conform as closely as
(2.72) possible to the pressure line or equilibrium polygon of the loads. For
uniformly distributed loads, such curve is usually parabolic. However,
In the above expressions, M,,, and Mn are the bending moments in the dead load generally increases in the direction of the abutments, result-
= =
base system due to X,., 1 andX,, 1, respectively. Likewise, N, T, and V ing in a rising of the pressure line between crown and springing and an
are the normal forces, torques, and shears in the base system subjected increase in the inclination at the springing line. The p~ure line also
to the unit redundant designated by the respective subscripts. The differs as live load is superimposed on the dead load. This difference
temperature coefficient of expansion is ei. JC the shape coefficient (in will take place with live load over a part of the span or even with full or
the shear-energy expression). For the case of common arches and loads, partial live load over the entire span. Many designers overlook the fact
that uniform live load over the full span has the effect of producing a
more closely parabolic p~ure line than does dead load alone.
The AASHTO specifications state that the lever rule may be used for
the distribution of gravity loads in trusses and arches when analyzed
as planar structures. If a space analysis is used, either the lever rule or
direct loading through the deck or deck system may be used.
Arch ribs are most generally of variable thickness, increasing in depth
from the crown to the springing. A rough estimate is to relate this varia-
tion to the secant of the angle of inclination of the arch axis to the hori-
zontal. The assumption that moments of inertia differ directly as the
secant of the angle is suitable mainly for developing simple approximate
formulas. It has been found that results are comparatively insensitive to
moderate deviations from this assumption.
Xb
2.10.3 Approximations for Sped•I Shapes
Flguni 2.38 Fixed-ended-arch redundant The following estimates are valid to all constructional (elastic) materials.
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 95
THREE-HINGED ARCH
P=1
The influence line for the horizontal reaction H. = H~ is shown in
Fig. 2.39.
SYMMETllICAL Two-HINGED ARCH
For a parabolic or flat circular shape (f/L ~ 118) with the difference in
moment of inertia given by I= Ic sec cjl, where Ic is the moment of inertia
at the crown and cjl the inclination of the tangent with the horizontal
(Fig. 2.40). the influence line for the horizontal reaction is given by i
'------Li
(2.73) i
i
where
Flgul'9 2.40 Symmetrical two-hinged arch.
1
v=-~--
2
l+ l: Ic1AJ
The parameter v represents the effect of rib shortening as a result of The semicubic parabola is also a practical estimate for H for the two-
axial forces and can be ignored, excluding very flat arches (for arches hinged spandrel-braced arch.
with f/L =1/7 to 1/9, v =0.98). At midspan, k =O.S, so Hmu =0.19SvUf. For a uniform temperature change t",
The above formula may be further approached by a parabolic influ-
ence line H = £,toEI, (2.76)
H 3Lk(l-k)v !.12 +I,IA.
15
(2.74a)
4f
or, if the normal forces, represented by the term I/A,, are neglected,
with Hma = 3Lvl16f. For full-span uniform load w, 15
H- izt0 El£._ (2.77)
wL2v
- 8 t 12
H=- (2.74b)
8f SYMMETRICAL 'fIRD A!lCH
The formula can also be estimated by a semicubic parabola with For a parabolic or flat circular shape (f/L :!> 1:8) with I= I, sec cjl, the
central ordinate Hmo: = 0.20vUf. the equation of which is influence line for H is given by Eq. (2.7), except that the parameter v
is substituted by
f4-------1----L------~ H=Ha=Hb=kl:z/f
11 __,-----12 Va= 1 - k + He I L
Vb = k- He I L
t
Va
~ H influence line
o~o
For a uniform temperature rise t" of both arch and tie, H = 0. If, For full-span uniform vertical load w per unit length of span,
however, the tie is warmed to t" and the arch to t" + lit", then
(2.79)
p =1
i
i
(c) Influence line for MA
~~Hl
acterizea the variation of the cross section of the rib (Fig. 2.42). These
H~f I MF= lw l2:
"2 H : lwl parameter•, together with the 1pan rise and thickness or moment of
F L MFH
V V =0.5wl
MF, V1 L V2 MF2 V = lwl inertia of the rib at the crown, totally c~ the rib and iu reactiona
under live load and temperature change.
ffL M, H Mn Mn H1 Ha VI' Va In design, the value of g = w/w, is calculated first. In comidering a
0.10 0.001230 1.25&4 0.001831 0.000689 0.07857 0.()2143 0.002480 design that ii already completed, the value of N is ca1culaied llraight
from the ordinatu of the rib uis, after whlchg ii computed from
0.12 0.001680 1.0507 0.002647 0.000994 0.09433 O.o2567 0.003559
g=i(~-2J-1
0.14 0.00224 0.9027 0.0035911 0.001377 0.10990 0.1131110 0.004825
0.16 0.002898 0.7924 0.004709 0.001817 0.12556 0.113444 O.OOU74 (2.91)
0.18 0.003659 0.1069 0.005981 0.002320 0.14125 O.o3875 0.007899
0.2<) 0.0000 0.6388 0.001404 0.002900 0.15689 0.0011 0.009696 Shrinkage effects can generally be calculated as equivalent to a I 5°C
temperature drop.
0.22 0.005439 0.5833 0.0089119 0.003551 0.17254 O.D4746 0.011660
The horizontal. thrun due to rib shortening under dead load is typi-
0.24 0.006452 0.5372 0.010734 0.004282 0.18817 0.05183 0.013784 cally tOund distinctly in terms of the horizontal. thrust due to dead load:
0.26 0.001549 0.4983 0.012643 0.005094 0.20378 0.()5622 0.016062
o.28 0.008725 0.4652 0.01471!1 0.005994 0.21938 O.o6062 0.018488 H --H _ _
I<_ (292)
BS - 'li,C',,,C/1 .
0.30 0.0099111 0.4366 0.0111'63 ll.006983 o.2?.496 0.116504 0.021054
0.32 0.011315 0.4177 0.019380 D.008065 0.25053 0.0$!7 0.023755 where HJ& = horuontal thrust due to rib .hortening under dead load
H4 = horizontal thrust under dead load
0.34 0.012726 0.3898 0.0219'12 0.009245 0.26609 O.D7391 0.026583
A, = area of cross lledion at crown
0.36 0.014213 0.3705 0.024740 0.010527 o.28163 0.07837 0.029533 C = coeflicient from '1111.ble 2.8
'Fnnn Rrl 11. C:,,, = coefficient from Fig. 2.43
98 CHAPTER TWO
x=kl
~Symm.
U4
-
:vt Tsl ~s______ U2
t-....
w. Wx
m
1-(1-m)2x/L
Table .z.a Perameter C for Rib Shortening• 2.10.5 Approxlm.tlon1 of Whitney o.t.
where f is the vertical distance between the elastic center and the point k 1 2
MaxM =±-w1L (2.95)
about which moments are considered. < 225
section at rown
1.20
1.15
,E
0 1.10
'5
II>
::I
iii
>
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Valueofm
Figure 2.43 Parameter C'., fur rib short<:ning. (From Ref. 3.)
100 CHAPTER TWO
~
ments, effects of volume changes (shrinkage, temperature effects, and
L
Max.+M
VN L -----
Max.-M
plastic flow), and arch deflection.15 Because of the nonlinear relation
between loads and deflection, the committee preferred a fundamentally
ultimate-strength method of design. This has been implemented in the
AASHTO specifications.
The first step of the proposed design procedure involves determining
Crown moments and thrusts in the rib for each of the stated loading condi-
I tions, assuming the rib to perform as an elastic member and ignoring
vn
- IL - i the influence of deflections on moments. This agrees with the standard
methods of elastic analysis.
The second step includes the calculation of the deformation of the
arch rib by standard elastic methods, giving the angular rotations and
deflections at all points of the rib. Secondary moments are obtained and
L---- deflections and rotations calculated again. The procedure is repeated to
Max.-M convergence. The effect of horizontal deflections may also be consid-
Left springing ered but can be ignored for arches that have a rise-to-span ratio that is
I I less than 1:5.
Values of modulus of elasticity of 2,000,000 psi are proposed for
vn
- iL - i ----+---
'
6.L - -
8 determination of deflection moments and 4,000,000 psi for stabil-
~
ity volumetric changes. It is also suggested that standard ultimate-
strength design procedures for combined axial and bending thrust be
used in the proportioning and design of concrete-arch ribs.
L--~
The plasticity of concrete subjected to high stresses or stresses of
L
Max.+M Max.-M long duration similarly results in redistribution of moment between
sections. Plastic flow of concrete is fast in the initial stages but slows
Left 1/4 point with time. It causes a reduction in the stresses in the concrete and an
increase in the stress in the reinforcement. It is preferable to decenter
Figure 2A4 Approximate uniform live-load positioning for mamnum arches as soon as possible if sufficient reinforcing is provided to avoid
momenta. overstress in the steel.
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 101
The 1932 and 1940 reports of ACI Committee 312 constitute sig- 2.11.2 Concrete Rigid-Frame Brldgn
nificant data from which possible effects of shrinkage, temperature The following proportions are reco=ended17 for frames of the type
change, and plastic flow can be assessed. While shrinkage, tempera- shown in Fig. 2.33:
ture, and abutment-movement stresses are relieved by cracking of 1. Thickness at center of span (B-B) equal to about L/35. However,
the ribs and plastic flow, deformation stresses are amplified. Records this value can be reduced to L/40 when the frame is founded on a practi-
confirm that cracking and plastic flow have caused failure months cally unyielding foundation; it must be increased where the footings rest
after decentering. To avoid this, ribs must be balanced to control on extremely compressible soils.
initial volumetric and displacement stresses, and adequate steel 2. Thickness at A-A equal to about L/15.
must be provided to avoid extreme flow under long time periods. 3. Thickness at base (C-C) equal to around 1 ft 6 in. for 30-ft spans,
A minimum of 1 percent reinforcement is required in the AASHTO 2 ft 6 in. for 60-ft spans, and 3 ft 4 in. for 90-ft spans.
specifications.
2.11.3 Design
By drawing the deflected shape of the structure under certain combina-
2.11 DESIGN OF FRAMES tions of load, one can roughly locate the inflection points, which make
the structure statically determinate. The section near the center of span
2.11.1 Steel Frames would be governed by
For buildings constructed of single-span rigid frames, the following will • dead plus live plus impact,
typically deliver good economy for average roofloads16: • the same combination plus shrinkage plus temperature change, and
• the total of all these plus spread of the footings (often specified or
otherwise arbitrarily assumed as 1/2 in.). The knee section would be
Span, ft Frame spacing, ft governed by dead plus live plus impact plus active lateral earth pressure
on the legs or by this combination plus rise in temperature.
3()-4() 16
40-60 18 BXAMPLB
___l_
-
~
~ 8' - - 12' ---l
I
<"!
0
0.2 L
D·~L 0
p
II G
I
A D
H
On1L
will satisfy the requirements. The AISC specification will be followed.
llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
The dimensions of the frame are presented in Fig. 2.52. The bases are
0.13L 0.13L assumed to be hinged.
Loads and load combinations:
1. Dead load D:
Roofing = 4 psf
Insulation =3
--L-- --L--
U4 U2 U4 U4 U2 U4
Metal deck =2
on~
Purlins =4
52 7
0.017 x · x 20 = 0.36 kip/ft of frame
50
-L- -L- Frame=0.10
D = 0.46 kip/ft
~n.10L
;,23L
0.10L< !£ .!!._ = 0.6~ = 0.228
n
K=
11 m 52.7
Q= [_ = 16.67 = 0.833
5!! ~
h 20
c:i c:i
For uniform vertical load w, Fig. 2.47 results in
--L-- -L-
0.50L 0.50L
For horizontal loads, Fig. 2.48 results in
0 1.5
0
~1.0t--~~+--~~-t-'l:--''<-....P..:--~-+'~""""'~,........,,,.....=+~~--+~~--1~~~1--~~+-~~+-l
:>
~
0.51--~~-+-~~--t~-+.,,-+v~----"~~~~1--~,-.....d-'"'""""'"~~--=--==-~c--~-+~~---11--~~~
0
0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.055 0.060 0.065 0.070 0.075 0.080 0.085
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
0 ~ ~
It)
~ li ....0 f5 0 1.5
0
VI
1.5 ..... ....
II II
.....
II
~
.....
II
ra
...,
II
ra
...
II -
II
.....
II
0
VI
Cl>
:>
1.0
CU CU
'° CU CU
'° Cl>
:>
1.0
~ ~
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
C:z for concentrated vertical load on span ~ for vertical load on bracket. Solid lines for K=3 with varying
values of b, dotted line for K= 0 ell values of b
Figure 2A7 Horizontal reactions for ridge and rectangular frames, hinged bases. (Courte5y af American Instiiute afSteel Qmstn1ction.)
Ld
_L_ =
At
263 < 500
76b
-yF,
J
= 114 <L1 Ii,= 24 ksi
At bottom of column:
Column
f.• =~=l.
29.1 82 ksi "
Jb=~
417Xl2
01.51-----lf+-~!---+--+--+-rl'Y~""-+--+---+--+-i
'O
Ill
GI
::I
~1.0t-----11---1-+-ii--+--+..,.¥-+---+---+--+---+---t-i
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
C4 for uniform load against roof Ce for uniform load against total height
C5 for uniform load against roof
2.5
2.0
~
GI
::I
~1.0 t-----+--+<--.......-"<+----"~+""'~_,..---+-----11----+---+----l ~ 1.0
0.5
0 0
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
C, for concentrated load P on side C8 for concentrated load P on side
Figure 2.48 Horizontal reactions for ridge and rectangular frame., hinged bues. (Courtesy ofAmerU:an Institute ofStul Conmuction.)
Final Analysis Check assumed sections: Unbraced length, L = 6.0 - 1.77 = 4.23 ft= 51 in.
2
!J,_= 2364"3 =0.594=0.6 AISCformula (Fl-6): rff = b A
f 7.52
11 3988.6 12 A!+ A.,,16
Haunch design (Fig. 2.53): Try haunch makeup: L 102,000Cb
r1 =2.74 -=18.6< 1--~
r F1
2 flange plates 10Yi x 1){6 14.45 5550 1
N=+53 kips At section bf, the haunch is checked correspondingly and found to be
V=29.7kips satisfactory <fb = 17.7 ksi).
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 105
01.0f---~~+-~----"~~~cl"'~""'-'~.?-""'='""-+~~--+~~---1f---~~+-~~+-~~+-~~-+-j
0
en
CD
::::I
~ 0.5f---~~+-~~--t~~t-«--~7-"~~,--~~""'2-...:::~.F-~-..2"'t-.:::--~+-~~-+~~~t-~~-+-j
0
0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050 0.055 0.060 0.065 0.070 0.075 0.080 0.085
C, for uniform vertical load on span
2.5
2.0
a 1.5 ~ ....
0
....
It)
~ ~
0
'<I" 15 ~ 1.5t--~i--'.--.o----.~~~+-~+-~+-~+-~+-~+---t
0 c 0 0 p c 0 0
0 II JI II II II II II II
en
CD
::::I
1.0
al 111 ra ta ta !It al ta
~
~ 1.0
~
0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.7
C:i for concentrated vertical load on span C:i for vertical load on bracket. Solid lines for l<z= 1.5 with varying
values of b, dotted line for l<z= 0 all values of b
Figure 2.49 Horizontal reactions fur parabollc and rectangular frames, binged bases. (Courtay of American Instituto uf Stet/ Cmutruction.)
For the diagonal stiffener required at b, the resultant of the flange joints. The corrections are done by applying unit horizontal displace-
loads in rafter and column is 117 kips: ments consecutively at each joint and writing simultaneous equations
A,= 117/22 = 5.3 in.2; use two plates 5 x 9/16.
equal in number to the total of such joints having horizontal freedom of
movement. This is done in order to balance the horizontal thrusts. The
simultaneous-equation approach is particularly adaptable to cases with
2.11 .4 An;hlld Bents; Cantlnuaus Arches an several difTurent loading conditions, the benefit of which is not com-
El•stlc Piers mon for other differences of this procedure and which may even offer
Arches integral with and resting on relatively flexible columns are used difficulties in convergence.
in both bridge and building work. They are co=only found in build- The main difference in working with curved members is that flex-
ings with thin-barrel concrete-shell roofs, where the arches perform as ural stiffness, fixed-end moments, and moment carryover factors are
single or continuous end or intermediate frames to take the loads of the changed. However, there exist fixed-end thrusts due to loads, a thrust
roof shell. Building arches are usually made with constant-section mem- produced by an applied moment at one end when the far end is free to
bers of regular geometric shape, while bridge arches may be of variable rotate, and a moment produced by horizontal displacement when there
section and shape. Tabular solutions for circular arched bents and gable is no end rotation. The following summarizes the use of the column
bents are available.21.22 analogy for obtaining these bask 'onstants.
Arched frames can be analyzed using the general method of virtual From Fig. 2.55 and the formulaf=P/A +M%y,II% + lo/'JI,
work. Single-span frames are most simply done using the column
analogy. However, in continuous arched frames, numerical procedures, 1 Y2 x2
such as those including slope deflection or moment distribution, are K = moment stiffness = f. = - + L£.. + ::£.. {2.101)
• A 1% 11
more common. The moment-distribution procedure is described
mainly because it is similar to that used for multistory rectangular bents, 1 ,,2 x2
in which fixed-end moments are distributed while joints translation is CK= 'arryover moment= J~ = - + L£.. - -L (2.102)
prevented and corrections are done for the actual displacement of the A I% I1
106 CHAPTER TWO
2.0
a
'O 1.5
Ill:JI
~ 1.0
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 O.B 0.9 1.0
C4 for uniform load against roof ~ for uniform load against total height
C5 for uniform load against side
2.0
1.5 1.5
a a
0
0 10 1.0
:ll . :ll
:JJ
~ ~
0.5 0.5
0
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
C, for concentrated load P on side C8 for concentrated load P on side
Figure 2.50 Horirontal reactions for parabolic and rectangular frames, hinged bases. (Courtl!J}' efAmerican Institute efStttl. Construdion.)
rl~rl~rl~rl
I II III IV v
(D+S) (D +Dr) (D+ 1/2S+W) (D + Dr+W) (D + S +1/2 W)
....
ID A'
8.43•
Lor \
N
II
A E _l_
L=100'-0"
nible 2,9 Moments, Axl•I Forces, •nd Sh..rs for Fr•m• of Rg. 2.52
c
~
A 1 B 2 3
g R H M." N' v M N v M N v M N v M N v
D 23.0 12.9 -181 23.0 12.9 -258 23.0 12.9 -123 18.4 14,2 +121 13.5 0.6 + 102 12.3 4,1
s 30.0 16.8 -236 30.0 16.8 -336 30.0 16.8 -160 24.0 18.5 +158 17.6 0.8 +133 16.0 5.3
Dr (on right half) 7.5 8.4 -118 7.5 8.4 -168 7.5 8.4 -130 10.4 4.4 +29 10.4 4.4 +67 10.4 4.4
Dr (on left half) 22.5 8.4 -118 22.5 8.4 -168 22.5 8.4 -29 13.l 12.6 +130 7.1 -5.3 +67 5.6 ~.8
W (on right side) 2.7 4.5 ~ 2.7 4.5 ~o 2.7 4 .5 --80 5.2 1.2 -40 5.2 1.2 -30 5.2 1.2
W (on left aide) -2.7 -10.2 +104 -2.7 -4.6 +124 -2.7 -2.2 +106 -1.9 -2.3 +3 2.3 -3.7 -30 3.4 4.0
D+S .. ... ... ... 417 53.0 29.7 -594 53.0 29.7 -283 42.4 32.7 +279 31.1 1.4 +235 28.3 9.4
*Moments in lt.-kip1.
'N in kips; negative sign denoteo tension.
e
\
i
0
ui i
i
lt----i 40" --ii'-*"!
NOTE: Provide lateral supports at points a,
i b, and c.
i
i
!
_l ~ ,_5_94_~_K2_l_K_- - 4 be
0
ai
29.7K t~
Figure 2.55 Analogous column loaded to calculate moment stiffness and carryover.
110 CHAPTERTWO
w = 0.8 k/fl
'''''''''''''''''''
eo All units in feet and kips. Positive moments rotate the joint
r------+---',__~- clockwise. Thrusts to right are positive.
K=4EllL=0.160EI
~ C=+0.5
f/L = 0.20
ct-30'-j~ ~ = 0.004507x0.8x302 = 3.245
~ = 0.6388x0.8x30= 15.33
Forces preventing sidesway \ K =7.80 El/30 =0.260 El
0.312 r 0.688 O.F. \
C= --0.357
Kiynvn • 0.260 El (1+0.357) • 0.353 El
Mn = 3.14/30 = 0.105
Mi= 33.17E11302= 0.0369 EI
0 -3.245
+1.012 +2.233
+1.012 -1 .012
"'
Bal. M
M ----
+3.245
+1.012 -1 .012
+0.506 -0.506
ThrustaatA atB
+15.33 -15.33=HP
-0.47 + 0.47 =in udiea due to rotation= 3.245 -1.012 = 2.33 reduction
x 2enda
4.466
x 0.105 =H;,
0.47
+0.06 - 0.06 =in columm due to rotation (1.012 + 0.506)/25 = 0.06
+14.92 -14.92 =total tbtuat preventing llldeaway
$1RUCTURALANALY$1$ 111
- 9.600 36.900
(from'->
- 36.900 +9.600
Apply horiz. 6 ~A }
ll. = 1 at B
Can be done simultaneously
because of symmetry
(from lit,)
-+
+36.900 -36.900
Transnational stiffness
- 20.030 -44.170
Cols: 6EI~ 6E11
-29.630 +29.630 -29.630 +29.630 --
L2
= ---
25 2
= 0 .0096 El
Thrusts at A at B Jc=3.96
-18M +18.64 = tbrut due to ratation, 73.800/3.96=18M
+9.28 - 9.28=inarcheulue to rotation 29.630- 73.800=-4U70recluction
lends
88.340
0.105=H;,
9.28
-1.97 + 1.97=in ~ummduc to rotation (29.630+ 19.615)/25=137
-11.33 +lU3=totalthru&tatAandB
Tllble 2.11 Y•lues of Pfor Budding of P•111bollc Arch_.. Contemporary methods to skew-barrel analysis assess the effects
of skew separately as a kind of secondary stress. In this analysis, the
JIL 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Source ordinary stresses, T"' r,. M., for the rectangular structure of the same
3-hlnged I= comt. 29.8 28.5 24.9 20.2 15.4 ... Stuessi span and the same elastic and geometric properties are used aa principal
(19.8) (13.6) stresses. The skew stresses (T., M"' M1 ) are then calculated by simple
estimates based on several theoretical and experimental investigations.
l=I, aec~ 29.7 29.4 27.7 25.3 22.6 19.8 Dischinger
Such methods of analysis already have been developed.32,33
(25.l) (19.4) (15.0)
2-hlnged I= comt. 39.4 35.6 28.4 19.4 13.7 9.6 Locksclrln
2.13 CONSTRUCTION AND DETAILS
l=I,aec~ 39.4 37.2 31.6 25.l 19.4 15.0 Dischinger
2.13.1 Cancretl! Arches •nd F111mes
Fixed I= comt. 80.8 75.8 63.1 47.9 34.8 ... Stue11i
RJ!II(FOR.CRMl!NT
I= I, sec~ 80.8 78.4 70.8 61.l 51.l 41.8 Dischinger
The reinforcement of arch rib and rigid frame is typically provided
in the form of parallel intradosal and extradosal bars, with some
transverse distribution and temperature reinforcement in the case
of barrel arches, stirrups as spacing hoops, and for shear reinforce-
ment whenever needed. Fabricated structural-steel sections, such as
2.12.4 L8te111lly LNdecl Arches •nd F111mes plates, channels, or single or paired angles, can also be used aa top
Laterally loaded arches and frames (Le., subjected to wind and bottom longitudinal reinforcement. Such reinforcement may be
and/or earthquake) can be analyzed by the general method discussed in tied together with latticing or battens to form a truss. For stability
Article 2.9.4 [Eq. (2.70) ], 'onsidering the effe't of torsion on the sections. purposes, such trusses can be made as three-hinged arches between
Self-supporting ribs without bracing are fairly un'ommon. This is because abutments with transverse bracing. Rarely, the trusses are built suit-
it is expected in bridge work to tie the ribs by lateral struts. Such struts can ably stiff and strong to support the arch forms and the wet concrete
vary in flexural and torsional stiffness from very flexible elements that without the need for centering.
signifkantly divide the load alike between ribs to very stiffstruts that alter
FALSl!WOR.K OR. C!!NTl!R.ING
the no system into a Vierendeel truss £xed at the abutments.
1he analysis of such laterally loaded systems is very 'ompli'9.ted. Two common methods of supporting the arch rib or barrel during
A numeriw approach proposed by Baron and Michalos30 offers an placing of concrete are pipe scaffolding and timber or steel-trussed
arranged and systemati' ~ulation. Michalos31 also provides influen,e- centering. 1he reuse of centering for various sections or ribs, bridges, or
line data for laterally loaded parabolk arches as a fun'tion of the ratios building roofs is enabled by dismantling or movement on rails or skids
of rise to span and of bending to torsional stiffness. The availability of or by crane. Centering baa to be designed carefully to allow for camber,
such data is satisfactory for designing normal arches estimating a para- shrinkage, and settlement of the centering. Release or striking of the
boli' shape and for the initial design oflong-span arches. centering has to take place only after the concrete has reached its design
strength. Release is achieved using wedges, jacks, or other devices allow-
2.12.5 Skewed e.rrel Arches .nd ing a controlled sequence of operations. Usually in such an operation,
Rigid-Frame Slabs the crown is released first, then the haunches concurrently on each side.
A fixed, right barrel arch or rigid-frame slab, analyzed as a plane
SEQUl!NCI! OF PLACllllG CONClll!TI!
stru'ture of unit width, is an example of a three degrees statically
indeterminate structure. On the other hand, the corresponding skewed To reduce shrinkage stresses, concrete arches are poured in different
structure comprises a space structure of six degrees redundancy, having lateral sections, preferably with small keyways between the sections
three unknown internal moments and three unknown internal thrusts where the keyways being placed last. Also, the arrangement should
at any cut section in the arch (Fig. 2.56). A skewed two-hinged barrel consider deflections of the arch centering, with the abutment sections
arch baa four redundants. For extreme skews, multiple spana, or long preferably placed last. Other sections have to be placed symmetrically
spans, shearing stresses due to torsion become significant. While solu- with respect to the center of the bridge span. In the case of wide barrel
tion using the virtual-work method is totally feasible, substantial dif- arches that require a longitudinal joint, to avoid relative settlements,
ficulty is experienced because of the torsional moments. the sections on each side of such joint should be poured on indepen-
dent centering.
Concreting of rigid frames is typically done in the order: footings,
legs. and dedt. Proper shear keys are placed between consecutive pours
y of the mentioned elements. In low frames with heavy legs or in continu-
ous frames where shrinkage and temperature stresses are important, the
Ty
deck can be poured with a shrinkage keyway in the spans. This keyway is
filled with concrete after the main shrinkage in the deck has taken place.
ExPANSION JOINTS
1he handrails, deck, spandrel walls, and other elements that may
contribute to the longitudinal action of the arch have to be provided
with expansion joints. Joints at crown and springing are acceptable
for spans to about 70 R, but for longer spans, five or more joints have
Figure 2.56 Skewed barrel a.tch. to be used.
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 113
DECK PARTICIPATION
In the case of spandrel walls and the deck near the crown, an interac-
tion of the rib with the superstructure occurs, which stiffens the rib of
a spandrel-filled arch. Alternatively, the interaction tends to convert
the arc:h into a Vierendeel truss in the case of an open-spandrel system
having stiff columns near the crown. In practice, there is a tendency to
deal with participation stresses as secondary effects and not to account Joint filler
for them to contribute to the carrying capacity of the rib. Consequently,
measure8 suc:h as jointing, mentioned previously, have to be taken to
avoid interaction; otherwise, objectionable cracking may happen. Also,
it is possible to form the superstructure after striking the arch centering;
nonetheless, this will eliminate the participation only with respect to
dead load. In longer spans, with columns oflesser stiffness, the interac- Figure 2.58 Typical dctall. ofhinged bue for concrete rigid frame. (Court..y af
tion can be reduced. Commonly, control joints are located at ends of Portland Cement Association.)
spandrel columns to produce articulation without spoiling the appear-
ance, but some measures have to be talren in order to carry traction
forces of the deck.
Details and charts for design of both types of hinges are presented in
'fEMPOILUl.Y AND PERMANENT HINGES Ref. 34.
DilTurent devices can be used to recompense for the stresses produced by As desired, stress recompense can be affected by a system of insert-
the displacement of the pressure line as a result of rib shrinkage, drop in ing hydraulic jacks at the crown in a temporary gap to adjust the line
temperature, shortening. and foundation settlements. The use of tempo- of pressure before concreting the gap (Ref. 35). Other means of recom-
rary hinges at crown and abutments is most popular on long-span con- pense used by Freyssinet35 induce residual stresses by casting the arc:h
crete arches, mostly with low rise-to-span ratios. This is done to form a rib in layers.
three-hinged arch under dead load so that on removal of centering. there The details of a hinged base for a concrete rigid frame are shown in
is no displacement of the pressure line due to rib shortening. Simultane- Fig. 2.58.
ously, by placing the hinges with cakulated eccentricities, the effects of FOUNDATIONS
temperature drop and shrinkage can be countered by stresses of opposite
sign induced in the rib. All these produce considerable economies. The importance ofstable, rigid foundations for arches is very significant.
All hinges are sequentially concreted solid so that under live load, the Factors to be considered include protection against erosion and scour,
structure acts as a hingeless arch. Hinges can be made out of concrete, proper anchorage of reinforcement, vertical and lateral stability of bear-
using the Mesnager or Considere designs (Fig. 2.57), or they can be made ing foundations and pile foundations, and proper design of hinges.
of cast steel similar to standard hinges for steel bridges. However, using 2.1 J.2 Steel An:hes •nd Rigid Fr•mes
steel will be at a considerable increase in cost over concrete hinges. The
KN.BES
Mesnager hinge is typically designed with hinge opening h equal to or
somewhat greater than the vertical thickness t. Hinge bars are limited to Elementary beam-flexure theory cannot be used to analyze the knee
an Ur of about 20 to 40 based on the inclined length between faces of of a rigid franie. Extenaive experimental studies have been conducted
concrete. The two inclined hinge bars are designed to take, as a truss, the both on full-scale steel knees and by models photo-elastic analyses.
normal and shear forces from the rib acting at their intersection, with Figu:res 2.59 and 2.60 illustrate stressea in tests of an actual structure and
areas selected so that it does not exceed 30 percent ofthe steel yield stress. specify the shift of the neutral am toward the inside corner.~
Also, lateral stirrups and ties have to be provided to resist the tendency Analysis of rigid-frame steel knees can be carried out by estimate
of the concrete to burst Additionally, they have to be fully developed at approac:hea given by Bleich37 and by Olander.38 Olander's formulas,
a distance of 8 bar diameters from the face. Mesnager hinges should not based on the developed cross sections shown by the circular arcs, esti-
be used for high shear-to-thrust ratios, and limits of V/H of 0.024, 0.195, mated the stresses fairly closely (Fig. 2.61).
and 1.0 have been suggested for angles 0= 15°, 30°, and 45°, respectively.
WIND BRACING
The Considere hinge is a short section of spiral column where its
diniension results in a resistance to rotation that is small relative to that To achieve lateral stability in bridges. wind bracing has to be placed
of the main connecting members. Considere hinges are designed first between the nm. In order to form with longer spans a curved Vierendeel
to find the percentage of longitudinal/spiral steel from spiral-column truss capable of resisting the lateral forces. bracing typically consists of
formulas and then to limit the deformation in the extreme fibers at struts rigidly connected to the ribs. Another alternative is to use a truss
maximum rotation to an allowable percentage of the ultimate value. of diagonals and struts between the ribs or of crossed diagonals alone.
H
lr~[lil~ffll
~II j(ffl~ TH m~
1111111111 II II 111111 111111
-
•
HI-II-
u :Wf~11=r-
!! 1111 -
+~+H-fil----
:lJ:4 11
=dldldbdbdblld~ .n . ~dbdbdbdld.b
11 II II
dJdbdl::
I II
~dbdb:=
I
y- ~~
(a) (b)
0 10 20 30
Stress in kips
per sq in
in flange angles
of angles
Stress on
10 20 30
Slruoln klpoparoq ~
Po
ra
rP l-
_ ___.__
I ~: ~~~ent of inertia
'C-c.g.
b
SectionA-B
(Developed)
(b)
1 O 1 2 3 4 5.0 psi Or
II I I I I I I
45° 30° 15°
0.0 5.0 psi
I I I I I I
't19
1" 0 1" 2"
Scale of dimensions
IA (,,) I '
U! 0 ~
4.83" - - -
• • I
.......
.......
....
""
" "'- I
----~ "
Q) Q)
Cl [])
.
in :::!: ~ .,....
C') .,.... ::!!::
0
"C
Q)
Q)
"C
.
in ~ ~
.,....
"C
Q)
Q)
"C
.... C') N .,.... 0 "ii5
..5
.... C') N ......
"ii5
..5
C') N .,.... C') N ......
'trf! ar
Section A-8
111 arch brldga of the Langer-girder type, the Vlerendeel type or REFERENCES
truM with heny owrhead 1*ral bncing ii U111ppeallng. The effective 1. Timoah.enko, S. P., and D. H. Yowig. Tlltory uf Sfrll(twret, 2d ed.
me of the arches to brac.e them1elft1, aa employal in the 250-ft-spm
New Yolk: McGrsw-Hlll. 1965.
Rio Blanco Bridge (Fip. 2.62 and 2.63) and in the 815-ft tpan of the
2. Langhaai:. H. L. Energy Metltods ;n Applied Mechanics.
Fehrmarmund Bridge on the Intematioml Highway Route between
New York: John Wiley 8r Sona, 1962..
Gcmwiy and Dmmark. demonstrates the l1ghtnc# that such latenl
3. Nonil, C. H ., J. B. Wilbur, and S. Utb. BlementAI}' Structvral
~ C111 take. The Rio Blanc;o bridge if c;ompmed basically of two
Alull]m, 3d ed. New York: McGl"IW-Hlll. 19'76.
lie girden and two bcm-type steel arch ribs, open on the und.emde.
4. West. H. H. Arudyris cifStnu:tvm, 2d ed. New York: John Wiley &
with 30 wire-rope hangen. A reinforced-concrete alab on a gridworlc of
Sona, 1989.
diagonal 11.oor beum .II wed for the floor. The framework was manufac:- 5. Pnemieniec1i, J. S. Tlllory of Matrix Structural Analy.W.
tured in teaion• and 6eld-wdded on timber &bework. The bridge has New York: Mc:Graw-Hlll. 1968.
three traffic lane. and two walb.
6. Cook. R. D. Pini~ Element Moddingfar Streu Ana~. New York:
2.1:1.1 Emnamla John Wiley 8r Som, 1995
7. Zienklewia. 0 . C., and R. L. 'Ill.yior. TM Phlite Bltment Method.
Co•ts of arch« and rl.gld frame• are regularly govmied by pl'l&d:lcal Vol. 1, BaJlt Formulation and Linear Problems. New York: McGraw-Hill.
and functional factors rather than tboae af atructW'al. efficiency. For
1989.
instance, costs of Jong-span arch bridge.I may be dictated by the econ-
8. Lightfoot, E. MOl!Ullt Distrihutian. London: E. &: F. M. Spon Ltd.,
omy and reulbllity of the large fllsework requirements. 1961.
9. McGuire, w., and R. H . Gallagher. Matrix Structural Alull]m.
New York: John Wiley 1r Sona, 1979.
10. Holr.er. S. M. CcnlpWI" Analysis ufSmallmS. New York: Ebevicr,
1985.
11. Benjamin, J. R. Statltolly buletmni1Ulte Strui:tures. New York:
McG1"1W-HlD, 1959.
12. De1ign co.nltantl for circular end elliptical arches o( variable
thidme11, Adv. &g; BWl. (I), Pmtland Cement Aaloc., Chicago, 1963.
13. Cross, H ., and N. D. Morgan. ContimuJus Prama cif Rtiltforted
Conmu. New York: John Wiley 8r So111, 1932.
14. Whitney, C. S. AndylJ.e of Ull.l)'11lllletrical concrete arches. Tl'llllS.
ASCB (99) 12611, 1934.
15. Whitney, C. S. Plain and rdDforced concrete arches, Report af
Committee 312, /. ACI (47), 681, May 1951; (31), I, Septembe.r 19~;
(28), 479, March 1932.
16. Kum, M. P. Steel Rigid Pramu Min11al-Dt:sign on4 Cmulnldion.
Figure JM Dctailli of Rio llJaJlQ) Bridge. Ann Arbor, Mlch.: J. W. Bdwards, 1953.
STRUCTURALANALYSIS 117
17. Analysis of Rigid Frame Concrete Bridges. Chicago: Portland 28. Freyssinet, E. Three monumental bridges built in Venezuela, Civil
Cement Association. Eng., March 1953, 157.
18. Steel Gables and Arches. Chicago: American Institute of Steel 29. Wastlund, G. Stability problems of compressed steel members
Construction, 1963. and arch bridges, Proc. ASCE (86), ST6, 47, June 1960.
19. Griffiths, J. D. Single Span Rigid Frames in Steel. Chicago: 30. Baron, F., and J. P. Michalos. Laterally loaded plane structures and
American Institute of Steel Construction, 1948. structures curved in space, 'ITans. ASCE (117) 279, 1952.
20. Kleinlogel, A. Rahmenformeln. Berlin: Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, 31. Michalos, J. Effects of lateral loads on arches, f. ACI (47) 377,
KG, 1943. 1951.
21. Design constants for circular arch bents, Adv. Eng. BuU. (7), 32. Barron, M. Reinforced concrete skewed rigid-frame and arch
Portland Cement Assoc., Chicago, 1963. bridges, '.ITans. ASCE (116) 999, 1951.
22. Design constants for continuous gable frames, Adv. Eng. BuU. 33. Michalos, J. Analysis of skewed rigid frames and arches, f. ACI
(15), Portland Cement Assoc., Chicago, 1965. (48) 437, 1952.
23. Rowe, R. S. Amplification of stress in flexible steel arches, '.ITans. 34. Ernst, G. C. Design of hinges and articulations in reinforced
ASCE (119), 910, 1954. concrete structures, 'ITans. ASCE (106) 862, 1941.
24. Asplund, S. 0. Deflection theory of arches, 'ITans. ASCE (128), 35. Freyssinet, E. Three monumental bridges built in Venezuela, Civil
307, 1963. Eng., March 1953, 157.
25. Freudenthal, A. Deflection theory for arches, Int. Assoc. Bridge 36. Lyse, I., and W. E. Black. An investigation of steel rigid frames,
Struct. Eng. Mem. (3), 100, 1935. 'ITans. ASCE (107) 127, 1942.
26. Garrelts, J. M. Design of St. Georges tied arch span, '.ITans. ASCE 37. Bleich, F. Design of Rigid Frame Knees. Chicago: American
(108), 543, 1943. Institute of Steel Construction, 1959.
27. Hardesty, S., and J. M. Garrelts. Rainbow Arch Bridge over 38. Olander, H. C. Stresses in the corners of rigid frames, 'ITans.
Niagara Gorge: design, 'ITans. ASCE (110), 6, 1945. ASCE (119) 797, 1954.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 3
The Finite-Element Method
BY
CRAIG D. FOSTER, Ph.D. Department of Ci'Vil Engineering, Uni'Versity ofIllinois at Chicago
of
SHENG-WEI CHI, Ph.D. Department of CMI Engineering, University nlinois at Chicago
3.1 OVERVIEW OF THEORY OF FINITE-ELEMENT functions, known as shape functions, to determine the entire displace-
ANALYSIS ment field. Typically, the element geometry is mapped to a standard
The finite-element method is, at its most essential, a numerical tech- shape in a so-called parent domain, or set of natural coordinates, as
nique for solving differential equations. The method works particularly shown in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. In this parent domain, the shape functions
well for even-ordered differential equations, including those for solid are easy to define, usually with simple low-order polynomials. The
mechanics analysis (second order) and beam, plates, and shells (fourth coordinate mapping, which often uses the same shape functions as the
order). In this chapter, we will focus on the mechanical analysis of displacement, allows for a variety of shapes and orientations in physical
continuum bodies, plates, and shells, with some comments on beams space. The ability to break an object into triangles, quadrilaterals, tetra-
and frames. The analysis of beams and frames, however, is remarkably hedra, or hexahedra of arbitrary shape (within some limits, as discussed
similar to matrix structural analysts, and we will leave detailed discus- later) is one of the features that make finite elements so successful and
sion of frames to that chapter. popular as compared to many other numerical methods.
This section gives an outline of the theory of finite-element analysis The most general method of manipulating the finite-element equa-
so that the reader has a basic understanding of the underpinnings of the tions is the method of weighted residuals. However, in mechanics, the
method. Many details are omitted. There are many excellent textbooks problem can be more easily approached by the principle of virtual dis-
on the subject covering the theory in greater depth, including Bathe, placements. In the quasi-static case, the resulting equation is
2014; Fish and Belytschko, 2007; Hughes, 1987; Kim and Sankar, 2008;
Logan, 2011; Reddy, 2005; Zienckiewicz et al, 2013.
The method works by breaking up the domain ofinterest into smaller
pieces, called elements, as shown in Fig. 3.1. On each element, the pri- where au is the virtual displacement, b is a body force per unit volume
mary variable of interest, the displacement here, is approximated using (such as gravitational or magnetic force), t is the surface traction vector,
simple functions. These functions are created by tracking the displace- '2 is the domain of interest, and r is its boundary. The vectors {<J} and
ment at a finite number of points, called nodes, and using interpolation {&} are the stress and virtual strain, respectively, in vector (Voigt) form.
The left-hand side of the equation is the internal virtual strain energy.
The right-hand side is the external virtual work, with the first term aris-
ing from body forces, that is, force3 that act at a distance such as gravity,
and the second term arising from forces applied to the surface.
0 0 Because the displacement field is characterized by a finite number of
points, we can factor out the (initially unknown) nodal displacement
value.. The finite-element approximation displacement uh can be written
0 0 (3.2)
(3.3)
(a) (b)
where c are the unknown nodal value. of virtual displacements. The
Figure 3.1 A plate meshed with an unstructured mesh of straight-edged strain vector in the small strain case just contains spatial derivatives of
triangles. the displacement field. Since the vectors d and c are not functions of
119
120 CHAPTER THREE
T\
(0,0) ~ (1,0)
T\L
~
2
(-1,-1) (1,-1)
T\
(0,0) (1/2,0) (1,0)
~ 2
(0,112) 5
7
,, •
(1/3,1/3)
3 6
(-1,0)1 B :L.
(0,0) ~
6 ,(1,0)
5 2
,..ble 3.:Z Common Types oflhree-Dlmenslon•I Elements with Some Properties; Coordlnm Limits In the hrent D-ln for the 10-Node Tet
1nd Senindlplty Brtck Ant the S.me 1s for the LlnNr Tit 1nd Trtlln..r Brtck, Rupectlvelyi Coordlnetu Hive Been Omitted for Figure Cllrlty
Nwnberof Order of
Shape in parent domain nodes Name accuracy
(0,1,0) 4 Linear tetrahedron,
constant strain
tetrahedron
(0,0,1)
:~S
8
I ~
I
2
·------
11
... "'(-1,-1,-1)
5... ... " 6
(-1,-1,1) (1,-1,1)
10 10-node tetrahedron 2
4 11 3 20 Serendipity hexahedron, 2
serendipity brick
16
2+
'h
I
I
•1
~
9
S 14
2
10
,,
...
17 , 9-' - - - - ·
5
13 6
the spatial variables (i.e., x, y, and z), the strain and virtual strain may modulus matrix, {a}= c'{£}. Substituting these values into Eq. (3.1),
be written we find
(3.6)
{£h}=Bd (3.4)
Since the nodal values of the virtual displacement are arbitrary (and, in J,J,1 1hree-Dlm9111lon•I An•lysl1
fact, we never solve for them), the only way to ensure this equation holds The most general way to model the geometry is to explicitly model the
is ifKd= f This matrix equation is solved for the unknown nodal displace- whole structure in three dimensions. It is often necessary to model the
ments, and once those are known, other quantities like stress and strain whole structure in three dimensions to obtain accurate results. How-
can be solved. The integrals for the stiffness matrix K and the force vector ever, meshing can also be challenging in three dimensions for some
f are typically carried out by numerical integration, with a small number geometries. It is also usually the most costly in terms of computation
ofintegration points per element Gaussian quadrature is typically used for time. That said, with current technology, many three-dimensional
quadrilateral andhaahedral (distorted cube) elements, and other schemes quasi-static problems can be run even on a single processor.
have been developed for triangles and tetrahedra. While the number of
points used is usually determined by matches order of the polynomial to J.J.2 r-Dlmenslon•I An•!Jsll
be integrated, sometimes using fewer integration points than theoretically All problems in the real world are three-dimensional. For some problems,
optimal for part or all of the integration can improve the results. This though, a two-dimensional approximation provides sufficiently accurate
approac.h is discussed in more detail later. results. Clearly, creating both the geometric model and the mesh is easier.
A number of details have been omitted above, and the equations can With fewer nodes and degrees of freedom per node, the solution time is
be extended to include nonzero specified displacements, material and also much faster. However, the geometry, material properties, and loading
geometric nonlinearity, and other complications. Many commercial soft- must all act in a way where such an approximation is reasonably accurate.
ware packages now exist that handle the mathematics internally. However,
some knowledge of the working of finite elements is necessary in order PLANB STRAIN
to ensure accurate results. A novice can easily obtain results that appear
For a plane strain model, every section of the body parallel to the plane
convincing but are far from the true solution. Hence, some care should be
considered should have the same geometry and material properties. The
taken to create the proper model of a structure.
forces and dispi8'ement boundary conditions should all be in this plane.
Furthermore, there should be no strain in the out-of-plane direction. From
J.2 OUTLINE OF STEPS IN A FINITE-ELEMENT
ANALYSIS Poisson effects, stress may develop in the out-of-plane direction, however.
This happens when the body is constrained out of plane, such as a concrete
A user of a finite-element software package must make numerous deci- dam across a canyon, or approximately when the object is comparatively
sions in building and running finite-element models. The first is what long in the out-of-plane direction. Examples of this case include strip foot-
type of analysis should be performed. For mechanical or structural ings and retaining walls. There may be minor edge effects in this case, but
analysis, is a dynamic analysis necessary, or will a quasi-static one suf- for the most part, there is no displacement and hence no strain out of plane.
fice? Should the analysis be linear or nonlinear? In plane strain finite-element analyses, the analysis is typically
Once the type of analysis is decided, the user has to decide how the performed per unit thickness. Hence, all the forces must be input per
geometry will be handled. Three-dimensional analysis may be neces- unit thickness. Some commercial codes also allow a •plane strain with
sary, or a two-dimensional approximation may be accurate enough. In thickness- option, where thickness is included. In this case, the absolute
some cases, it may be more efficient to model structures with ~reduced forces should be used.
continua,• using plate, shell, beam, or truss elements.
The user defines the geometry of the model. Sometimes a computer- PLANB STllESS
aided design (CAD) model may be imported into the commercial code, Plane stress is similar to plane strain, but instead of zero strain in the
but CAD models can contain information and hidden features that can out-of-plane direction, there is zero stress. An example of this is a thin
confuse a finite-element code. The geometry can also be constructed plate, where the stress on the faces is zero. While there is no stress in
within the finite-element code or in another software specifically for the out-of-plane direction, strain may develop from Poisson effects.
preprocessing finite-element geometries. Because the out-of-plane strain may vary depending on the in-plane
The geometry must then be meshed. Choosing an appropriate ele- stresses, a small amount of shear stress may develop out of plane. Hence,
ment type or types, the model is broken into small pieces. Most com- this simp!ific;ation is approximate except in special cases, and in objects
mercial codes have semiautomatic procedures for meshing. Meshing that are too thiclc, the plane stress assumption generally loses its validity.
can be complic;ated, though, and generally most of the user's time is As with plane strain, in plane stress, the analysis is typically per-
spent developing the geometrical model and meshing it. Specialized formed per unit thickness. In this case, forces should be applied per
software that focuses only on meshing exists and may be helpful for unit thickness. It may also be applied with a given thickness. Total force
complex geometries. The mesh information can then be imported should be applied if a plane stress with thickness option is used.
directly into the finite-element analysis software. In many cases, plane stress and plane strain solutions can be sig-
The loads, boundary conditions, and material properties must be nificantly different, especially for values of Poisson's ratio far from
specified. These may be applied either to the solid model before mesh- zero. Hence, it is important for the engineer to understand which case
ing or to the elements. Generally, the former is preferred, as the mesh applies to their work, if either does. Plane stress is more flexible than
may be altered over the course of several simulations. plane strain, resulting in higher displacements in load-controlled prob-
For trusses, frames, plates, shells, and other reduced continua, geo- lems and lower stresses in displacement-controlled problems. Table 3.3
metric properties must also be specified. These are quantities such as shows in more detail how the plane stress and plane strain functions.
cross-sectional area in bars, moment of inertia in beams, and thickness
in plates and shells that are not explicitly modeled in the geometry but
are necessary to determine the behavior of the structure under loading. Table J.3 Comparison of Plane Stress and Plane Strain;
When the entire model has been built and all the loads and bound- Assumes Out of Plane Direction Is the z-Direction
ary conditions have been applied, the program may be run to solve for Plane stiess Plane strain
the displacements. The program usually also calculates strains, stresses, Out-of-plane
and other quantities. The user may then list results, plot them, or export condition
them to other software for further analysis and visualization.
Generally En"'O a., ,.0
J.l TYPES OF STRUCTURAL AND If laotropic Eu ~ t,, ~ o ()'" ~ 0'23 ~ 0
MECHANICAL ANALYSES Uik!dwhen Material i1 relatively thin and Material is relatively thick or
unconstrained out of plane comtralned out of plane
In structural and mechanical analysis, either a quasi-static or a dynamic
analysis may be performed. We focus first on quasi-static analyses, those Sheu wall, connection plate, Retaining wall, lltrip footing
where the loading is slow enough that we can neglect inertial effects. beam in bending
THE FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD 123
y y
AXISYMMBTRY end and constant cross-sectional area, this reduces to the familiar stiff-
A third type of two-dimensional approximation is the axisymmetric ness tenns of
k'=~[-~ -~]
model. Axisymmetry may be applied when a model is rotationally
symmetric about some axis. The geometry, material properties, loads, (3.9)
and boundary conditions must be symmetric about this axis. If all
these conditions hold, each section behaves the same. An example is a More sophisticated bar elements exist that account for changing
dome under gravity loading, as shown in Fig. 3.2. A dome under wind cross-sectional area with deformation and nonlinear material models.
loading would not be applicable, as the load is not the same around It is possible to create elements with interior nodes as well, but they are
the axis. Since every section is under the same loads, it behaves the not commonly used in practice.
same, and only one side of the section need be modeled, as shown Beam elements are also treated as line elements but with deforma-
in the figure. The displacement of any point on the axis of rotation is tion out of plane. Beams can be two-dimensional or three-dimensional,
zero orthogonal to the axis. There are both strain and stress perpen- depending on whether the loading is in one plane or not The moment of
dicular to the plane modeled; the normal strain in this direction may inertia is required for these elements, and shear coefficients are required
be determined as for more advanced formulations. Because the differential equation for the
beam is fourth order, not only displacements but also slopes or rotations
must remain continuous. Physically, a discontinuity in the slope, that is,
a kink in the beam, would result in infinite strain energy. In finite ele-
where r is the distance from the axis of rotation and u, is the displace- ments, this is solved by having two degrees of freedom at each node, a
ment in that direction. This component of the strain is known as the displacement, and a rotation or slope. The simplest shape functions used
"hoop strain,~ and the corresponding stress is the "hoop stress.~ for a beam are the Hermitian cubics, and these capture the behavior ofan
l
Euler-Bernoulli beam exactly at the nodes. The stiffness matrix for a two-
J.J.J R•d11ced Cantlnu.
dimensional Euler-Bernoulli beam with constant moment of inertia is
Bars, trusses, beams, frames, plates, and shells are sometimes referred
to as reduced continua. Instead of explicitly modeling the full three-
dimensional geometry, only a part of the geometry is modeled with geo- 12 6L -12 6L
2 2
metric properties used to apprmrimate the behavior out of plane. These k' = EI 6L 4L --6L 2L (3.10)
geometric properties include cross-sectional area for bars, moment of L3 -12 --6L 12 --6L
inertia and cross-sectional area for beams, and thickness in plates and [
6L 2L2 --6L 4L2
shells. These properties are implicit in formulation but do not need to be
explicitly modeled in the geometry or meshed. For example, a bar can
be treated as a line element with cross-sectional area as a property rather where I is the moment of inertia of the beam element. These stiffness
than modeling the bar geometry with three-dimensional elements. terms are identical to the ones commonly derived in structural analysis.
With some assumptions, analytical models can be developed as to how The beam element often also has stretch in the axial direction, using the
the elements will behave. bar formulation above. In the simplest approximation, these are uncou-
pled, which is reasonable for small deformations. More sophisticated
BARs, TRUSSBS, BBAMS, AND FRAMBS formulations account for the interaction of the two types of deformation.
Bars and beams can be treated as line elements, with the behavior influ- Beam element formulations can also be extended to account for
enced by geometry of the cross section. For one-dimensional geom- other factors. For relatively thick beams, shear deformation becomes
etries, with proper choice of shape functions, the exact deformation important and can be added, as done in Timoshenko beams. Nonlinear
may be found at the endpoints of the element (not internally, hoWCM:r). material models are also possible; however, in the most general case, this
Hence, the elements for many analyses do not need to be refined. requires fairly expensive numerical integration across the cross section.
For bars, the cross-sectional area is generally the only geometric Most beam elements have nodes only at the ends. Some elements with
parameter necessary. The formulation assumes that internal force is center nodes have been developed, but they are not commonly used
distributed equally over a given cross section, though the cross section is By using proper orthogonal matrices or rotation matrices, bar and
allowed to vary along the length of the bar. The formula for the element beam elements can be joined at different angles. For bars, the result is a
stiffness then becomes truss. For beams, the result is a frame. These can be three-dimensional
or plane structures. The resulting formulations are the same as or very
similar to structural analysis formulations.
(3.8)
PLATBS AND SHBLLS
where E is Young's modulus, A is the cross-sectional area, and L is the Plates and shells are thin solid structures that are bounded by two
length of the bar. For a bar element with one degree of freedom at each parallel surfaces with an offset, known as thickness, much smaller than
124 CHAPTER THREE
lateral dimensions of the surfaces. They are called •plates" when the two 3.4 ELEMENTS AND NODES
surfaces are flat and "shells" otherwise. Plates and shells can be modeled
After deciding on a type of analysis, the user must select an appropriate
as two-dimensional continua with deformation of mid-surface. In the
element or elements for the mesh. Elements may have only comer
finite-element procedure, the domain of plate or shell will be subdivided
nodes, or they may contain additional nodes. The choice depends on
into small elements. Flat element patches make a good approximation
the type of analysis being conducted and the specific: geometry. For
for shell structures when the element patches are refined; therefore, they
example, two-dimensional models are typically meshed with either
can be used for both plate and shell structures. These elements are gen-
triangles or quadrilaterals. It is generally easier to create a mesh of tri-
erally called "shell elements" in the finite-element method terminology.
angular elements, except if the geometry can be easily subdivided into
Geometrically, the plate is similar to the two-dimensional elasticity
nearly rectangular substructures. Mid-side nodes generally improve
problem describe in Sec. 3.3.2; however, the plate is subjected to out-of-
accuracy for quasi-static simulations but may produce worse results for
plane loads, and bending moments need to be considered. The moments
dynamic simulations.
of inertia about in-plane directions are needed in the formulation.
Elements with only corner nodes are often referred to as low-
Based on classical plate theory, under the assumptions of infinitesi-
order elements, as the interpolation functions are less than quadratic:.
mal strains and orthotropic materials, the in-plane displacements are
Elements with mid-side and perhaps additional nodes that can repro-
uncoupled from the transverse deflections, w. The strain vector for a
duce quadratic: or better interpolation in the displacement are referred
plate, therefore, can be expressed as
to as higher-order elements.
£=£-ZK: (3.11) The remainder of this section is a list of commonly used elements and
where K =
2 2
aw aw aw 2
M.. M"',} (,:: a~~ Jay ,(.a: aM J Six-node triangles have quadratic interpolation. These elements
have nodes in the center of each edge in addition to each vertex. The
A=
[M"' Myy
and V. = _____£+~ n + ~+---12'.. n
"" dx ily ~ ax d)' r
interpolation provided by the mid-side nodes allows the elements to
have curved edges. They are second-order accurate. Hence, if the ele-
The above classical plate formulation, known as Kirchhoff plate, ment linear dimensions are cut in half, the error in the displacement
is the analog of the Euler-Bernoulli beam in two dimensions. The will be roughly a fourth of the original mesh. Three-node triangles and
plate formulation can be extended to account for shear deformation four-node quads, by contrast, are only first-order accurate. The same
by introducing rotational degrees of freedom, which is known as mesh refinement will result in only half the error. Therefore, these ele-
the Mindlin plate and is an analog of the Timoshenko beam in two ments are often the element of choice for quasi-static analysis. However,
dimensions. Nonlinear material models subjected to large deforma- obtaining an effective mass matrix is diffic:ult for higher-order elements,
tion are also possible. This requires sophisticated formulations. and they are therefore often avoided in dynamic analysis.
Interested readers are referred to Zienkiewicz et al. ( 2013) and Bathe Bight-node quadrilaterals, often called serendipity quadrilaterals, are
(2014). Most plate elements are quadrilateral and have nodes only at also quadratic elements. Llke six-node triangles, these elements have
the ends. Some elements with center nodes have been developed, but nodes at the vertices and middle of the edges. They may have curved
they are not commonly used. edges, have second-order accuracy, and also have issues with the mass
THE FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD 125
matrix in dynamic analym. These elements are the most popular quad- Four-node nonconforming bending elements have four nodes located
rilaterals for quasi-static analysis, and a good choice for bodies that are at comers. Each node has three degrees of freedom in control of w,
easily meshed with rectangular elements.
dW , and aw.The shape functions for this element are Hermitian cubics.
Other elements have been formulated but are not often used except dX dY
for special cases. Such elements include seven-node triangles and nine- However, the normal slope condition between element boundaries can-
node (biquadratic) quads, which have an interior node. Generally, these not be satisfied, and thus this element is called nonconforming. None-
have the same order of accuracy as six-node triangles and eight-node theless, this element performs well in practice and is the most popularly
quads, with more degrees of freedom. They are therefore less efficient used element for plate and shell analysis.
elements. Four-node conforming bending elements have four nodes located
at comers as in the nonconforming counterpart mentioned above. In
3.4.2 Three-Dlmenslonml Elements
For the most part, the co=on three-dimensional elements are used contrast, each node has four degrees of freedom in control of w, ~w ,
in the same ways as their two-dimensional counterparts. Tetrahedra, dW d2 W OX
oy ' and oxoy' The shape functions are the tensor product of one-
sometimes called tets, are analogous to triangles. Hc:xahedra, distorted
cubes, are often referred to as bricks. It should be noted that three- dimensional Hermitian cubics. The interelement continuity conditions
dimensional meshing is significantly more complicated than two- are exactly satisfied; thus, it is called conforming.
dimensional mesh, and brick meshing can be quite challenging unless Three-node nonconforming bending elements are triangular elements
the geometry is easily subdivided into nearly rectangular solid subdo- for shell and plate. Similar to quadrilateral elements, there are three
mains. Because of this difficulty, bricks may be degenerated into wedge degrees of freedom per node. Although they are beneficial for model-
elements or pyramid elements with quadrilateral base. ing complicated geometry, numerical stability issues must be properly
Four-node, or linear, tetrahedra are the simplest three-dimensional handled
elements. Like three-node triangles, they exhibit locking for nearly Higher-order elements, eight-node/nine-node quadrilateral, and six-
incompressible materials and bending-dominated deformation. While node triangular elements, can also be used for plate and shell modeling.
they can produce acceptable results in other cases, they are generally With high-order shape functions, the interelement continuity condi-
not favored and often warned against in co=ercial codes. Methods for tions can be enforced but with high computational costs.
alleviating volumetric locking exist (de Souza Neto et al., 2005) but are Degenerated shell elements are another family of plate and shell
not widely available in commercial codes. elements used in co=ercial software. In modeling point of view, they
Eight-node, or trilinear, bricks are analogous to four-node quads. With- are three-dimensional brick elements. These brick elements discussed
out modification, they exhibit locking in bending and fur nearly incom- in Sec. 3.4.2 could be used as degenerated shell elements. However,
pressible materials. However, modifications discussed in Sees. 3.13.1 and their kinematic and constitutive behaviors are similar to conventional
3.13.2 alleviate these issues. One ofthe solutions for volumetric locking is shell elements.
usually the default in most co=ercial codes, but the complexity of solu-
tions for locking in bending usually means that this option is not a default. 3.5 MESHING
These elements are the most popular for three-dimensional dynamic For the finite-element analyst, meshing can be one of the most tirne-
analysis, though for some bodies, meshing can be challenging with bricks. consuming parts of a given job. Very coarse meshes are inaccurate,
Ten-node tetrahedra are quadratic elements with four nodes at the while overly fine meshes may take the finite-element solver too long
vertices and six more at the center of each edge. Like six-node triangles, to run. Highly distorted elements are also inaccurate, and creating a
these elements are second-order accurate, and edges may be curved. mesh of elements relatively free of distortion can be a challenge if the
They are very popular for quasi-static analym. geometry is complex.
Twenty-node bricks, also called serendipity bricks, are popular brick Fortunately, many software programs for meshing exist, some built
elements for quasi-static analysis where brick meshing makes sense. into the finite-element codes and some dedicated to just creating a
They have eight-corner nodes and 12 at the centers of the edges. The mesh. The process is not always automatic, but several algorithms are
elements are second-order accurate. Edges may be curved. available to the user for different mesh types.
Other three-dimensional elements have been developed, including
27-node bricks with three-by-three-by-three nodal placement, and 3.S.1 Element Choice
15-node tets. They are generally less popular than the elements above. The first task of meshing is to select a proper element or elements for the
The most common three-dimensional elements are shown in Table 3.2. analysis. Mixing elements of equal order is possible, but mixing elements
of unequal order may result in increased error unless properly designed
3.4.3 TNss and Fr•me Elements
transition elements are used. These elements are not always available
In both two and three dimensions, most truss elements have two in commercial codes. All mentioned previously, it is generally easier to
nodes, one at each end, with linear interpolation between. Elements create a mesh of triangular than quadrilateral elements, and it is easier
with a center node have been developed but are not usually used in to mesh tetrahedral elements than hexah.edral elements unless the geom-
practice. Similarly, most beam and frame elements have two nodes. etry is easily broken into pieces that are nearly rectangular or rectangular
For transverse displacements, each node has both a translation and a solids. However, for dynamic analysis, low-order elements are preferred,
rotational degree of freedom; therefore, cubic interpolation is used for and low-order triangles and tetrahedra often do not perform well. For
the transverse displacement. Linear interpolation is typically used for quasi-static analysis, second-order elements are generally preferred.
axial displacement as well as torsion for three-dimensional elements.
Higher-order beam and frame elements have been created by adding 3.5.2 Selectlng an lnhlal Mesh
either additional nodes or more degrees of freedom per node. These To create an initial mesh, it is generally good practice to start with
elements are, however, uncommon in practice. a coarse mesh that runs quickly to check for errors in the analysis.
A finer mesh may be required in regions where you the geometry is
3.4.4 Plate and Shell Elements complicated, but try to avoid a mesh that is too fine, Le. one with too
Geometrically, plate and shell bending elements are same as two- many elements.
dimensional elements described in Sec. 3.4.1. They are mainly triangu-
lar or rectangular elements. However, since the interelement continuity 3.5.3 Refln•ment •nd Connrg•nca Checks
condition should be enforced, the shape functions and required degrees Once an initial mesh is run and checked for errors, one can refine the
of freedom for each node are different from those two-dimensional solution to ensure the results are accurate. Refinement is the process of
elements. splitting elements into smaller elements, often by bisecting the edges.
126 CHAPTER THREE
Further adjustments are made to fit the geometry and produce ele- To implement a material model in a finite-element code, two for-
ments with less distortion. M the mesh is refined, the solution should mulae are usually required. The first is the formula that determines the
approach the true solution. H the initial mesh is coarse, it may be wise stress from the strain or strain increment as well as potentially other
to refine everywhere once. Where the stress and strain do not change quantities. These other quantities may include strain rate and history
much, this refinement will be sufficient. Further refinement may be variables, such as those used in plasticity or damage models. The variety
necessary in regions where the stress and strain are changing greatly. of material models that have been implemented in finite-element codes
Novice users often make the mistake of refining where stress is high. In is enormous, and the user should consult relevant sources on the types
fact, if the stress is high but relatively constant, no extreme refinement of models of interest.
is necessary. The regions where refinement is necessary are those where The other quantity often needed is the tangent modulus, the matrix
the gradient of stress and strain is high. that is, where the stress and of derivatives of the components of the stress with respect to the com-
strain change dramatically over a short distance. ponents of the strain. This matrix replaces C' in the formulation of the
It may be necessary as well to refine regions where a very accurate stiffness matrix. For some material models, these derivatives can be
solution is needed, and this may include regions of high stress. quite cumbersome to calculate, and therefore some algorithms have
Ideally, refinement is performed until the difference in the solution been developed to work around the use of the tangent modulus.
between two refinements is within acceptable limits of accuracy.
1.8 SOLVING THE QUASI-STATIC PROBLEM
:U APPLYING LOADS AND DISPLACEMENT Once the geometry, mesh, loads, and material properties have been
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS specified, the problem can be run. This involves solving the matrix
Two types of forces are applied to the body. Forces may be applied equation Kd= f for the unknown nodal displacements d. Ifthe matrix K is
to the surface. These include concentrated loads, pressure, and other ill conditioned or singular, then a solution may not be able to be obtained.
distributed loads. Distributed forces are integrated over each element Usually, this is the result of the structure being unstable, but occasionally
surface to create equivalent nodal forces. In commercial codes, the loads other issues may cause ill conditioning. as discussed in Sec. 3.13.4.
may be applied either as surface loads to the geometry or directly to the A number of algorithms may be chosen to solve the system of equa-
elements or nodes. The former approach is generally preferable, as the tions, either direct solvers, often sparse solvers, or iterative methods,
nodal forces change with refinement. Most finite-element codes deter- such as preconditioned conjugate gradient. For small systems, direct
mine the nodal forces from the applied loads and mesh automatically. solvers are usually the safer choice. For models with a large number of
Otherwise, the user has to calculate the nodal forces for each refine- degrees of freedom, iterative solvers are usually faster when they con-
ment, and this can be tricky if the geometry is complicated. verge, but they may not converge to a solution.
The second type are body forces, such as gravity or magnetic force,
that act at a distance. These again are integrated over each element 1.!IPOSTPROCESSING-SOLVING FOR STRAIN,
and replaced with equivalent nodal forces. In most codes, body forces STRESS, AND arHER QUANTITIES
may be applied to volumes (or areas in two dimensions) or directly
Once the nodal displacement vector is solved, those displacements can
to elements. Again, it is usually advisable to apply body forces to
be transferred to the elements, and strain can be solved from the equa-
volumes so that the forces are automatically applied to the elements
tion (t:h} = Bd For linear problems, the stress is {o} =C' (t:}, while for
in the proper manner.
Proper displacement boundary conditions are essential to an accurate nonlinear problems, the stress-strain relationship is specified by some
other equation.
finite-element analysis. In quasi-static analysis, enough displacement
Two important notes should be made about stress and strain. First,
boundary conditions are required to ensure structural stability, follow-
strain and strain are calculated at integration points, interior points on the
ing the principles of statics. In two dimensions, the displacement of at
element, not at the nodes. In fact, the stress and strain are discontinuous
least one point must be specified in each direction, plus an additional
at the element boundaries for standard elements. When plotting stress
restriction to prevent rigid body rotation. In three dimensions, displace-
ment must be specified in three directions for at least one point, and and strain, many commercial codes allow such element quantities to be
three more conditions must be arranged in a way to prevent rigid body plotted either in the elements or at the nodes. The nodal values are gener-
rotation about the three coordinate axes. Failure to apply stable bound- ally obtained by some averaging process, and plots tend to look smoother.
It is tempting to prefer such plots. However, the element plots give a more
ary conditions will result in a singular stiffness matrix. Most commer-
cial codes will produce errors or warnings that the stiffness matrix is accurate picture of the finite-element solution and show where the mesh
nearly singular, not invertible, or that a small pivot has been detected. Of may need refinement. Any areas with large jumps in stress and strain
course, boundary conditions may be applied to lines and areas as well across element boundaries are places that should be refined.
as nodes. For beams, plates, and shells, rotational boundary restrictions Second, stress and strain approximations are usually less accurate
may also be applied. than the displacement solution. Since these quantities are related to the
One should take care to apply realistic boundary conditions as well derivatives of the displacement, convergence is slower. Hence, if stress
Boundary conditions applied only to create stability artificially can or strain is the quantity of interest for the simulation, the analyst must
induce artificial stresses that are not present in the real structure. make sure that this is not changing significantly during refinement
rather than just the displacement.
1.7 MATERIAL MODELS AND arHER PROPERTIES
1.10 DYNAMIC FINITE-ELEMENT ANALYSIS
The equations developed in Sec. 3.1 assume linear elasticity. Anisotropic
materials can be modeled simply by using a different matrix C'. Most In many problems, such as earthquake and sometimes wind loading.
commercial codes simply require the input of the material constants, inertia effects are important. In this case, the equations are time depen-
such as Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio for isotropic materials. dent and usually take the form
For many applications, a linear material model is sufficient, for Mii+cd+Kd=f (3.13)
example, to determine the maximum stress and see whether yield-
ing may occur and where stress is most critical. In other cases, such Here, M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, and ci and d
as pushover analysis, a nonlinear model may be necessary. Nonlinear are the nodal velocities and accelerations, respectively. Unlike the
material models create a more complicated and time-consuming solu- quasi-static case, in dynamic analysis resulting from the finite-element
tion scheme, and hence the complexity of the material model must be discretization are a set of ordinary differential equations that are
balanced with the solution time. typically solved using a finite difference scheme, covered in Sec. 3.10.3.
THE FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD 127
The resulting nodal displacements, velocities, and accderation are solved 3.1 O.J Time Dlscr.t!Qtlon
at discrete points in time. The ordinary differential equations in time are generally solved using
It is not necessary to restrict rigid body motion to solve a dynamic a finite difference scheme, which approximates the time integration
problem (the body can accelerate in time), but the initial displacement at chosen points in time. An alternative approach is to use space-time
and velocity must be specified at every node. finite elements, which treat time as another dimension to be meshed
3.10.1 Mmu MlltrtatS
While this technique has several advantages, including fewer time
points where the solution is not changing rapidly in time, the method is
The mass matrix takes the mass distributed over the structure and more complex and not generally available in commercial codes.
discretizcs it to the nodes. The mass matrix is symmetric and generally
positive definite. Both consistent and lumped mass matrices have been DISCRBTIZATION TECHNIQUES
used in finite-element analysis, with the latter usually preferred. The most common time discretization technique used in dynamic
CONSISTENT MASS
finite-element analysis is the Newmark method. This method approxi-
mates the time integration as a weighted average of the acceleration at
The consistent mass is derived from (and therefore consistent with) the the two endpoints of the time interval
variational equation. It takes the form
v...1 =v.+At.+1[(1-y)a,.+ya...iJ (3.16)
(3.14) 2
11,,+1 = d" +At.+lv• + (At';1 ) [(1-2Jl)a. +2P..+1l (3.17)
where p is the material density. The sum of the terms in the mass matrix
for each direction (x, y, and z) is equal to the total mass of the system. Here, a,.. v "' and d.. are the finite difference approximations for the
The matrix is not diagonal, however, with some of the mass "between" acceleration, velocity, and displacement, respectively, at time t 0 and
two of the nodes. In very coarse meshes, this can lead to unintuitive At.+1 = t..+1 -t. is the amount of time between the two steps. It is not
behavior of the material, but this disappears on sufficient refinement necessary to keep At constant, and in fact many finite-element programs
LUMPED MASS APPROXIMATIONS
automatically increase the time step size if the progression appears to be
stable and accurate. Along with the step size, the two parameters a. and
Despite the mathematical basis of the consistent mass, lumped, or ~ control accuracy and stability of the algorithm. These equations can
diagonal, mass matrices are often a simpler and more effective option. be thought of approximating the integration in time. It is clearer in the
Lumped mass matrices replace the distributed mass of the system with top equation, which, if exact, would be
point masses at the nodes. There are several different schemes to deter-
mine how much of the mass goes to each node, but the total mass again
summed for all the degrees of freedom in a given direction should equal vn+1 =v. + J~'a(t)dt (3.18)
the mass of the body, as with consistent mass matrices. Lumped mass
matrices are, however, diagonal, which gives them far more efficient In the finite difference approximation, the integral is replaced with a
performance in some time-stepping schemes, as discussed in Sec. 3.10.3. weighted average of the acceleration at the two endpoints of the time
Most of the common schemes for lumping mass to the nodes give interval multiplied by the length of time. While not exact, the weighted
similar results for low-order elements. Despite the less rigorous math- average gives a good approximation to the velocity when At0 +1 is small.
ematical basis, they tend to give better results than consistent mass While intuitively y = Y, is most accurate, there are reasons to choose
matrices. They also tend to have slightly better stability properties (see other values, as discussed below. A similar though more complicated
Sec. 3.10.3). Because of the improved performance, lumped mass is usu- argument can be made for the second equation, with 2jl ='/., =
or Jl ~.
ally preferred over consistent mass. being most accurate.
For higher-order elements, some lumping schemes give highly A common extension to the Newmark method is the Hilber-Hughes-
incorrect results, with negative masses at some nodes (these are not Taylor (HHT) a.-method This technique modifies the balance of momen-
usually implemented in commercial codes). Even with consistent mass tum equation and can be Wied to numerically danip high-frequency
matrices or so-called special lumping schemes, which have limited modes. High-frequency modes usually do not contribute much to the
mathematical justification, these elements usually produce worse results solution, can cause stability issues, and are not as well approximated by
than lower-order elements. For this reason, bilinear quadrilaterals and the finite-element discretization. Therefore, it is often desirable to mini-
trilinear hexahedra are often preferred for dynamic analysis. mize their effects. The modified balance of momentum equation is
3.10,2 O.mping
Ma.+i +(l+a.)ev...1 -aev. +(l+a)Kd,,+1 -a.Kd,.
The physical processes behind damping are still not very well understood =f((l+a)t....1 -at0 ) (3.19)
Therefore, the models in common usage are still phenomenological
but convenient algorithmically. The most common model is viscous
damping, where the damping is strain-rate dependent In the linear Typically, _.!, 5 a 5 0. For a < 0, the acceleration at time t0 +i becomes
case, the damping can be written as a constant damping matrix C times 3
partly a function of the force, displacement, and velocity of the previous
the velocity d. time, causing a slight drag on the acceleration that damps the higher
A common assumption is Rayleigh damping, which assumes that the =
modes. By setting a O, the Newmark method is recovered.
damping matrix is additively decomposed into a part proportional to
the stiffness and a part proportional to the mass: CONVERGENCE, STABILITY, AND EFFICIENCY
C=aM+bK (3.15) Convergence in time is a function on the time step size as well as the
choice of a, Jl, and y. The Newmark method is second-order accurate if
The constants a and b are often determined from the two most impor- y = '/..; that is, the error is proportional to the square of the time step. If
tant modes. Rayleigh damping allows the problem to be decomposed the time step size is cut in half, then the error will be roughly one-fourth
modally by generalized eigenvector analysis. If some other form of C is of what it was previously. If y "' '/., then the method is first-order accu-
used, the problem cannot be solved modally. rate, meaning that the error is proportional to the step size.
Displacement-based damping. or Coulomb damping, is also some- In addition, we need ensure that the solution is stable. A solution is
times used. More sophisticated damping models are also sometimes Wied numerically unstable ifit tends to infinity over time when the true solu-
in nonlinear analysis, and there are many variations on such models. tion does not. This phenomenon is a function of the finite difference
121 CHAPTER THREE
scheme and not related to resonance or other physical phenomena when assumed in linear elasticity. For strains under roughly 4 percent and
the solution does tend to grow uncontrolled in time. The Newmark no large rotations, the effects of geometric nonlinearity can usually be
scheme is unconditionally stable if 2p <!: y <!: ~. If y S ~. the solution is ignored.
never stable, and hence this choice is never made. If y <!: ~ and 2p < y, In finite-element analysis, any nonlinearity means that the equation
the solution is stable if the time step is small enough. For no damping, Kd = f is replaced t;.t(d) = f..t. The equations can be extended to the
we must have dynamic case, but regardless, a nonlinear solver, such as Newton-Raphson,
sometimes with line search, or the arc length method, is necessary. Most
& s y/2-li (3.20)
Q} general-purpose finite-element codes have such solvers. The methods are
for stability. Here, co is the largest natural frequency of the finite-element iterative, however, and can be considerably more time consuming than
model, which is always at least that of the smallest element. Damping linear solvers.
does not hurt the critical time step and in some cases helps. It should be
noted that as the element size decreases, co increases. Hence, as the mesh J.12 VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION
is refined, the time step must also be refined for conditionally stable
methods, and very small time steps may be necessary for fine meshes, Mistakes in finite-element analysis can have severe consequences and
especially for stiffer materials. can be easy to make. In 1991, the Sleipner A platform off the coast of
The HHT a-method is unconditionally stable and second-order Norway sunk in large part due to an error in the finite-element analysis,
which underpredicted the stress. In addition, in some situations, the
accurate if-~Sa SO, P= (l-a2 )/4, and y= (1- 2a)/2. finite-element method itself performs poorly, as discussed in Sec. 3.13.
If the mass and damping matrices are diagonal, as they are in the Hence, it is important to check the results, never blindly accepting the
case of lumped mass and mass-proportional damping, then the dis- computer output.
placement, velocities, and accelerations can be solved one equation at There are two methods to check a finite-element analysis: verification
a time for each time step, without solving a set of matrix equations. and validation. Verification is comparison to another analytical solution
This approach is known as explicit dynamics and is popular due to its or a different numerical method. Clearly, if the analytical solution were
efficiency at each time step. To use explicit dynamics with the Newmark very good, there would be no need to perform a finite-element analysis.
method, we must have Ii = 0. From the stability discussion earlier, we Such solutions are often a little simplified, but the more accurate solu-
can see that a small time step is necessary, and this is a drawback of this tion, the better. At a minimum, such solutions should be able to catch
technique. However, the fast per step calculation and simplicity of the errors in values or units of loads or material properties. The goal is to
approach continues to make it popular. make sure the solution is behaving more or less as expected.
Some of the popular choices for Newmark methods are listed in Validation is comparison to an experimental or observed result. This
Table 3.4. The most useful are central difference for explicit dynamics type of check is always a good idea but is essential in the case where the
and average acceleration for unconditional stability. analyst is a little unsure of the physics of the problem, for example, if
they are not sure that the problem will behave in a linear elastic fashion.
Tllble JA Characteristics of Common Choices for the Newmark Again, experiments cannot reveal all the detail that the finite-element
Famlly of Methods model can, but the more ways to check the two solutions, the better.
Order of
~ 'Y Common names accuracy Stability Implicit/explicit
J.1J ISSUES AND PITFALLS IN FINITE-ELEMENT
O V.. O!ntr.al difiettnce Second If <Mt S 2 Explicit (if M and ANALYSIS
Cdiagnnal)
While extremely effective for many problems, the finite-element
1/12 v.. Fox-Goodwin Second IfmAt s 2.,/6 Implicit method does not always provide accurate answers, which is why veri-
fication and validation are important First, the differential equations
1/6 v.. Linear Second IfmAtS2../3 Implicit
and material models used are just models of real behavior, not exact
acceleration
re-creations. Material properties and loads are never exactly known,
% v.. Average Second Unconditional Implicit and often some simplifications in geometry are necessary to obtain a
acceleration, tractable model. That said, a solution can usually be obtained within a
trapewid rule
reasonable error.
Analysts should be aware of certain numerical issues, however, that
can cause serious inaccuracies in the solution. The most common are
MODAL ANALYSIS
briefly discussed below. It is the responsibility of the analyst to check
Rather than perform a full dynamic analysis, one can perform a modal their work to ensure that the results make sense.
analysis. This analysis returns the fundamental frequencies, which are
generalized eigenvalues of the mass and stiffness, and the mode shapes, J.13.1 lncompl'llHlbla •ml Nearly
which are the generalized eigenvectors. Knowing the fundamental fre- lncompn111lbla Matarl•ls
quencies can be very useful in a variety of applications, including earth- As mentioned previously, low-order elements exhibit overly stiffbehav-
quake analysis, offshore structures, and other vibration applications. ior for materials that are incompressible or nearly so. There are several
Though more common in structural analysis than finite-element ways to view this issue. One is that the low-order elements do not
analysis, it is possible to select a small number of important modes and have enough degrees of freedom to allow deformation without volume
solve the dynamic problem individually on those modes, then use them change in many cases. More details of the underlying issue can be found
to reconstruct the motion of the entire structure. in Hughes (1987), among other places.
There are three popular solutions: mixed methods, strain projection,
and reduced integration. Mixed methods break out the mean stress as
J.11 NONLINEAR FINITE-ELEMENT ANALYSIS
a separate variable and use a different interpolation scheme for this
Nonlinearity stems from two sources: large deformation and material variable. The interpolation need not be continuous, and a lower-order
behavior. Material nonlinearity occurs when a material does not have a interpolation works better. There is significant mathematical analysis
linear stress-strain curve. Examples include plasticity and damage in steel of the choices, but for four-node quads and eight-node bricks, constant
and concrete and nonlinear elasticity in soils and concrete under some pressure is often used with some modification. While very flexible, the
conditions. Geometric nonlinearity occurs because the strain cannot be method has extra degrees of freedom, although they can often be solved
written as a linear function of the gradient of the displacement, which is at the element level.
THE FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD 129
Strain projection, or B-bar methods, reduce the order of the volu- The node numbering for common elements is shown in Tables 3.1
metric part of the strain-displacement matrix B. Again, for four-node and 3.2. Most commercial finite-element codes and good development
quads and eight-node bricks, a spatially constant volumetric strain codes will issue warnings if the element Jacobian is negative, giving the
across each element is often assumed, leading to a constant volumetric user a chance to locate and fix labeling errors.
part of B.
Reduced integration uses fewer Gauss points than necessary to inte- 3.13.5 Conditioning
grate part or all of the stiffness. Selective reduced integration uses fewer Conditioning is a general issue in solving large matrix equations
integration points for only part of the stiffness, usually the volumetric numerically. Because of machine round-off in computations, inaccurate
part. A single integration point is used for the volumetric stiffness in the results occur for solving some systems of equations, particularly if there
case of four-node quads and eight-node bricks. All three of the above is a great difference in the magnitude of the eigenvalues. Finite-element
methods produce very similar results and exactly the same results in the software may detect this issue and report that the stiffness matrix is
case of linear elasticity and constant Jacobian. One of these approaches nearly singular or has a small pivot. The analyst should first check that
is usually the default in commercial codes, and users are warned against boundary conditions are properly applied and the components are
standard Gaussian quadrature. properly connected, that is, that the structure is stable. Structural insta-
An alternative approach is uniform reduced integration, using fewer bility is by far the most common source of these errors.
integration points for the stiffness. The underintegration results in In some cases, however, poorly conditioned stiffness matrices do
spurious zero-energy modes, known as hourglass modes, which cre- arise. There are some ways in which conditioning can be improved for
ate local oscillations in the solution. These generally do not affect the certain problems. The condition number, the ratio of the magnitudes of
overall solution greatly, but the oscillations look odd locally. Methods the maxi.mum and mini.mum eigenvalues for direct methods, measures this.
known as hourglass control detect and try to minimize these modes As the condition number approaches roughly 1016 for double-precision
with reasonable success. Fully reduced integration is also often available arithmetic, the solution loses accuracy.
in commercial codes, and while hourglass control is not perfect, this The analyst should avoid modeling materials of stiffnesses differing by
method has the advantage of reducing the number of integration points several orders of magnitude. Roughly, each order-of-magnitude differ-
within the element, which can save computation time. ence leads to an order-of-magnitude difference in the condition number.
In the case where one material is vastly stiffer than another, it may be
3.13.2 Locking In 1 ...dlng possible to consider the material as rigid or reduce the stiffness differ-
Low-order elements also perform poorly in bending-dominated prob- ence to within an acceptable tolerance, at least in quasi-static problems.
lems. Modified elements have been developed, though they are fairly Elements of vastly different sizes should be avoided as well. Each
sophisticated and are more time consuming than the modified elements order-of-magnitude difference in each linear dimension increases the
described above. Therefore, they are usually not used by default in com- condition number by roughly an order of magnitude. While selective
mercial codes, and the user needs to specify this option. In quasi-static refinement, that is, refinement in local regions, is a good strategy for
problems, higher-order elements are usually preferred. maintaining reasonable simulation times, overrefinement can lead to
poor conditioning. More than one or two orders of magnitude may
3.13.3 ReflexAngles lead to poorly conditioned matrices, and if there are issues, this dif-
The theory of elasticity predicts that bodies with sharp reflex angles, ference should be reduced further. Coarse meshes overall tend to have
angles greater than 180 degrees, will experience infinite stress under fewer issues with conditioning, so starting with a coarse mesh may help
some loading conditions. In the finite-element solution, the stress at troubleshoot this issue.
these comers will become higher as the mesh is refined, with no limit. If using the penalty method in contact and constraints, each order
There is no issue with the finite-element performance here; rather, the of magnitude of the penalty parameter over the stiffness roughly adds
issue is with the assumption of elasticity. an order of magnitude to the condition number. If there appear to be
There are a few solutions to this issue. The easiest is to recognize that conditioning issues, making the penalty parameter as small as possible
the problem is local and that likely the solution away from this area is while still enforcing the constraint is desirable. Depending on the accu-
still valid. The second is to introduce plasticity or some other mate- racy needed, this value may be as low as two to three orders of magni-
rial model that prevents the stress from increasing indefinitely. This tude above the stiffness matrix. The effect of the penalty parameter may
approach will also give the user some idea of the plastic zone induced be tested on a coarse mesh initially to find the lowest value that is not
by such a corner. The third approach, which is also a good idea from a greatly affecting the solution.
manufacturing perspective, is to round the corner or introduce a fillet
to alleviate the stress singularity. 3.13.1 Distorted Elements
The reader will recall that the physical element geometry is mapped to
3.13A Element Node Numbering a more regular local coordinate system. There is no need to match the
There are conventions for element node numbering in finite elements. local geometry exactly, but if the elements are very distorted, the map-
Meshes that are generated by meshing software or commercial codes ping becomes inaccurate. Even if there are only a few, these elements
always follow the correct order. Occasionally, though, it still makes can significantly affect the problem solution. Most commercial codes
sense to generate meshes by hand. If a mesh is created by hand, it must and meshing software warn if some elements are highly distorted.
follow the node numbering convention, or, a negative element Jacobian Remeshing with finer elements in the region of the distorted elements
can arise. can help. Obtaining a mesh free of distorted elements is, however, one of
The convention for two-dimensional elements is as follows: First, the biggest challenges for many finite-element problems.
the comer nodes are labeled in the counterclockwise direction (which In the extreme case, quadrilateral or brick elements may have reflex
corner is first is unimportant). Second, mid-side nodes are labeled angles, angles greater than 180 degrees, in physical space. These angles
counterclockwise, starting with the node between nodes 1 and 2. Finally, create a negative Jacobian in part of the element in the coordinate map,
the interior node is labeled if it exists. which can lead to nonphysical behavior. These shapes should be avoided
For three-dimensional elements, again corner nodes are labeled first. altogether.
For bricks, the "bottomM face is labeled counterclockwise, then the top
face. Node 5 is directly "aboveM node 1, and counterclockwise should be 3.13.7 Comp1tlblllty
considered looking down on the element from above. Mid-side nodes In order to ensure convergence, elements must be both complete and
are labeled on the bottom face, then the top face, using the same conven- compatible. Completeness for mechanics means that the element must
tion as in two dimensions. Then the mid-side nodes between the two be able to reproduce a linear displacement field within each element. All
faces are numbered. commonly used finite elements are complete.
130 CHAPTER THREE
Compatibility is a continuity condition that must be enforced steady-state case, the problem still reduces to KT = f, with T as the
between elements as well as within. For continuum models, the dis- vector of nodal temperature values:
placement must be continuous. This means that elements must have the
same interpolation across element boundaries. Hence, elements with (3.21)
linear displacement along the edges, such as four-node quads, should
not be mixed with elements with quadratic displacement along the and
edges, such as eight-node quads, without special treatment. Transition
elements have been developed that allow for transition between regions, {3.22)
though they are not often available in commercial codes.
Beam, plate, and shell elements should also maintain continuous Here, 'IC is the thermal conductivity matrix {which is equal to the scalar
slopes across their bending degrees of freedom, but this is satisfied for conductivity times the identity matrix for isotropically conducting
most elements. materials), q is heat production per unit volume {from chemical reac-
There are cases in which compatibility can be violated with success, tions, mechanical dissipation, etc.), and cjl is heat flux across the bound-
but it is not recommended without mathematical justification. ary on the places where that is specified. Once the temperatures are
solved, secondary quantities, such heat flux and heat flow, can be found
during postprocessing.
3.13.8 Mixed Structunil •nd In the transient case, the equation becomes
Continuum Elements
In some cases, it makes sense to model part of a structure using con- MT+KT=f {3.23)
tinuum elements and part using structural elements. In this case, the
connections between the continuum and structural elements must where M= Jn NT pcNdQ is the thermal capacity matrix. Here, p is the
be treated with care. Truss elements, which rotate freely with respect density and c is the specific heat of the material. Like dynamic analysis,
to the continuum structure, are not an issue. But because continuum a lumped mass approximation is often used. The set of ordinary differ-
elements lack rotational degrees of freedom, where a beam element ential equations in time is also solved using a finite difference scheme.
connects to a continuum structure, the default behavior is that of a However, since this is a first-order set of ordinary differential equations
ball-and-socket joint. Constraint formulations can couple the beam in time, instead of second-order, like dynamics, a simpler scheme like
end rotation to the solid deformation but are not always available in the generalized trapezoid rule, is usually used:
commercial codes.
An alternate approach is to extend the beam into the solid and attach {3.24)
it to the solid nodes so that it rotates with the solid defonnation. It
should be noted that unless this reproduces the physical problem, the For a = 0 and lumped mass, the equations become explicit but
1
stresses in the solid may not be physical around this area. Another first-order accurate and conditionally stable. With a~- , the equations
approach is to attach the beam to a plate that is attached to the solid 2
become unconditionally stable but may exhibit nonphysical oscillations
structure. This approach is excellent if there is a physical plate in the for large time steps unless a = 1. The co=on choices of a and their
attachment. See Fig. 3.3 for an example. properties are listed in Table 3.5.
/
/ elements)
/
v elements)
a Common names
Order of
accuracy Stability
Numerical
oscillations
/Bearn I
Beam 0 Explicit Euler First Conditional If M too large
~ Crank-Nicolsen, Second Unconditional If M too large
trapezoid rule
Plate (or Implicit Euler First Unconditional No
beam in2D)
e=Coincident
nodes Explicit methods are less popular in thermal analysis than mechani-
cal, largely because there are fewer of degrees of freedom, only one per
(a) (b) node, and the probieins are solved more quickly. That said, for large
Figull! 3.J Connecting a beam to a shear wall (a) via a plat.: element or
problems, explicit analysis can be used.
(b) by embedding the beam in the wall. The Jaf;U,r approach may give ina<:curate Nonlinear extensions include temperature-dependent thermal con-
me1se.1 near the connection if it ii not physically connected in this way. ductivity. Film coefficients are often used to approximate convection
boundaries with air or other fluids.
With a simple change in the meaning of the variables, the same equa-
tions can be used to solve problems in fluid flow through porous media
3.14 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENTS FOR like soils, electrical conduction, and chemical reactions. The nonlinear
THERMAL, THERMOMECHANICAL, AND
OTHER PROBLEMS
extensions are sometimes different, but sometimes co=ercial code
developers are aware that thermal models are used for other problems
In addition to mechanical and structural problems, finite-element and include models suitable for porous flow and other problems.
analysis has shown great success in modeling heat condition, electri- Finite-element models have also been widely applied to coupled
cal conduction, fluid flow in porous media, and other problems. The physics problems, such as thermomechanical or poromechanical prob-
method is far more easily applied for even-order differential equations. lems. In the former case, heat could cause thermal expansion, inducing
The formulation for heat conduction is similar to that of the stress or strain in the body. Inelastic deformation, on the other hand,
mechanical problem but is simpler since it is a scalar problem. In the can cause temperature increases in the body. These types of coupled
THE FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD 131
BY
RAOUL KARP, PE, SE Vice President ofDesign Engineering Ana~, Bentley Systems, Inc., Carlsbad, California
BULENT N. ALEMDAR, Ph.D.. PE Principal Research Engineer, Bentley Systems, Inc., Carlsbad, California
SAM RUBENZER, PE, SE Fountier anti Structural Engineer, FORSE Consulting, Bau Claire, Wisconsin
4.1 INTRODUCTION contributing to a specific DOF. Similarly, loads applied at nodes and on
elements are combined and assembled into global load vector (F) for
The end of the 20th century brought with it major advances in computa-
each nodal DOF. The final algebraic equation Ku= F is obtained. The
tion that have opened the door to the age of advanced simulation and
numerical solution of this equation for each load vector yields the dis-
automation in the structural engineering profession. This ability allows
placement vector u, which holds translation and rotations magnitudes
engineers to design more resilient, innovative, and economical struc-
at each node (DOF). These nodal displacements, along with element
tures that are increasingly more necessary to meet global growth and
local stiffness matrix and applied loads on elements, are used to calcu-
sustainability demands. In this chapter, the authors explore standard
late stresses, forces, and defonnations within elements.
industry practices in computational engineering simulation to enable
Practical Insight: AB finite-element models solve for displacement, it
these critical societal outcomes.
is often the case that modeling errors can be easily identified by review-
ing the displaced shape from both gravity and lateral load cases, load
4.2 COMPUTER STRUCTURAL combinations, or modal periods of the model to look for unexpected
ANALYSIS SIMULATION deformations or mode shapes.
The most common mathematical solution used to perform computa-
4.2.2 Typa of Finite-Element AnalJll1
tional simulation is known as the finite-element analysis method (Clough
1960, Bathe 1996, Cook et al 1989, McGuire et al. 2000). The finite- The purpose of a structural analysis is to obtain sufficient and accurate
element analysis method invoM5 idealization of a physical structure information about behavior of structure under prescribed loads. This
(Fig. 4.1), its support conditions, and its applied loading, in a mathemati- information is used to design structural members for stiffness and
cal framework. to determine the structural behavior of the structure. strength requirements. Based on magnitude and type of loading and
expected level of structural response, an engineer decide to run a linear
4.2.1 Finite-Element AnalJll1: A Primer (elastic) or nonlinear analysis.
In the finite-element analysis method, individual components of a A structural analysis is either static or dynamic. Static analyses con-
structure are mathematically idealized as discrete (finite) line, surface, sider the structural response in the absence of any dynamic actions; that
and volumetric elements. Finite elements are connected to each other at is, loads are applied so slowly that they do not induce any inertia forces
nodes. Loads and boundary constraints are applied at locations of nodes on structure, such as dead, live, or thermal loads. A dynamic analysis
(loads can be also applied to elements directly, but eventually, they are simulates the effects of dynamic forces from earthquakes, blast, wind,
later resolved to nodes). The primary unknowns are the displacements and so on structures. Under dynamic loading, inertia forces develop
(translations and rotations), called degrees of freedom (DOFs), at each that, are varied with time. This condition necessitates a solution for
node. For a two-dimensional problem, there are three DOFs defined each time step. It is also possible to obtain approximate results without
at each node (two translational and one rotational), and for a three- pursuing a complete history of response: the Response History Analysis
dimensional model, six DOFs are defined at each node (Fig. 4.2). The method provides peak values offorces and deformations, which are good
governing static and dynamic equations are expressed in the form of estimates for structural responses and sufficient for a preliminary design.
algebraic equations at nodes.
LINBAR (ELASTIC) ANALYSIS
Each finite element is mathematically represented by a local stiffness
matrix that defines a relationship between element displacements and This common type of analysis assumes that the structure undergoes
forces. All element local stiffnesses are assembled together in a global small displacements and that all members remain elastic throughout
stiffness matrix (K) by combining stiffness term from each element the applied loading. A linear analysis determines the elastic stiffness
13J
134 CHAPTER FOUR
of ~ element. whldi ii a function of the member materiaJ. aoN U> reduce the loading by redw:ing the base shear with • respome modi-
section, and initial geometry. The relalionship between loads and dis- fic:alion factor, which is a function of the structure type and ductility.
placements is proportional and linear. A linear analym ii appropriate The structural analysit it performed with thh reduced. base Jhear,
If the d!splauments are small .relative to the IDJtlal geometry of the but the engineer I& required to deWJ. the structure according to code
structure. An ad.wntage of linear analysis ii that the dl8placement and requirements to ensure that the ductility aNUmed in the loading can be
Corea &om every load condition can be determined in isolation. The achieved in the actual loading event.
resulting dlspla.cemenu and forces can then be &.ctored and combined
with other load condition resulta u praalbed by the buildlng code NONI.nll!AR ANALYSIS
load (OlllbiDations. A nolillnear analysis should be utillze<1 whe.11 a structure undergo«
This type of analym is u.sually used to proportion member ma large displacements (nonlinear geometric effects) or when matmals go
and to gain a general understanding of the fo.n:e-tramfer mechaniml beyond their elastic limit (yielding or cracking in material) and a more
of nructures under applied loads. AJ member forca are a function of accurate aimulation of structural behavlor 18 required. The nonlinear
member sttifness (c:roM aection} and the design ofamember Is in tum a .Interaction between loads and structural response prohibits the 1Ue of
function of the fon:es ofthe member, it stands to reuon that the analym supapoaition of indmdual load condition reisults. and anaJym mu.st
and design process ii iterative. be performed for each combination of gra'lity and lalenl. loacb acting
For tome cuet, materials propertie.t are modified to acoount for together.
scme level of material nonllnear effects wilh1n a linear analysis. For This type of analym involve. an 111cremental-iterative .numerical
instance, AC[ 318 typie«lly prescribes crack hlcton that act to miuce solution in whic:h nructural reqome ii traced for incremental loa.d
the bending and u:ial stiffness to account for expectiid cracking under inc:remenu. For each step. the structural n:1pon1e is bued on cUZTent
elastic loading conditions. Another example u for steel membm in elements 1t:lffness u well u the deformation history of the structure.
whic:h. Che direct analysis method of AlSC 360 allows reduction of Th1s approac:h solves for equlllbrium. at eac:h. load increment Once
modulus of elutldty to account for retidwil ~ developed during an equlllbrium state ii readied. displacements in nodea and forces in
the manufacturing process of rti:el component.. members are updated, and the solution i1 advanced. to the next loa.d
Proctical Insight: A linear analym it often appropriate even for load increment.
cond!tlom such as seismJc loading. which will result in nolillnear behav- Nolillnear material efferu are handled according to where they are
ior in the ttruc:ture. Where the building codeis do not mandate a nonlin- usumed to be occ:urring within the elements (Fig. 4.3). One approach
ear analysis (ASCB 7), they detamine an equivalent stal.ic or dynamic for the beam-type element is the pltulic hinge or amcentrattd pLutic-
loading that takes into consideration the ductility of the lateral l}'Jtem lty approach, in which material nonlinear effecb are assumed to be
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 135
Rigid Links
Eccentrically Connected Beams and Column Eccentrically Connected Braces and Beam
(Plan View) (Elevation View)
Connection
I I I
I I I
I I I
4..1.s MaUllngDlllptngnm
llructure flexibility, it ii common pract:ia: t:o use a 50 percent reduction
Jn the rigid llnk length to account more accurately fur the deCormatlon Structural diaphragms are critical elemenbl in a mucture's responae to
of the panel zone. A more advanced aolution that comidm stlffne. and lateral loadt. Inertial Cotta from 1eiamlc loads and extemal wind or
ltmlJdl of the panel %One b to use Krawinkler or sdaors paiel zone other lateral forces muat be tranlferrcd through the diaphragm to the
mod.ela (Charney and Dowm 2004, Krawinlder 1978). The1e modelii lateral fxm:e-rctisting syatem (LFRS). For 1ellmlc loads, the ditphragm
provide a more realJs& approach Jn terms of acceuJng panel zone ii typically designed to remain ehatic, ensuring that energy diaipation
ddormatlonl directly Jn analylU. occurs l.11 appropriately daignecl LFRS.
The lateral cllltributl.on of forces through 1 diaphragm ii a function
4.1.2 ...._.., Coupllng IH1111 In Shur W.. of the diaphragm's stiffne# and defonnul.on relatift to that of the
Coupling beams are the memben uaed to couple two thearwall ty1tenll. LFRS. There are generally thm different ways a diaphragm is idalized
Force transfu bemen ahe111wallslsthrough1D01Den1:$ and shear Jn the (Pig. 4.13), namely flalb'4 where the diaphragm i. UNmed to have 110
coupling beam. Depending on the depth of a coupling beam, It is dusi- ltlffneas, loads are directly diatrlbuted to the LFRS baaed on area tribu-
ned .. a •lender, moderately deep. or deep <:Oupling beam. tary to each frame, and all lateral frame• behave independently of each
For a shallow deep beam, the behavior ii oontrolled by bending. In other; ripl. where the cmphragm ii UNmed in&itd.y Jti£f' in-plane
this cue, a alender coupling beam zone an be idealized by a beam ele- (with 110 axial. &hear. or in-plane flemral. deformation). lateral low
ment connected to shear walls at a single node, 11 shown iD Fig. 4.1 O. are applied at a single point on each diaphragm, loads are cllltributed
If a wall element ii modeled with lhelh including drilling DOFs, thcn to the LRFS based 011 their relative atlffnea, but dilplacementa are
moment and shear are tnmd'erred from beam to ahear walls a1 a lillgle coupled. u all frames are rigidly connected to each other; and semirigUl.
.11ode. If th1a la not the cue, the coupling beam u pinned coimected to when the actual bending. &hear. and u:ial ltiffnea of the diaphragm
the wall If moment COlltinufty 1' required, one practi.cal l.llslght II to la ldeallled. lateral loads are 1pplled directly to multiple nodes on the
model a rigid beam acroA the width of the wall (a rigid beam u stiff in d!1phragm, and forCQi are cllltributed according to the relative stiffneA
bending but hu a unall uial ll:iffneu). of the diaphragm and the lateral &ame1.
[}{]
Slender Coupllng Beam Modeled with Beam Modeled with Beam
(Including embedded rigid llnlcs)
Moderately Deep Coupling Beam Modeled with Beam Modeled with Beam
(Including vertical rigid links) (Including hortzontal rigid links)
Ftgure 4.12 Modellnc .moclcrately deep coapling beam9.
1J8 CHAPTERFOUR
Flglft 4.1 J Impact of diaphragm type on 1oadlDg. deformation. and lateral frame CODll«tlon.
>,
;,\ ;'......
\ \
,
\
\
,-;:::... , , '
' ©
>
-1.
•
..... --'C::J /
<
/
Figure 4.15 Impact of mcah dCDlity coane on kft. fine on riJbl- (RAM SVw:traal Syrtmr. Cowt1ay &nlUy Sy.Items.)
4A FOUNDATIONS
The analysis of foundatio.ni mould w.nsider the interaction of super-
structure. foundation, and soil. The introduction of 1oil sprinp a1 foun-
dation boundary oond.ltlons is commonly wed to simulate the impact
of•oll-ttructure Interaction on the auperstructure behavlor. Figure 4.18
shows dlfl'erent types of st:ruc\Ul'e foundations.
4.4.1 lsollittcl orSpr.il Footi"fs
l•olate<J footings spread the supported loads of Individual members
through direct bearing on supporting soil. The foundatio.n I• typically
assumed to be rigid to produce a uniform 1oil pn:uure profile on the
soil. The soil-structure behavior can be id.ealhed in the tinlte-element
analys1s with vertical. horizontal, and rotational spriDgs (Fig.4.19).
Rglll'l!4.16 Lataal win.cl.and .mmic loading conditicma.
The soil IJlling 8tiffnesa is cdc:ulated from the mocfulu4 of Nbgrade
reaction K,. which iJ a funaion of the fuundaDon geomeuy, the aoil
properties, the load. di.rtribution, and the stiffness of the foundation
(Temghl. 1955). Thb elastic apring approach is valid under conditions
of small displacemenu within the modulus elastic range.
The Taylor Method (Taylor 1967) is one method to cafoulate the rota-
tional spring lliffneu uauming a rigid footing. Bowles {1996), however,
recommendt that a fuundation st:lffn.eas less than rigid be coml.dered.
for which Tettlnek and Mad (1953) provide so.me guidance on caL:ulat-
ing the foundation stllfneu..
4..4.2 COmbtlMd 1nd Con'ltnuout Fooo'dntt
Combined footings are used where large nonuniform bearing pru-
Nre is lilcely to occur on an isolated footing, sudi u where 11. column
ii supporti:d on die edge of a Coating, perhaps where it is collltrained
to a property boundary. By engaging adjacent colwmit through a strap
beam or thick foundation, the eccentric: footing moment .Is d.lsttibuted
to produce a more uniform bearing pret8Ul'C. ContinuO'llf footing• typ.1-
c:ally cany one or more lateral load-carrying elements imposing large
vertical. 11.nd moment futu1 o.n the foundation (Fig. 4.20). The founda-
tion continuity d!uipates Chese forces to Improve structural deforma-
tion and reduce •oll-beuing pmsure. The simulation of the beh&vior
of c:mnbined and continuous footings is cmnmonly achieved through
COMPUTBl APPLICA110N$ IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 141
within a ratio ofno more than 3:1 in lenp (Bowle. 1996). Where bear-
ing ltresaes exceed capacity, the foundation thickness can be increaJed
to diatribute me.ea more evenly along the foundation, or the w.ldth cm
be 1.nc.rease<l to reduce the bearing pren11re by Increasing the surface p
area. One limitation of the beam on dattic; foundUion approuh is that
it doe1 not consider flexibility in the direction of the footing width that 8
may reduce minor am de.tign momenb.
4.4.JI PlleJPler Foundlldana
~1
A pile foundation is used where soil in lower mm needs to be engaged Plo~n y
to support the structure. Pllet resist vertical loa.d.I through ~ fric-
tion and/or end bearing. Lateral loads are ruisted through p8"ive soil
resl.stt&nce on the pile. and pile Cai>' and through bending resl.sttl.nce of flt18'9 4.21 Pile Clp and pile aualym model and p-y ~.
piles rigidly attached to the pile cap. The lateral ruistance of soil on the
piles ill highly nonlinear and require• calculation of p-y soil ruilltance
nluee to be used ill the computer aimulatJon (Fig. 4.21). Piles are typi- submerged below the watert@le), or where soil conditions are l.nco.n<-
cally analyzed In isolation for cub. load condition c:ondde.ring the given tent or volatile (as in clay heave) and 1ibly to result in differential uttle-
pile size and soil properti« along iU length. The number, lize, and mentt in uncoupled foundatJom. A mat foundation may be supported
location of a. pile in a pile group and the direction ofloading will reduce on piles where settlement or soil capacity warrants.
the p-y resl8tan.c.e of each pile (Rol1im and Olaon 2006). n u common To aimulate the behmor ofmat fuundations. a llab 0.11 elastic founda-
practice to average the reduct!0.11 factor for an piles ill a group for each tion finite-element approach ii utiliud. A two-dimmlional plate finite
load <:ondition. to be applied to p-y Vlllu.es for the computer «imulation element l.s med w.lth behavior based on the slab thickness. material
(Valley M. PEMA P-751, 2012). properties, and geometry. The soil is idealized with soil 'J)rings at each
Forca at the top of each pile are calculated by wumi.11.g that the finite element node representat!vc of the contributory swfac:e area to
supentruc:ture shear and moment reaction are applied at the top of the the node {Fig. 4.22).
pile cap and distributed to euh pile through the rigid cap. Prru:tical Insight: Modeling a amrtant modulus of subgrade reac-
Proctiail !might: It ill common to assume a. fixed bue boundary tion over the area of the foundation is inaccurate and potentJally
condition at the loeation of pile caps l.n a. structural analysis. This unc:onse.rvatm!. Various autho.rs (Ariltorenas and Gomez 2014, Bowles
assumption cm be un<:onservative In selmil.c; condition where reso- 1996) suggest approaches to «imulate the luger stiffness at the e<lge
nance between the dynamic mponse of the foundUion and structure of the foundalion. It ii recommended that. the engineer consult with a
would amplify the muctural response or where difrerential foundation geoteclmical engineer to dete.rmlne the appropriate subgrade modulus
displac:emenb may result. Some code stan.danU (ASCE 41) now pro- to 114e at diffi:re.at zones in the foundation.
hibit the flzed base assumption in certain struc:tures. In these sltuatiOlls, If the mat u.periencet undesiled uplift (or bearing stren
an equivalent translatJonal and rotational 8tlffnest &om the pile group c:oncentration1), it is recommended to first decreaJe the mesh size
can be applied to the supermuctun! analysis. The nonlinear foundation [fine .meah can be c:oml.dered to approzimately apan 12 ill. (30 c;m) Jn
ltiffne11 suggem boundl.ng the superstructure analym w.lth the extreme size], solVI: the analyals interactively by removing springs in tendon.
foundation spring stlffuessea as appropriate. or l.nc;reue the slab thic:knm to engage addldond wefsht. Structu.ral
design is performed along middle and column strips to more appro-
4.4..4 MlltJllllft .-.Undltlan1 priately address dre$S concentratio11t at any one po.lnt. By first setting
A mai foundation is commonly used in indllltrial applica1ions where line c:omtral.nts at the edges of these design strips, the Bnlte-element
equipment loads are large or the location of loads may chan.ge, l.n mesh will produce a higher-ndelity mesh to fac;ilitue fon;e integration
buildings whe.re loads are large or have deep basements (parttculady if u illustrated in Fig. 4.23.
142 CHAPTER FOUR
ADVANCBD SonrSTllVCl'VllB AlrALYllS founded on the notion of a common data environment (CDE) through
With advances 1n computation capacity. the behavior of soil can now which dhparate parties am share information on a single projec:t. In
ezplidtly be included In the emulation of the ttructural beh&vior. Thia the put decade. over 70 pertent of detign 6.rmt in North .America ~
QI! be ~ through the idealization of the toil u aolid (three-
reported 1C1U1e level of BIM adoption (SmutMarbt 2012), and globally,
dimemioml) finite elements or through emulation with a series of the World Economic Forum (2018) reports on&-third ofinfrutructure
nonllnear lprinp and dampen (NIST GCB. 12-917-ll 2012, NEHRP and urban development organizations using a CDE on projec:ts (World
2009). Thex amlyx1 approach« are not yet widely UICd in the indlUtry Economic Forum, 2018).
u of thit writing. The by drivm of BIM and interoperability (S.martMa!ht 2012) in
the engineering tleld are the following:
Pn>dvcnvlty-Automate dnwing production. vlaual c:ommunlcatJon,
4.5 VERIFYING ANALYSIS lllSULTS and "'1laboration through Interoperability. Sdiedulet ~ been shown
A critical step in utilizinf ~ appliations iJ vmfying the resulu to be improved by up to 30 percent (Parvan, 2012).
prior to mpplying detign diecb to the loftwue remlb. RWc Rduction-lleduce data. reentry rilk through interoperability,
Often, computa appllcatiom are uaed to generate load.t for a struc- Jmprovcd venlon control, and geometric accuracy.
ture bued on the general project location and the geometry of the Vlllue Bngineering-Cost estimation, duh detection, scheduling, and
build.lng project. Determlning the overall load outtide the software and cott n:duction.
comparing the nodal reaction for critic:al load cue.1 ii an important and
lNTU.OPJlllAIILITY THI! CA'L\UST JIOJ.
simple way to verify that the llructure hu the proper magnitude ofload.
As atated prmoudy, finite-element analym I.I based on nodal dl.l-
HIM Svccasa
placement1; therefore, a key to vmfytng the ruulb .Is determining the The glue that enable1 collaboration on BIM and a CDE is interoper-
anticipated deflected m. and then comparing the software results to ability. It UICd to be that a common drawing format was the lingua
franca oi collaboration; today there are many BIM environments
that Jbape. Bued on anticipated lateral ttmigth, the dhplaced .thape in
tran.i.tlon and rotation ahould be able to be anticipated. Th.la la a quall- wldl both proprietary and open standard for.ma oi lnteroperabWty.
tatM: died: more than a quantitative cb.ec:k but la no le.. important. Moat toftware vendora offer an application programmers Inter-
In tzrm1 of dynamic analysis, a good check on the validity of the face (API) to allow information lharing directly with the solution
computer results can start with code approximllliom bued an the lize (Bentley Sy1tem11-0penBuildinp Detisner"", Autodelk-llevit"",
of the building and structural ayatem. GRAPHISOFT-AllCHICAD111, Nemebchdt-Allplan"", and othera).
Finally, englneen must determine whether the saftware application Dlgitll twins, allowing for Jmmerme cloud vl1Ualization, v.lsud change
clm.b the apadty of all the re.ulu. Some of the results that are stored trading and atatui, and data insightt. are furthering the prornile of
within rmilts data are check:ed againlt code-determined capacity equa- BIM from delign operations (Bentley i'l'win, Neme"tshek Bimplua).
tiom, and other raults are unchecbd. Thi. ia gaienlly not an ovaaight Maintaining lntaoperabWty with each unique API ia c:oatly for BIM
In the a>mputer applkatlon but limply a llmltation of the program. ecotyWtem toftware providers. Open ltandudt are a more c:ost-e«ec-
Much care must be 111ed to determine whether the undieclted residual tive solution where multiple BIM providera 1upport the tame standard.
raults are significant and need to be diec.ked outside the computer Some of the most common atandard.t indu.d.e buildingSMAll.T-IFC
application. A common aamplc of anchedced raldual raults i.t out-of- (Indllltry Foundation 0-es), NIBS-COBIE (Conatruction Opera-
plane horlzoutal bending In finite-element plata UICd to represent wall tions Building Information 1!.:zchange), and CIS/2 (ClMSteel lnte-
dements. o~ (but not ahftyi). in-plane lb.ear forces or vertical out- sntion Standards for steel detailing). Engineert thould be aware of
of-plane bending forul are chemd. apinlt code-determined capacitie1. whic.b interoperability format they will be interopenting with when
developing their analytical moclelt. Willi. open standards, engineer•
need to determine the IFC model view definition, which defines a ape-
4.6 BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING AND
INTEROl'ERABIUTY clfic: tet of exchange capabllitlu, and the levd of development (LOD)
that defines the level of detailed information to be aha.red (typically al
Project 1ucce11 and productivity dictate• clOle collaboration and LOD 300 for analytical work flowa- BlMPOllUM 2017) to be uaed on
information sharing among many orpnlzattom and domain spedal- the projec:t. Thue requirementl of lnteroperabWty may require that a
ilU. Building in!ormation modeling (BIM) hu rapidly become one of higher-fidelity phylical-analytical mocl.eling (Karp and Taylor 2017) be
the most widely med approachs to achieve thia collaboration. BIM u developed by the engineer.
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 143
IY
S. K. GHOSH S. K. Ghosh Associates LLC, Palatine, nlinois
145
146 CHAPTER FIVE
mi Free vibration -
superposition
of 3 modes
No change of shape
Fit... 5.2 Mode rurerpoaltlon analys!a of earthquake mpome.
IEARTllQUAKE·RE$1$TANTDE$1GN 147
seianic dmp furus impliei that critiw region• of certain memben As the wuc:ture ruponds inelutic:ally to the cle&gn earthqualc:e
should have sufficient inelutic deformability to enable the strudunl to defined in IBC 202 and ASCE 11.2, the lmral displacement at floor
rurvive without collapae when subjected to mreraJ. cyclea of defur:ma- level x increa.tea from 8..., to C,A,,. and the member Corea lncre~ from
tlons weD. Into the lnelutlc range. This me am avoiding all forms ofbrit- Q.g to 0.,Qg. Both the deflection ampllftcalion fac:tor C4 and the over-
de filllu.re and achieving «dequate lnelastii:: defonnatlon via the ytekling strength factor n. depend on the structural system used for earthqualc:e
of localized regions of c:erWn members or connections in die rtructure. res:imnceandaregiven in ASCETable 12.2-1. Quantitiei V.sandS,..are
These regions are often called plutlc hinge•. This aplainl why the the base shear and the la.teral. diiplacement at floor level z, respectively.
material chapters of the IBC contain detailing and other requireme.ots corresponding to the hypoehetlw elastlc: ruponse of the atruc:ture to
diat go hand in hand with the code-pmcribed seismic: fnrcu. For con- the design earthquake defined in IBC 202 and ASCB 11.2. Figure S.3
crete muctures, satisfying the detign and detailing requiremenu in Nggelltl that a reipome modifical:ion factor R of2 used in clerign would
Chapter 19 of the 2018 me. which are essentially the requirements result Jn an essentially elastic respon.se of a structure to the detlgn earth-
.In Chapter 18 of ACI 318-14 [S.4] for moderate to h1gb. selmW: design quake. The bash for this 15 aplalned in (5.5].
caugorles, provides the levels of inelutlc: defur:mablllty that are required
by die de1ign force levels ofthe IBC/ASCE 7. 5.4 SUSMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF
Experience from recent earthquake. hu llhow:u that structures THE 2018 llC/ASCI. 7-16
deilgned to the level of ae.lsmlc for«• prescribed by codes am sur-
vive major earthquake shaking. This is mainly due to the ability of The seismic deilgn provillons in the 2018 IBC are contained in
wcll-clmgned structurei to d.Wipate ammic energy by inelutic defor- Sect.ion 1613. This section simply nifmmces ASCB 7-16 and does not
malions in particular regions of certain memben in the rtructure.. contain much text. Section 1613 still remlns aa much lnformalion as ls
Decreaae Jn structural stiffness ca111ed by accumulating damage and needed for the establl.shme.ot of the seismic design category (SDC) of a
soil-structure interaction also helps at times. struc:ture. (Notx!: A dlal:usdon on how to detmnlne the SDC of a struc-
Figure S.3 •how• the idealized force-di'J'lacement relationship of 1.'UR! ii given l.aw in this chapter.) These provisions are reproduced from
a structure 1ubjected to the detign earthquake of the 2018 IBC and ASCB 7-16. Prorislons beyond Chat are to be found only in ASCE 7-16.
ASCE 7-16, aa defined in me 202 and ASCE 11.2. On the homontal Adopted spec:l&aily by refere.nce by Che 2018 me are ASCE 7-16
a:m are the earthquake-induced d.laplacements. The quantity V along Chapters 11, Seicmic: Design Criteria; 12, Sel.smic Design Requirements
die vertlw uis i. the code notation for dmgn bue •hear, a global force for Building Structuret; 13, Seismic Deiign Requirements for Nonrauc;-
quantity. The curve in die ngure may be thought of u the envelope or tunl. Components; 15, Sciamic Design Requimnents for Nonbuilding
Che backbone curve ofhyrteretic force-displacement loops that describe Structure11; 17, Seismic Deilgn Requlrement8 for Seiamlcally Iaola.ted
Che ruponff of a structure subjected to revmed cyclic: displacement Structures; and 18, Seismic Design Requh'eme.Dts for Structures with
hbtoriei of the type lmpo$ed by earthqualc:e ground motion. Damping Systems. Chapter 14 of ASCE 7-16, Matcrial-$pecific Seismic
The base shear Vii to be dimibutlid along the height of the struc- Design and Detailing Requim:nenbl, a.clopb mlW:riaD standards such
ture as required by ASCB 12.8.3 (dhciwed later). The distribution aa ACI 318 and make• certain modifications to them. By not adopting
.results in a series of lateral forces concentrated at the various tloor Chapter 14 of ASCB 7-16, Che 2018 IBC n:qu1n:a that CO!lcrde design be
levels. Nat, a muhematic:al model of the s1ructure Is to be elutlcally dane by Chapter 19 ofdie 2018 IBC and not by Chapter 14 of ASCE 7-16.
analyzed under these lateral force.. The quantity 8,.. repie.1ents the By the same token, steel. design must be done by Chapter 22 of the
lateral displacement at floor level x obtained from this analyl19, and 2018 IBC and not by Chapter 14 of ASCE 7-16. Note, however, that
as represents the member force.t (bending moment•, shear for«•, Chapter 19 does apec:l&ally require p.reart c:o.ucrete diaphragms in
bulldlnp usigned to SDC C, D, E. or F to be de«igned by ASCE 7-16
u:l.al. forcu, etc:.). This procedure is c:alled the equivalent lateral force
proc;ed.ure. Section 14.2.4.
ELASTIC RESPONSE TO
DESIGN EARTHQUAKE
TYPICAL RESPONSE
v
l>xe
14.----------5,,=
.... Cd l > x e · - - - - - - - - --.l
DISPLACEMENT
Figure 5.3 ~ fo-.clbpW=ient relationahlp of a lt%\lct\U'e "'~ to the de3lp ellrtbql!W of the
:2018 l&C or ASCH 7-16.
14' CHAPTER FIVE
The ASCE 7-16se:ilmlc chaptm that are not~adopted by the ASCB 11.4.2 pr:uridu that stzucturea localed where the mapped spec-
2018 IBC are 16, NoDllnear RespoDBe History Analysis; 19, Soll-Structure tral raponee acceleration at short periods (dlacuaaed later), Ss S 0.15g;
Interaction fur Seismic Design; 20, Site Oasslfktitlon Proceduru for and the mapped~ response acceleration at 1-ICCOlld period (dso
Seimllc Detign; 21, Site-Speci& Ground Motion Proc.edurei for Sea- di.scwiS«l later), 5 1 S 0.04g, need only comply with ASCE 11.7. Areu
mic Design; 22, Seismic Ground Motion, Long Period Thimilion, and with Ss S 0.15g and S1 S 0.04g are darlmied on the map of Che United
Rlak CodBcient Map.t; and 23, Selmlic Dalgn Reference Documents. State• In Fig. 5.4. The darkened areas are, in a aense, analogous to Zone
Chapter 23 ls not adopted beawe the IBC hu Its own Chapter 35 where 0 or the 1997 UBC (5.7].
all nfucn<:C<I documents are listed alphabetically by the promulgating me 101.4.7 ('.().lltaim the following requimnent for ailting build-
organization. Someofthech.apten, such u 16 and21,arer:ef'e:rencedfrom ings: The prvris:ions o! the Intemraionol B:nsting Bui/Jing Code (IEBC)
the other chapters, auc:h u 12, 1hat are spedBally adopted. (5.8] ahall apply to matters govemlng the repair, alteration, change of
occupancy. addition to and reloc:ation of alating buildings.
5.A..1 Gln1r11I Requlramlllta
me 1604.9 i• also important: This section requin!• that appropriate
lBC 1613.1 and ASCE 11.1.2 requin! that every structure and its com- aei.tmic d.eWling requirements and limitalions are to be aalilfied even
ponenta be deaigned for the eB'ect8 or earthquake .motione. However. where wind Corea govern the deaign.
these sections do permit a number of importmt exceptions. The lBC Struc:tura In SDC A need only comply with ASCE 11.7. For atr\U:-
exceptions are the foilow!ng: ture~ expoaed to such a low aeismic rak. that section refus to ASCE 1.4,,
1. Detac:hedooe- and two-familydwcllinp in Scianic Delign Cmgories which requirn only that a complete lmra1 f-orce-misting system be
(SDC) A, B, alMi C ar located where the mapped short-period spectral provided and that all elemenb of the structure be tied together. The lat-
mponae accderatlon Ss (d!scuased later) isles than 0.4gare totally emnpt eral for<:e-reQ.stlng system must be proportioned to resist a lateral force
&om aD teismic design requirements. at t:Very floor Jew! equal 10 I percent of the weight u that floor level u
2. The seismic force-misting system of wood frame buildings that depicti:d in Fig. SS (ASCE 1.4.2).
CO.llf'orm to the provisions ofmc 2308 (ccnventlonal light frame con-
struction) are not requlred to be anafyud as spec.lfled In IBC 1613. It 5.4.2 5* C'iftUnd Madon
ls felt that the requlremen1J of IBC 2308 are adequate to provide sakty The IBC, before i1ll 2012 edition. u.d ASCE 7, before i1ll 2010 edition.
based on the hmory of such light-&ame «»instruction-invariably Uffd to define a mazimwn comiclercd. earthquab (MCE) ground
low-rile ltructures-in earthquakes. There is a similar exemption in motion, which. for most of the United States, wu an earthquake with an
ASCE 7-16, which reada. Detached one- and two-family wood-frame approximately 2500-year return period (2 percent probablllty or m:eed-
dmll1ng& not Included In Exemption 1 with not more than two stories ance In SO~). Howm:r, In coastal California, the MCE was the lugest
above grade plane, satisfying the limitatiom of and «>mtru~ in earthquake 1liat can be generated by the known srimlic aourta (deter-
accordance with the IR.C (the Intt:l"Mtioruil RtJidentilll Code) (5.6]. minilticearthquab). ln ASCE 7-10, thiJ unif'orm-hazard ground motion
3. Agricultural etorage atructutts hxtended only for Jnclde.ntal human (oum!de of determlnlatic areas) wu replaced by ruk-targeted growi.d
occ:upancy are exempt from all seismic design requlremellt5 because or motion. The MCB ground motion. comaponding to a 2 percent In
the a«ptionally low riJk to life involved.. SO-year hazard level was replaced by MCEitground motion, co.rmpond-
4. Structumi that requin! special consideration of their rupome ing to a 1 pm:ent in 50-yi:ar collapse risk tJqet. Two other Jignificant
characteiUttCll and environment that are not addreaaed by the lBC or changea were made in .mapped ground .motl.al!. .In ASCE 7-10. A IWitch
ASCB 7 and for which other regulations provide ae.lsmlc criteria,. such as wu made from ·geo-mean"' ground motion (square root ofthe product of
vehicular brldget. electrical transmission towers, hydNulic structum. ground motiom recorded in any two ol'lhogond dlrection.s) 10 mulmwn
buried utility lines and their appumnances, and nuclear reacton. dim:Uon ground motion or ground motion in a dim:tion that call!el
ASCB 7-16 lw an additional exemption for plen and wharvea that muimum. structural respon.1e. Also, deterministic ground motion wu
are not accessible to Che ge.neral public. changed from mean plus one standard deviation or 150 percent ormedian
Figure 5.A Attaa af the Unm.d St.ata with St ~ O.lSg and S1 ~ O.CMg.
EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN 149
w, There is a row of values of each site coefficient for a partic:ular site class.
0.01w, It should be noted that the values of F. and F, are higher in areas of
low seismicity and lower in areas of high seismicity. This is in line with
W3 observations that weak subsurface roc:k motion is amplified to a much
larger extent by overlying soft soil deposits than is strong subsurface
roc:k motion. The tables for F4 and F, were stable and essentially
W2 unchanged from I994 UBC [5.7] through ASCB 7-IO. In ASCB 7-I6,
~
the tables have undergone significant revisions. Both F4 and F, used to
w, be equal to 1.0 for all values of S8 and S1, respectively, for site class B,
~ which used to be the benchmark site class. Now the values of F. and
F. are unity at Site Class B-C interface; the values are smaller than one
for Site Class B. Site-specific: ground motion procedures are required
wherever the site class is F and also for Site Class D and B in situations
+-- spelled out in ASCB 11.4.8.
V= 0.01(w1 + w2 + w 3 + w 4) Having determined F4 and F.,. S8 must be modified by F., resulting
Figure 5.5 Design seismic force distribution fur structures assigned to SDC A. in SMS = F4 S,, the soil-modified MCER spec:tral response acceleration at
short periods (IBC Equation I6-36, ASCE Equation 11.4-I). Likewise,
S1 must be modified by F.,. resulting in SMl = F.)1, the soil-modified
MCE spectral response acceleration at I-second period (IBC Equation
ground motion to mean plus two standard deviations or ISO percent of I6-37, ASCE Equation I 1.4-2).
median ground motion. For design purposes, two-thirds of these soil-modified MCE values
IBC Figures I6I3.2.l (I) and I6I3.2.l (2) and ASCE Figures 22-I are used. The 5 percent damped design spectral response accelerations
and 22-2 contain contour maps of the conterminous United States at short periods, SDS> and at I-second period, Sn1, are determined by
giving 55 and 51, respectively. The quantities 55 and S1 are the mapped IBC Equations I6-38 and I6-39 or ASCB Equations 11.4-3 and 11.4-4,
MCEii_ spectral response accelerations at periods of 0.2 seconds and respectivdy:
1.0 seconds, respectively, at Site Class B-C interface. Prior to ASCE 7-I6,
the mapped quantities wed to be for Site Class B. For the concept of
the spectral acceleration, refer to [5.9]. Spectral acceleration is directly
related to base shear (base shear equals spectral acceleration times mass
or spectral acceleration divided by g times weight, where g is the accel-
eration due to gravity). IBC Figures I6I3.2.1(3) through I6I3.2.1(8)
and ASCE Figures 22.3 through 22.8 contain similar contour maps for Note that% is the rec:iproc:al of I.5, the lower-bound margin of safety that
Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico, Guam, and American Samoa. is acknowledged to have been built into seismic: design by model c:odes of
Site Classes B and C are two of six site classes defined by ASCE the recent past. In other words, a code-designed structure is thought highly
Table 20.3-I. Site classification is based on one of three measured prop- unlilcely to collapse under ground motion that is one and a half times as
erties of the soils in the top I 00 feet of the site: shear wave velocity v,. strong as the design earthquake ground motion. The design earthquake
standard penetration resistance (or blow count) N (ASTM D I586-99 of all c:odes of the recent past was the 500-year-return-period earth-
[5.IO]), or undrained shear strength s: (ASTM D 2I66-00 [5.11] or quake (10 percent probability of noni=eedanc:e in 50 years). In coastal
D 2850-039 [5.12]). Where site-specific data are not available to a depth California, where MCB ground motion was no more than I50 percent
of I 00 feet, appropriate soil properties are permitted to be estimated by as strong as ground motion in the 500-year-retum-period earthquake,
the registered design professional preparing the soils report based on c:ollapse in the MCB was prevented by c:ode-based design. In the Midwest
known geologic: conditions. and the Bast, where MCE ground motion could be four to five times
When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to as strong as ground motion in the 500-year-retum-period earthquake
determine the site class, ASCE 7 editions through 20IO required safety against collapse in the MCE was not ensured by code-based
Site Class D to be used unless the building offlc:ial had determined design. The design approach of the 20I8 IBC and ASCE 7-I6 ensures
that Site Class E or F soil was likely to be present at the site. ASCE 7-I6 a uniform collapse risk of 1 percent in 50 years for structures across
retains this provision but additionally requires that, where Site the United States in the risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake
Class D is selected as the default site class per ASCE I 1.4.3, the because all structures must be designed for two-thirds of the MCEii_
ac:celeration-related site c:oeffic:ient F. (see below) be not less than ground motion and because a margin of safety of at least one and a half
1.2. This, in effect, makes C the default site class in areas of strong is still built in.
shaking. A procedure for determining design response spectrum is contained
At the beginning of seismic design, Ss and S1 must be determined in ASCE 11.4.6. This section provides a method for obtaining a 5 percent
for the site. This can be done by interpolating between contours on the damped response spectrum from Sns and SDI. The response spectrum
maps included in the IBC or ASCE 7; however, this is neither simple consists of two c:urves representing the short-period range (a region
nor accurate. A better and more accurate approach would be to use of constant spec:tral response acceleration) and the long-period range
the Web-based hazard tool available on the ASCE website (https:// (a region of constant spec:tral response velocity). A very long period
asc:e7hazardtoolonline) that provides the S 5 and S1 values based on range, which is a region ofconstant spectral response displacement, is also
the latitude/longitude information or the street address of the build- included; it starts at the period TL. ASCB Figure Il.4-I depicts the design
ing location. This, however, requires a yearly subscription. A similar response spectrum based on the provisions in ASCB I I .4.6.
but free Web-based tool is also available on the website of the Applied The long-period transition period TL is given on maps in Figures 22-14
Technology Council (https://hazards.atcouncil.org). through 22-I 7, which are similar to zone maps, for all 50 states and U.S.
Once SS> S1 , and the site class at a site are determined, a short-period territories. One must locate one's site on this map to determine TL,
or acceleration-dependent site coefficient, F., and a long-period or which ranges between 4 and I6 seconds, depending on the location.
velocity-dependent site coefficient, Fv, must be determined from IBC The constant displacement branch of the design response spectrum
Tables I6I3.2.3(1) and 1613.2.3(2) or ASCE Tables 11.4-1 and 11.4-2, is significant in determining the slosh height in tanks and the design
respectively. The coefficient F. is a function of the site class and S5, seismic: forces of long-period buildings.
while Fv is a function of the site class and S1• This dependence of the The ramp building up to the flat top of the design spectrum is defined
site coefficients on the seismicity at the site creates an elaborate scheme: by specifying that the spectral-response acceleration at zero period is
150 CHAPTERFIVE
equal to 40 percent of the spectral-response acceleration corresponding SD1 by Table 1613.2.5(2) (same as ASCE 7-16 Table 11.6-2); the more
to the flat top, SDS> and that the period T0 at which the ramp ends is severe category governs.
20 percent of the period, Ts, at which the constant acceleration and the The point has been made that it is unnecessary and wasteful to
constant velocity portions of the spectra meet. That period, require that the seismic design category of a short-period structure
be determined by long-period ground motion. Therefore, where S1
Ts = Sv1fSvs is less than 0.75, the SDC is permitted to be determined from IBC
Table 1613.2.5(1) or ASCE Table 11.6-1 alone where all of the fol-
is solely a function of the seismicity and the soil characteristics at the
site of the structure. It also serves as the dividing line between short- lowing apply:
1. In each of the two orthogonal directions, the approximate funda-
and long-period responses.
A procedure for classifying a site is contained in ASCE 20.3 and mental period of the structure, T,.. is less than O.ST,. where T, = Snit Sns·
2. In each of two orthogonal directions, the fundamental period of
Table 20.3-1. The procedure depends on average soil properties, which
are defined in ASCE 20.4. the structure used to calculate the story drift is less than T,.
3. The upper-bound design base shear is used in design (i.e., V = Svs
While the site-specific ground motion procedures, now set forth
in ASCE Chapter 21, can be used to determine ground motions for W/(RII.)).
4. The diaphragms are rigid or are permitted to be idealized as rigid
any structure, ASCE 11.4.8 requires Msite-specific• analysis to be car-
ried out in a number of different situations: (1) for structures located by ASCE 12.3.1, or, for diaphragms permitted to be idealized as flexible
by ASCE 12.3.1, the distances between vertical elements of the seismic
on Site Class F soils, (2) for seismically isolated structures and struc-
tures with damping systems on sites that are Mnear-source• (S1 :!: 0.6g), force-resisting system do not exceed 40 feet.
The period T, = SD11Svs is the period at which the short-period or
(3) for structures on Site Class E sites with S5 greater than or equal to 1.0,
and (4) for structurell on Site Class D and E sites with S1 greater than or constant-acceleration part of the design spectrum transitions into the
long-period or velocity-governed part of the spectrum. ASCE 7 does
equal to 0.2, subject to important exceptions listed in ASCE 11.4.8. In order
to clarifywhat is required for these different situations, the site-specific pro- not impose an upper limit on the period used to calculate story drift,
and as a result, it probably is a more realistic representation of the
cedure section in ASCE 7-16 is divided into (1) Section 21.1 Site R£sponse
Analysis (applicable to Site Class F soils) and (2) Section 21.2 Ground actual period of the structure than T. or c. T. (the limit that cannot be
exceeded by rationally computed period except for period used to cal-
Motion Hamrd Analysis (applicable to the other situations listed above).
culate story drift). Thus, condition 2 above ensures that the relaxation in
SDC determination applies only to short-period structures. It probably
5.4.3 Seismic Design c.tegory renders condition 1, which is intended for the same purpose, superflu-
Every structure shall be assigned to a seismic design category (SDC) ous. Condition 3 above is intended to impose a design force penalty
in accordance with IBC 1613.2.5 or ASCE 11.6. The SDC is used in on a structure that may stray into the long-period range despite all the
the IBC and ASCE 7 to determine permissible structural systems, other safeguards. The final condition is included because when the dia-
limitations on structural height and irregularity, the components of the phragm span is no more than 40 feet, the dynamics of the diaphragms
structure that must be designed for seismic resistance, and the types are unlikely to drastically influence the period of the structure, which is
of lateral force analysis that must be performed. Very importantly, the typically the concern with flexible-diaphragm structures.
SDC is also used to determine the level of detailing that is required to Whether there is any advantage to be gained from the relaxation in ques-
be done for a structure: ordinary, intermediate, or special. Note that an tion depends strictly on the relationship between Sns and Sm at the site of a
SDC need not be determined for those structures for which earthquala: structure. For many locations across the United States, there is no advantage
effects need not be considered (see discussion above and the exceptions because the short- and long-period ground motion parameters yield the
in IBC 1613.1, ASCE 11.1.2). same seismic design category. However, in other situations, the relaxation
The seismic design category is a function of occupancy or use (use in question may yield a one- or even two-category reduction in the seismic
category) and of soil-modified seismic risk at the site of the structure in design category. In other words, while the SDC may be D on the basis of
the form of the design spectral response accelerations at short periods, SDI• it may be only C on the basis of SDS- In that case, only intermediate
SDS> and at 1-second period, SD1. A structure located where S1 ~ 0.6g is rather than special detailing wmtld be required for a structure.
assigned to SDC E if its risk category is I, II, or III and to SDC F if its risk Relevant information on the six SDCs of the IBC and ASCE 7 is given
category is IV. For structures not assigned to SDC E or F, the SDC needs in Table 5.1. Reference 5.13 contains a lucid step-by-step procedure to
to be determined twice-first as a function of Svs by Table 1613.2.5(1) determine the SDC for any structure according to the provisions of the
(same as ASCE 7-16 Table 11.6-1) and a second time as a function of 2018 IBC.
Table 5.1 Seismic Design c.tegorles of the 2018 IBC 1nd ASCE 7-16
Seismic design category (SDC) U.ecategory Description
Structures of any oc<:upancy when: anticipated ground motions an: minor, even for very long-return
A All
periods (Sru < 0.167, Sm < 0.067).
Structures in regions where moderately datructive ground shaking is anticipated (0.167 :S: SDS <0.33,
B I, II, III
0.067 S SDI< 0.133).
Structures in regions where moderately datructive ground shaking may occur (0.167 S SD$ < 0.33,
N
0.067 S Sp1 < 0.133).
c Structul'\!1 in ttgions with 1omewhat matt severe than moderately delltructi.ve ground shaking potential
1,11,m
{0.33 :s: Sru < 0.50, 0.133 :s: SDI < 0.20).
Structutts in ttglona with somewhat more aevere than moderately destructive ground shaking potential
N
(0.33 :S: Sru < 0.50, 0.133 :S: SDI < 0.20).
D
Structures in regions expected to experience destructive ground shaking (0.50 :S: Sm} but not located
All
close to major active faulu (S1 < 0.75).
E I, II, III Structures in regions lo<:md close to major active faulu (S1 :!: 0.75).
p N Structures in regions loa.ud close to major active faults (S1 ~ 0.75).
EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN 151
Structures assigned to SDC E or F arc not allowed to be sited •where a arranged in a torsion-resistant, regular layout. Furthermore, only bear-
known potential eDsts for an active fault to cause rupture of the ground ing wall and building frame systems are permitted to be designed by
surface at the structure~ (ASCE 11.8.l ). this procedure. Because the simplified procedure does not require a
drift check as part of the design, moment frame systems are excluded
5.4.4 Bulldlng Conflgurlltlon since drift is a major concern in their design. The simplified design
Past earthquakes have repeatedly shown that buildings having irregu- procedure allows drift to be taken as 1 percent when an estimate of
lar configurations in plan and/or elevation suffer greater damage drift is required for determining structural separations or to meet
than those having regular configurations. In irregular structures, specific design requirements. For easier and faster navigation, parts of
inelastic behavior can concentrate in certain localized regions, result- ASCE 7-16 Table 12.2-1 are reproduced in ASCE 12.14 as Table 12.14-1
ing in rapid deterioration of structural elements in these areas. In to provide the R-values for only the structural systems that are permit-
contrast, inelastic demands tend to be better distributed throughout ted to be designed by the simplified method. However, Table 12.14-1
a regular structure. Elastic analysis methods typically used to analyzc does not include values for the overstrength factor, '1 0 , or the deflec-
a structure arc not capable of accurately predicting the distribution of tion amplification factor, c"' because the simplified analysis procedure
earthquake demands in an irregular structure. The requirements in uses a blanket 2.5 value for '10 for all permitted structures while not
ASCE 12.3.2 encourage the use of buildings with regular configura- requiring any drift calculation using C4. Furthermore, the load combi-
tions and prohibit the use of highly irregular buildings located on sites nation equations arc reproduced in this section, with the modification
close to active faults. that the overstrength factor .a_ in the equations is taken as 2.5, while p
is taken as 1.0. The seismic base shear V is determined in accordance
HORIZONTAL STRUCTURAL IRJU!GUL.ARITIBS with ASCE Equation 12.14-12:
Five different plan structural irregularities arc defined in ASCE Table 12.3-1
(see Table 5.2): V=FSmw
• Torsional irregularity R
• Reentrant comer irregularity
where Ris the response modification factor contained in ASCE Table 12.14-1
• Diaphragm discontinuity irregularity
• Out-of-plane offset irregularity for seismic force-resisting systems and W is the effective seismic weight of
the structure, which is defined in ASCE 12.7.2, with the definition repeated
• Nonparallel system irregularity
in ASCE 1214.8.1 (a more complete discussion on these two quantities is
Structures having horizontal structural irregularities in ASCE
given in the ~Divalent Lateral Force Procedure" section):
Table 12.3-1 must comply with the requirements of the applicable sec-
tions referenced in that table. 2
VERTICAL lRRP.GULARITIES
Sm =
3F.s,
Five different types of vertical structural irregularities are contained in where F. is permitted to be taken as 1.0 for rock sites or 1.4 for soil
ASCE Table 12.3-2 (see Table 5.3): sites or determined in accordance with ASCE 11.4.3. For the purpose of
• Stiffness-soft story irregularity simplified design, sites are permitted to be considered as rock if there is
• Weight (mass) irregularity no more than 10 feet of soil between the rock surface and the bottom of
• Vertical geometric irregularity spread footing or mat foundation. For the purposes of simplified design,
• In-plane discontinuity in vertical lateral force-resisting element S5 need not be taken any larger than 1.5.
irregularity The seismic base shear of simplified analysis varies (ASCE 7-16
• Discontinuity in lateral strength-weak story irregularity Equation 12.14-12) with the building height and is 20 percent higher
Vertical configuration irregularities affect seismic response at various than the upper-bound design base shear of the equivalent lateral
floor levels and induce forces at these levels that depart significantly force procedure for a three-story building. The importance factor,
from the distribution assumed in the equivalent lateral force procedure I., is equal to 1.0 since only Risk Category I and II structures may be
in ASCE 12.8, which is discussed below. Structures having vertical designed by this procedure. Also, because only short-period structures
irregularities as defined in ASCE Table 12.3-2 must comply with the may be designed by this procedure, the upper-bound design base
requirements of the applicable sections referenced in that table. shear of the equivalent lateral force procedure (next section) governs.
5.4.5 An•lysls Procedurn The factor F accounts for the difference between the triangular distri-
bution of the equivalent lateral force procedure for low-rise buildings and
According to ASCE 12.1.1, •The design seismic forces, and their dis- the distribution ofthe design base shear given by ASCE Equation 12.14-13,
tribution over the height of the building structure, shall be established which ls in proportion to the weights at the various floor levels (for the
in accordance with one of the applicable procedures indicated in same weight at every level, it is a uniform distribution). For a one-story
Section 12.6 and the corresponding internal forces and deformations building, there ls no difference between the two distributions; therefore,
in the members of the structure shall be determined. An approved F = 1.0. For a three-story building, the difference is the largest; therefore,
alternative procedure shall not be used to establish the seismic forces F = 1.2. For a two-story building, the difference ls in between and F = 1.1.
and their distribution unless the corresponding internal forces and The vertical distribution of the base shear is determined by ASCE
deformations in the members are determined using a model consistent Equation 12.14-13:
with the procedure adopted.~ ASCE 12.1.1 does make an exception to
this requirement: •As an alternative, the simplified design procedures F,,=FSvs w,,
R
of Section 12.14 is permitted to be used in lieu of the requirements of
Sections 12.1 through 12.12, subject to all the limitations contained in where F,, is the seismic force applied at level x and w,, is the portion of
Section 12.14:' The following is a summary of the simplified design pro- the effective seismic weight of the structure W at level x. The vertical
cedures, followed by a discussion of the equivalent lateral force procedure. distribution of the base shear Vis depicted in Fig. 5.6.
SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS EQlnVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE
The applicability of the simplified procedure in the stand-alone The equivalent lateral force (ELF) procedure is contained in ASCE 12.8.
Section 12.14 is clearly defined through a list of limitations. In effect, This analysis procedure can be used for all structures assigned to SDC
the procedure is limited in its applicability to simple and redundant B and C (ASCE 12.6) as well as for many structures assigned to SDC D,
structures falling under Risk Categories I and II, not exceeding three E, and F (see ASCE Table 12.6-1 for the analysis procedures that are to
stories in height, where the seismic force-resisting elements are be utilized for SDC D, E, or F structures).
152 CHAPTERFIVE
IT~-R-e-_e_n-tra_n_t_C-om-er_/_ _,
2 Reentrant comers
and
• Projection d > 0.15c
.I --.:- - d ----•I
..~t-------- c --------<IJll..
}
3 Diaphragm discontinuity • Area of opening> O.Sab
T b
or
• Changes in effuctive diaphragm stiffness >
50% from one story to the next
1 1 1 4 - - - - - - - - a--------·'
I I
c=J c=J Or
c=J c=J < 8096 (average atlffneas of 3 1torie1 above)
CJ b:J
lb Stiffneu irregularity-
= - Soft atory atlffneu
extreme soft story
II
--- ..._ Elements
Stiff Resisting
Or
< 60% (story ltiffneu above)
c=J
c=J
_c=]
c=Jc=J
c=Jc=J
c=Jc=JOl
II
4 In-plane discontinuity There is an in-plane offset of a vertical seWnic
in vertical latetal c=J c=J foro!-resistlng element resulting In overturning
furce-resiltlng element.
c=J c=J demands on mpporting structural members.
c=J LI
c=J ---....... ..._ Stiff Resisting
CJ
t:J Elements
Sa Diloontinuity in lateral Stiff Resisting Elements Welk story strength< 80% (story strength above)
strength-male story
1~~~~1
Sb Diloontinuity in lateral Weak story 1trength < 65% {story strength above)
strength-extreme weak
strong
The value of c, need .not ac:eW that from ASCE Equation 12.8-2:
Oulgn lase Shear, V In a. given direction. the deaign bue shear Vis Sm
determined by .ASCB Equation 12.8-1: C, =(RJI,)
( Sos J
<D ASCE 7-18 Eqs .
v = L"R14Jw G) - Eq. 12.8-2
@ - Eq. 12.8-3
@ @ - Eq. 12.8-4
@ - Eq.12.8-5
..: v = ((R~4)r Jw @- Eq. 12.8-6
C!I
QI
.c
I/)
QI @
Ill
&I
c V
( o.SS1
= l R le
1
JW, where S1 ~ 0.6g
Cl
"iii
QI
0
©
V = (o.044S0 5 1
e) W - . - - - - - -
1--~~~~~--1i.....~~~~~~~~......,.(;41.r,.~~...,...~~~~~~--t 1
v =(o.01)w
Ts = S 01 /S0 s
Period, T
Fig..,. 5.7 Deqn reapome spectrum aocordillg to die cqamlent 1atml fu.rce procedure In ASCB 12.8.
EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN 155
sustain these deformations and dissipate energy without collapse. depends on the long-period design spectral response acceleration, Sm,
It is important to note that a force level equal to that defined by and varies from 1.4 for Sm ~ 0.4 to 1.7 for Sm~ 0.1.
Equations 12.8-1and12.8-2 through 12.8-6 is also used as the lower The period T5 =Sn/Sns in Fig. 5.7 is the dividing line between Mshort-
bound for the modal response spectrum analysis procedure of ASCE period• and "long-period" response. If the period of a structure T is less
Section 12.9. than or equal to the transition period, T,, its response is governed by
The minimum design base shear of 0.044Smf, W, applicable in all the "flat top• or period-independent part of the spectrum, making it a
seismic design categories, is included in view of the uncertainty and the short-period structure. If, on the other hand, T is larger than or equal
lack of knowledge of actual structural response of long-period struc- to r,, its response is governed by the period-dependent part of the spec-
tures subject to earthquake ground motion. The absolute minimum trum, malting it a long-period structure.
design base shear of 1 percent of the seismic weight is simply an SDC A ASCE Equation 12.8-8 may also be used to determine the apprmd.-
minimum based on structural integrity considerations. mate fundamental period:
Following the Northridge earthquake of 1994, a second lower-bound
on the design base shear, applicable in Seismic Zone 4 only, was added to T.=O.lN
the 1997 UBC [5.7]. This second minimum was specifically intended to where N is the number of stories in a building. This equation is
account for the large displacement and velocity pulses observed in near- applicable to concrete or steel moment-resisting frame buildings not
fault ground motions in the Northridge earthquake. A corresponding exceeding 12 stories in height and having a minimum story height of
minimum, applicable to all structures located where the mapped MCE 10 feet. This approximate equation has long been in use for low- to
spectral response acceleration at 1-second period, S1 , equals or exceeds moderate-height frames.
0.6g, which is roughly equivalent to Zone 4 of the 1997 UBC, is required The approximate fundamental period for masonry or concrete
by ASCE 7-16. shear wall structures can be determined from ASCE Equation 12.8-9
Ei.sllc Fundllmentlll Period, T The design base shear is dependent on as follows:
the elastic fundamental period, T, for buildings in the intermediate height
T = 0.0019i.
range. However, T, which is a function of the mass and the stiffness of a
structure, cannot be determined until a structure has been designed since,
• Jc.:,.,,
until then, the stiffness and the mass cannot be evaluated. In view of this,
building codes include approximate period formulas, the purpose of
which is to get the design process started. The apprmrimate period formu- where C,.. is calculated by ASCE Equation 12.8-10 as folloW11:
las deliberately produce estimated periods that are shorter than the "real»
periods of actual structures, the idea being that if the initial period esti- C _lOOf. ~
mate is later not refined, the design should still be safe. Since design base
shear is inversely proportional to period (ASCE Equations 12.8-1 and
w- AB l=l[1+0.83 (-h,. )2]
D,
12.8-3) or to square ofthe period (ASCE Equations 12.8-1and12.8-4), a
shorter period means a higher base shear used in design. where AB = base area of the structure
ASCE 12.8.2.1 provides Equation 12.8-7 to determine an approximate A 1 = area of shear wall i
fundamental period r.: D1 = length of shear wall i
T.= C1h;
h. = height above base to highest level of structure
x = the number of shear walls in the building effective in resist-
where Ct =parameter given in ASCE Table 12.8-2 ing lateral forces in the direction under consideration
h. = height above the base to the highest level of the building
Seismic lmponance Factor,'• ASCE Table 1.5-2 contains the seismic
Coefficients et and x are listed in Table 12.8-2 for concrete and steel importance factor, I., for each risk category. As indicated above, design
moment-resisting frames where the frames resist 100 percent ofthe design seismic forces are directly proportional to I,. The forces increased by
lateral force and are not enclosed or adjoined by more rigid elements that !,-factors larger than 1 are intended to increase the likelihood that struc-
may prevent the frames from deflecting freely when subjected to seismic tures belonging to high-occupancy and essential categories would con-
forces. Coefficients are also listed for eccentrically braced frames and tinue to function during and following an earthquake.
buckling-restrained braced frames ofsteel. For all other structural systems, Response Modiration fllctor, R The response moditication factor, R, is
intended to account for differences in the inelastic deformability or energy
T4 = 0.020h~·75 dissipation capacity ofvarious structural systems. It retlects the reduction in
structural response caused by damping, overstrength, and inelastici.ty.
The base is the level at which the horizontal seismic ground motions It has been suggested in Section 5.3 above that an R-value of 2 used
are considered to be imparted to a structure. Having started design in design would result in essentially elastic response of a structure to
based on the approximate period and having gone part of the way the design earthquake of the IBC. By contrast, the R-values assigned
through, it is possible to refine the initial period estimate if desired. The by ASCE 7-16 to seismic force-resisting structural systems range from
code permits this to be done. 1 to 8, as can be seen from ASCE Table 12.2-1. An R-value of 8 (for
Period may be estimated by any rational procedure as long as it is in special reinforced-concrete or steel moment frames) represents one-
conformance with the principles of mechanics (ASCE 12.8-2). There quarter (218) ofthe strength level that would have been needed for elastic
is, however, scope for potential abuse here. The rationally computed response to the design earthquake of the IBC. An R-value of 1 (for a
period of a concrete or a masonry building is very much dependent cantilever column system detailed to conform to the requirements for
on what stiffness assumption is made in the period computation. Gross ordinary concrete moment frames) represents elastic response to the
section stiffness versus cracked section stiffness makes a big difference; design earthquake of the IBC, with a margin of safety built in.
how low the cracked section stiffness is taken to be obviously has a The R-values in ASCE Table 12.2-1 are based largely on engineering
major impact. In order to ensure that an unreasonably low design base judgment of the performance of various materials and systems in past
shear is not used, based on an unduly long period calculated using earthquakes. For ATC 3-06 [5.14], the predecessor document to the
unrealistic stiffness assumptions, the code imposes a limit on rationally NEHRP Provisions [5.3] in which R was first introduced, certain agreed-
computed period. According to ASCE 12.8-2, the rationally computed on reference structures were selected. Two systems having high and low
T may not be taken any longer than a multiplier c,,. which is obtained expected levels of performance were chosen to be ~a steel ductile frame
from ASCE Table 12.8-1, times the approximate period T0 (this restric- and a box type masonry or concrete building, respectively:' In today's
tion typically does not apply to drift computations). In ASCE 7-16, Cu terminology, these would be the special moment frame of steel and
1ff CHAPTER FIVE
where 6MDD and AADVB are u shown In Fig. 5.9. The loading used in thi•
calculation is n:q~d to be that prescribed in Section 12.8.
Acccrdlng to ASCE 12.3.1.1, "Unless a diaphragm can be idealli:ed
as either tlal.ble ar rigid In accordance with. Section 12.3.1.1, 12.3.1.2,
where C.,. =vertical dist:ributl0J1 factor or 12.3.1.3, the structural analyds shall. explidtly Include co.ndderatl.on
k = d!strlbuti.on exponent related to the building period of the mffnea of the diaphragm (ie., semirigid diaphragm assump-
=l for T S O.S second tion). This it not a requirement of the 2018 lBC. Aa:ording to 2018 IBC
=2 for T ~ 2.5 S«Ond Section 1604, "A diaphragm ii rigid for the pwpose of dlstrlbutlon of
=2, or is to be determined by linear interpolation between 1 story shear and tomonal moment when the lateral deformation of the
and 2 for 0.5 second< T < 2.5 ae<:0nd diaphragm is lea than or eq_ual to two time. the average story drift." In
h,.h. =height from the base to level i or x. respectively other words, a diaphragm that ii not flexible by calcullllion can be tRated.
w1,w,. =portion ofWIOClUCd.orauigned to level i or~ n:~vdy u a rlgld diaphragm in analyzing for the dlatrlbution of the total lateral
force to various vertical dementl! of the seismic furce-.ml.sting system.
For structures with T S O.S second, V Is distributed linearly over the For flexible diaphragm-. the Kinnie design story shear V,. is diruib-
height. varying from zero at the base to a maximum value at the top. utd to various vertical elements bued on the area of the diaphragm
For 0.5 second< T < 2.5 second, a linear interpolation between a linear tributary to each line of mistance.
and a parabolic dlrtrlbutlon is permitted. or a parabolic distribution is For rigid diaphragms, V,.. Is distributed to the various vmtcal ele-
also allowe<l (see Fig. 5.8). When T ~ 2.5 mond, a parabolic d.latrlbu- ments of the selmlic furce-redstlng system In the .wry under consid-
\ion ls to be used. The larger the value of k, the higher the proportion of eration baaed on the relative lateral rigiditiet of the vertical milting
V distributed to the upper portion1 of a structure. This produce1 more eleme.nbl and the diaphragm (ASCB 12.tl.4). Vlrtuaily all computer
overturning moment for Che same base sb.eat, which is clwac:terlstlc of program• utiliud fur structural analysis assume diaphragm• to be rigid
flaible building response. (by clefamt), unlm otherwise spedfled.
HOilllofttal DlstlibUOOft al S.llll'llc Force.t The seismic design story Tor1lon,. Including Aaldental Tor1lon Where diaphraps are not
shear V,. in any story :c ii the sum of the lateral lon:es acting at the floor tlmble, prarisiom must be made for the increased horizontal forca
or roof level supported. by that story and all the tloor levell above. induced In vertical elements ofthe seismic fon:e-relllstiD.g system result-
including the roof (ASCE Equation 12.8-13): ing from inherent torsion, as it is called in ASCE 7-16, due to eccentric-
ity between the center of application ofthe lateral forces (cemcr of mass)
and the center of rigidity of the seilmic fon:e-n:sisting system (through
whh:h the resultant of the resistances to the lateral forces acts}. Force.t
are not to be decreased due to torsional ~
The dlstrlbut:lon a! V,. to the vertical elements of the eelaml.c force- The tonional delign moment at a. given story i• required to be the
resl.stlng system {shear wall& and frames) in story x is determined by the moment ruulting from eccentricities between applied design lateral
flmbility of the supported diaphragm. forces at levels above that etory and the center of rigidity of the vertical.
Per ASCE 12.3, certain diaphragms are "pre.tcriptively" tlaible .resisting eleme.au in that story (ASCB 12.8.4.1) plus an acc:ldental tor-
(meaning flmble without any deflection calculatlon-ASCE 12.3.1.1). sion (ASCE 12.8.4.2). To compute the accidental torsion, the mass at
Certain other diaphragms are •p.rescrlptivdy" rigid (ASCB 12.3.1.2). eac:h level must be assumed tD be dilplaced from the calculated untn'
ASCE 12.3 all<> defines diaphragim that are flexible by cafoulation. of mass in each. direction a distance equal to 5 perce.nt a! Che bull.ding
IEARTllQUAKE·RE$1$TANT DESIGN 157
Equivalent tributary
lateral load
including contribution
of supported walls ~
plan dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction of the force the higher mk categories. Without the division by I,.. structum with. I.
under cOl!lidera!ion. Por many edlt!on.s of ASCE 7 through ASCE 7-10, larger than 1.0 would be doubly penallzecl. Thus. the deflection llx at
die consideration of accidental torsion wu always n:quimi. In an level :c ii determined by ASCB Equation 12.8-15:
important change, ASCB 7-16 state.t the following:
& =c,&.,.
Accidental torsion shall be applied to all stntctmes for deten:nina-
tion if a homontal im:gularity exisb as specified in Table 12.3-1.
Acddetttal. torlion moments (Mia) need not be Jnduded when
" '·
The design story drift/,. ls com~ as the difference ofthe ddlec::t!ons
determining the seismic force effi:cu Bin the duign of the ruuc- 8;c at the untcn1 of mass of the diaphragms at the top and die bottom of
ture and in the determination of the design story drift ...• except the ltory under consideralion (see Fig. S.10). Where centen of 1I1.U1 do
for the following llructures: not align vertically, it u permitted to compute the deflection at the bottom
1. Structutts utigD.ed to Se.lamlc Category B with Type lb hori- of Che story based 011 Che vertical. projection of the ce.ater of mass at the
zontal ruuctural. irregularity. top of the story. For sauctwes usigned to SDC C or higher. with toui.onal
2. Structures asigned to Scilmic Catc50ry C. D, E, and F with or extmne tomonal irngularity (ASCE 'Ilible 12.3-1), 4 is eomputed
Type la or Type lb homontal rtructural. im:gularity. a.a the largeit dlHerence of Che detleciio.lle along any of the edgea of the
diaphragms at the top and the bottom of the story 1l!lder consideration.
ASCE 12.U.3 filnher ~ 1hat wh~ a torsional img111arity or an
atmne tonional. im!gularity c:s:im, as cldined in ASCB Table 12.3-1, the
e1fe.cts mu.ft be accounted for by multtplying the acdde.ntaJ. tonlon at each
Level x I
levelbyanampllilc:attonfactm.A,, (S 3.0),gl.ftn by ASCE.Equattao.12.3-14. j
This lut requirement applies to bulldlnp in Seismic D«lgn Categories C.
D, B, and P only. St ory x
II
o-tumlng Ac:cordmg to ASCE 12.8.S, st:ructum are to be d.eslgned
fur the effe<:tll ofovertum1Dg cauaild by the seismic: furcell determ!ned from I
ASCE 12.8.3. The omtum1ng momentM,. at level x is determined by Level x - 1 r -----~-~-..J
"
I
M 11 =l:,JJ(h,-h,.) -;
..... I
where F1 =portion of V induced at level i
h,, h:.. =height from the base to level I or x, rapectively
ASCB 12.13.4 allow• for certain rednctiom in overturning effect3 a1 the
•oil-foundation interlilce. Deflectiont 8., must be deten:nined based on the elastic proper-
Dlfft l.nltl'don Drift computation start5 with S'"' the dastic:aI!y ties of all elements of the seismic force-resisting system, c:ons:ld.ering
computed lateral deflection at ftoor level x under cocle-pzes~ teis- the spatial d1strl.button of Che mass and Che stiffness of the structure.
mic fon:e.t (the design base ahear V, di.ttributed along the height of the For concrete elemen1J. stlffnen properties m\l.St include the effects of
structure in Che manner preac.r:lbed by the code). Reccgnizing that Che cra.c:hd section1.
ddlectlons 6.., are much lower than the ac:tual lateral deflections the vari- For the puzposet of drift computation, the value of the bue 1hear V
ous Boor levels would undergo if the mucture were to be subjected to need not be llmlted by the upper-bound liml.ta.t!on on the computed
the de1ign earthquake of the 2018 IBC or ASCE 7-16 (two-thirds of the fundamental pel'iod T (T S C,.T.J (ASCB 12.8.6.2).
mk-targeted nmimum considered earthquake), the deflections 6u are The design story drift 4x mUlt be incmued by 1.0/(1 - 6) when
multiplied by the deflection ampllftc:ation factor C"' producing esti- P-delta. effect3 are determined to be significant (aee the following sec-
mated design earehquake dl8placements at the varlO\l.S floor levels. At tion on that topk). When eakulating drift, the redwidancy factor p (see
the ume time, the 8,.. values are divided by the seismic importance later dia<:ussion) is to be taken as 1.0.
factor I., by which the eod&-pmcribed 1eimll.c force.t (Wider which Che Once die design .Wry drifts arc computed. they arc to be c.ompaml with
ddleciions S..., were c:alc:ulated) were lnc.reased for structuru belonging the alloWllhle story drift 4,, in ASCE 'Iible 12.12-1 (ASCE 12.12-1). Build-
to the higher risk categorle~. This ls necessary became the limiting val- ingll IUbjeded to earthquab.t need drift amtrol. to ttltrlct damage to parti-
ues of interm>ry drift in ASCB 7-16 are more stringent for ltructures in tions, shaft and stair endoswu, and glass and O!her fragile .nonstruc:tural
15' CHAPTER FIVE
elemenU and. more important. to minimize diff'erelltial movement limit. for the various structural system1, which depend o.n the SDC.
demand on the sei.tmicsafetyelcmenb. The ASCE 7-16limititiom on story It is the height limiu portion of the table that indicates that when
drift depend on the .rhk category. and geneially became more ttltrlciive it comes to concrete moment &a.mes. ordinary detailing u permitted.
fur !he hlgher risk c:ategor1e$, to provide a higher lm:l ofperformance. The only for SDC .B (and, of course, A); Intermediate or apedal. detailing i.
llmituaodcpendonthetypeafstl'llctlUe. Thedeslgnstm:ydri&mwtnot .required for SDC C; and apedal. detalllng is the minimum requirement
eli:eed.1he allowable values. for SDC D, E. or F. Abo inc:ludc<I in Table 12.2-1 is a. «>lumn that lists
Jt.Dllltll Efflldl Member forces and story dri1bl induced by P-delm .ASCB 7 sections where detailing requin:menb for the various stzuctural
dfecta must be considered in the evaluation of overall structural syatem.s are aped.fled. This column .Is not particularly useful because
mbllity ifsuch effects ue significant.. P-delta effects n«d not be comld- most of the referencea are to .ASCB 7 Chapter 14 se<:tton nwnbera. For
emi when the ratio of secondary moment to primary moment does not all reinfo.n:ed-concretc systems, reference is made to ASCE 1·4.2. That
aceed 0.10. The ralio may be miluated for any story u the product of 1ection referencu ACI 318-14, which is where the actual detailing
the dead, tloor live, and &now load above Che $toty (P,.) times the wwn- requlrement.t are found. A general deecrlplion of each major category
pllfled drift (AJC,,) in the story amplified by the Wsmic importanc:e of seismic: force-Ielistlng systems Is given below.
factor (1,) divided by the product of the smmic ahear in the story (V.) For rtruc:tural memben within a building assigned to SDC D, E.
and the story height (b,,J (see ASCB Bquation 12.8-16 and Fig. 5.11): or F that are not proportioned to resist forces induced by earthquake
motiom, the deformation compatibility requirements of ASCE 12.12.5
&= P~,.1. must be aatls1ied. In short, every structural component not included 1n
V,,h.C.t die seismic: forc:e-redstlng system In the direction under consideration
must be designed to be adequate for vertical load-carrying capacity
If9 Is greater Chan e_ the structure Is potentially unstable and must and the induced bending moments and shear forca resultlllg from the
be redetigned. e_ 1s given by ASCE Eq,Wltion 12.8-17 u fullows: delllgn story drift ~ Note that reinforced-concrete frame members
not designed as part of the msmic; fon:e-misting sy11em are deemed
o.s
e_ =pc, ~o.2s to 11tmy deformation compa1ibility requirem.entJI if they comply with
Section 18.14 of ACI 318-14 [5.4].
wh~ jJ is the ratio of ahear demand to shear capacity for the ltory MOMENT-Rl!slSTJ'NO FllAM.B S!ST.BMS
birtween levc:h" and .it1-1. If Pis not calculated, p is to be taken equal Figuni 5.12.cl depicts a. moment-rmsting &a.me system. This is a strw:-
to 1.0. tural system w:llh moment frames providing aupport for gravity loadt.
For 0.10 < 9 S e_. mtmtmy drift and element forces must be c:om- Lateral force. are resisted primarily by flemral action of the frame
~ including P-ddt& eft'ects. This c.an be accomplished by multiplying members. All the moment frames or some of them or selected portions
displaoc:ments and member forces by [1.0 /(1- 9)]. 1hereof ma.y be designated u the seismic &m:e-resimng system; the
members of the 1eimlic force-re.ristlllg system must be desig11ed and
S.A.f St11111le Fot'Clt-Rt411s*ig S~ttint detailed accordingly based on the SDC.
The bade structural syftem8 that may be used to resist earthquake forces S« ASCE Ttible 12.2-1 Row C for moment-reNtlng frame systems
are lilted in ASCE Table 12.2-1. Included in the table an1 the rupome ipecifically recognized by ASCB 7-16. Detailing requirements for ordi-
modification facto.rt R to be wed in determining the base shear V, the nary, intermediate, and special moment frames of concrete and steel
overstrength factor n., to be used in determ!DJng mmmum. element are given in ACI 318 [5.4] and AlSC 341[5.15], respectively. Detailing
design forces, and the deflection ampliflcatto.n factor c, to be used requlrement.t for steel-conc:rete ccmpo41te moment frames are dso
in determining design ttory drift. Abo given in the table an1 height given in AlSC 341 [S.15].
- - - - - - LEVEL x
Thsx
l
' VERTICAL AXIS OF STRUCTURE DEFORMED BY
SEISMIC DESIGN FORCES
... t t t ...
(a) Moment-resisting frame system (b) Bearing wall system (c) Dual system
• t t.
BEARING WALL SYSTEMS must be capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the design story
The bearing wall system depicted in Fig. 5.12b is a structural system shear in every story.
without an essentially complete space frame that provides support Bun.DING FRAME SYSTl!MS
for the gravity loads. Bearing walls provide support for all or most of
the gravity loads. Resistance to lateral forces is provided by the same A building frame system is depicted in Fig. 5.12(d). This is a structural
bearing walls acting as shear walls. See ASCE Table 12.2-1 Row A for system with an essentially complete space frame that supports the grav-
bearing wall systems of various materials specifically recognized by ity loads. Resistance to lateral forces is provided by shear walls or braced
ASCE 7- 16. frames. No interaction between the shear walls or braced frames and the
moment frames is considered in the lateral load analysis; all of the lateral
DUAL SnTl!MS forces are allocated to the walls. Deformation compatibility between the
A dual system. depicted in Fig. 5.12(c), is a structural system with the fol- gravity frame and the seismic force-resisting shear walls or braced frames
lowing essential features: must be ensured through the design earthquake displacements.
1. An essentially complete space frame provides support for gravity Similar to dual systems, the concept of the building frame system
loads. loses its appeal for structures assigned to SDC A or B since there is little
2. Resistance to lateral forces is provided by moment-resisting frames to be gained from assigning the entire lateral resistance to the shear
capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the design base shear and by walls in the absence of any special detailing requirements for the frames.
shear walls or braced frames (ASCE 12.2.5.1). As noted above, a shear wall-frame interactive system may be more
3. The two subsystems (moment-resisting frames and shear walls) are practical and economical in such cases.
designed to resist the design base shear in proportion to their relative
CANTILEVERED COLUMN SYSTEMS
rigidities (ASCE 12.2.5.1).
ASCE 7-16 separately recognizes dual systems in which the moment- Cantilevered column systems are defined in ASCE 11.2 as seismic
resisting frame consists of special moment frames (ASCE Table 12.2-1 force-resisting systems in which lateral forces are resisted entirely by
Row D ) and dual systems in which the moment-resisting frame consists columns acting as cantilevers from the base. These structures have little
of intermediate moment frames (ASCE Table 12.2-1 Row E). redundancy and overstrength, and inelastic behavior is concentrated at
The concept of the dual system loses its validity in buildings their bases. As a result, they have substantially less energy dissipation
assigned to SDC A and B since it is questionable whether the capacity than other systems.
moment frames, which are required to have only ordinary detailing,
UNDEFINED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
can act as a backup to the ordinary reinforced-concrete shear walls
(the inelastic deformability of both systems are comparable). In Undefined structural systems are any systems not listed in ASCE
areas oflow seismicity, utilizing a shear wall-frame interactive system Table 12.2-1. The coefficients R, a., and c, are to be substantiated based
(ASCE Table 12.2-1 Row F) is more logical. In this system, defined on approved cyclic test data and analysis (ASCE 12.2.1).
in ASCE 12.2.5.8, the shear walls and frames resist the lateral forces
in proportion to their rigidities, considering interaction between 5.4.7 Seismic Force Effects
the two subsystems at all levels. In addition, the shear strength of Once the seismic force-resisting system has been chosen and the design
the shear walls must be at least 75 percent of the design story shear base shear V has been determined and distributed over the height of
at each story. The frames of the shear wall-frame interactive system the building, an analysis of a mathematical model (ASCE 12.7.3) of the
HO CHAPTER FIVE
mucture is perl'onned (yielding the effcd3 of horizontal seinnic for<:«. included or that the proper redundancy filctor is tpplled. Stories re«isting
Qi), and the structmal memben are duigned for the combined effects of more than 3S pe1UDt of the hue shear only are con.rid.end.
gravity and •eWnic forces. The effec:m ofwind are to be conaldered u well. The above way of determlnlng p obviously illvolvet a mimber-posslbly
a 8lgnJ&ant DWDber-of structural analyses. There is an alternative
LoAD CoM.BINA1'ION9 way of determlnlng p esse.ntlaI!y by impec:tion. If a structure is regular
Buie; load combinalions for S!Rngth de1ign are given in IBC 1605.2 and in plan and there are at lea.rt two bays of seismic fora-remting perim-
ASCB 23.1and2.3.6. The following load combinations ofmc 1605.2. eter framing on each side of the stJUcture in each orthogonal direction
whic:h. are somewhat different from those of ASCE 2.3.1 and 2.3.6 and (Fig. 5.13) at eachatory realsting more than 35 perc:ent of the bueahear,
t1lb precedence over them. are utilized in the de«ign of mucturd the.a p = 1. Significantly, the number of bays for a shear wall ls to be
members: calculated as the length of the shear wall divided by the story height or
two times the length of shear wall divided by the ltory height for light-
l.4(D+F) (IBC Equation 16-1) framed conrtruc:tion. Th\18, the aheu wall length plays a major role, and
1.2(D + F) + l.6(L + H) + o.S(L,. or S or R) (IBC Equation 16-2) light-framed construction ls glve.n an ad.vantage.
1.2(D + F) + l.6(L,. or Sor R) + (fi.L or O.SW) (IBC Equation 16-3)
1.2(D+ F) + 1.6W+fi.L+ 1.6H+0.5(4 or Sor R) (IBC Equat!on 16-4)
~ Seismic Frame
1.2(D + F) + l.OB+ fi.L + 1.6H + fiS (IBC Equation 16-5)
0.9D+ l.OW + 1.6H (IBC Equation 16-6)
0.9(D + F) + l.OB + l.6H (IBC Equation 16-7)
where D, P, L, H, L,. S, R. W, and B are the effedJI of dead loads, fluid
pressures, live 1.oada, late.ral earth pre&fUl'U. roof live loads, mow loads,
ra.1n loads, wind loads, and seismic: furc:es, re~c:tively. The quantityJi
is~ to either 1.0 for plac« ofpublic assembly, for live loads in excas
of 100 ~and for parking garage live loads or to O.S for other live loads.
and h is eq,ual to 0.7 for roof comlguratio.n1 (such as 11wtooth) that do
not shed snow off the struc:ture or to 0.2 for other roof configurations.
SEISMIC Foll.C.11 EfPIICT. B Rgur• S.U An aample plan 'rit:w of building with p • 1.0.
A««dlag to me 1602, Noblions, B is Che CA:lmbined effect of hori2oaml
andwrticalearth.quaktfurc:u,11A±ll,.asddlnedinASCE2.3.6.According The 1.3 value of p is based on the mu11l! of.rellabWty and nidundanc:y
to ASCE 2.3.6. fur use in ASCE load combination 6, IBC Equation 16-5, studies as well as engineering judpent and is considered to pIOYide
B = B11 + B.- Wdh ~ and B, as defined by ASCE Eqwlliom 12.~3 and adequate aaf'eguanl for a nonmiundarrt building without Wiiing seriOWI
12.4-U, respectively. when Che effects ofgm:ity and aeUmic ground motion ovudea:lgn. The thraholdatorysheuof3Spercartofehe baaeahear wu
are addlttve, arrive<1 at 1hrough pmmetrlc smdles and roughly includea an stories ill
buildings up to five or six slllrlet tan and about 87 perc:ent of the ttories in
B =pQa. + 0.2SruD taUer buildinp. The redmidancy provision is moltly critical for the deaign
where Qa. =~ of the F,. forces obtained by dirtributing the design of moment frames and l:n.ced fram.e.t, although shear walla with helght-
bue shear V along the height of the structure in the man- to-lmglh rat1oi greater than 1.0 and dual systems are also included in the
ner pmcribed by ASCE Equatlom 12.8-11and12.8-12 provision. It mlllt be no1ed, howewr. that the requirement that the collector
p =redundancy factor determined in acc:ordance with. elemem. and dieir connections be designed for a fon:e that incmpontell
ASCE 12.M for struc:tw'e$ assigned to SDC D, E, or F overst:rength generally retulb in the use of mulliple shear walls to reduce
=1.0 for stru.ci:ure1 a:a:igned to SDC A, B, or C Che fruu ill Che collec:tor elemems, making a building with mear wa&
inheremly redlJndant. Also, dual qstemJ UC generally redlJndant bectw.se
Abo acc;ording to ASCE 2.3.6, for uae in ASCE load combination 7, of the nquirmu:lltll govi:ming their design that mi already in place.
lBC Equation 16-7, B =B,, - B.,. Wrth B,, and B., u defined by ASCB ASCB 7-16 adds a wer-&iendly feature of conveniently listing situa-
Equations 12.4-3 and 12.4-U, respectively, where the effects of gravity tion• where the redundancy factor, p. may be takai. u 1.0. The value of
and •elsmlc ground motion are counteractive, p is permitted to equal 1.0 for the following:
B= pQa-0.2Sosl> 1. SDC B or C buildinp
2. Buildings assigned to SDC D through F that are regular in plan and
REDUNDANCY have at least two bays of lcismic force-remting &aming on eac;h side of
The buic premise of the redundancy pmvilion1 ASCE 12.3.4 ii that the Che building perimeter a1 each story that resisb at leut 35 percent of the
most logical way to determine lack. of redundancy is to check whether baae shear
a compone.nt's D!lure resulu Jn an unacceptable amount of wiry 3. Drift calc:ulation and P-delta effects
strength loss or in the introduc:tion of ememe torslo.nal irregularity. 4. Design ofnonmuctuul «mlPOnents
Jn ASCB 7-16, the redundancy fa.Gtor. p. ii equal to eilher 1.0 or 1.3, 5. Design of nonbuilding llructmes that are not similar to buildings
depending on whether an individual element can be removed (deemed 6. DeslgD. of collector elements, spllca, and their co.nnec:tions for
to have failed or lost Its mome.nt-realsting capab.llitie.t) from the aeismJc which the load combinations with ovmtrength factor, as provided In
force-ml.sting system with.out causing the remaining mucture to suf- ASCE. 12.'4.3, are required to be UJed
fer a reduction in irtory mength of mOIC than 33 percent or cra1ing an 7. Design of members or connectiom for which the load combina-
extn:me torsional im:gularity (Horizontal Structural irregularity Type tions with ovwtrength factor. as provided in ASCE 12.4.3, a.re required
lb in ASCE 7 Table 123-1). to be used
Braced frame, mome.nt frame, shear wall. and cantikvl:r column 8. Diaphrqm loads determined &om ASCE Equation 12.10-1
systems have to confonn to redundancy requ.imnents. Dual systems are 9. Structures with damping syltml.s designed in aaordance with
included also but in most aue11 a.re inherently redundant. Shear walls .ASCE Chapter 18
with a height-to-length ratio greater Chan 1.0 are included in redundancy 10. Design of structural walls fur out-of-plane forc:es, Including their
consideration& to help emure that an adequate number ofwall elements Is anchorage
EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN 161
DIAPHRAGMS
For structure assigned to SDC B and above, floor and roof diaphragms the structure used to be applied. The multiplier was changed to '10 , the
are required to be designed to resist the design seismic forces from overstrength factor for the seismic force-resisting system utilized for
structural analysis (F1at floor level i) but not less than F,,. forces given the structure in the direction of the transfer forces.
by ASCE Equation 12.10-1:
COLLECTOR ELEMENTS
•
LF.
1
In general, collector elements transfer seismic forces from the dia-
phragm to the vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system.
0.2SvsI,w,.-sF,,.= :-'wFS0.4SvsI,w,.-
Collectors (or drag struts) are required, fur example, when shear
Lw; walls do not extend the full length of the diaphragm in the direction
i=x
of loading. It is essential that the seismic forces are transferred to the
shear walls in order to guarantee a continuous load path. Therefore,
where F; is the design level force applied to level i (force at level i obtained
IBC 1605.1 and ASCE 12.10.2.1 require that for structures assigned to
by distributing V along the height of the structure in accordance with
ASCE 12.8.3), W; is the weight tributary to level i, and w,.. is the weight
SDC C or higher, collector elements, splices, and their connections be
designed to resist the load combinations with overstrength factor in
tributary to the diaphragm at level x. The above formula relates the
ASCE2.3.6.
design force for the diaphragm to the forces from the vertical distribu-
tion of the base shear and the floor weights. Any forces due to offsets in
the vertical seismic force-resisting system or changes in lateral stiffness ALTERNATIVE DIAPHRAGM DESIGN FORCE LEVEL
of the vertical elements must be added to the force determined from ASCE 7-16 includes a new Section 12.10.3, Alternative Design Provisions
ASCE Equation 12.10-1. for Diaphragms Including Chords and Collectors, within Section 12.10,
In older codes and standards, V£'< used to denote the portion of Diaphragm Chords and Collectors. The new section provides for an alter-
the seismic shear force at the level of the diaphragm that is required to be native determination of diaphragm design force level, which is mandatory
transferred through the diaphragm due to offsets or changes in the stiffness for precast concrete diaphragms in buildings assigned to SDC C, D, E,
of the vertical elements of the seismic furce...resisting system abOV£ and or F. The alternative is permitted to be used for other precast concrete
below the diaphragm. An example of an offset in the vertical elements diaphragms, cast-in-place concrete diaphragms, and wood-sheathed
of the seismic furce...resisting system is illustrated in Fig. 5.14. The dia- diaphragms on wood framing. Section 12.10.3 does not apply to steel
phragm must be designed for the additional force due to this offset. deck diaphragms. ASCE 7-16 also includes newly added Section 14.2.4,
The redundancy factor, p, theoretically applies to the design of dia- containing detailed seismic design provisions for precast concrete dia-
phragms in structures assigned to SDC D, E, or F. However, for inertial phragms and including a connector qualification protocol. 2018 IBC
forces calculated in accordance with Equation 12.10-1, the redundancy Chapter 19 requires precast concrete diaphragms assigned to SDC C
factor is equal to 1.0. For transfer forces, the redundancy factor p for or above to be designed by ASCB 14.2.4
162 CHAPTER FIVE
ASCE 7-16 12.10.3 pmen1ll a nev-dut!c; dlaphngm design £Orce u Where the anc:ho• is not locakd at the roofand aD diaphragms are not
the statistical IUJll oflust mode c:ffect and higher mode effed.t [S.16]. The ftaible, the value from ASCE Equation 12.11-1 ii permitted to be muhi-
first-mode effect is reduced by 1he R-fac:tor of the seismic force-resisting plled by the factor (1 + 2r/h)/3, where z Js the height of the anchor above
syltem. but then ampJified by the oventrength factor, O..,. because verti- the bue of the struc:ture and h Is the height of the roof above the base.
ad element ovmtrength will genmite higher first-mode forc:es in the Struc:turd walls shall be dmgned to mist bending between anc:hort
diaphragm. The c:ffect cau.sed by hiper-mode raporue is not reduc:ed. where the anc.hor spacing ac.eedl 4 feet.
In :iecogniiion of the ddm:mation cspacity and oventrength of the dia-
phragm. the elutic diaphragm. force from the flnt and higher modea of 5.4.10 DINceton of Selsntlc Load
mponse is 1hen reduced by a dlaphngm force red.uc:tlon fac:tor, R,. ASCE 12.5.1 requir« fur all struc:tum that the teismic force. be applied
In muctum assigned to SDC C. D, E, or F; co]le(tors; and their in a. direction that. will produce the most aitical load effi:ca in the
connec:tiom, including connediom to vertical elements, are required members. For struc:ture.t assigned to SDC .B, d1is requirement is satimed
to be dea!gned to milt 1.5 times the diaphragm. inertial forces from Jf the design Ki4mk forces are applied separately and Independently In
ASCB 12.10.3.2 plus 1.5 times the design transfer force~. The 1.5 .Is a each of two orthogonal dlrections {ASCB 12.5.2).
smaller multiplier than then. u.sed with the dmgn force level of ASCE SDC C rtructurel that have horizontal irregularity Type S in ASCB
12.10.l because the diaphragm forces given in ASCB 12.10.3 are felt to 'Ilible 12.3-1 (nonparallel systems irregularity) are required to satisfy the
be more accurately determined. provialona In ASCE 12.5.3. This aec:tlon requltta Chat such a structure be
analyzed for seismic forces using t1. three-dimensional. repmentattoo In
S.A.9 IUrlng...., 511..,wa11s,, and Tlltir Anchonige ac:cord.ance with item 1 or 2 below:
In addition to seismic; forces In the plane of the wall, struc:tural 1. The structure must be analyud. 111ing the equiwlent laleral ftm:e
walls (bearing walls or shear walls, as defined in ASCB 11.2) in analys1' procedure of ASCE 12.8, the modal mpome apecirllm analy-
sla procedure of ASCE. 12.9.1, or the linear mponse history analysis
structures assigned to SDC B and higher are to be designed to resist
an out-of-plane force ~ equal to 0.4SDSI, times the weight of the proc:edure of ASCB 12.9.2, with the loading applied independently in
wall with a minimum tOrce of 10 percent of the weight of the wall any two orthogonal dim:tiom. The critical direction requirement of
(ASCB 12.11.1). ASCE 12.5.l .18 deemed to be aattsfied if the member• are deaigned fur
Additionally, struci:W'al waib are to be anchored to the roof and ftoor the following orthogonal combination of the applied loada: 100 percent
members that provide lateral support for Che ml!. The anchorage of of the forces for one direc:tlon plus 30 percent of the fol'«$ for the
perpendic:ular direction {eac:h member i.'I de1igned for the combination
muci:W'aJ. walls to supporting c:onruuction 8haD. provide a direc:t con·
nedion capable of raisting the following: produc:illg the ail.lad load effecu).
2. The muctwe must be analyzed U4lng the linear response history
F1 =0.4S.os k. I, W1 (ASCE. Equation 12.11-1) analysis proc:edure of ASCE 12.9.2 or the nonlinear response history
analysi.1 procedure of ASCB Chapter 16, with orthogonal pain of
F1 shall not be tiken le~ than 0.2k. I,w,
ground motlC11 acceleration historie.t applied 1lmultaneously.
kc= 1.0+1:f1100 (ASCE Equation 12.11-2) For structures assigned to SDC D or higher, Che orthogonal combina-
k. need not be takai. larger than 2.0 tion procedure Is additionally required by ASCE 12.5.4 for c;olumm or
walla that form part of two or more intemic:t:ing seismic force-resisting
where k, =amplification fa.c:tor for diaphragm flexibility l}'Jtem.t and are subjec:ted to udal. load due to seismic: forcu greater
Lt= the span. in feet. of a flexible diaphragm that proridea Chan or equal to 20 percent of the uial load design strength. The
the lateral support for the wall; the span is meuured orthogonal. c:omblnattoo procedure Is the 100+ 30 percent proc:edure of
between vertic:al elements that provide lateW support to the ASCE 12.S.3 deKribed above.
diaphragm in the direction con.rid.end; use zero for rigid
diaphragm.I (Fig. S.15) 5.4.11 Dellllllnf llequ!Nmtn'CS
w, = the weight of the wall tributary to the anchor At, dlsc;UMed previously, Che design selamlc; forces determined by the
analysis proc:edures desmbed in Section 5.4.S are only a fraction of the
a.c:tual. force1 that an ela.st.ic: stzucture may experience during the design
earthquake of ASCE 7. For dea!gn purposes, the seismic: forces are
Frame or wall providing reduced since it .Is impractiad u m1l u unec:onomkal to design a atrut;-
lateral support to diaphragm tu.re to remain elastic in such sitwltion.s. In order 10 prevent c;oUap.e,
ltructures mult be properly detailed so that they are able to diuipate the
earthquake energy through inelastic deformations.
The 2018 IBC references the requirements of A.Cl 318-14 for the
de&gn of reinforced-c:oncrete structures, with a few modificatloos.
Chapter 18 of ACI 318-14 contains the design and detailing require-
Wall
ments for rtruc:tures imigned to SDC B or higher. A summary of the
sections of Chapter 18 to be satidled u a function of the SDC for vari-
Flexible ous type~ of componenu resisting earthquake effeir:u is given below in
Diaphragm 'Ilible S.4.
REFERENC£S
5.1. International Code Council. bttt:numonal Building Code, 2018
IBC, Publications, Country Club Hilb, lL, 2018.
5.2. Amerl.can Soclety of Civil Engineers, ASCB Standard Minimum
Design Loads and AJsociattd Crttma for BuJidlnp tutd Other Structures,
ASCI! 7-16, Reaton. VA, 2016.
53. Building Seismic: Safety Council, NBHRP (Nation1.1l Bartlujllllh
Hazards Rtduction Program) Rec.ommetukd ProvlMnsfor Seismic Regula-
tff111S for New Buildtngs and Other Structum FEM:A P-1050, 2015 Edition.
Washinpn. DC. 2015.
EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT DESIGN 16J
5.4. American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirements for 5.11. American Society for Testing and Materials, Test Method for
Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 31BR-14), Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil, ASTM D2166-00,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml, 2014. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2000.
5.5. Ghosh, S. K, and Henry, J., JBC Handbook-Stnu:tural Provisions, 5.12. American Society for Testing and Materials, Test Method for
International Code Council, Country Club Hills, IL, 2009. Unconsolidated, Undrained T'riaxial Compression Test on Cohesive Soils,
5.6. International Code Council, International Residential Code, ASTM D2850-03A, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2003.
International Code Council, Country Club Hills, IL, 2018. 5.13. S. K Ghosh Associates LLC, CodeMaster-Seismic Design Categol')I
5.7. International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building S. K. Ghosh Associates LLC, Palatine, IL, 2018.
Code, International CODference ofBuilding Officials, Whittier, CA, 1994, 5.14. Applied Technology Council, Tentative Provisions for the
1997. Development of Seismic Regulations for Buildings, ATC Publication
5.8. International Code Council, International Existing Buildings ATC 3-06, NBS Special Publication 510, NSF Publication 78-8, U.S.
Code, International Code Council, Country Club Hills, IL, 2018. Government Printing Office, Washington DC, 1978.
5.9. Ghosh, S. K., Seismic Design Using Structural Dynamics (2015 5.15. American Institute of Steel Construction, Seismic Provisions for
IBC/ASCE 7-10/ACI 318-14), International Conference of Building Structural Steel Buildings, AISC 341-16, Chicago, IL, 2016.
Officials, Country Club Hills, IL, 2016. 5.16. Rodriguez, M., Restrepo, J. I., and Carr, A. J., "Earthqum
5.10. American Society for Testing and Materials, Specification for Induced Floor Horizontal Accelerations in Buildings,ft Earthquake
Penetration Test and Split-Ba"el Sampling of Soils, ASTM D 1586-04, Engineering-Structural Dynamics, Vol 31, 2002, pp. 693-718.
ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2004.
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Chapter6
Fracture and Fatigue
PART A
CONCRETE AND COM POSIT ES
BY
of
KEDAR 5. KIRANE Assistant Profeswr Mechanir.al Engineering. Stony Brook Univmi~ Stony Brook, New York
ZDENl!K P. BA2ANT McCormick Institute Professor and Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil and
Environmental Engineering. Mechanical Engineering and Material Science and Engineering.
Northwestern Uni11ersit)I E1/anSton, nlinois
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO QUASIBRITILE FRACTURE In LEFM, the crack propagation criterion can be stated either
in terms of the fracture energy, Gf' which represents the energy required
Concrete and fiber-reinforced composite,, are two of the most widely
to extend the crack by a unit area, or in terms of the critical stress
used structural marerials. Both are composite materials consisting of
intensity factor, called the fracture toughness, K,. Their relation, due
multiple constituents and have a highly heterogeneous microstructure.
to Irwin, is
Concrete typically consists of aggregate bonded by hardened cement
paste while fiber composites typically consist of a weaker matrix material (6.1)
reinforced by strong fibers, which may be discontinuous or continuous,
consisting of parallel fibers of a fabric. The fracturing behavior of these where, for plane stress, E' = B = Young's modulus of elasticity and, for
materials differs from metals. They exhibit almost no plasticity. They plane strain, E' = E/(1 - vl) where v is the Poisson's ratio. The craclc
fail by propagation of a macrocrack having at its front a fracture process can grow and possibly cause structural failure when K becomes equal
zone (FPZ), which contains microcraclcs and microslips and nonnaDy to[(,.
has a size not negligible compared to structural dimensions. For quasibrittle materials, however, due to the FPZ, a significant part
The fracture propagation starts either from a preexisting macrocrack of the structure volume acts nonlinearly, making LEFM inapplicable.
or by formation of an FPZ in a region with a stress concentration, often A simple but effective treatment of this nonlinearity is the equivalent
at the boundary. The large size of the FPZ, which is dictated by mate- LEFM approach. 1.2 In this approach, the nonlinear FPZ is accounted
rial hett:rogeneity and is approximately a constant material property, for by assuming that its effect on the compliance and load capacity of
endows the material with a significant capability to dissipate energy, the structure is essentially the same as if an LEFM sharp crack were
which can provide certain measure of structural ductility. So, even extended, by distance ep roughly into the middle of the FPZ. 1 The
though these materials are colloquiaDy referred to as brittle, in scientific =
longer crack, oflength a. a 0 + ep where 'J is approximately constant,
discourse they are properly termed Mquasibrittle:" But note that this is called the effective or equivalent craclc (see Fig. 6.1). The remaining
term is relative. When the structure becomes so large that the FPZ size treatment is similar to LEFM, as used for example, for fatigue-embrittled
is negligible, a quasibrittle structure becomes ~rittle.~ Vice versa, when stt:el. The equivalent LEFM can be applied for crack initiation even
a brittle structure, made, for example, of fine grained mortar, becomes when only the FPZ. but no actual crack, is as yet present, which is not
sufficiently small its behavior becomes quasibrittle. There are many the case with LEFM.
quasibrittle materials-aside from concrete and fiber composites, such Some rules have to be introduced to express how the equivalent
as most rocks, coal, wood, sea ice, coarse-grained ceramics, rigid foams, craclc extends under increased loads. For instance, the fracture energy
paper, carton, bone, and bio- and bio-inspired materials. 1 G1 for equivalent LEFM (alternately interpreted as the internal material
To assess the strength of structures with cracks, fracture mechanics resistance R to crack growth) is not a constant but varies with the craclc
must be used.l Today there are three types of fracture mechanics: length, becoming a constant for larger crack sizes. The plot of this inter-
(1) linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), which was originated by nal resistance R versus the crack extension Ila from the notch is referred
in 1921 by Griffith 3 and characterizes brittle failure; it deals with sharp to as the R-curve1.2 (or resistance curve). This curve can be empirically
craclcs whose FPZ is negligible compared to structure dimension (e.g., dett:rmined from lab rests.
the FPZ in fatigued steel haa micrometer dimensions). (2) The ductile An important aspect that must be considered is the structure size
fracture mechanics, 2 was developed fully during the 1960s, in which effect on its nominal strength, defined as aN = P,..JA, where P,..,, is
there is a long and wide plastic (or plastic-hardening) zone in front the load capacity (maximum load) and A the structural cross-section
of the crack but the FPZ is still negligible; and (3) quasibrittle fracture area (which can be taken arbitrarily but must be homologous for vari-
mechanics,1 there is a large FPZ in front of the crack, with almost no ous sizes). A host of past studies 1-' have established the close interplay
plastic zone surrounding it. The ductile, as well as quasibrittle, fracture between failure load, FPZ size, and the resulting scaling in the structural
mechanics is approximately treated by various adaptations ofLEFM. strength.
115
166 CHAPTER SIX
strength and fatigue lifi:times is of Weibull type,~ while for ductile mate-
rials it is Gaussian (or normal). In the central range both pdfs are hard
to distinguish, but the very low failure probability point (Pr 1~) in the
•x Weibull pdfis almost twice as far from the mean as for the Gaussian [for
the same mean and the typical coefficient of variation of errors (CoV)].
For quasibrittle structures, the pdf is a hybrid of both. 11- 13 It consist. of
Figul't! 6.1 Equivalent LEFM crack. a Weibull tail grafted on the left onto a Gaussian core. For structures
including one or a few FPZs, the grafting point is at P1 - 0.001. As
the structure size increases, the grafting point moves to the right and
Size effects of two basic simple types can be distinguished. Consider when the structure volume becomes >105 times the FPZ, the entire pdf
first the type I size effect,4 which occurs in unnotched or un-precracked becomes Weibullian. This is important for setting the safety factors for
structures that fail when a macrocrack initiates from a smooth surface design, which should ensure P1 <10-<S per lifetime (which is about 104
in the presence of a stress gradient. It is explained by the stress redis- times lower than one's probability of dying in a car accident and about
tribution due to FPZ formation, the equivalent LEFM crack becoming the same as the probability of being killed by a lightning).
nonzero.5.6 In the absence of the statistical part, which is important In structures with a large traction-free crack at peak load (or a sharp
for very large structures, the size effect on the nominal structure notch) the type II size effect is observed.1-'11•14-22 This is a purely deter-
strength is ministic size effect on the mean strength (while material randomness
affects only the CoV). It becomes the strongest for large sizes and corre-
sponds to LEFM (ie., aN oc D-112 ). As long as the failure modes for differ-
(6.2) ent sizes of geometrically scaled structures are also geometrically similar
(which is often the case). the strength follows the Baiant size effect lawl-'11
Here D is the structure size, CS0 is the asymptotic strength for a struc- -V2
ture of infinite size, 10 is a length constant proportional to the material
characteristic length scale, and r is a dimensionless empirical constant
CSN=Bft' (l+~ J
(6.4)
with typical value 1.45. Here B is an empirical, dimensionless material constant ft.' is the local
For very large sizes (D ~ "") this equation predicts a vanishing size tensile strength of material, and D0 is a transitional size proportional to
effect. However, in reality, in structures of sizes much larger than the the material characteristic length scale, which in tum is proportional to
FPZ, the strength in type I failures follows the Weibull statistical size the FPZ size. The size effect factor in Eq. 6.4, proposed to ACI (Ameri-
effect.7 A smooth transition to the statistical size effect can be incorpo- can Concrete Institute) in 1984, was in 2019 incorporated into the ACI
rated in Eq. 6.2 by modifying it to a generalized energetic-statistical size design code (ASI Standard 318-2019) for beam shear, punching and
effect5 law as follows: strut-and-tie model.
The size effects of types I and II have been observed in concrete
(6.3) and in fiber-reinforced composites, aside from other quasibrittle
materials1-'11 (see Figs. 6.2 and 6.3). Both size effect laws consist of a
length scale determined by the FPZ size, which is a material property.
Here n is the number of dimensions of the failure mode (1, 2, or 3) and This length is essential for realistic mathematical prediction of structure
m is the Weibull modulWJ, typically 24 for concrete and 8 to 10 for fiber strength. The rest of thia chapter describes the fracturing behavior of
composites.8- 10 A best fit of Eq. 6.3 is shown in Fig. 6.2 to a variety of concrete and fiber composites under various loading conditions which
test data on concrete and composites. leads to the formation of the FPZ. Most of these failure modes are
The degree ofbrittleneu (opposite of ductility) ia important for the quasibrittle, exhibit the R curve, transitional size effects on strength, and
probabilistic distribution function (pdf) of structural strength and of hybrid Gauss-Weibull probability distributions of strength.
lifetime under cyclic and static fatigue. For brittle materials, the pdf of
11.2 CONCRETE
0.25
oTestdata
.I:! 0.00
a
~~ -0.25
is
= Q -0.50
~.sz
~ -0.75
-0.35
D(a) (b)
1}
(C)
D(d)
Rture 6.S {11) Damage lcx;allzat!on a.Dder 1llliu:lal. tutlon. {b) Ami. ~llttiDg fAl!u.re 'Glider 1llllu1al
compn!llion with aJidina enda. (c} ComprHrion·1h.ear &mm! under aniaxial compru.lion with one end. fiud..
(d) CompteHloD.-ahear failure Wider lllllulal oomprealon w:lth both ends fixcd.1
1.. CHAPTER SIX
(a)
(b)
fltlure 6.6 (") 'n:b.lllc liallatc In amctetc unda thn:e-poiol bending. (lo) Axial 'Pllllintl
comp~m failuze of a~ qllnd.er [rcprodu.ced with pcrmllllon from .!ltmcr].
6.2.2 MuldPl•I fl'MtUN atruc:tural strength under monotcmlc as well u cycl1c load!Jlg. Thua,
In majority of ttru.ctura. con~ ii subjected to rmdtiaxtal ltrea. .reinforced concrete 13 generally much ie.. temltive to filtlgue than
The biuial <:0111ptafion strength of concr= is higher than uniaxial. metab. N(VCit}ideN, like in all materW., cracb grow under cyclic at
especially in the prmence of end rellrainb.~ Biaxial tenaion makes well u awitained loada, e&111ed, for eumple, by 1raffic, wind, rotating
little difl'uence for ltmlgth from unluial Under combined. tendoll and machinery, or earthquaku.ll This can be quite Important for some
compremon, concrdl: ii the -uat. The &!lure under b.luial low also situatlorui (plaln concrete, zone• of low reinforcement, development
OQ;UQ by loc3lizmon along prckrred orientmom. typi.cally perpendicu-
of ac:euive crack width allowing ingreu of corroaive agents, etc.).
lar to the muimum principll temile .txeN,Z7 and aJ.o abihib li2e eft'ect.t. ID ~ conaete la markedly differeat from metaJs.1.2'-SO Fatigue
niulal c:oinpreadve loading of concrete can cause a major lncreue occurs by actiYation of pRailtlng .mkroc:raclai and mic:rotllps within
in ih strength. Under bydromtic a>mpreMon u wdl u uniax1al com- the c:ydlc FPZ. Since limilar microcncb allo form during monotonic
preaive ttrain with virtually rigid con5nement, ccmaete Det'eT RU. and loading. the &n,ue aack inufu:e1 in conaete have no peculiar topog-
only densifies by pore aill.ap1e. The postpeak bdurrior varies dramati- raphy unllb metalt, and are huda to dUtinguiah viaually. The only
c:allr depending on the degree of con&ement. Inaeulng confinement difference la that the cyclic FPZ la mWler in me compared to the
from nOJ1e, the .respo!Ue becomes iDcreuiDgly ductile and Cftl1tllally m011otonlc: FPZ. '1.Sl
mtchet from aofteniDg to hardenlnt~ u lb.own 1n F1g. 6.7. At The fatigue beharior of cont.rm: dependt on the strength of the
the micro«ale, frictional llip becomes dominant cm=r microaacking. material, the lo~ (mmgnitude, wueform, frequency; etc.) and the
environmental conditions. Conaete undergoes &tlgue under both
tmllon uid comJ'ftAIOll uid In fa.et compreaton fatigue ba.uds can
grvw tranPerlely to compr~ strul.29 At the .microstructure level.
fatigue consitta of irrennible microcnckiug ~· The load dil-
placement curve ahJbii:. fur each unload-relDld cycle a hylteresla loop
(Fig. 6.8) whose area equab the energy dUslpated in that cycle. The
elamc modulwi degnde1 gradually with increasing ind.utic; deforma-
tion in each cycle. The cyclic load-dilplacement curve is enveloped by
the monotonic one.ss-ss
Strain
,..,,. u SdiCl!Qltk beh.&11« of concme 11.Ddcr ClOnftned compm11<m
{~ h lndk:aka unluial~).
6.2.J Fetigu9
Ideally, the strength of rdnfor«d cOJ1crete ltrUcturcs depends on steel Displacement
bar•, and even though luge Qirllne c:racb, tr&vening 5-0 to 80 percent
af the 1truc:tun width, typically dewlop. they haTe little effect on Flgu... 6.1 Schemalic al ~·reload. hyltcre&ls lo0pt Ill COllCfete t.i.tipe. 'o
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 1ff
6.2.4 Dellgn far Altfgue Here att.- I• the mu:lmwn tenale suus and ft ls the .miD.lmum
Widely acapted. lm the fatigue usemnent of concrete (under uniu:ial ~c tensile strength. Thus. Eq. 6.10 pruaibes the fatigue life
compression, without stre.n revenal) it Che Au-Jakobsen equation~ under tension to depend only on the muimum 11.n!H level. Under vari-
for the ao-caI!ed S-N curve (stttas S va. number N of cycles) able amplitude loading. the Miner rulel'I may be applied.
The total life approach 18 much a!mpler but coneervattve and highly
empirical The Jen conse.rvatl.ve, damage-tolm111t approach is U$ually
" · - =1-PCl-R)logN (6.5} not pursued for cone.me, although it is ponible. This it~ similar
J. to metals, fatigue cracb in a>ncrete aho grow acrording to the Paris
whidi npmaits a simplified. total life ipproac:h and does not consider law.,. Thie hu long been conaldered u an empirical law relating the
the pr:opagalion of damage; a.,,_ it the maximum s!R!1 level of the rate of crack growth per cycle, daldN, to the amplitude llK. of the stress
cyclic loadin.g. f. b the oomp.re11lve strength of concrete. R is the load intensity factor K through a power law (although recently it was derived
ratio (a-1a-J, N is the number of cycles to failure and Pis an emplrl- Crom the activation encqy-am!J:olled breakage rate of intaatomic
<:al material COllnant whose typi<:al value is 0.068S. S« Fif. 6.9 for a bonds"'°). The Paria law uadt
typi<:al S-N curve for plain concrete.
There are alternate expre.Wons fur fatigue lif.etima in various design : =C(AK)"' {6.11)
codes:!*
(i) For pure compression The typical value of aponent m for concrete b 8 to 12,41 which is
8
muc:h higher than what I• aeen fur metal• (2 to 4). The codlic:ient C
IogN=y_ cs,--1> iflogN<8 lw been found" to be sensitive to environmental conditions (such
1 as temperat:un), loading frequency a1 well u the load ratio R. Under
(6.6)
logN =8+ Sln(lO)(Y
y- I
-S,.-)log(s,.....,.-s,,ml!!)
y -s•.-
iflogN>8
tension-tension fiiligue, a distlnct llze effect lw !Wo been nported
In the Paris law fur concrete which appears to affect the coefficient C
but not the aponent m.sui Th1s makes the Par!• law plou of concrete
........
....... y 0.45+us........
______ __ ,_
=-;_ and S la .-1
=-· -· S =la
....!:!!!:!!..I
specimens of different sizes appear a1 parallel lines spaced apart on
log-log scale. It it expected that tlm tlze effect would vanish for very
l+l.8Sc,.m1n -0.3s!..w, •.mla f,;.i. ' •. - f,;.i.
large mes but providing direct aperimental evidence is difficult aiDce
(6.7} this Is beyond most lab-sc:ale specimen size. (u the cyt1k FPZ is about
1 foot long). Thi• experimental observation also implies a ngnmcant
(ii) For compre.Won-tenalon with a.,_ <0.G261cs•.-I. me effect in the fatigue lifetimet of amcrete s!J:uctw:a. The size effect
ill fatigue of concrete b a topic of ongoing reaearch. 11-'1
logN =9(1-S,,._) (6.8)
The fatigue reference compressive strength f..At has been inttodw:ed 6.3 FllER·REINFORCED COMPOSMS
to take into account the increase of &tigue Wltitivity of COllcretc with
increasing compnmive llrength. hill given by Due to their lti1fne11, atrength. corrosion reslatanc.e, fatigue reatstance.
and, moat lmpol'Wlt light weight, ti.ber-reinforced composites are
J•.r- =0.85,S..,Ct)P•.-.f. (1-~) (6.9) widely used in aerospace, nawl. and automotive engineering. They are
aho becoming increuingly prevalent in infrastructure applic:ation1-
malnly for structural upgrades such u rapid repail:, rehabilitation, and
Here .P..(t) is an emplrl<:al coeftklent wbic:h. d.epe.ads on the age t of seismic retrofitting of alrtlng structum.
concrete (in days} when htigue loading &ta11s, and P,,... Is another Thdr basic const!tuems ue sJw or cubon fiben and • polymer
empirical coefficient whic:h takes into account the effi:ct of high mean malrix. The tibc:n cany me.It of the load and provide most of die stiff.
~ during loading and lb typical value it 0.85 when all 1he fl:res.1ell nest and tensile stre.nglh of the material. The matrix and the fiber-matrix
are expRMed In .MPa. Interface bond coll.ttlbute strongly to the composlte's shear strength,
(iii) For pure wmion and tension-compression with a-~ 0.026 tranmne strength. and, also. fU1gue mength.ea The ma1r1x transfers the
1°,.-I load between the individual tiben and acts as the agmt holding die 6ber
structure in place. Since Che fibers have specific dlrectlonality, a composite
logN =12(1-Sd-) where S.,,- =l"d;,-1 (6.10) la alwayii anlaotrcplc (or orthotropic) at the maaoscale, unlike concrete,
which is esse.atl.ally .lsotropl"' In structural applkatl.ons, the mlsotropy Is
~mitigated by unng quasi-iaoll'opic <:Cl!Jlpotitc lay-ups consmmg of
individual laymi (or pn:-J?RP) oriented in variollll directiom.
Comp~ undergo fracture through a variety of mec:hanWm
depending on the applied load and Its angle with the fl.ber direction.
0.8 OQ;)
The ~ is progmsivc in nature and occurs at a number oflength
scales, from the barely observable phenomenon of tiber-malrix debond-
ing on the microacale to the matrix cracldng, flber breaking and
Smax delaml.nation43 on the maaoscale. Often one filil'l11'e mechanism trig-
ger• some others, depending o.n the specific loading 1<:enario. Numeri-
T 0.1 cal modeling and prediction of failure of compo1itll1 under multiuial
loads b not a rtraightforward task.
6.11.1 Langltudln.1111 Fl'llc:tuN
When the applied load is tensile, in-plane and aligned with the tibers,
0.6 ..__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ the dominant mode of failure ls tlber breaking. The longitudinal temlle
1.00E+04 1.00E+OS 1.00E+06 strength of the composite lam!na Is governed by the tensile attength
of flbers. Ideally. if all the fiben had equal strength. they would break
Number at cycles to fallure simultaneously when the applied load beame equal to their strength.
RguN6.t S·N c.arw fortypical.Flaln C>O'Dctde (camprcl5!011)97 (reptodu.c:cd. However, ln reality, the fiben have a strength distribution. So, typlcaI!y,
with permla!on from Amertca11 Conuete Wtl!Ute (AC!)). the weakest fil>en fail 1lnt. The stms then gets redimibuted to adjacent
170 CHAPTER SIX
6ber.. whic;h makes them more su.sceptible to failure. This usu.ally In the 19608,, stable measumnent of postpeak in conc:rete and roCk wu
aho triggerl other f'ailure modes ruc:h u localiud malrilt shear failure made pouible by the disarm:y thll the tating &ame had to be an order
around the Bber breab and Bber-matrh. debond!ng. Eventually the of magnitude der 1han previolllly wed, and sblbility of test wa.s further
adjacent Bbers break. and the mialler c.raclcs merge to produce one large helped by developillg fut aervo-cantrol and by contraDing the test by a
creck.42 Thl.scrackiseMentiallythelocalludzoneofdunagethatpropa- crack mouth. or crack tip gauge.51 However, fur composite$ it has not
gares to cawse the Dnal. Wlw:e, u shown in Fig. 6.lO(o). At the end, addi- wmk Ulltil 2016 when it wu found that the grips (or 6xt:ures) far tms:ile
tional mechanisms, such u Bber pullout, also appear [see Fig. 6.U(o)]. loading «.fracture tests of~ supplied by manu&.cturet were fu
tootoft andllgbt (note that no such grips are needed forconaeteslncethe
$'J)CIC1men IJ loaded by contact with 1he loading &ame head or gtued in 1he
cue oftension). Upon daigning loading grips that are two orden of mag-
nitude st:Ufer and one order of magnih1de heavier than th0.te traditionally
supplied by the manufacturer, a stable postpeak in 1atlle composite frac-
ture ls now bind to be observed eullf1 (emi under load point control;
U.S. Patmt US 10.416.053 B2, 2019).
J}
(a) (b)
Figure f.10 F~of\IDlclirea!on.t compo31Se lamina 11X1clerumam1 locd
(a} tm&lon and (b) c:ompmllion.
(a} (b)
Figure 6.11 (a) Tauiile ftu:tun: mowing bmkm fib en inclicatift of fiber pulloul (b} Fibcr lcink
band [rqm>duced with pennlaaloll. from Elaeviet].
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 171
with varying ciegr«s of empiricism. :Recently, a. world.wide exera.e theories were found to predict the (()lllp!ete envd.ope of the Mure
wu conducted to lfltematically ewlum the prominent one1.S3-S'I behavi.or for various multidirectional laminates. From a structure
While varying degrte11 of succeae were obtained fur theae theorlee dealgner'• perspective cho08lng a failme theory is thua a rather dif-
(see Fig. 6.13), overall the predictions were found to dJffer by more flc:ult task. Another weakness of this aerdse wu that the 8ize effect
than +200 percent and -SO percent from the mean. Also none of the wu not t«ted.
(a)
-<>- Eckolct
- - Puck
- - Rotem
8!. --- Hart-Smhh (2)
:::!!
t>
... -100 • Truncated Max strain
• Experiments
-200
o o Wolfe
- - Rotem-A
<v- -<r - - - Rotem-B
- Wolfe-A
- Wolfe-B
~ Hart-Smith (3)
eExperiments
-200
The simplm lamina. failure theories are based on the muimum stms
or maximum strain. They essentially involve detennining the principal
streaaea in the in-plane lamina and comparing each 8trU8 component to
the cormponding rue.agth. Th'* theorie11 do not account for interac-
tions between 8trelJs components and are really p:llll1ic: llmlt andym
theorie.1. Tensor polynomial theories such u the Tai-Hill and the
Tsai-Wu aiterion" aim to provide one equation fur the entire failure
envelope and try to account for the intenc:tions. These are in general
slisJitly more effective in pmlicting the strength envelope-eapedally
the Tai-Wu criterion. It ii e:qmmed as Model Mode II Mode Ill
(6.12) (Opening) (Shearing) (Tearing)
where f, and~ are te.nsori conalsting of constants related to the matu:tal Rguni 6.14 Modea of deJam!nat!on
ruength and i. j = 1, 2,.. ., 6 (following Voigt notation for the ruess
temor CJ, e.g.• CJ1 =CJw o, =ou).
h Jb.ould be noted Chat the "Pl"ic•tinn of 1heae failure theories to
6.3.5 Fadgl.lle
structuru must be aa:ampm!ed by sttuctural analym using analytic:al.
tools such u the c:1assicaJ. lamlnate 1heory. or munerlc:al. me!hod& suc:h u Composit« in general have a better fatigue resistance than metal•,
~dement analym. This woukl yield the stuc of sa~ at =
within Che lb:uctuR!, on which Che suiblbly chosen failure theory would
point but the fatigue process u a lot more complica.ted. Unlib metals
where one well-de&ed fatJgue crack grow• in a self-similar manner,
predict whether :fallure would occur at Chat polnl HOW'IM\4 the approad1ea in composites multiple damege mechanlams c:an occur and progreS6
based ao. the multluial. sUellgth envelope QlD work only fur pnidlct!Dg 1he simultaneously. The fac:tors that infiuence the fatigue of composit«
inilialion of~ Applying 1hem to proiic:t ~or propagating are the tiber type, matrix type. reinforcement architecture (unidi-
failure leads to a loss of object:ivitJ: In other wonb, c.h.anging the mesh me .rec:tional. fabric., braided, etc.). ccmpoalte lay-up aequence, environ-
lea& to dlffermt resuhs.511 This is because 1hese 1heories do not consider mental c:o11ditlom (temperature, humidity). stress ratio R of cyclic
the energy n:qulnld fur frac:tme propagation. Consequently. 1hey miss Che load, and the frequency.
quasi br:IUleness of1he c:omposlte and. moo important die me dl'ect.. Theae While in metals the fatigue crack growth ii almost undetectable
problems can be overmme by adapting more advanced dam&F models throughout most of Che fatigue lifetime, until sudden acc.elera.Uon
with a localmtion limiter. which slm.ulate ~ degradalion of 1he toward the encl, in composites It is detectable evai. In the early Stagei
moduli and are al1bnted sudi.1hat the pred1cted energy cl!ssJpattao. would u shown in Fig. 6.15.- The crack growth leadt to progrenivdy
be consl.mnt with the fncture enagy ofthe material..al.61 reduced stiffness and rtrength. Thwi, the tetb of the residual stiffneu
and the residual ruength. provide a elmple meawre of the re.ma1n1ng
6.3.4 O.llmlna'don Fl'lctuN useful lifetime of the structure (though only the former is nondestruc-
Out-of-plane messes are generated in a composite laminate, espedally tive). Marry phenomenologic:al. modeh for fatisue life pzediction are
when adjacent iaFS have differing fiber orientations. These s1reMes are bued on this ideL~-e Most design practices rely on phenomeno-
oam the highest at the free edges and tend to separate the layer~. lead- logic:al approaches, such as the S-N curve fur the total life, because the
ing to another failure mode called delamination.4:l This can occur under complaity of c:rack growth hinders developing a mechanlstic: predic-
three butc mode.t, v1t. modes I, II, and mahown in Fig. 6.14. tive model S-N c:urvu fur variout carbon flber-relnfo.rced pofymer
Unlike iD.tralamiD.ar fruture. the fracture energy fur delamination composita IR! ahown in Fig. 6.16."° Whereu many models ai.st,11-1'
under each mode <:a11 be meuured in the lab in amble fashion without they lack general applicability in tenm ofloading and material system.
very stiff grips. This is becaU1e the out of plane stiffness and strength Further compllc:atlons arise due to random scatter of strength. and of
of the compoalte uauaily not very high. There mm a standard teat h1igue l.lfetime., u the scattu I• much higher than that observed in
of clelamination fracture energy, although It needs to be improved to meU!s. A comprehensive probabili.ttic approach to fatigue of compos-
obtain information on the size effect. whidi is lignifiC'allLu.m.~ ites still awaits developmenl
Failure
Number of cycles
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 173
110
~ l
100
~"' ~ .... •• ...,.,. ' .,.
~
.. .
90 """"'
l """"' • .. ~i
loo •
.. ~ ::i
If..
:
I
E
:::J
E
80
70
...
1111 •- II •
r-o Cl ... ~I ~
·-
... UD·-
80 II r-
·~
50 •
UD·<illl'llp-'cn
Of·-
• .. ""~I> ._ 1~
I.a
i'ii • jll
- ""' "'•
OT·~ ~
D Of·Y~ ~ Iii
40
~
0
•
0
OT· Z b«ldhg
Cll·Y~ ~ i
z 30 z
• QI. b«ldhg Ii'
....
- T...Slcf-andba'ldhg
20
10 - TrnlOfOT~
T...SlcfUO-....-
111111 1111111
....,
1111111
...,
I II
0
1.E+OO 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+OS 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+OB 1.E+09
Cycl1J8 to failure [-)
Flgun16.16 S-N curm for varlou.t carbon lib er-reinforced polymer oompOlll!et'° (reproduced with permlaalon from. .Elamerl.
27. Kirane, K., BaZa.nt, Z.P., and Zi., G. (2014). "Fracture and siz.e 53. Hintona, M.J., Kaddourb, A.S., and Soden, P.D. (2002). •A com-
effect on strength of plain concrete disks under biaxial flexure analyzed parison of the predictive capabilities of current failure theories for
by microplane model M7.• J. Engrg. Mech., 140(3). 604-613. composite laminates, judged against experimental evidence:' Compos.
28. Torrenti, J.M., Pijaudier-Cabot, G., and Reynouard, J.M., eds. Sci. Technol., 62, 1725-1797.
(2010). Mechanical Behavior of Concrete. Wiley-ISTE, New York. 54. Soden, P.D., Hinton, M.J., and Kaddour, A.S. ( 1998). MLarnina prop-
29. Suresh, S. (1991). Fatigue of Materials. Cambridge University erties, lay-up configurations and loading conditions for a range of fibre-
Press, Cambridge. reinforced composite laminates:' Compos. Sci. Technol, 58, 1011-1022.
30. Rice J. MMech.anics of crack tip deformation and extension by 55. Sun, C.T., Tao, J.X., and Kaddour, A.S. (1998). •The prediction
fatigue.• Am. Soc. Test. Mater., 415, 247-311. of failure envelopes and stress/strain behavior of composite laminates:
31. Kirane, K., and BaZa.nt, Z.P. (2016). ·su.e effect in Paris law and Comparison with experimental results:' Compos. Sci. Technol., 62,
fatigue lifetimes for quasibrittle materials: Modified theory, experiments 1673-1682.
and micro-modeling.• Int. J. Fatigue, 83, 209-220. 56. Cuntze, R.G., and Freund, A. (2004). •The predictive capability
32. Kirane, K., and BaZa.nt, Z.P. (2014). ~icroplane damage model of failure mode concept-based strength criteria for multidirectional
for fatigue of quasibrittle materials: Subcritical crack growth, lifetime laminates:' Compos. Sci. Technol., 64, 343-377.
and residual strength.• Int. J. Fatigue, 70, 93-105. 57. Talreja, R. (2014). •Assessment of the fundamentals of fail-
33. Horii H., Shin H.C., and Pallewatta T.M. (1992). ~ech.anism of ure theories for composite materials:' Compos. Sci. Technol., 105,
fatigue crack growth in concrete.• Cem. Coner. Compos., 14, 83-89. 190-201.
34. Bahn, B.Y., and Hsu, C.T. (1998). MStress-strain behavior of con- 58. Tsai, S.W., and Wu, E.M. (1970). •A general theory of strength for
crete under cyclic loading:' ACI Mater. J., 95(2), 178-193. anisotropic materials:' J. Comp. Mater., 5, 58-80.
35. Hordijk, D., and Reinhardt, H. ( 1991 ). •Growth of discrete cracks 59. Bdant, Z.P., Belytschko, T.B., Chang. T. (1984). MContinuwn
under fatigue loading:' In Toughening Mechanism5 in Quasi-Brittle theory for strain softening:' J. Eng. Mech., 110(12), 1666-1692.
Materials, edited by S. Shah. Springer, New York, 541-554. 60. Kirane, K., Salviato, M., and Baiant, Z.P. (2016). ~icroplane
36. ~ Jakobsen K., and Lenshow R. ( 1973). •Behavior of reinforced triad model for elastic and fracturing behavior of woven composites:' J.
columns subjected to fatigue loading:' ACI J., 70, 199-206. Appl. Mech., 83(April), 041006-1-041006-14.
37. ACI Committee 215. (1992). CoMderatiorufor Design of Concrete 61. Talreja, R. (2016). -Physical modelling of failure in composites:'
Structures Subjected to Fatigue Leading (AC! 215R-92) (Reapproved 1997). Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. A, 374, 20150280.
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. 62. ASTM D5045 Standard Test Methods for Plane-Strain Fracture
38. The Fm Model Code for Concrete Structure5 2010, Ernst & Sohn Toughness and Strain Energy Release Rate of Plastic Materials. Ameri-
GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin. can Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
39. Paris, P., and Erdogan, F. ( 1963). •A critical analysis of crack 63. Salviato, M., Kirane, K., Bazant, Z.P., and Cusatis, G. (2019).
propagation laws:' J. Basic Engrg., 85, 528-534. ~ode I and II interlaminar fracture in laminated composites: A size
40. Le, Jia-Liang, and BaZa.nt, Z.P. (2011). "Unified nano-mechanics effect study." Compos. Struct., 86(September), 091008-1-8.
based probabilistic theory of quasibrittle and brittle structures: II. 64. Salkind, M.J. ( 1972). "Fatigue of Composites; Composite Materials:
Fatigue crack growth, lifetime and scaling.• J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 59, Testing and Design (Second Conference). ASTM STP 497. American
1322-1337. Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, 143-169.
41. BaZa.nt, Z.P., and Xu, K. (1991). ·su.e effect in fatigue fracture of 65. U.S. Department of Defense. (2002). Composite Materials Hand-
concrete:' ACI Mater. J., 88(4), 390-399. book. Volume 3, Polymer Matrix Compo5ite5: Materials, Usage, Design,
42. Daniel, I.M., and Ishai, 0. (1994). Engineering Mechania of Com- and Analy5is. U.S. Department ofDefense, Washington, DC.
posite Materials. Oxford University Press, New York. 66. Marine CompositflS. 2nd ed. Eric Greene Associates, Annapolis,
43. Talrtja, R., and Varna, J. (2016). Modeling Damage, Fatigue and MD, 1999.
Failure of Composite Materials. Woodhead Publishing, London. 67. Post, N., Bausano, J., Case, S., and LC3ko, J. (2006). «Modeling
44. Budiansky, B., and Fleck, N.A. (1993). MCompressive failure of the remaining strength of structural composite materials subjected to
fibre composites:' J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 41(1), 183-211. fatigue:' Int. J. Fatigue, 28(10), 1100-1108.
45. Fleck, N.A., Jelt P.M., and Curtis, P.T. (1995). · compressive 68. Khan, Z., Al-Sulaiman, F.A., Farooqi, J.K., and Younas, M. (2001 ).
failure of laminated and woven composites:' J. Compos. Tech. Res., 17-13, "Fatigue life predictions in woven carbon fabric/polyester composites
212-220. based on modulus degradation:' J. Reinf. Plast. Compos., 20(5), 377-398.
46. Cox, B.N., Dadkhah, M.S., Inman, R.V., Morris, W.L., and 69. Van Paepegem, W., and Degrieck, J. (2002). •A new coupled
Zupon, J. (1992). ~echanisms of compressive failure in 3D compos- approach of residual stiffness and strength for fatigue of:fibre-reinforced
ites:' Acta Metall. Mater., 40(12), 3285-3298. composites:' Int. J. Fatigue, 24(7), 747-762.
47. Budiansky, B., and Fleck, N.A. (1993). MCompressive failure of 70. Michel, A.S., Kieselbach, R., and Jorg Martens, H. (2006).
fibre composites:' J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 41(1), 183-211. •Fatigue strength of carbon fibre composites up to the gigacycle regime
48. Gutkin, R., and Pinho, S.T. (2014). · combining damage and friction (gigacycle-composites):' Int. J. Fatigue, 28(3), 261-270.
to model compressive damage growth in fibre-reinforced composites:' 71. Sevenois, R.D.B., and Van Paepegem, W. (2015). "Fatigue damage
J. Comp. Mater., doi: 10.1177/0021998314549614. modeling techniques for textile composites: Review and comparison
49. Svensson, D., Alfredsson, K.S., Stigh, U., and Jansson, N.E. (2016). with unidirectional composite modeling techniques:' Appl. Mech. Rev.,
~easurement of cohesive law for kink-band formation in unidirec- 67(2), 020802, doi: 10.1115/1.4029691.
tional composite.~ Engrg. Fract. Mech., 151, 1-10. 72. Degrieck, J., and Van Paepegem, W. (2001). •Fatigue damage
50. BaZa.nt, Z.P., Kirn, J.-J.H., Daniel, I.M., Becq-Giraudon, E., and modeling of fibre-reinforced composite materials: Review:' Appl Mech.
Zi., G. (1999). •size effect on compression strength of fiber composites Rev., 54(4), 279-300.
failing by kink band propagation:' Int. J. Fract 95, 103-141 (special 73. Quaresimin, M., Susmel, L., and Talrtja, R. (2010). "Fatigue
issue). behaviour and life assessment of composite laminates under multiaxial
51. Bdant, Z.P., and Cedolin, L. (2010). •stability of Structure5: Blame, loadings:' Int. J. Fatigue, 32(1), 2-16.
Indastic, Fracture and Damagwi Theories. #rd ed. third edition, World Scien- 74. Chen, H., Shivakumar, K., and Abali, F. (2006). •A comparison of
tific, London. total fatigue life models for composite laminates:' Fatigue Fract. Eng.
52. Salviato, M., Chau, V.T., Li, W., BaZa.nt, Z.P., and Cusatis, G. Mater. Struct., 29(1), 31-39.
(2016). -Oirect testing of gradual postpeak softening of fracture 75. Salviato, M., Kirane, K., BaZa.nt, Z. P., & Cusatis, G. (2019). Mode I
specimens of fiber composites stabilized by enhanced grip stiffness and and II Interlarninar Fracture in Laminated Composites: A Siz.e Effect
mass.- J. Appl Mech., 83-11, 111003:1-11. Study. Journal of Applied Mechanics, 1-36.
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 175
PARTB
STRUCTURAL STEELS
"'
J. ERNESTO INDACOCHEA ProfaJ()f' Emeritru, Ctvll and MllteriaJs EngJneerlng, Uni~ty of
Illinois Qt Chi"'lf'
VINUTH KUMAR GATl\I Chemic.Gl 1111'1 PMd CJi:le Ttdmologies. Atrmine Nmanal Uiboratory
M FRACTURE OF STRVCl\IRAL STEELS propagat.e in spedfic c:ryatallognphic planes (Fig. 6.184) and they are
6.4.1 lntrodudlon
known as cleange fracture. Brittle fr&cturel are not u common u yield-
ing. budding. or fatigue &i.)urQ but. when they do occur. they may be
Mort ctructural lteel mcmben ahlblt comiderable ductility at normal more coll:ly in tenna of human life and property damage.
tensile service loadlnp and Wl!peratures. If failum mould occur, It la Figure 6.19 ahows a brittle failure of an alloy lteel veMel that failed
only ~ comidenble elongation and reduction in area, w:ith a large during hydrotating operatlom. Factors that increase the SU8cept(billty
amount of energy absorption. Brittle fractures, on the other hand, occur to brittle frac;ture are (4) metallurgical degradation daat may occur in
with little or no donptlon or .reduction In area and with very small some steela dming heat treatment. that 1my lead to temper embrittlo-
energy ablorptloo. Brittle fracture 11 a type of c:atutrophic failure that menl due to carbide precipitation. sigma plwe embrlttlemeat, etc.;
usually oa:ura without prior plutic deformation and at emcmely high (b) grain coanening and impurities in the steel (e.g., fur a.ample, large
speed.I, as Wt as 2000 m/1 (7000 fU•) in steela.1 grain si.Ta and steef contaminant. such u su1fur and phosphoro111 typi-
Sclwnatlc c:umpla of the atrea-straln rdattons fur thae two types of cally reduce ateel toughness, whir.h ia a meuure of rnistance to briUle
f&ilure are pretented In Fig. 6.17. When fPC&ldng of a ma%erl.al strenglh fracture; and (c) material thickneaa, that 11, the thicker the component
it iJ considered to be itl zmstante to plutic flow. Strengdi generally the higher the susccptlbillly to brittle fracture dw: to triaxlal 5tresf
im:reues with plutic ltnin which ii defined u work or sfrriin lwrlening, condition•. Thicker materlab produce a state of higher constraint and
reachlmg a mWmu.m at the ull:lmate engineering teDcile atre1lgtb. Gun. therefore are Ja. llkely to defonn under streu u opposed to crack ini-
The area wuler the whole me.strain curve up to fracture repretents tiation and propagation.
the work to c:a1Pe rupture and the toughne11 of the mata'ial deDned In the 1994 Northridg£ earthquah, several fracture• occurred in
u the railtmce to the propaption of a cncX Molt &tructw:al materiab moment connectioN of highly COllltnined joints in bulldingll. which
ahlbtt comiclenble main (deformation) before reaching the temile or i.11 further evidence that brittle fruturel can occur in ductile materials
ultimate ltreDgth aim- In c:ontrut. brittle materials exhibit almost no when hlgh-ccmtnlnt conditlom ul.lt.
ddormmon before &i1ure. ~ under condmom of low tempera-
ture, npid loading. mcl high comtnint, n<en ductile materiab may not L4.2 lntnMluctlan to Fnct... Medmnlca
em!bit defmmation befOte fracture. Obviolllly, ductile behavior ii mu.eh Many large and compla ltructurea 1Uch u bridges. lhipl. a.in:nft. md
more desirable than brittle bchmor beausc the high absorption energy pre11ure n111els can have cnc:ks. alwp notdia, or ditamtinuitiet of
and large deformation that occur before ductile failure Is important to dlHamt types. Uling fracture mechanica, m engineer can quantita-
prevent my catutrophic brittle fracture. tivdy atabllsh anow.ble mess levdl and lnlpectton requirements to
Duciile failure• are characterised by a llow crack ateDslon and larger design against the OCQIIJ'Cllce of brittle fruturel in such lt:rUct:urel.
applied streues needed for the crack to propagate. Such cracks are con- In addition, fracture mer.hania may be Uled to analyu the growth of
tldercd ltlble and are charactcrlr.ed by 1ubltmtial plutlc deformation am.all craclal to critical 1b:e by CatJgue loading or ttre11 corrosion aac:lr:
mclhigh energy absorption u ob.ervedin Fig. 6.17. Pigure6.18" ahowl growth. Therefore, fracture-mechmia testing md analytis techniqUC$
1he typical features of a ductile fracture in a Charpy V-notch (CVN} have .~ adnntages over traditional notch-toughne1a test methods
speclmel1 after tml.ag. characterized by l~ shear lips and subrtantial and offer the designer a method of quantitative design to prevent brittle
local deformation, and Fig. 6.18b presentt the SEM .m.lcrograph that fracture ln llructUres.
ahow1 equiu.ed dimpls. Brittle fracturet awid rapidly with vr:ry little Using fracture mcchanics principles, an aplUSion hu been devd-
plastic deformation and without incn:ue in applied load, which makP oped that relms thl• critical streH for cruk propaption (a.) and cruk
1hem unstable aaclal. These craclal are usually characterhed by a fiat length (a) u
fracture surface with little or no ductillty u seen in Fig. 6.18c, they
K.=Ya,Jii
In this aprealon x. ia the fracture W\lghnesa. a property that is a mea-
sure of a material'• remtance to brittle fracture when a crack is pre:tent.
K. hu unitl ofMPa.../m or pti./in. Here, Ylaa dimenalonle1a panmeter
or function that depend. on both crack and tpecimen cl2:ea and geom-
etria u -11 u the manner of load applii;ation.
The aitical value of the sbeu-i.ntemity factor at failure, K;. is a
material property ao.alogom to the resiltance force in structural design.
The K. value for thick tpeeimen• .Is known u the plane main fracture
toughnCl8. Ks. it .i. alto ddl.ned by the fraa..ue toughneA cited for mo.t
lituali0111. The •r .ubscript in IC,_ denotes that the plane strain fracture
tou.ghnett is for mode I (tenalle) crack dlJplai;ement.
F.quatiom that deterlbe the dutlc-mea f!dd In the vicinity of a
crack Up In a body subjected to ten•lle strcSlel can be uted t.o ettal>-
lilh the relation between Kl' CJ, and end: 1iu, A, for different st:ruc;..
Englneertng tensile strain, e
tun! configurations, u shown In Pig. 6.20. K1 values for other crack
Rgure 6.17 Schamt.lc rqirnmlalicma al lmllile --main beharior for geometries and different atructural conflguntiom are available In the
duclilc l!ld brtu:lc mdall ~la fnctu!e. llterGun:.'
17f CHAPTER SIX
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Rgune 6.18 Clwpy V-notch umpla mowing example. d. (a and h) ductile fai1utt and (c and i) britlle failure in low-cubon -111Pecimen.a.
Prom. tutlng, the critical value of K1 at failure CK.. K:too K",,.,,. or Ku) The several critical stre.u-inten.slty factors fur eadt structural mate-
can be determJned fur a given metal at a particular thlcknm and at rial are highly dependent on service condition• such as temperature,
& specific temperature and loading rate. Using Chia critical material loading rate, and connratnt. They are:
property. the designer can determine theoretically the ftaw me that an K. = ait:iw ~-intemity fac:tor for •low loading rates and
be tolerated in structural members for a given design stress level. tem- thin plates. Generally varies with specimen thickness. as mown in
perature, and loadin.g rate. Conversely, the engineer can determine the Fig. 6.21.
deaign mess level that can be safdy used for a flaw dze that may already KI< =critical stres&-lntemlty factor for slow loading rates and thick
be present in an aisting 8tr'U<:tUre. plates. Appli« only to thick plate•. and it is shown in Fig. 6.21.
(a) (b)
Figure f.19 (ci) Brittle fraaure of a •tee! premue Telld after hyclroftatf' letting. (b) Clote-11p of the frutlUe thowing no cleform#lon at the
wall thlclnc11.i
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 177
Ku= critical. atreu-mtemity factor for impact loacllng rate.t and thick
plates. Values are generally leii than Kr. at the same temperature, u
shown in Fig. 6.22.
Through-thickness crack K,..,..
=critical stress-intensity factor for loading ratel that are inta-
medlate between slow and impact. Fig. 6.22, such as the loacllng rate
- l_l-2a K1= cr Vita for bridges.
The.e aitiul. values are obtained. by tming «tual struc:tural matulals
to iailun! at various temperal:llrell and loading rues.
El:ample1 of ~ K"" Kli ,.. and Ku Vlllue1 for a typical structural
(J steel having .room-temperature yield strength of SO bi (345 kPa) are
presented in Fig. 6.22. These mu!ts. obtained. at three clifferent loading
rabls, show die large effect that temperature and loading rale c.an ha.ve
f@W'//a@j ~a 011 the critical stress-intensity factors for a. particular structural material.
(J t
6A.3 Ftac.ture T11119hnll!M
Surface crack
Fracture toughD.eM tetts have been used. in design to prevent brittle fail-
ure by Wling principles of &acture mechanics. Notch touglme111, on the
-1_1-2c K1 =1.l 2cr v'na/Q other hand, 18 uauaily measured u the amoU11t of energy, expre&11ed in
where Q= f(a/2c,cr) units of joules or foot-poU11dl, required to fracture a notched specimen
at a panicular temperature and loading rase. Notch toughlless is based
on a r1mls analysis in the vicillity of a notr.h or crack. ft does not depend
on the use of afe.Dalve eervice experle.llce to trandate laboratory result..
into practical de'1gn Information u long u the engineer can obtain or
determine:
I. The &actme toughnes.t of a matmal 111ing fracture-mec:hanics-
types of tes~ or correlations with notch-toughness tests such as the
Edge crack CVN impact test
2. The nominal me.. on the struc:tural makrid being analy:zed.
3. Flaw size and geometry of the muctural. material being anafyud.
K1 = l.l 2cr Vita
One of the most widely wed te.rui to measure notr.h toughnw is Che
CVN Impact tat It conslsC8 of a tat mach1De Chat 111cl.udes a pendulum.
wed to lmpaa and measure the ablorbed. eneigy atwrlous tempmUures.
The absmbed energy ii plotted as a function of tmlperature. 'IYPical
CVN results for common st:rw:tural. materials are given in Fig. 6.23 that
shows the transiilon from brittle to ductJ!e behavior U11der conditions of
240
Plane stress ____ _.__ __ Plane strain
200
160
40
t = 2.5
~·;:;;
60
~
~(,,)
40
0
0
NOT
20
temperature. The CVN Jmpact values shown at the lower left of Fig. 6.23 (15-ft-lb) Jmpact transition temperature fur the tteel mow.o. in Fig• .24a
are ~entattve of low levd• of notdi toughness or brlule behavior. is about -1°C (30°F). Also. the so percent impact &ac:ture-appeuance
while the values at highertcmperal.Urell (upper right) are repn:semtive tn.n.rition mnpcra.tme for this met is about -1°C (30"P), as shown
of ductile-type behavior. Ji should be noted that some materi.ab (such in Fig. 6.24c. ObvioUJl.y, these tramltio.11 temperaturet will vary &om
as aluminum and very high-strength. steel) do not exhlbh a distinct material to mater:lal. depending on the particular notch-toughness char-
transition behmor. Jn addition. some materials have low notch tough- ac:te.r:ls1ic:s of each. material One tndil.lonal method of design to prevent
nm at all temperatures (e.g., 75 bi- or 517.0 MPa-yield aluminwn or brittle fractun! in a member is to spc.;ify that it an be used only above
high-strmgth steeh); when:as some materials have a high levd. of notch some particular transition temperature. That is, for the material shown
toughneaa at all temperatw:ea (e.g., 304L stainleaa neel). in Fig. 6.24. one fncture-control dellgn method hu bee.n to restrict the
The change In absorbed. energy. dllctillty (lateral a.pamion or contrac· use of dll.s steel to temperatures above the 20.3 Joule (15-ft-lb) Impact
tion at the root of the notdi), and fraauIC appear.incc (as measuml by transition ~for those structure. wbject to impact loading.
pc:roc:nt ahear on 1he sud:ace) for a typical structural steel are sh1119Il in The nil-ductility temperature (NDT) teat is another American
Fig. 6.24. At. 60"C (140"F), full ductile behav.lor .II ob1erve.d. At. -128°C Society for Tefting an.d Materials (ASTM) 3 method to predict behav:lor
(-200°F), complete brittle behavlor If obsem:cl. The rcgl.oD. between 1heae of structunl .teds. Below the NOT temperature. the mel is considered
two extremes is ca1k<1 the trtll!Sition regiotl. Note 1bat 1he tranlition region to be brittle under conditions of impact loading. At slow or intermediate
is difremrt fur the two difi'c:n:nt loa.cling rates. Loa.ding me hu a va:y signif- loading ratu, the steel can still exhibit satisfactory toqhne11 al lower
icant effect on the fracture bebav:lor of structure.I, a.t obterved in Flg. 6.24. temperatures, at shown in Fig. 6.24.
Various trtuultUm ttmperotll.ru an: oftm emibllshed. u an lndh:ation of
the notch toqhne# of a muc:tural material. For enmple.. the 20.3 Joule M.4 lmpoNMI of Loldln9 Rl'llt
In addition to the effects of nou:h« and tempe.rature on the fNcture
o MPa(l<si ) behmor of ttructura1 materials, the rate of load application al•o can be
11
llignificant. That ii, ifnotdied membmi are loaded. slowly, the transit.ion
140 100 Suue1un1I 27S (40) &om brittle to ductile beb.av:lor may OCCUl' at much lower temperature•
- -- Steel
than for Impact loading. Figure 6.24 ahows that a slow loading rate
120 cau.ed the transition beha.vior to be .tufted to lower tempcratum.
80
~100 :;; Many muctunl materials. primarily low-ll:rength structural st«h,
eDiibit loading-rate e1recte.
~ "7 (I()
.,c 80 ~ For members or components subjcded to Impact or dynamh: ratei of
;>,
loadlng. dle impact-loading-rate transition tempesaturecurw should be used
j (I() 40 1D measure notdt mugfmea. A similar ltm:mmt. can be made iir a member
u loa.ded at an intermediate loading nte (between~ allld impact). Load,, can
40
20
be applied to structwal members either very slowly [owr 10 to 100 seoonds
20 (see Fig. 6.22) as In 1he case ofa slow-moringtradllr crosslnlJ a brldgl:J. very
npidly (such as an impact load in 0.01m0.001 seoc:111d from a&Jlingwaght),
0 0 ai; a1 ii generally the case, at some inte.rmedlate rate (su.ch a.ta cruck a'0.1Si.l1g
Temperalure
uhort-.in bridge at a speed of50to60mphmabout 1 se<X111d). Earehquab
loadings generally are .iow to intermediate. Typical load-time plots fur loads
applied. m structural membc:n are shown in Pig. 6.25.
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 179
~
.;:::
......
c:
100
80
o
•
Slow bend (10-S in/in/s)
Impact (10 in/in/s)
ISO
-
::::!
g
(a)
0
·=e- 100 ·~
0 60 ~
.D
"'«I
.D
40
«I
>.
>. so e!>
f.O
8 20
UJ
IS ft• lb
Ji
0 0
-300 -200 -JOO 0 100 200
.......
..!!?
!c:: 80
0
·;;; 60
(b) ij
.,><
P.
40
i., 20
j 0
-300 200
.......
~ 80
~ 60
-~~y~~~rc.!'l~~------------
(c)
...e
0
40
]"' 20
u:
0
-300 100 200
Temperature ( 0 F)
Load
6A.5 Corrallilan1 ~" Vlltau1 Fnu:ture A genenl design pIOCedure to J'KY'ent brittle ~ in structural
TutRelulb memben is u follOWJ:
The dynamic aitical. 81R&t-mtenslty factor, Kil> can be ttlated to CVN 1. Calculate the maximum nominal strea.t <S fur Che member being
impact results in the lomr half of the transition region (below the analyzed.
ductile-to-brittle transitlon temperwre) as follows: 2. l!ltiJna1e the most llkel:y ftaw geometry and Initial auk me "..- Tb
design against brittle fracture during the a:pected lifetime of a mucture,
K1,, =./S·CVN · .li estimate 1he mmmum probable auk me during the elpected llfetime.
3. Calculate K1 fur these condition• of stress o and flaw size a using
With CVN given in ft-lb or Joule. and E. (the Modu1111 ofI!luticity) in the appropriate KJ relation. (E.:nmples of wriou. K1 relations are given
psi or MPa, the units of K14 are psi·.Ji;i (or MPa.Ji;;). Eac.h oftheae Ku in Fig. 6.22.)
valuea (at a epeciflc teat temperature) can then be·~ to account 4. Detmnine or estimate the critical stre111-lntensity factor IC,, KTP
for the difference In loading rate between Ku and Ks. using the follow- Krr lid' or K1' for the .mmr!al from which Che member is to be built.
ing relation: These critical stte#-lntendty value. are a function of the ~d
service temperature and loading we and can be obtained from fracture
T, =215-1.So,. mechanics tesb. Approximate aitical stre.u-inten.aity Vlllue1 can be esti-
where a,.= yield strength. k.d or MPa. mated from CVN impact tat resulta as shown in Fig. 6.26. Frequently,
CVN Impact test results are epedfled for epedflc structural cases such
The temperature shift between K1' and K1e int is shown In Fig. 6.26 u
0.75». Th11.1, Kl<>' Ks.lld' or Ku values can be approxin:uued from CVN as the AASHTO Fractu.n! Control Plan. Estimates of K. can be made for
impact test resulr. as shown in Fig. 6.26. Other relations eJirt between irpecific cuet using the procedure shown in Fig. 6.26.
elutic-plast.lc fracture tert re&ulb (ruch u the J-lntegral or CTOD test S. Compare K1 with K"' K,, w or K"' Tb deilgll agidnlt brittle frac-
results) and Ku value-. and these are described 1n the literature.1 ture. ensure that K1 will be less than the critical stress-lntendty factor
througholrt the entire life of the structure. Thi• may require the sele<:-
tion of a different material or reduction of the maximum nominal ser-
6.4.f Fr.mi,. Mechll'llcs Dalgn vice ltre$$. Alao. lt .may require better quality control during fibr:lcation,
The fundamental dwgn approacll. to preventing brittle fracture in or periodic inspection for aacb through the life of the structure.
structural materials is to keep the calculakd sm:ss-intensity factor The pieral relationship among material toughnm IC,, Kl>' K.rc lld'
K1 (the driving force) below the critical mesa-intensity factor, K, or K"" nominal rtn::u, G, and crack lize a i! shown schematically in
(the resistance force). Thie is analogoue to keeping a< a,. to prevent Fig. 6.27. ~ for a particular combination of stres1 and crack sl2e in a
yielding. structure, KJ reaches the critical K, leveL brittle fracture can oc:cur. Thus,
there are many combinations of stress and flaw size which mey QUl.le
fracture in a structure 1hat is fabricated from a material ha:ring a par-
ticular Vlllue of K. at a particular service temperature and loading rate.
Conversely, there a.re many combinations of stress and flaw size that will
not cause fractl.11'e of a particular structural material.
t
0
~ Fracture zone
"'a
00
c
·;;;
'"v~ Of
.5 cro ,___ _ K. = f(cr,a)
K1d = .../S • CVN • E J<:.(critical value ofK1)
a1
Increasing flaw size, 2a -
Flgur. 6.rl Schemat.ic RlaUomhlp between~ flaw tlze. and ma!el'lltl
toup-.
All an er.ample of the deaign application of fracture mecb.anl«, con-
sider the equation rdating K1 to the applied stms and &w me for a
through-thickness cradt in a wide plate (Fig. 6.28). .Al11UID.e that labora-
tory teft results show that for a particular structural steel with a_yield
strength of 80 k.d (552.0 MPa) the .K, ls 60 bi .Jin (66.0 MPa ./iii) at
Temp__. the •ervice temperature.. loading rate, and plate thlcknm. Also UNme
that the design stress i.'I 20 ks:i (138 MPa). Substituting K1 = K, = 60 bi
=
./in(66.0 MPa ./m) and <S 20 bi (138 MPa) resulb In 20ct 5.7 in. =
CVN =ft-lb (0.145 m). Thus, for tht$e condition•, the mu:lmum tolerable flaw
size would be about 5.7 in. (0.145 m). For a design 8tms of 45 bi
E =modules of elasticity, psi (310 MPa), the same malerial could tolerate a Saw size of only about
1.1 ID. (0.028 m). If residual s~. such u might be cawed by weld-
Jng, are present so that the local stress In the vidnity of a aac:k.15 80 bi
(5S2.0 MPa), the tolerable flaw si7.e ls reduced considerably. Note that if
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 1f1
er
~~
80 CJys
-.I- l-2a
7t2 E
K., =er Vita er=--
c (Ur)2
CJ
60 er er= erys
....._
·;;;
0 ~ ~
b Ur
.,,·
"' 40 (a)
*.~
~
"'
Oj
c
'§
0
z
20 Kc
CJys erc - --
- o.lrui
CJ
2 4 6 8
Flaw size, 2a (in.)
a
Rtllnl6.21 SU--&w me~ for throush-thlda:leat aacltfor lllllla'laJa
wi1fl.Kc=60bi./in' (66MPa./m) and.Kc=l20bi./in' (132MPa./m). (b)
Figure UO ~between (.i) c:iohlmn inmblll:ty -1 (b) melt iDltablllty.
a tougher maWlal is UKd, say with Kc= 120 bi Jin (132.0 .MPa .Jin),
the tolerable flaw sizes at all mess levels are slgnific:.antly inc:reas«l. If column imtability (Fig. 6.30). The ltre.u level required to caU1e
the natc.h toughness of a mmrial ii sufficiently high, brittle fu.ctumi lnrtabillty In a column (bucldlng) dec.reue.t at the L/r ratio Jncreues
will not O<XU1', and failures under tensile loading O«Ul' by general (Fig. 6.304). Similarly. the stras level to ca114e instab.lllty {fracture) in
yielding. unless the conditions of constraint are similar to those of the a &wed or crac.kecl tension member decrease# a the Baw size inew1$CS
Ingram Barge\. Fig:. 6.29, or posslbly the Northrldge moment connectionl. (Fig. 6.30b). As the stress level in either case approaches the yield
Fortunatdy. most structural matm.a1s have a ICatOI!llbly high Ind of notdi strength. both the Euler analy119 and the X.. analys18 are invalid because
toughness at service temperatures and loading ra.te1 and the eo.111t:raint of general yielding. To p.revent buckling, the ac:tual stress and Lh values
.Is not too rigid. mutt be below the Euler curve. To prevent &acture, the aaual me~ and
An analogy that mey be useful in understanding the fundamental flaw size must be below the K. level shown in Fig. 6.30.
aspecu of fracture-mechanics design is the compari90n with Euler
U.7 Prwemlon of Brtnl• Fnicture
A. Gmtral To prevent brittle &utures in me! structures, it Is usually
sufficient to make sure that the steels properties meet the n:quim:nents
of the recognhed standard rpedfi.cationt, to proportion the details of
the structure with reasonable care, and to JnsiBt on good practice in
fabricadon and manufacture. Howewr. it is lmpomnt to note that the
lower the expected minimum serviGC tempcrature, the more urgent
these prea.ulions become. A designer who adopts a standard rpecitica-
tion u part of the deaign must remember that whatever aasurance the
spedflcadon gives against brittle fracture Is based, in part, on aperi-
ence with the particular type of mucture and service for which the
specificalion wu written. Extrapolation to different s:ituailom must be
made with great care and thorough analysia.
B. M.alerilll Spee(fiuttotu Toughness provi&lons of ASTM .A.709 for
bridge steel and the AASHTO spdc-ations ensure suitable materials
for the intended 1ervice. Materials are aVllilable for three temperalure
regions, identified u Zone• 1, 2, and 3. The oorreaponding CVN
requireme.ats are spedfied in the ASTM .A.709 spedflcadon. AASHTO
pres~ the following lowest service temperatures:
Zone I: O"F and above(~ -17°C)
Zone 2: -1" to-30°F (-18"C to-34°C)
Zone 3: -31° to-<i0°F (-3S"C to-51°C)
For each of these zonet. AASHTO specifies a minimum CVN Impact
toughness that is a function of plate thickne11 (see AASHTO Standard
Specitications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling
and Testing). These levels of toughness requireme.ats have been estab-
Rgure6.2t Phomgraph ofthel.o.5.3301 Martha.Ingram BuiJe brittle liactme. lished with due consideration on the intermediate ruain rates to which
Clwpy V-.aotcb. ~of SS ft-lb (74.7Joale.) attenloe ~ bridges are loaded u ah.own in Figl. 6.22. 6.24, and 6.25.
182 CHAPTER SIX
1ection and (2) a rough 1urface area furmed by the fractun when the where P. = fatigue strength computed for failure at n cycles
load becomes too high for the remaining cross lleCl.ion. S = men which produced failure ln N cycles
K = slope of the straight-line S-N curve
6.5.2 btlgue In Structural SCMll The curve becomes essentially horizontal at about 10' cycles, gener-
Many evaluations have been made of the seven! factors affEctlllg the ally referred to aa the fatigue limit. Such relationships can be wed in
fatigue behavior of a metal alloy. member, or mw:ture.1.5 Based on theae design, but they are of greater value In the form of a modified Goodman
studies, requllements him: been provided In design specifications to fatigue diagram (Fig. 6.34), which provides a relatively complete picture
prevent Sllch failures. The principal parameter• are the magnitude of of the fatigue behavior of a given connection, member, or stnu:ture. The
the alternating aa-es and the number of cyclea neassary to produce onilnate is the maximum mesa, and the abicisla ill the minimum stress
failure. Dal:a from this ell: are plotted in the fonn ofS-N curves in which (either tension or compmsion aa shown). The radial line.t indicate the
the stress S to cause failure Is plotted against the number of cycles N at men ratio. The curves 111, "2· etc.. represent failure at varlow lives.
which failure occun. Figure 6.32 shows typical S-N curves for high.- Design strealea can then be presented In the furm ofEq. (6.14).
carbon steel and a high-strength alumlnum alloy. For the alumlnum
alloy. the stress to cause failure dec:rease1 as the number of cycles 1' a,,_ =- 0
-~a
l-K R •
(6.14)
increased. For the carbon steel, there is first a decrease in fatigue strellgth 1
as the number ofcycles 1' Increased and di.en there is levding offin the
curve, with no ~e in fatigiie strength as the number of cycles is where '"""' = mu.imwn allowable repeated stress
increased. Thi.I horizontal part of the S-N plot is called the fatigue or a = stre11 parameter which ill a function of the ultimate
end11IU1CC limit and lies between 106 and 101.0 cycles. Many fermw alli>yl strength of the steel. the life, and the type of member
a!Ubit an endurance limit that Is about one-half their temlle ll:rength. K 1 = coefficient which is a function of life and the stress ratio
Non.ferrous alloys such as aluminwu alloys do not have an endurance R = stress ratio (ratio of minimum to mulmum stress, taken
limit and may have fatigue strengths 111 law as one-third their temlle algebraically)
strength. a.= bask allowable static ~sa for the member under
con•ideration
1045steel
·g_
Fatigue 60 'b
..-
.._.
limit
.g
40 ~
'ii.
~
20 j
o....._~......_~ ........
~---~ ........ ~---~~---___,
1c3 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1010
Nun'tler of cycles, N,
-- 0 +-
The relatiO.D..Sb.ip between the fatigue strength to failure for a given Minimum 8lr86s In cycle
number of cycles may be described on an S-N, or Wohler, curve
(Fig. 6.33). Such a diagram, presented on a log-log basis, portrays the Figure 6.34 MOO!fied Goodman diagram for wrioaa lives and streu ranget.
behavior of a specific detail for a given loading condition and can be
e:s:pressed by To further •implify delign, K 1 can be taken equal to 1. This corre-
spond. to a collltant Illllge ofltren for a given life and ill the buia for
(6.13) many design specificatl.0111.
6.5.J Major Fecton Atredlng the Fdfu1
Stnnglll af • Meal ar Allay
The fatigue strength is affected by factors other than the metal or alloy
composition. Some of the mott important are:
(a) Sue.. concentration: the fatigiie strength ill 9ignificamly reduced
by the presence of ~ rai.lera Sllch as notches, holes, keywaya, or
lharp changes in crou lleCl.iD111. Fatigue failur9 can be minimiud by
I I careful design to avoid rtress raisers whenever possible.
- ---L---4--- ..,...._~~~
I I (b) Surface roughness: In general the amoother the surface& finish on
: I the metal sample, the higher the fatigue strength. Rough surfaces create
' I stress raisers that faclll.tate fatigue crack furmatlon.
n1 N n2 (c) Surface condition: smce most fatigue failures originate It 1he metal
Cycles to fallure (log scale) SIU'face. any major change in the surface condition wiD. afkct 1he 6d:igue
ltrengthof1hemetal.Foreqmple.~hardeningtRatmeotsrorlteds.
Figure 6.JJ Schematic: ofthe S-N dJagram. .mc.h II c:adrurizing and nitrlding. which hardm the mr&ce, inc:reue
184 CHAPTER SIX
fatigue lif'e.. Decarburmng. on the other hand. which solteru a heat-ueate<I 120
steel swfaa:. lowen fllligue lif'e.. Irrtrod.uciion of a f'awrahle amip:renive
reGduaJ. sttas pattern on 1he metal wtf.t.ce also lncrwea fatigue life. 110 l~ ~
(d) Environment: If a corrosive environment ls pment during the ~~~
cydk stress of a metal. the chemical tUack giutly ucderue. die rate UTS r?. ~ rJ
at which fatigue crack.t propagate. The combination of corrosion tUack "ii)
100 F2.ooo,ooo= 20+ 4
and cydk st:resse1 on a mebl is laiown as cotTO$/on fatigue. :£ ~ ~?
In ge.neraJ. the fatigue .raistance of a structural. ttee1 la proportional to .c. 90 f..~ ~
its ultimate lb'ength. Hcrwc:ver, this proportionality c:an vary considerably. Oi fj_ ~ ~
c:
or even be nonemtent. depending upon the stmss concentratiom in the ~ ~ ~'1
member being considered and Che number of stress cydes to which it is Ui 80
subjected. SmalJ. rotating members of steel (rotating-beam. 'P«lmm') .9? j~ ~
with polished slll'hces generally e:shlbit a fulgue limit In revmal equal to
·c;;
70 ~~ ~
c:
appromnatdy 50 percent af1he uhim.atc tem:ile strength of1he lllllWi.aL 2 ·~ ~ '(f
Such a value may be Jignifitant in the daign. of JOme machine parts. <l>
-ro 60 ~ ~1
However, whe.11. such members oonta!n severe mea oonceo.tratione, the i~ ~
percentage will be mw:h smaller. Pllrthenuore. corroding environments §
5 //, '{:t ~
can be expected. to prodUGe further reductions.. The drccts of gemnetry 50
and cor:roaive emironment on the relalioruhip between fatigue stiength ~ ~ 'g
and uliim.ate mength of ate.eh are ahown in Fig. 6.35. 40 ~ ~{
l ~ ~ ---
. y,
.,.,-"t ~
--- -- -
·- -
30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Fatigue strength, ksi
120 Rgure 6.l6 Rdaliomhip betwem the fatigue mmglh of plain plata will mill
50% llCllle Oii. flllfacet, 2e!O-tl>-telllloll. ~?
'(ii 100
~
-
.E
80
These equations give an estimate of the basic faligue strength af die
plain material. To relate Chem to a design or working streu of the form
showo.lnEq. (6.14).an approprlare factorof safetymlUt be incorporated.
The rate or &equency of cyclic loading has no slgniftcant dl'ect on
Q.)
(.) fatigue stRngth when the applied ltl'eUell are nlativcly low {long life)
c and the &equency is less than 3000 cycles per minute (cpm). But, if the
CU
..... stresses are high enough to produce plastic deformation with eac:b. cycle
:J 60
of loadhlg (low life}, an inc:rease in speed of loading will produce m
'O
c inc.re~e in appamit fatigue atrmgth. The magnitude of tlliJ effect c.an be
w determined only by te.U.
Labcratory teftll are generally coo.ducted at selected m.agnitlldes of
minimum and mu:lmum cyclic: stress. but many structures are sub-
jected to maximum and minimwn sttems which vary in magnitude
from cycle to cycle. Bxtmlive mearch suggem that many factors affed.
Che manner in which fatigue damage accumulates under thi8 type of
loading. Nevertheless. the concept suggeste<l by Palmgren and applied
120 160 200 240 by Miner' appw"S to provide a simple and ia1onably rdiable predic-
80 tion of fatigue beha:rior under random loadinp. For failure.
Ultimate tensile strength, ksi (6.17)
Figure US Rdat!OXl.llhlp between the fatigue llmlt and 'llllimlde tcmdle
rtrength of varioa.t llteda.7 where n1 =number of stress cycle11 at stress level G1
N1 =number of mess cycles to produce failure at o 1
A major limJtation of the Palmgreo.-MiD.er rule I• Chat It does not
As-rolled plates and plain rolled strucimal steel members also have consider sequence effecta. that is. the order of the loading makes no
&.ttgue atrengtha proportional to the ultimate rtmlgth af the material. difference in this rule. Sequence effects are cl~ly obsened in many
Thi& relat!oo.shlp, ahown in Fig. 6.36 for a zero-to-tension loading. may be cases. A second limitation is that the Palmgren-Miner rule say• that the
~appro:Dmmlyby damage accumulation u io.depeo.de.nt of stress level. This c:an be seen
from the modlfled. S-N diagram. (Fig. 6.37} where the entire c:111Ve Is
(6.15) shifted the nme amount. regard.lea of streu amplitude.
A fourth factor to be considm:d is the effect of R.ridual stresses.
For other (Ollditions ofloading. fatigue mlstuice may be determined Views differ markedly concerning thJ8 factor, and the effect may
&om the following appro:rimate empiriw equmon: .In fact vary from one Instance to another, depending upon the alloy
composition. fabrication <:e>ndition (e.g.. whether it is welded) and
P= 3.0F, (6.16) geometry of the member. the ltates and magnitudes of residual and
1.7-R applied '1l'eM, and, perhape, other facton. In general. the lntroductJon
where F, =fatigue atm!gth for complete .revmal of stras of mldual comprastve strum at a location that Is critical In fatigue
F =fmsue strength for particular value of R can be expected to inc:ruse the fatigue resimnte at tlliJ location for
FRACTUREANDFATIGUE 115
is relativdy low. Variations in joint details and rivet partt:erm are also
' ',, original S-N curve found to have little effect
----...---
1 ', I
The clamping force of the fasteners can be quite important. Tight,
I ' I well-driven rivell are essential to muimum fatigue remtance. Loose
: 'L--.-..~~~~ rivell may decrease fatigue mlltanc:e by as much as 25 percent over
:......! . ~ S-N curve after that of joints with tight rivets. lliveted structura are seldom used now.
However, because of the age of most of the cxlstlng riveted structures,
:I n 1 :I application of stress it occaal.onally m11f be necessary to use the aist!ng fatigue information
1
1
cr 1 for n 1 cycles and loading hmory data to evaluate the extent of fatiglle damage to
which these struc:turell have been •ubjec:ted.9
NI NI 6.5.6 BoltH Ca1111Kllon1
Rgure 6.J7 Modified S-N diavam ohowing the l!lltire Cllrft ohifting the lllUDI! The fatigue ttrength ofthe ASTM A325 or A490 bolt subjected to direct
amolllit rcgard1Ci& of 11:reas amplitude- a.Dai tension ls related direc:tly to the clamping fDrce Inthe fastener. When
properly tightened (to the proof load of the fastener), the fatigue limit
can be e:s:pected to appromnate 80 percent of the proof load. However,
low levels of nre.s (long life). However. for levels of stre&I sufficient ifthe fastener is loose, or loses it.1' clamping force. fatiglie resistan<:e mlf
to cause yielding (short life) the e££ect. of ruidual strelses will be small be as low as 20 percent of the proof load.
or nonexirtent. Residual tensile stresses. in ~ are fuund to have In many wnnectiona in which the faateners are loaded in tension,
little or no effect, unleu they can be introduced in such a manner as to there ii a prying action. which mutt be tab.n into account The result-
reduce the resulting range ofstress under service loadings, which can be ing inaease in fastener tension may reduce the fatigue limit to as llttle
beneficial. Thus, caution must be eercbed in taking advantage of any as 40 percent of the proof load. Thus, eccentrldtlea in the loading of
effect of residual stre&les. bolted tension connections should be reduced to a minimum, Insofar
Laboratory studies show that the fatigue resllbl.nce In flemre of rela- u is prac:ticable.
tively small members lncreua as the diameter or depth decreases; this The clamping li>rce is also Important in shear-type wnnect.lona.
is a result of the dfect of size and the accompanying strain gradient. Adequate clamping (70 perunt of specified minimum tensile strength
Under uial loadinp the size e££ect. is generally found to be small or in A32S or A490 bolts) will provide a fatigue strength in a bolted con-
noneximnt. In relatively larp fl.exmal members (deptlui greater than nection of A36 steel 25 percent greater than that of a similar, properly
6 in.) the effect of rtrain gradient is relatively am.all. The factor which riveted CO.Dllection. In structures where slip in the c:onnec:tiom would be
is generally of greah!lt Importance ii the geometry, either internal or objec:tlDnable and mUBt be avoided, frictional resistance rather than
e:nernaJ, and the acoompanylng stress concentration. The magnitude fatigue resistance may control the de&ign.
of this effect varies with the sharpness of the change In geometry Occaal.onally It is Dece&Sary to use single lap joints rather than butt-
(the notch radius), the material composWon and fabrication process, type joints. The fatigue resistance of the lap joint ls companble with
and the life or number of cycles to failure. Sharp notches produce that of the butt-type joint under tensile loading. However, under com-
very large effectiVl: strain concentratioll9 and result in extremely low- pressive loadings the eccentricity in the wnnection produas a bending
(Wgue rui.atance. The .magnitude of the effective strain w~on which will reduce the f.atigue resistance significantly and should be
for a given detail incre:a.les with the ultimm strength of the material considered in the design.
(Pig. 6.35) but decreases as the life decrease&, that is, as the magnitude
of the appliecl stress is increased. Consequently, great care must be used 6.5.7 w.lded Connections
in designing structurea that are subjected to repeated loadinga. and In Welded structures can have rdatlvdy low-fatigue rest.tanc:e 1f they are
the selec:t!Dn of the struc:tural details. improperly designed and/or fabricated. Extensive data on the fat:lgue
Other variables, such as temperature and rest periods, may also affect reslst:anc:e of welded structural. connections have been collected.1.io The
the fattgu.e reslstanc:e of a structure. However, these are generally con- geometry of the structure or connection and the a.saociated mess con-
sic:lered to be of1ec;ondary importance li>r most steel strutturel and are centration are of greatest importance among the many factors ~cting
seldom (;OD.Sidered in design. the fatigue strength of welded structural. members and connections.
The filligue properties of welded structural wnnection1 depend on
6.5.4 5'rucbnl Mlmbln the teuile strength of the steel used for their fllbrlcation. However, the
Fllligue behavior in a:Dally loaded memben .is markedly dlfi'erent under magnitude ofthis variation depends on the 1everity ofthe streaa c:onc:en-
compressive and tenalle loadlnga. Repeated compressive 1Dadinp alone trat!Dns produced from welding and the severity of the fatigue loading
will generally not produce fattgu.e failures. Fattgu.e reslst:ance of tensile conditions. Under conditions where a connection ls subjected to high
members is generally controlled by the behavior of their wnnectiont. stresees and relatlvdy few applic:atlons of loading. the higher-strength
Only If no special precautions are taken to protect the connections, or materials will prove advantageous. However, under relatively low levels
if unu.sually severe stress concentrations enst in the member itself, will of stress appliecl a large number of time&, and with seven: stress concen-
the tension member be c:ritic:al in fatigue. In this cue, fatigue behavior tration&, the benefits of high-strength matmab may be relatively miall
ill determined by the factors discwmed in Fig. 6.34. or nonalstent Thus, the more severe the fatigue conditions, the less
Properly fabricated flexural. memben, beams. and girders have a advantage there is to the use hlgh-streJlgth materials.
high-fatigue resistance. However, details such as c:over plates, splices, An Wlderatanding of the stress flow through the atructure or c:on-
and atiffenen may affect their behavior .markedly and mUBt be consid- nection ls Important In de&ignlng for resllbl.nc:e to fatigue. Butt-welded
ered In the design. joints, because oftheir relatively nnooth flow of stress, provide e:xcdlent
resistance. However, f!Ilet-welded joints or lap joints, wherein a marked
6.5.5 lllRltlld Cannecllana change in direction of stress or load transfer o=ni, have relatively low
Laboratory studies demomtnrte that the fatigue re11istance of rivekd Rlistance.. Thut, care must be aercied in providing the hen geometry.
connections can be relatively low as a result of mess c:oncentra1ions pro- Whenever pouible, butt-wdded connections should be employed and
duced by rivet hole&, by the eccentricity of loading in the wnnections, strap plates or doubler plates avoided. Such added material, although it
and the bearing of the rivets in the holes. The type of steel generally may Increase the static strength, will reduce markedly the connection's
hal llttle effect, so there ii little or no advantage to high-strength steels fatigue resistance. Fattgu.e reslatanc:e of a butt-welded connection m11f
under severe fatigue conditions. They may be advantageous ODly where generally be Increased by grinding the weld relnfurcement flush with
the number of repeated loads Is relatlvdy small and/or the stress range the surface of the wnnected members, provided the weld is sound.
1M CHAPTER SIX
6.5.a Dai. . far ........ Four slgn1Be&n1ly dttferent theoretical lOlding hl.rogram. are shown in
The principal deaign apecidcatiomll-1'forbridget and buildings Include Pig. 6.3'.il in mm. of a frequeru;y dilt:ribution a( ratios a( range in qclic
pJ'CIVisiom for repeated loadiap baaed on the results of11umero111 labo- drell to the .mu:lmwn range ill cyclic meu.15 Theae four conditiou are
rato:y test. of rimed, bolted, and wdded members and c:onnecttons. ddlned In Table 6.3, the Bnt three of which represent beta~tlon
For the general pu!pOKS of f.atigue design. members and connec- probiblllty denalty funaions that ~ lhape factora q and r IS mown.
tions i:an be grouped into the 42 muctural details lb.awn in Pig. 6.38 The ~loading hinognm of Fig. 6.40 ii ~ u m aample for
md dacrlbed In 1\ble 6.1. The mean fatigue remtanca (ttreaa rangea) 111 adual st:rw:ture. (Note that the value of 1he loadlng coefficient. CL,
of the mcmben mown ill Fig. 6.38 an: glTCD ill 1ible 6.2. These Tllues Is bmften that ofload typa I and II of Fig. 6.40.) Other hiltograml of
are for collftant ltn:tt-1UJF loading and c:an be applied only for ~ highwsy- and railway-bridF loadinp are shown in rderenccs 16 and 17.
limited conditiom, lince in moll imtmcea the lo.A will vary randomly. Ad'1itional loading frequency dilt:ributi0111 are praented in refi:rence 18.
-~- 1 (F)- 1
c )
8-8(A)·8(AS)
2
9-9(S)-9(R)
-~- 10(G)-10
(Full penetralto.n)
c )
11 (G)-11
13(G) - 1S
c ) --
14
FRAC1 Utt£ AND FAl1GU£ 117
c4 ~ 1) 22
'\&(G)-'
\6~)
-g~J7
-
~
----
CD
2 0 (S )- 2 0
Q ......._
27 lS )- 2 7
{Slol o r pb
JQ ., .i d s )
2'\ (S )- 21
-/ ()
I--
28
1N CHAPTER SIX
(~)
( 33 (s)-33
31 A
)
37(A)
Figure 6.JI (Collliniud}
The allawable fatigue deatgn strea range S11 may be determined from Values of R, are baaed on 1he total un.r:.erta1nty In fatigue llfe (acatter or
unccrt111nty In &ttgue data In fatigue dull.age model. in S1mls analysis, and
=
S1t S,CiRp (6.18) in fabrication) and on the assumption that the dimibution of fatigue life
when, S, =mean c:omtant-cyde faligue 1tress range f'or desired life can be reptaented by a Weibull dillbibution.1°Facton for rdiabilities of
(qcla ofloadlng), Table 6.2 90, 95, and 99 percent are given hl Table 6.4. Value• ofCL bated on a linear
CL= loading coefBc:lent to be sel«ted for load type, Table 6.3 log S-log N &ttgue rdatlomhip. the linear-damage rule ofl!q. (6.17), and
Rp =reliability haor baaed on a. statirticil &tigue analysi• for the loadinf mquenc;y-d.imibution function.of22aregiY'en in Table6.3.1S
probability of l1l1'Vival. Table 6.4 Thwi, ming 1he loading history in Fig. 6.40 and a 95 pera:nt level of
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 189
lUvetod Connedions
• Base metal at net section of riveted double-shear connectio111, axially loaded, no out-of-plane bending 8(R)b
• Base metal at net section of riveted single-shear connections in plates, truss-type members, and gusset plates 9(R)b, 37(R)b
• Bue metal in net section of built-up beams and beams with cover plates, flexural loading 38(R)b
• Shear on futeners of riveted double-shear connections, axially loaded, no out-of-plane bending 8(RS)b
Groove WtldJ
• Bue metal and weld metal, when reinforcement ii not removed, in or adjacent to fullpenetration groove-welded .plices with 10, 11, 12, 13
or without transitions. Transitions must have slopes not greater than 1 to 2\!a
• Base metal or weld metal in or adjacent to full penetration groove welds in tee or cruciform joints 14
• Bue metal at details attached by groove welds subject to transverse and/or longitudinal loading 15, 32, 32.A, 32B
• Weld metal of partllll-penetration transverse groove welds, based on effective throat area of the weld or weldt 16
• Base metal and weld metal at weld on backing strip 35
Pillet-Wddod Connedions
• Base metal at ends of Intermittent fillet welds 36, 36A
• Base metal at junction of axially loaded members with fillet-welded end connections. Welds must be clisposed about the am 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 33, 34
of the member 10 as to balance weld stresses
• Continuous longitudinal and/or tranlvt!fge fillet welds subject to shear parallel to the member axis or in combination with 171, 181, 331
shear due to flexure
• Tranaver1e fillet welds in tee joints, or end member" 191, 201, 211
Misal'4noous Ddails
• Base metal adjacent to short (2-in. muimum length in direction of stress) fillet-welded attachments 22, 23, 24, 25
• Base metal adjacent to longer fillet-welded attachments 26, 29, 30, 31, 31A
• Base metal at plug or slot welds 27b
• Shear on plug or slot welds 27•'
~e10 eqmples are gi- as guidelines and are not intenclecl to =ude other reasonably similar situations.
"'Thu detail provides fur.- in the base metal
'Where sire" revmal I• Jmolvcd, A307 bolts are not recommended.
~ detliJ provid.. for shear Oil the futcu.on.
'TJu. detliJ provid.. for tlroa Oil the throat of the wd.
reliability, the allowable design stre88 for a beam with partial length cover 6.5.9 Protecting •galnst i=.tlgue flllluni
plates should be 95.8 MPa (13.9 ksi) for an expected lifi: of 2,000,000 The designer should:l7
cycles and 57.9 MPa (8.4 ksi) for an expected lifi: of 107 cycles. I. Avoid details ofdesign that produce severe stress concentrations or
The allowable fatigue design stress range is obtained as follows: poor stress distribution.
I. From Fig. 6.38 and Table 6.1, identify the type of detail at which 2. Provide gradual changes in the section and avoid reentrant notch-
fatigue cracking is most likely to occur. like corners.
2. Identify the loading frequency distribution which best represents 3. Avoid abrupt changes of section or stiffness in members or
the loading history to which the detail will be subjected during its lifi: components.
(Fig. 6.39). If no information is available, the type IV distribution can 4. Align parts so as to eliminate eccentricities or reduce them to a
be used and will be conservative. minimum.
3. Determine the number ofcycles ofloading expected during the life 5. Avoid making attachments on parts subjected to severe fatigue
of the 1tructure. loadings.
4. Obtain the buic mean strellS range S, from Table 6.2 for the mem- 6. Use continuous welds rather than intermittent welds.
ber or detail. 7. Avoid details that introduce high-localized constraint.
5. Determine the loading coefficient Cv based on load type from Table 8. Provide suitable inspection to guarantee proper riveting, ade-
6.3 (or from a loading distribution function as discussed inreference. 15). quate clamping in high-strength bolts, and the deposition of sound
6. Select a reliability factor RP> based on importance of the detail to welds.
the safety of the structure, from Table 6.4. 9. Provide for suitable inspection during the fabrication and erection
7. Determine the maximum allowable fatigue design stress range from of structures.
Eq. (6.18). The maximum stress based on this stress range should not 10. When fatigue cracks are discovered, take immediate steps to pre-
exceed the maximum allowable static design stress for the detail in question. vent their propagation into the structure.
1lNI CHAPTER SIX
22.0 I -
-
-
17 .6 I-
- I
r7 --..... '\
\
- N • 1546
f.L:
(T :
60.0
20.8
I ~
c.o.v. : 0 .35
- '
\ CL ~ 2 .2
I'
13.2
ii
f-
~
"\
J
,_
I\
\
-
8 .8 I
,J-
,.
' V B e t o (q=4.59; r= 6 .89 1
I
4.4 n
I
-I l'i
\
\
u
~, Mox.
0.0
0.0 25.0 50.0 75.0 100.0
~- - i 125.0 150 .0
-
175.0
11t2 CHAPTER SIX
L5.1D LlllMl..rTurl"ll The ~trolling facton in 1amdlar tearing are: (a) quantity and
Another type of Wlure of gRat importance, where cracking oCCW'll morphology of low mehing namnetallic incluai0J11 (usually l11lfides or
In the bue metal beDeath the weld (Pig. 6.41). It ia caused by a com- 11licatea), and (b).magnitude of the Jndw:ed at:ttaaea normal to the plate
bination of high. localluci 1tra1e1 from weld contraction and poor rurlace. The magmltude of the illduced stresses dependa on the joint
through-thictnclt ductility In the steel The tearing I.I IDitiated by the design. the depe of nstraint lmpoted on the Joint. the plate thiclt-
lepll1ltion ofthe interUc;e between inclusions and metal (ddaminltion) neu, the orientation of the weld. and the lize of the weld. Restrained
or by fncture of an incl111i0J1 ibelf. The cncb expalld by linkage of comer or T-jointl are the mo.s t susceptible to lamellar tearing became
the delaminatiom In the tame plan.e and by thear step& that join cracb the fusion boundary I.I roughly parallel to the pkte surfau {F.lg. 6A2)
on dlibcnt planes. Thi.I type of material fracture I.I the separation of and through-thiclale11 comraction ttrettes are high. Wne1lar tearing
the m~ raulti.Dg from thrcnigh-thidmeu straim induced by weld in butt welda ia rue. Thid:-plm, high-impo1ed restraint (e.g., rigid
metal lhrinluge or by applied loadii (Pig. 6.41 )." The fatigue remtance. clamping), and large weld bead.I all increue raidual stttstet and the
fracture atrength. and toughneH of a welded joint all can be tlgniflcantly llbllhood of tearing.
~d by lamellar tearing.2045 Hydrogen hu alto been found t.o lncreue susceptibility to 1amd-
lar taring. Por this reuon, a modam preheat and the 111e of low-
hydrogen oomumllhla are beneficial in reducing the tendency to
lamellar tearing. Uae of wddlng dedrodes that provicle we1da with
Toe lamellar tear the Jowett acceptlble ytdd strength but of sufficient atrength to carry
the deaign load. u another alternative to cOlllider to reduce lamdlar
tearing, u well u uaing weld sequences that eliminate or minimize
restraint and through-thlclcneH weld ahrlnkage atralnt. Extreme cau-
tion in making weld repaln of highly reltralned connec:tlons It lmpor-
tairt tince ~d repair• are U1ually made under greater rc.traint than the
original welda. Ultimatd.y. uae of~ in which nonmetallic inclusions
have been minimized ateelt with reduced aulfur 8lld oxygen content
and cteels with a reduction of area in the through thickness d.trection of
It leut 20 percent u determined In the lpCCified ASTM-A770 test (tee
ASTM A770/A770M-86J.I
Heat-affected zone
...... ...
Susceptible Improved
(b)
Susceptible Improved
'. . .....
"
Suaceptlble Improved
(c)
FRACTURE AND FATIGUE 193
BY
JOSEPH w. SCHULENBERG Assistant Clinical Professor of Civil Engineering,
University of Dlinois at Chicago
KRISHNA R. REDDY Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Dlinois at Chicago
7.1 SOIL BEHAVIOR Tilble 7 .1 Typle11I V.luu of Coefficient of Permublllty lr for Soll1
Soil behavior is based on the soil type and the rate ofloading. There are 1'ypical coeflicii!nt
two main soil types: frictional and cohesive. There are four main types of permeability.
of loads: long term, short term, dynamic:, and transient. Additionally, Soil type ftlday
there can be creep deformation of clays under constant load over long Well-graded clean gravels, gravel-sand mixtures 75
periods of time. Poorly graded clean gravels, gravel-sand-silt 180
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt 1.5x10-3
7.1.1 ldentlflgitlon
Clayey gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-clay l.5X lo---'
Though identification is often based on grain size, one of the primary 4x10-2
Well·graded clean sands, gravelly sands
ways that grain size impacts soils is permeability. Clays, which have very
low permeability, on the order of 1 x 10-7 cm/s, do not allow water to Poorly graded clean sands, sand-gravel mi.J: 4x10-2
readily dissipate. Granular soils have permeability that may be one or Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mi.J: 2x10-2
more orders of magnitude higher than clays. As such, they more readily Sand-silt clay mi.J: with slightly plutic fines 3.0x10-3
dissipate pore-water pressure and therefore fed the effects of loading Clayey sand$, poorly graded sand-clay mix 7.5X lo---'
more quickly than clays. Therefore, discussion of soil behavior will Inorganic silts and clayey silts 1.5x10-3
begin with permeability. Mixture of inorganic silt and clay 3.0x lo---'
Pl!RMl!ABlLITY Inorganic silts of low to medium plasticity 1.Sx lo---'
Organic Ill.to and 1ilt-clayii, low plut!city Quite variable
Permeability refers to the relative ease or difficulty with which a liquid
Inorganic clayey 1ilta, elastic silt. 1.Sx lo---'
flows through a medium such as soil The coefficient of permeability k
is a velocity of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient and is expressed Inorganic clays of high pluticity 1.Sx lo---'
in terms of distance/time, frequently feet per minute. It is dependent Organic clays and 1ilty clayii Quite variable
on the flowing fluid and its temperature. Typical values of k for various 1 an/a = 2840 ft/day = 2 ft/min
soils are shown in Table 7.1. 1ftlyear=1 x 10....S cm/•
The permeability of soil is often of importance in the selection of
suitable materials for filter drains, free-draining base courses, and
relatively impervious earth cores for darns. It also affects the quantity Soil penneability may be determined either in the field by, for example,
of groundwater flow into excavations, wells, and underground drains. well pumping tests or in the laboratory on small and, it is hoped, represen-
The size and number of pumps and the layout of a well-point system for tative samples. Field-well pumping tests are relatively expensive and time
drainage will depend on the permeability of the soils at a given site. consuming and require specially trained personnel to plan, conduct, and
Moreover, on vertical sand-drain installations, the coefficients of per- analyze the results. They are seldom justified except where large projects
meability of natural deposits in both the vertical and the horizontal are involved or where underground water supplies are to be developed by
directions are required to estimate the relative time rate of consolidation a system of wells. However, the field-well pumping test does give more
when both radial drainage toward the sand drains and vertical drainage representative and reliable estimates of permeability since a much larger
to more pervious horizontal soil layers are involved. mass of the actual soil in an undisturbed condition is involved.
195
1tf CHAPTERSEVEN
For moo jobs. engineers mort to laboratory testJ of small sample. to friction angle. It should be noted diat stiff'&sured dafl ezhibit wmider-
determine .k. Two tests, the falling-head test for the mDnl impervious ably leas frictional. stRngth than would be predicted. by laboratory studies
fine sands. silb, and days and the constant-head tut for more pernous (Stark and Eid, 1994). Stifr&aured •oil mengCh am. be precllcted by ahear
gravels and clean sands, are more commonly employed. The.te tests sttengdi. measured In the lab for remolded samples taken to luge stra!D.s.
attempt to determine k within an order of magnitude, and for most
practical situ.atiom this is sufficiently a~. 7.1.2 Rlltaofl.oadlng
60
,,
....
50 ,
.. r• ~
, ... "'
CH
,...
"'
40 L
...
Upp9f Umlt Line- ....
.. 1•
i.. I
I.I
.... ....
" ,, MH&OH
I
10
.. - ... " CL-ML' lll ML&OL
I
I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
F'lgul'll 7.1 P1utidl:y dwt lhawlllg ~group aymbol.t: ~U.S. AzmrCorp.t o!&g!Deen. BM 1110.2-1906 (20 Augwt 1986).
SOIL MECHANIC$ AND FOUNl>ATIONS 1'7
Confining Compressive
pressure strength B
Normal stress o
(a) (b)
Figure 7.2 Stnngth relaUon'1iip f-or 11ncl.9. ttltll, ancl drained normally '°ntollclllted. dayt.
(.11) Mohr-coulomb fiillure criteria and {b) loc:al:lon of principal 1ttena and 1Ue11 lnc:te.111enta.
111W. 7.2 lWIAI Valun of+ for Dl'J S.nd QampoMd Plf11111rllJ
olQllllU: B
Very loose
N<4
Looae
S<N<lO lO<N<30 30<N<SO
Veq de.oae
SO<N
..
"'"'
~<28.5° 28.5°<.<32° 32°<.<36" 36°<~<4l0 4l 0 <~<46° ~
..."'
0
For wet sancla, thete value1 should be decreued. by 1 to 2 degrees. For "'
.c.
IJ)
gravela and c.nuhed rock with aimilar rtaw of denaity, they mould be
.Increased. from 2 to 6 degrees. ,,,,.,,,.,.,. Cohesion intercept, c,
For dry silts uid very dlty sancla, values of•' ere usually 2 to 6 degr«s.
lea than those shown in Table 7.2. Thil dilference is more pronounced
----i'-------
0
-------------
u Normol stress
as the deposit becomes more dense. For dltt and very 1llty sands
below the groundwater t@le, values of+' are, fur the great majority of
cuea. (()ndderably le~ (Olle-thlrd to one-half) than the values for dry
material. This difference between the dry and saturated. silt and silty
1ands h caused by their low permeability and the buildup of preuure clay that sub1equently ii to carry additional incrementl of building or
.In the pore water during the application of sudden loads to deposits of overburden load that will be applied al.owl.y enough. over a. period of
these soil•. years, to permit Internal drainage and to prevent the buildup of aceu
c:ohelllve Solla For coheaiTe (clayl.ike) so:ils. the role played by low pore-watu pressures.. The gradual buildup of a fill or slag dump on a
permeability and the a.cut pore pressure cawed. by superimpwed precompres,,ed clay deposit could represent auch a loading. u; however,
loads I• even more pronounced and important. For .aturated clays that load lncmnents are applied. to the ume ao!I. more quickly over a period
ha~ not been preloaded by ove.rburden or undergone a period of dry- of meks or & few months and drain~ is usentidly thwvted, l.lne DE
ing. the ~gth relation.ship is similar to that fur 1a11ds and silts would better repment the strength charactcrutiet. The loads applied. by
(Fig. 7.20). However, the angle of internal friction fur thete clayJ is wiu- most buildinp and rub during and immediately after conltruction are
ally leu than that for und. Where the rate of load.Ing 18 slow enough to eumple.t of loadlnp for which DE would beat repre.tent the strength
permit full drain~ of the pore water and thereby rdleve the excus cb.aracterist.la of the underlying precompmsed soil
pore-Wlller pressure, ~ for clays will range from 20 to 30 degrees. Soil• The two parameters' (cohesion intercept) and~ (Fig. 7.3) are of
under the staclu of an expanding library U1! believed. to be subjected. to great importance in detarnining the strength dw:acterillic of a claylib
thl8 type of load.Ing. In moat cuea, however. the rate of loading of Che ao!I.. They are Uled. to ertlmate the bearing capacity of a toll, to deter-
soil will be more rap.id, and the excess pore-'Wllter p?e$SUie will not be mine the stability of a slope or an earCh mus underlying a proposed.
fully reliemi by internal drainage. In cam of thi• type.. the ansfe of building site, and so on. They are not constant even fur & given soil.
internal friction will range from 10 to 20 degreu. and should be evaluated by laboruory tests that duplicate as nearly as
For clays that have been •ubJected to loads in eJa:e$S of their present pOllilble the most unfa.vorable field condition• that can be anticipated.
overburden loads or for clays that have undergone a period of dry-
ing. Che ruength duuuterut!c.s may be repmen~ approidmasely by SHOll.TTDM
line AB in Fig. 7.3. Thil line is neither exactly straight nor fixed in WI Sb.ort-tam loading is die period of loading before excess pore-water
locati0.11 even for a given soil For most prac:Ucal problem•, however, it preuure dmipates. For •and. the shear ttrength is the same for ihort-
Js suffldendy comet to assume the l.lnear relattonshlp. The posl.tlon and long-term 1.oadlng be<:ause euea pore pmrure dissipates Immedi-
and slope of the line will be Influenced by the nature and rate of the ately on loading.
loading to be placed on the soil. line AB, for example, might repnunt For clays, ahort-tam loading is dominated by the soil's cohesion and
quite well the strength characteristics of a. preloaded or precompres.11ed ls typically a.numed to be a (()mtJmt value.
1tt CHAPTERSEVEN
In mmy irutancet, enginem need to know die peak strengths, ultimate SO percent less. Normally. the period ofloadlng to failure in these tem
stn:ngth.e, and deformation moduli of the 1oils with which they are ranges from 5 to 20 minutes. For more rapid or transient rata of load-
wcikJng. Thue atrength claracterlstks mould be obtained under the ing, both strength and moduli normally ahow an increase.
conditions of con&emeo.t and loading ant!dpated dwing the foJlow- Aho shown in Table 7.3 are the oorre-.ponding number of blows N
ing stages: (1) preconmuction (excavation or filling), (2} comtruc:tlon. fur each of the sl:r. atates of consistency as obt&!ned from the atandard
and (3) polltromtnlction. Reproducing these field conditions c:a:acdy penetration t«t. On many lDlall to medium-sized jobs. where the
in 1he labora.1ory is impouible in many lnsW!ca. ThlJ hu led to the tort of laboratory soil testing may be difficult to justify, engineers
we of raults from simpler tests that are thought to give co.!MI~ frequently use the penetrat!on test u a guide to foundation type• and
l'ellllts. For example. in many practical siMllion-. the results of & simple bearing capacities and, at times, the .nee<! fur additional drilling and
amipniss:ion Wt, similar to the test on a cmicrete qlinda but employ- laboratory testing.
ing a mW!er specimen. may be used to determine the peak strength and The unconfined. com:pIUrive strength of a claylib aoil is of practical
deformation modulus of any soil that wiD. cohere enough to main a given value in many inltancea. For enmple, it can be mown that, fur a factor
shape (USlllilly cylindrica'I). The rmi.11$ of Nch a tm may be plotted as of ufety of appro:dmately 3, the allowable bearing capacity q4 of many
shown in Fig. 7.4 and die peak mcngth q,, detmnined. The subscript v claylib 1oila under lhallow foundations i.a euenlially equal to q,.. when!
indicates that the sides of the sample are not subjected to a confining qw ii an average of several test. run on samples taken within a depth
pmsure; thati8, the umpleb uncontlned The relative st1f£n.eee of the soil below the footing equal to the width of the footing. ThlJ relationship
may be obtained from the slope of the iD1ttal. t1111.gent B, or from. Che •lope Is, fur clayllke soils, e.entially independent of the shape and depth of
ofa secant I!, drawn to an arbitrary point on the curve (foraample. q,/3). the footing. However. ~ of thiJ magnitude may ca~e ai:;enive
footing settlemenu if the clay is nmmally consolidaled. thai is. ha.s
never been aubjected to a pressure in excess of Jte preaent overburden
lnitiol tangent (slope =E; l pressure. These normally consolidated. days am urually be identlfled
Peck strength quite re~y sin<:e their natural waser colltCD.U are cl08el' to their liquid
limit than to their plutic limil The liquid limit ii a moisture content
for which a remolded soil begln8 to change from a plastic state to a
Ult imate strength semiliquid state u Its moisture content Is increased. The plastic limit is
a moisture content for which & remolded soil begins to change from &
semi.solid t.D a plutic mre as the moisture content ii increased. TheJe
llmlu are readily obtained by means of the Atterberg llmlu tell The
rdatlonshlp q.. = q,. .Is not applicable in the case of dayllke soils with
unusual secondary structures, thai is. hairline cradc.s aid slickensides
(rude. internal surfaces). The bearing c:apacity ofthese soila is be.It deter-
mined. by plate bearing tem.
DYNAMIC LOADING
Dynamic loads, through either impact. vibralion leach, or earthquake
loads, are considered more complex and require rpeclal study. For
dynamic loadlng, coane-grained soils may behave as undralned b«awe
Flgu,_ 7.A Sttta-91nln rela!io!llhlp for IO!L the pore-water pressure doe. not have time to d.llJslpUe. For clays, the
strength is tJpically a.uumed to be the nme u for undrained For both
For claylike Jolb, Table 7.3 gives representative values of unccn&ed clap and sands. then! may be strength reduction due to cyclic loads.
compreatve strength (q,.) fur slJ: ttates of conslatency. Unconfined The structural. engineer b often l.nterellted in the strength and defor-
value. of Young'• modulus (E,) will usu4lly range from 5 tonc/ft2 for mation characteristia of soil under loads that are transient. vibratory,
Jeft clay to 100 t.Dns/ft2 for stiff claYJ. Values of B, are commonly 10 to or repeated. Se'feral mi.die. of the ctkcts of eadi of these loadinp
have been made in ncent yean, but no general rdal:ionahip to cover
all poiilbilltiea hu u yet been developed. However, enough baa been
Tlble7.J ConslllWftq of Cohetlwe Soll learned to indicate the general nature of such a relationship.
Uttcxmfined Blawa/ftNill Shown in Fig. 7.5 are typical stre#-stnin CIUW$ for cohesive ud
COiii~ mndard c:ohesionlea soih under die action of variolll types of loading. Gndually
ltrellglh Fidd penetnlion applied load curve1 are generally used in most englneedllg applications.
Collliltency q., tonafftl clwactetiltlca test However, studies have shown that both the stiffness and the ultimate
VayllO!t Laa than 0.25 Eaaily penmated I.-lhan2 strength of soils under the &c:tlon of repeated loads. where imp&Ct is
&eVenl lnCbes not a fact.Dr, are UIUally less than they are under the action of gra.dwiJly
by&t applied loads. For clayllke soils, Che ultimate strength for repeated. loads
Soft 0.25-0.50 .Easlly penetrated 2-4 .Is usually only 80 to 90 percent of that for gradually applied loads, while
aeveral inch.ea by for granular materials. the nnge I• from 0 to 80 percent. The stiffness of
thumb cohesive soils in a repeated-load wt. as measured by a slope modulus,
Medlmn 0.50-1.0 Can be penmatcd 5-8 ranges from 50 to 95 percent of that obtained ill gradually applied load
seven! llldics by tests. For coheslonleas •oils, the repeated-load moduhu .Is often only
lfwmbwlth about 50 percent of that for gradually applied lotids.
modaalt dfort
Stiff 1.G-2.0 Readily incl.cttted bf 9-15 'I'llANslBNT Lo.ADS
lfwmbbut Where the load duration to failure b measured in a matter of S«onda
penetl*d oruy
with pal dfort
or fractions of seconds. the loads are called transient. Studies thus fu
have shown that both the stiffne" and the st:renp of~ dayi
Vay11iff 2.0-4.0 Readily inclt:nmi by 16--30 and Jhales, which are not at the time subject to heavy static loading, will
lfwmbnail
Jncreue as 1he time ofloading to failure decreuea. Increua ranging from
Hud Greater than -i-0 Indented bylfwmb.. More lh.ui. 30
nail with cllf&lilty
0 to 100 percent have been measured for claylike •oils. However, the
strength and deformation moduli fur dry granular material• obtained
SOIL MECHANIC$ AND FOUNl>ATIONS 199
Transient loads
..
Ill
Ill
G>
+-
1/)
Repeated loads
Groduol ly applied
loads (with creep)
Strain Strain
(a) (b)
in tran.slent te.ttt have not been greatly dUferent from those obtained ill 0 r~~==:::======-----r----
COD.VtlltionaJ. gnd!Wly applied load tem.
CIWIP
When the applied loads are 1u.stalned over a long period of time so that
c.reep becomes a factor, there Is evidence to Indicate that the ultimate
strellgth of saturated d.ayllke soils m1y be olily 30 to 70 percent of that
for a gradually applied load that is not Sl!Nined. For granular materi-
als. the.te figuret are believed to be somewhat greater. The 1tiffne11 of
saturated clay1 u obtained from creep tem may wise from 20 to 40
percent ofthat obtained from couveD.tlontl.! ruellgth tests in which creep
is not a factor.
rupture failure of either, one (curve B} may deform elastically and plasti- Sowers (1979) has published a table of limiting settlements based on
cally much more than the other (curve A) even though their ultimate structural considerations. Table 7.5 shows values from that portion of
load-carrying capacity ls essentially the same. his table that is devoted to differential settlements.
ALLOWABLE SETTLEMENT SETTLEMENT OF GRANULAR SOILS
The amount of differential settlement that can be permitted for various Smnds On the basis of certain theoretical relationships between
buildings has never been clearly established. Terzaghi and Peck (1967} settlement, footing width, contact pressures, and the observed settle-
suggest 3/4 in. as the amount of permissible differential settlement ment of loaded plates and footings placed at the surface of granular
between adjacent columns spaced about 20 feet apart in ordinary build- deposits, Peck, Hanson, and Thornburn (1974) have prepared a chart
ings. Thornley ( 1959) divides structures into five classes and suggests that enables one to choose allowable soil pressures that, for sands, will
permissible gross, differential, and net settlements for each (Table 7.4). keep the ewtic-plastic settlement to a tolerable magnitude. This chart
l'llble 7,5 Mpimum All-•bl• Differential Movements for and stiff plastic silts, the allowable bearing capacity can be obtained as
Vartous Structures• for clays.
Type of structw:e Max. differential movement Footings on silt may be proportioned by assigning the silt to the cat-
egory of either a sand or a clay and proceeding with the corresponding
High continuous brick wait. 0.0005-0.00IL method for determining the foundation size. For important structures,
One-story brick mill building. wall aacking 0.001-0.002L a more elaborate procedure may be indicated wherein the shear strength
Plasli!r aaddng (gypsum) O.OOlL of the silt is determined by either field vane tests or appropriate labora-
Reinforced-concrete building frame 0.0025-0.004L tory triaxial tests.
0.003L The behavior of loess deposits may be quite different from that of
Reinforced-conaete building curtain walb
either sand or clay, and the final foundation design requires a program
Steel frame, continuous 0.002L
of standard load tests. The allowable soil pressure should not exceed
Simple steel frame 0.005L one-third the failure load, as represented by the poorest load-settlement
Nair L is the dis-oe between adjacent colmmu or between any two points that 1ettle curve, or one-half the load at which Y.. in. of settlement was obtained in
diffe=ti1lly. the load test, whichever is smaller.
"Sowert (1978). Inasmuch as loess deposits usually have a relatively loose structure
that is likely to collapse under moderate loads if the natural water con-
tent increases, unusual precautions must be taken to ensure adequate
surface drainage to prevent, insofar as possible, changes in the water
(Fig. 7.7) employs the results of the standard penetration-resistance
content. A procedure reported by Kezdi (1964) as developed in Hungary
tests. As a rough guide, 10 blows per foot in the standard penetration
is based on an index of collapsibility:
test produce an allowable pressure of 1 ton/ft2 , 20 blows produce
2 tons/ft2, and so on.
.&
1=-- (7.3)
l+e1
~c
I ..c
5lc
CD
Cl
is •normally consolidated,• has a relatively high displacement under
load, and behaves plastically over time. However, if the soil is below
.s
.5
3 1 .....
CD
the maximum stress the soil has experienced and is loaded beyond the
maximum stress it has experienced, the displacement will initially be
relatively low until the maximum past pressure is reached, at which
!!!
::I
Ul
Ul ~ point the displacement will be relatively high. Finally, the deformation
will be plastic.
[2 E Overconsolldllhld Clllys For most claylike soils that have been pre-
::I
~
compressed, the elastic-plastic deformations that develop for properly
i::!!! chosen footing loads are likely to be tolerable for most ordinary buildings.
The average unconfined compressive strength q" of samples obtained
within a zone equal to the minimum width of the largest footing or foun-
dation is often used as the allowable bearing pressure q. for these clays.
Cl>
Ul
When soil samples are not available for testing, the results of standard
0 penetration tests run in the same zone, though often erratic, are often
.9 used to estimate the allowable bearing capacity of precompressed clays.
0 The average of several penetration tests run at intervals offrom 2 to 5 feet
0 5 10 15 20
in depth in the zone of influence below the footing or foundation is used.
Width of footing B in ft As a rule, each 6 blows per foot for the penetration-resistance test is
Figure 7 .7 Settlement fur fuundations an sand (Thornburn equivalent to 1 tonlft2 of allowable bearing capacity in precompressed
et al., 1974). clays. For example, a soil with an average penetration resistance of
12 blows per foot would normally be expected to have an allowable bear-
ing capacity of 2 tons/ftl.
Silts and Loeu For silty soils, the allowable bearing capacity, as Und11KDnsolld.ad and No111111lly Consolldmtd Clllys Settlements of
determined by permissible elastic-plastic deformation, will depend on footings placed on normally consolidated or underconsolidated clays
the nature of the silt deposit. For medium to dense nonplastic silts or will be much larger and usually excessive for allowable pressures chosen
rock flours, the allowable bearing capacity can be determined by by the rules for preconsolidated clays. The amount and rate of settle-
assuming that they act much like very fine or silty sands. For medium ment can frequently be estimated by means ofa theory of consolidation.
202 CHAPTER SEVEN
·1
Ground surface
d Flrmecll
Fortunately, normally <:0!l801idated ancl unduconsolidated clays are not of the groundwmr table or by proposed building loads and so on.
oftm en<:0wrtered. in bridge ancl building foundation work. They are In any normal dtuatlon where the groundwater table above the com-
moat likely to be found in coaml areas. former and emting laku, ancl pre!llible Layer ii to be lowered, either permanently or for an a.tended
alluvial deposits. Where enc:oWltered, they may be preloaded with flD. to period., Ap will be equal to lry• • where II is Che depth in feet that the
reduce future settlement. and vertical sand drains miy be empt~ to groundwater table will be lowered. and 1. u the UDl.t weight of water.
speed. up the 1ettlement procc:11. In 1ome cirGwmtances, an amount of The most common type of co.11struction or build.Ing load Is the
soil that is essentially equal to the weight of the planned structure is unifonn load. Where thiJ type of loading can be amimed. it is often
removed from the b&Kment area to reduce future settlements to a toler- sufficiently accurate to estimate Ap by assuming that the surfa~ load
able amount In other c:affS, piles or piers are driven or drilled. through .Is d.lstrlbuted uniformly at each level. below the surface on an area that
the normally <:0nsolidated clay layer to rea.c.h a more fum and wiyield- bei:omes larger with depdl .. determined by the angle e (Fig. 7.8). This
lng material. below, thereby eB'ectlvely bypauing the more compmslble angle i• arbUrarily chosen; the value of30 d.egreet is often used (Boston
material Code method) and is believed to be «>mervative in most cases.
TOUI S.ntement The amount of settlement or (OllSolidat!on in a Taylor (1948) gives the fullow.tng equation• for Ap:
confined layer of normally loaded claylike soil of low to medium sensi- For square footingg,
tivity1 may be determined from the following equation:
2
Ap ( Bid )
S=DC'log~ (7.4)
q= B/4+2tan9
(7.5)
l+e0 p.
For long narrow footlng3.
wile.re S = settlement of the compreS&lble lave.r
D =thickness of the «miprmible layer, ft Ap Bid
(7.6)
C,=dimemionless compturion inda of the soil in the com- CJ B/d+2tan8
prefflble layer
p. =present dfe<tlve overburden pressure, psf; acting on the Taylor gives curves for the.te pre11ures when 9 = 30 degree,, (Figs. 7.9
cornprmible layer. 1J.S11ally calc;ulated at mid-depth of the and 7.10). Either the figure or the equatiOM may be !lied. to eattmate
layer the value of Ap on or w.!thln a compressible layer beneath either a
e.= original or B.e1d void ratio of the compmslble layer where single l8olated footing or a group of footings If the pressure beneath
void ratio is the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids
{V~IVJ
Ap =increase in prasure. pit at the center of the soft <:0mpress-
ible layer, caused by footing or building load9, flD.s. lowerlng 1.0
the groundwater table, and so on ).,qW:.re
Values of D, C., and e. are obtained by drilling into and through l'Ollr>d 'It.
s 0.8 ~tiquate
the dep01it (noting the thickne1.1es of various layen) to secure lh roll~
~
--
~
undisturbed samples and 1ubsequently testing selected and typical /. / ;::;;- 1--1
samples In the laboratory. The tests usually .Include the Atterberg J!! 0.6
'/ ~? ...,... "' ...... 'B where
llmlts, natural water content. undisturbed and ronolded sttength. and § ,
fj / ~ _,. ,,., =
t1<J 811'&88 inaement
«11110lidation. ~ 0.4 ,..,. ~
'.§ =
q appllad stress
STUSS DISTJWIUTION I =
I inftuence factor
I 0.2 " I"
Determining Ap. The term Ap in Eq. (7.3) represenu the increase in ~
pressure at the mid-depth of the comprmible !aver caused by lowering ~
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Depth to width of foundation (z/B)
1
Senaltlve tollt .xe thoee who11e undUturbed co~'l'e •trength u pakr
than four time& the mnolclcd. c:omprcnlve 1llmjjlh. ff thl& ral:io aueda 8, the aoil Figure 7.9 ~ dl.esipatlon on bilried Wata 1lndel' !Vllnd or llqllaR! ~
la called eztn.senaltlve. Remoldlni bm>lvu the oomplete breakup and mllillg Gf (A} Borton Cocl.e, (B} ICJlgler, (C} lloullncsq miter 11tm11, and (D) Wcttergaazd
the aoil at 11Xlalte?ed water content. ctmr ma. (after D. W. 'lllylor).
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 20J
field; and (8) certain other assumptions that are normally believed to be
1.0
i..- - o_ of lesser importance.
s
-i8
0.8
0.6 I
'( /
v
A
/ "'c
::ev
~ ....... __.
- B
The differential equation governing the time rate of consolidation is
ilu il2 u
iJt =c, (Jz 2 (7.7)
~
c
~ 0.4
/1 r,.1'
m " In this equation, u is a function that represents the excess pore-water
pressure, z is a function that represents the distance to a point in the
layer, C,, is the coefficient of consolidation as obtained from a labora-
0.2 ~lo tory consolidation test, and t represents time. One solution of primary
,fJ interest is
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
I
"" ""
I
I
l
l/Seftlement =2.15 in. (U=10%)
2 --- ---
Settlom•nt
3
7' ........_, ..__/ V-Typicol curve for
column footing
[inch••)
I r-- r---
Time t =4.8 yeors for 50 % consolidotion r---
4 I I I
I I I
Ultimate settlement=4.3 in.- ~ - - -- --- --- ---
5
required fur a consummation of the total elast!c-pluttc deformation and, for local shear failures, which usually occur in very loose sands or
(conaolldation) cm iD:Yolve years md even deadu. Both. the magni- soft clays, the uhlmate load CJD in pounds per foot of footing is
tude and the time rate of thi.s «m'olidation can often be ettimaled by
employing principles of soil mechanics.
(7.12}
7.2.l BHrlngOlpMftJ
The ICC()Ild criterion that must be considered when chocmng an
allo'Wllble bearing pressure involves what has been termed a shear or where B =mlnlm.um widlh of footing. ft
rupture displacement of a mus of soil beneath the footing. The pre$- c =cohesive strength of solL psf
sure applied to the soil by the footing must not be great enough to Yi• Y2 =unit weights of ioil. pet above ancl below the bale of
cauie thi.s diq>laccmcnt. A footing near the surface of a soil depoait footing, :n:q>eciively
and the nature of the soil displacement that occun when the footing D1 =minimum deplh of footing below the adjacent surface, ft
load ~ becomes eueutve are shown in Fig. 7.12. Both theoretical. N •• N,, NT = dimensionless factor• for general shear failures (•olid
and ape.rlme.ntal .Wclies have shown that a small wedge ofsoil usually <:UneS in Fig. 7.13)
fonns below a footing and tends to act as a part of the footing. Mas1es N;,N~,N~ =dimenlionle11 factors for local shear failuR.s (duhed
of soil below and on either lide of this wedge undergo both lateral curve• in Fig. 7.13)
and vertical. displacement, and thb Joil displacement is accompanied For square footings of width B,
by a downward movement of the footJng when the footing pl'Ul1Ue$ 2
Q.=B (1.3cN,+y1D1N,+0.4y2 BNT) (7.13)
become oceNive.
Reasonably niliahle solulions have been developed for long, nanow. For cirt:ular footings of radius r,
shallow footinp. For D1 < 1.5.B, 1maghl. and Peck. (1967) give the fol-
lowing equatiom for bearing capacity. For gcneral shear failures, which CJ. =Kr2(1.3cN, +Y1D1N<1 +0.6y2rN1 ) (7.14)
urually occur in stt1f or very stt1f clays md dense to very dense 1U1cls. In these equations, ~ and Q.,,. are total loads for the ge.neral shear
the ultimate load~ in pounds per foot of footing is fillw:e. For a local shear condition. Chese equations must be modified by
using N;,Ny• andN~ value.Crom the d.uhedC\ll'Ves of Fig. 7.13 and the
~=B(cN,+y1D1N9 +-i"r.aBNy) (7.11)
factor 2/3 with cohesion values c, u in Eq. (7.12).
A factor of safety of 3 .Is normally employed when theae equatilm8 are
used to obtain an ell!imate of Che allowable bearing capadty. Ahhough
other solutions of this problem have been devdope<l. .ome of which aR
slightly moni refined, any difference WIWllly becomeJ academic when one
colllddm the vuiatton in 80ll strength. Chat can emt in a soil mus, our
present methods of evaluating soil strength. and Che fllctor ofsafety of 3.
Moreover, a shear &ilure is seldom a:itical whm a fic1or of safety of 3
ii 1l!ed. Only in those cases where a nanow footing (B < 5 feet) ii at or
llW' the surface of a deposit ofloose sand and for whkh. the groundwater
table Is at or quite near the surface is 1he shear or rupture criterl.oD likely
to govern.
~300
,__ ,..._
~
,..._ ,.._ ......_ N;,
r-.L...._
--'
r-...
r', N;,
, N~ ~. .' ~
~·N,
- .......
N..
---
i- - Ne. I v
~
di !\..
Di
Local shear """" I'. ' r\.'I\ I!/
fi
c:
20• - - General shear I\. I\ I ; =45°, N1 =240 -
0
~ 10°
u.
\\ \:
~
1
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20 40 60 80
Bearing c:apacity factor (Ne;. N'I' N'I' N;;_ Nq_ Ny)
Rgu,.7.1.1 BM!lgQIPCdtyforgenerahnclloc:ahhear.
of cohesionless or very soft soils, it generally should be left in place to because of their size and importance, caisson foundations are generally
become a part of the completed pier. Care should be exercised that the founded on very hard soils or rock where the strength of the subsoil may be
bottom of the bell is free of loose or compressible materials that may secondary in importance to the alloW11ble stresses permitted in the con-
otherwise cause settlement of the completed pier. crete of the caisson itself.
Drllled Piers on Cay The allowable bearing pressure q4 for a pier
founded on clay is 7 .3.3 Piie Foundations
Bearing pile foundations are columns that transmit load to some depth
(7.15) in soil. Piles are classified as shown in Table 7.7. They may be used
singly or in groups of several, although it should be recognized that the
where qw = average unconfined compressive strength within a depth capacity of a group is not necessarily that of a single pile times the num-
below pier equal to its width ber of piles in the group. Because the final location of any pile may be
B =width of base 3 in. or more from its desired location, it is not good practice to use
L =length of base fewer than three piles fur the support of a column unless lateral struc-
This provides a factor of safety of 3 against a bearing-capacity failure. tural framing capable of withstanding the bending moments due to the
No additional support should be assigned because of the shearing resis- possible eccentricity is provided. Piles supporting walls are customarily
tance that might develop between the pier shaft and the adjacent soil. driven in pairs or staggered. The minimum center-to-center spacing of
The settlement of a pier foundation in clays may be predicted by the piles is usually 30 in., although they are customarily driven at a spacing
procedure for footing foundations. However, in general, a bearing stra- of about three times the butt diameter.
tum that is adequate for the support of pier foundations is likely to be
overconsolidated and not cause differential settlement between adjacent PILE-DRIVING EQUIPMENT
footings in excess of " in. Table 7.8 shows a number of hammer types and their principal
Drllled Plen on Sand The bearing pressure for a pier on sand is usu- characteristics. Drop hammers are frequently used for relatively small
ally governed by considerations ofsettlement because the effect ofdepth jobs where their slowness is not important. However, single-acting ham-
is to increase the factor of safety against a bearing-capacity failure. mers are more common on larger projects. These arc operated by either
Experience has shown that the settlement of a pier is about half that of steam or compressed air and differ from double-acting hammers in that
a footing of the same dimensions at the same unit pressures, provided their ram falls by gravity whereas that of the double-acting hammer is
the relative densities of the subsoil are equal. Therefore, the allowable forced down by the operating gas under pressure. The double-acting
soil pressure can be determined from Fig. 7.7 appropriately corrected hammer is somewhat faster. However, the energy of its blow depends
for the position of the water table. A!J a consequence of the smaller set- on the gas pressure and is therefore somewhat less certain than that of a
tlement of a pier compared with a footing, these values may be doubled single-acting hammer. However, there is considerable uncertainty as to
unless there is a possibility that scour may remove most of the materials the energy delivered to the pile in either type.
above the base of the pier. The energy delivered to the cushion block by a diesel hammer is diffi-
Foundation Requirements The allowable bearing pressures for cais- cult to evaluate in the field because the strola: ofthe hammer varies with
son foundations are essentially the same as those for piers. However, the driving resistance. Therefore, care is required in its selection and use
Soil compacted by vibration and displacement Minimal compaction or vibration No compaction or vibnrtion
Jetted of ad.jaunt soil
Spudded
Preexcavated
Mlllerial of construction
Timber,• sawn t or uncut Concrete Steel Composite
Th:ated* UntreatedS Precast Cut-In-place Pipe H sections
Douglas fir Cedar Tapered With shells Open end Timber with cast·
Red oak CypreH Parallel sides Driven Cloaedend in-place concrete
Southern pine Douglas fir Cylinder (require Dropped in Timber with precast
Oak Pine reinforcing} Without shella concrete
Spruce Prestressed Drilled Pipe with cast-in-place
Post-tensioned Rammed concrete
Pedeml
Mixed-in-place
'Subject tD attack by marine borers.
fNot common in the Unitod S-1.
*Coal-tar aeolOI< (16 pci or refuaal).
iMuot bo permanently below ....ior table.
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 207
if it is necessary to evaluate the driving energy for use in a pile-driving that pile-driving fonnulas are entirely misleading. ~ a result, wave equa-
formula without supplementary load tem. tion analyses should be used instead. The wave equation is solved by
In general, the hammer should be as large as can be safely used several co=ercially available software packages.
without damaging the pile; it is better to select a hammer on the heavy Woe Eq...tlon The wave equation can be used with reasonable
side. Hammers can be compared by computing ultimate pile capacities confidence to predict impact stresses in a pile during driving and to
(Table 7.9) for various assumed final driving resistances. The computed estimate its static capacity (Hirsch et al., 1970). The theoretical model
capacity may be used to evaluate the driving stresses in the pile, which requires the evaluation of all factors that may influence the transmission
should not exceed 40 percent of its yield-point strength. However, pres- of a stress wave initiated by the pile hammer ram. Thus, the properties
ent practice is to use the wave equation solution provided by co=er- of the ha=er ram, cushion blocks, cap block, pile, and soil must be
cial software, such as GRL WEAP (Pile Dynamics). known. The solution requires an electronic computer and is best pre-
There are two types of vibratory pile-driving systems: one vibrates sented as curves relating ultimate resistance and maximum pile stress to
the pile at 10 to 30 cps; the other, which is called a resonant driver, the driving resistance. The ultimate capacity should be adjusted for
vibrates it at the natural frequency of the pile (average about 100 cps). freeze or relaxation on the basis of a pile load test to failure.
The vibrators utilize counterrotating shafts to obtain a positive verti- The energy delivered to the pile is an important parameter for deter-
cal force and to balance the lateral forces. The vertical force generated mining capacity using dynamic formulas or wave equation analysis.
by the vibratory driver is transmitted to the pile, which will accept However, the actual energy delivered to a pile can vary significantly
more power if the force is increased or if the frequency of the vibrator from its rated energy. For example, tests in Michigan (1965) showed
approaches the natural frequency of the pile in longitudinal vibration. that the actual energy delivered to a steel pile ranged from 0.26 to
To transmit this force, the vibratory unit must be fmnly attached to 0.65 times the rated energy of the pile hammer. The average value was
the pile. Vibratory methods can drive piles at a rate many times faster 0.45. Hammer energy can be measured in the field using a pile-driving
than is possible with conventional equipment. They are much quieter, monitor (PDM). A PDM can determine the energy delivered to a pile
as the only noise is from the motor and the hum of the vibrator, and by measuring the variation of axial strain and acceleration with time
ground vibrations generally extend only a few feet away. However, during pile driving. Strain gages and accelerometers are mounted on
mechanical problems frequently require considerable time for main- the pile near the pile head. PDM results can be used directly to estimate
tenance, which may materially offset the high driving rate when total bearing capacity or can be used to back-calculate static and dynamic soil
production is considered. pile properties to be used as input for wave equation analyses.
Conventional pile driving is often assisted by supplemental operations. l.olld Tests It is essential to distinguish between test piles and pile
Jetting is used to loosen the soil around the pile and facilitate penetra- load tests. Test piles are prototypes driven to determine the lengths of
tion into or through medium to dense sands. It requires a discharge piles required at a particular site. The driving resistance is used as the
pipe with a 1~- to 3-in. diameter, a 1- to 1'i'-in. nozzle, and a pumping basis for ordering piles of appropriate length. Test piles should be
capacity of about 500 gal/min at a pressure of 100 to 300 psi. Jetting located near a soil-boring representative of the poorest conditions
should always be followed by driving to recompact the loosened granu- known at the site, and a record of the penetration resistance (blows per
lar materials. foot) should be made for the entire length of the test pile. The driving
Spudding is the driving of a heavy mandrel into the soil and with- record should also indicate the characteristics of the driving equipment,
drawing it to minimize the driving required on the pile placed in the including the cushion block.
spudded opening. Although it is not often used, spudding may facilitate Pile load tests are used to determine their design capacity. The test
the penetration of resistant strata because of its more efficient transfer load is seldom carried to a sufficient intensity to determine the ultimate
of driving energy. capacity. It is usually required that the test load be carried to at least
Preexcavation, which is accomplished with augers or specially devel- twice the design load and that the resulting load-settlement curve be
oped equipment to remove soil representing the bulk of the volume of corrected for the elastic shortening of the pile before an analysis of the
the pile to be driven, may facilitate driving, but it is used primarily to data is attempted. The elastic shortening is of particular importance for
control the displacements and heave associated with displacement piles. relatively long point-bearing piles.
Many procedures are used to interpret the results of a pile load test. If
FIELD METHODS TO DETERMINE PILE CAPACITY the pile has been loaded to failure, the design load should be based on
Pile-Driving FormulH Pile-driving formulas (Table 7.9) are intended a factor of safety of at least 2.5. A failure load, Q•• may be determined
to relate the driving resistance to the supporting capacity under static as the load at which the load-settlement curve approaches a vertical
loading. Every formula (and there are many) includes one or more factors tangent or as the intersection of tangents to the load-settlement curve
that must be determined experimentally. Experience has demonstrated near the point where the settlement per unit load increases markedly
2G8 CHAPTER SEVEN
Q,.= WH
s+c
c =1.0 for gmvity hammer
c =0.1 fur other hammers
Recr.tmmended fador of~= 6
Hiley ( 1922) (good.)
'I WH W+n1Wp
-c
CD
E
Q)
Q,.= 1+_Yi{G+C:i,+C,»< W+Wp
n =~eat of ratitution
ien
81= effick:ncy ofhammer
c,. c.. c; = trmporaryrornpmston ofpile cap mdhead. plle.and IOiL ~
in iru:ha
G = 0.02 to 0..50, c; = 0.05 ID 0.5, CJ = 0 to 0.10
{!Or guide II> telectlon, see Chellla, Ref. 6)
R~ fiKtor of .afety= 2.75
k = 0.25 ror fbeel pilel, k = 0.1 fur othero Present practice utilizes commerclal programs to compute lateral capac-
R«DID.llll!Ild..! :W::tm of oaJi!ty = 4
ity, such as LPILE (Enlloft, Inc.). The following discussion describes
other method• for determining lateral c:apadtythat can be U8Cd to check
Vi!mdzd pila* (M. T. Da'liaon, 1963} {tentalift) computer results.
Q,. = 550 H.P. Where a pile-supported structure i1 •ubjected to lateral loads, the
vertical piles may provide more lateral Rsiatance than ill commonly
•,+fa. realized. Prevailing rule.1 of thumb amunonly permit an arbitrary
H.P. = hanepower. ft-lb/• lateral load per pile-often 1000 pound1-without any consideration
., = n:t£ ofpmmmw.. in./1 as to the type of pile or the soil in which it is driven. Since a pile-
I= frequen.:y, cycles/• supported structure does not transmit load directly to the soil beneath
~ = Wmpe>rary i;om~ 1- factor the pile cap, frictional resistance mould not be uswned between the
= 0.02 to O.D7 in. {ddmnine from load 1':111. ID failure)
hue of the structure and the underlying soil. Therefore, the piles must
Q, = ull1malc aJlldtr, lb w, = wd@ll1 ofpile, lb be adequate to re8illt all lateral loads. The ultimate lateral bearing pres-
w= wdgb1 ofpile bammcr, lb .A =not ......--ilonll.... ot~ sure per unit length of pile at a given depth in clay ill
H =drop Dfbunma, in. pllo, oq Ill.
• -Bml pile peMlrlllo<l.111. B = moduluo ofdMttdty ofpile, pll. Q., =9cB=4.5q,.B (7.16)
B,, --air of drlvlDi (Wll), Umber= 1.2 x 10"
in.-llt --i..=l.~xlD' and in sands ill
L = kqdi ofpile, llL. 11Ud=:50xlo'
=3.,,i: I + sin+
*From 14. T. DavlllOll (U6l).
Q
d '' 1-• (7.17)
SOIL MECHANIC$ AND FOUNl>ATIONS 209
where Qtl =ultimate load per unit length of pile, lb/ft the k is also proportional to depth fur normally consolidated clays and
c =cohesion, p1f sil:ta. Howc:ver, for ovm:onsolidated days, k ii usually assumed to be a
qM =unconfined compttalve atrength, pat constant, and the corresponding relative ltiffne11 u WEI!k ). Slnce k is
B =width of pile, ft proportional to depth for most soils of.Interest, the cue of constant k is
y' =effecti~ unit weight of soil. pc;f not cormdered here.
.t =depth. ft The constant ofhoruontal subgrad.e reaction is ni. =klx.. Typical wlues
• =angle of shearing re11stance of n1r are presented in Table 7.10. Actual value.t can be determined experl-
The working load should not exceed Q,l2 beyond a depth. of 4B me.otally by drlv.lng two instrumented pllei rdatlvdy close together and
under any circumstuice. For 1*ral load. mialler than Q,in.• the soil jacking them tpart. By meuurlng the loads and deflections tt varlout
reac:Uon at any depth is given by depths (with a tihmeter), k can be determined.
w=~ (7.18)
r Tlblll7.10 ~IV.h•sofn11•
lb/in.~
where w =soil reaction, lb/in. ll;i.
C,, =soil reaction coefficient from Fig. 7.15 Soll type N Dry So~rged
Qr,,= shear tt ground swface. lb Sand
T =relati~ stiffilel!S of pile (~El/~), in. Loose <10 9.4 S.3
Bl =flemral stiffness of pile, lb-in.2 Medium 10-30 28 19
n11 =conmnt of horizontal subgNde reaal.on, lb/in.3 De.me >30 75 -lS
The modulwi of 111bgrade reaction k =wly ii the ratio of the total reac- Very loose Wlder tepemd 1o&dlng <5 l.S
tion per unit length ofpile to the corresponding deflection. For granular Slit. veiy .oft. organic
soils, k is directly proportional to the depth. x, and It has been shown Clay <3 0.4-l.O
Vtryaoft. <3
SWkload.t 2
Repeated. loada
(7.19)
where C,. =deflection coefficient &om Fig. 7.16 and may abo be used
to evaJua.te k from a jacldng test as well u to determine anticipated
deflections.
The moment In a laterally loaded pile (in.-lb) is
(7.20)
i Deflac1lan coefficient Cy
t21----+-~~ri<-+~--t---t 0 0..----..~~o~.s~..................1._o....,.........--....
1._s ~...--2~.0
..........--.-.....,...,
25
i
0 - Cr.Q11p
Wzq- T
..
1E
_!!.,__
Cw= Wzq + OttgT Zzm
i1 1--+--+-HHo'~-t--t--ti~~~
1 0
r-c,( ~)
c,=Y.r.q+ .!!!a_
ahflrr-
2 ................
~ .......
~.._ ........
~~~ ........
~..____.~_.___,
4 ..............__ _...~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~
M -.. . "*-~ v
'~ ~ ·v
' I'..
in the.e locations. A nominal amount of tempert&ture me! muat be
a ~ ~d>·~
provided to c:ontrol surface cracking. It may be economical for height1
'\ '\ up to about 20 feet.
,_ F=a T-
1 ~~~\ \ \ \ CA.Nnu.vD WALL
Focedhaad11~ ~\ \ \ ' ' The canti!C"m"wall (Fif. 7.18c) is the moat common type. It colllists ofa.
I
bue alab and a Item that are fully reinforced to resiJt. the moments and
I'\~
N
~~
I
' )
llhean to which. they are eubjected. The cantilever wall !a relatively thin
and economical of materials.
CO"UNTJllUIORT WALL
I iJ I The counterfort wall (Fig. 7.18d) comirtt of a relatively thin concrete
slab that is .upported at Intervals on the bade side by vertical cowrter-
I
I I J fum connected to the bue. The loads on the face slab are canied Into
r/t.V/ die coumerfort.1 and in tum to the base slab. The space between the
counterforts and above the bue slab is part of the backfill. .All the ele-
ments of a counterfort wall are fully reinforced.
W/J The primary reinforcement la longitudinal in the Cue slab. bo1h
v longitudinal and transverse in the bue, and extends in several direc-
3 M=Cm01tgT
tions in the counterfort.t. The c:ounterfort wall requirell comi.de:nble
F
} Where
furmwork but has an economic advantage when relativdy high walls of
some length are required.
f Cm =Mzq + ~
~14
01igT Mzm CIUllWALL
Retainlllg wan. are .ometJmes formed of etacked rectangular elementt
co form cdls that are filled with ac1I. (Fig. 7.18e). Their mbWty depe.nds
4
I on the weight of the crib uniU and their fil1ing and on the mength of
die filling material. Crib walls an relalively inexpensive. They are usu-
Agin 7.17 Moment c:oeffidenll for l*1'.tly loaded p!let (~ 1962}. ally made of reinforced conc.rete, although both timber and f.abrlcated
metal crib wall& are not uncommon.
GABION WAI.L
where C,. =moment coefficient from Fig. 7.17. n ii noted in Figs. 7.15,
7.16, and 7.17 that a fbed-head pile .Is generally mere favorable than A gabion is a type of crib wall. It is made of compartmented rectangular
one with a free head. The fhity depends on the ttNctural character- wire-mesh buketa filled with large gravel, boulden, or rock. They are
isti~ of the pile cap and the connection between the pile and the pile typically 3 feet wide and 6, 9, or 12 feet lollg', with heights of l, l %, and
cap. The latter is attained by embedding the pile a1 lean 24 in. into 3 h:et. and may be ttackecl.
the pile cap.
Ml!CBANICALLY STAllll.IZEJ>
The precedlng anal)'les are for single piles. which corresponds to a EAR.TH WALL$
minimum spacing of eiBht pile diameters in the direction of the lateral
load and thn:e pile diameten normal to the direction of load. Closer A mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) wall ii an intemally reinforced.
apadngs cause a reduction in the modulua ofsubgrade reaction and an gravity-type retaining stJUcture (Fig. 7.18/). The wall co11.1ilb of hori-
inaease in the relative stiffness. From the limited information avail- 20ntal layers of reinforcing elements embedded mthe bacldlD. and a wall
able, It ff recommended that a minimum spacing of 3B be n:Wntained fadllg. Relnforc.lng elements are typically metalllc (strips. wire meshes,
normal to the load and that T be increased linearly to a. limiting value or rebu grids} or polymeric: (mips, sheeu, or grids). The primary func-
of l.3T u the pile spacing in the direction of the load decreues from tion of the wall facing ii to pRVent 1011 of bacldill from between the
8Bto2.5B. reinfordng elemenb. The hclng is typical1y made of precast concrete
archJtecturaJ. elements connected to the re!.D.furclng elements. For MSE
wan. relnfo.rced with sheets. grids. and wire mesh, the reinforcement
7.4 RETAINING STRUCl\JRES can a.lao be used as the wall facing by c:mnd.ing it beyond the face and
7.4.1 ~GfRmlnlftg5tNC.tlll'a wrapping the extra. length bade Into the wall. Detlgn guidance for MSB
Types of retainlllg wall& include gravity, semlgravity; cantilever, counter- walls can be found in FHWA-NHl-10-024 (FHWA, 2009).
fort. crib. and mechanically mbilimi earth. 1 A-2 GnMt.y Strudul'ft
GRAVITY WALL EARTH P.ussu:us
The gravity wall (Fig. 7.18a) depends entirely on the weight of muonry The lflltel of llrelll in an earth IXWll may be conveniently rep.raented on
and any .oil mtlng diereon for mblllty. It muat be of sufficient thiclc- a Mohr rupture diagram. (Fig. 7.19), wherein the nonnal slmses an any
nea to resin the lon:c:1 acting on it without developing tensile 11.reues. plane ln a mass ofsoil are plotte<l as ab8dssas and the corresponding •hear
Coll.Crete gravity wallt U1Ually contain a nominal amount of reinforce- saes.sea as o.tdinates. In this diagram. the prinapil SIRNes plot on the
ment near the aposed surfacu to control temperature cracking. horizontal uis, which aLio rep:raents the planes on which 1he principal
B~ of the smdl amount of relnfo.rcement and die relatlvdy simple rtraaea act alnce, by de1lnition, a prlndpal plane .Is one on which there are
form.work. gravity walls may prove to be eamomical for heights up to .no shear~. In a semi-lnflnl.te mus ofsoil wldi. a horizontal.~
about 10 feet. die normal mess on any horizontal plane ii a principal m. equal to the
SOIL MECHANIC$ AND FOUNl>ATIONS 211
Granular
blonket, 12• rrin
thickness
h
Pipe droin
r-1.. ..1
B•hto 2t3h
(o) Grovity (b) Semi9rovity (cl Contilever
weight of the overl:ying material A second principal plane is oriented at for loose sand and ll1llf be inc:l'l:Ued to about 0.8 by tamping In layers.
90 <legrees to the form.er, which cormponds to a 'mtical plane in thiJ case. Overamsolidati:d claYJ may have a value k0 greater than unity, in which
A Mohr circle give.t the llressel on every plane through a point in the cue o., become• the minor prindpal atrue.
soil mus. The major and minor principal strasea are denoted byo., and Any change In the value of k for a particular mass of soil must result
o,.,respec:ttvel.y. The major prindpal stras .Is gMn. by &om either expansion or compremon of the entire mus In a horizontd
direct.ion. The vertical pressure CJ., does not change because the weight
o,=1'& (7.21a) of soil above any holizontd section is unaffected by these defurmat:l.ons.
where r= unit weight of soil and z =dep1h. The minor princ;ipal mm
However, the holizontd pressure decreasei if the mass of soil expands
is given by
and inaeues if it is compmsed. The lower limiting wlue oA =<JA,
(Fig. 7.19) is cmitrolled by the properties of the material as they influ-
(7.2lb) ence the location of the rupture line. which is the locu9 of failure
strasel!. The rupture line makes the angle• with the horizontal, where
where k., .Is an emp.lrlc:al ccnstmt known as the coefficient of earth pru- ~ 1$ the angle of internal &lct!on. The cormpondlng rtress drcle C
Sllle at rest Values of k., range &om about 0.7 for dense sand to 0.55 repruenta a failure condition, and any further expansion ii associated
212 CHAPTER SEVEN
with sliding along two plane rurfac:es within the soil mas.t. The.te fllilure bnlllnn T'hHl"J Rankine's earth-preuure theory corresponds to
surfaces .Intersect the plane on which the major principal stte&S acts at 1he stms and defunmtton conditions for the stab?• ofplastic equilibrium.
an angle of 45 degrees+ +12. duaibed by the American Railway .Bng!Deering Assodation (AREA.
The muimum value a,. =avk1 i1 aho controlled by the lotation of 1954) (Fig. 7.20).
the rupture line. The cone1ponding 1tres.t COJJditions are repre1ented The resultant a.ci:ive pressure on a vertical plane of height h duough
by circle D. Aay further compreaalon result8 In allding along two sets a aemi-ln1lnl.te mw of ao!I. whose surface Js Jnclined at an angle Pto
of plane rumces that make an angle of 45 degree. + ~12 with the the horizontal Is
plane o.n which the major principal mess acts. In this taie. the hori-
zontal pre11ure is the major principal stre1a. so the plane on which
it acts .la vertical. P. =.!.'f111(coa1Scoep- coa2.P-co•1+) (7.26)
The parametel$ k,. and k, are called the coefficients of active and 2 cosP+ cos2.P-cos1 +
pa.nivc W1h prmure, reapectivdy. Since the rue.ea coneJponding
to the active and passive rtale1 represent a failure condition, these
conditions are uid to mult in a state of plartic equilibrium. Every
lntermed.late state, including the state of rat, Is referred to as a state
of elutlc equilibrium. rt can be demonstrUed from the geometry in
Pig. 7.19 that.
(7.22)
I: =•+s1n•=tan (45+!)
1
(7.23)
• ·-·· 2
For a soil where the rupture line lntercepa a shear strength at uro
normal pmrure cailed cohesion c (Fig. 7.3), these relationships must be h
modified u shown below:
1:. =tan
2
( 45+~)-: can(45+i) (7.25) Rgure7.l0 AngkntilizeclforColllombandRanklneptellll!'C~Ont
(RM 1110-2-2502, 29 Scpte.mber 1989}.
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 213
The resultant force P• is parallel to the ground surface and acts backfllls of soils possessing cohesion, internal friction, or both; for
through the lower third point of the vertical plane. For the special case backfllls having any configuration of ground surface; and for surcharges
when the ground surface is horizontal, this equation simplifies to located in any position on the backflll.
In the trial-wedge method, plane surfaces of rupture may be assumed
p =.!__. 21-sincjl =.!__.2k (7.27) in all cases. The error introduced by assuming a plane surface when
• 2 1" l+sincjl 2 1" • the actual surface of rupture is curved is not significant in active earth-
pressure computations.
If a vertical plane rotates about a point at depth z in a soil mass, Ranltine's theory is used in the trial-wedge example of Fig. 7.21. A
a wedge-shaped zone develops the state of plastic equilibrium cor- surface of rupture, such as BF4 in a, is assumed. This surface is vertical
responding to Rankine's theory. This wedge of soil is bounded by through the depth of cracking h., which is given by
plane surfaces. Rankine's theory deals strictly with the equilibrium
h.=~ tan(45°+~)
conditions of such a wedge when the shear resistance of the soil is
fully mobilized. Theoretically, it is applicable to retaining walls only (7.29)
if the wall does not interfere with the formation of any part of the
wedge on either side of the vertical surface that passes through the Cracking occurs only in the case of a cohesive soil. The weight of the
point of rotation. Nevertheless, Rankine's theory is commonly used wedge of soil between the vertical plane AB and the trial rupture surface
to compute the earth pressure against a vertical plane through the is computed for a unit length of wall. This weight is held in equilibrium
heel of a wall. by the forces acting on the plane AB and on the surface of rupture. The
Coulomb's Theory The Coulomb earth-pressure theory for the active active earth pressure P0 must be parallel to the ground surface to satisfy
state of stress yields the resultant pressure against the back of a retaining the conditions of static equilibrium. If the ground surface is broken
wall. It assumes that the soil slides on the back ofthe wall and mobilizes within the active zone, as shown in Fig. 7.2la, the AREA (1954) has
the shearing resistance between the wall and the soil. The resultant is adopted the following procedure for approximating the direction of
inclined at an angle S, the angle of friction between the soil and the wall, P4 : Point b is located on the ground surface at a distance 2h measured
with respect to the normal. The other side of the wedge is a failure sur- horizontally from the back edge of the top of the wall. This point is
face in the soil, which implies that the wall yields sufficiently to develop connected to the back of the wall by a straight line, which is assumed
an active state of stress. It is easily demonstrated that the surface of to represent the direction of the active earth pressure. The block of soil
rupture must be curved in order for the forces involved to be in static between the wall and the vertical plane on which the Rankine pressure
equilibrium. acts is usually considered in the analysis as a part of the wall.
Coulomb's formula for the resultant active earth pressure against the On the surface of the rupture through the backfill, the resultant
back of a retaining wall is R of the nnnnal reaction and the friction is inclined at an angle cjl
(Fig. 7.2la). To this must be added the shearing resistance C due to
cohesion along the same surface. Since the directions nf all the forces
2
and the magnitudes of all but the active earth pressure and the resultant
_.!_ y'h 2[
P.- cos (cjl-ro) 2
] (7.28) force on the surface of rupture are known, it is possible to draw a force
2 2 sm(o+cll)sinC.P-13> polygon from which the active earth pressure can be obtained. Thus, for
cos oocos(o+ro{1+ cos(o+.p)cos(ro-(3)] the wedge ABF4, the force polygon is B4T'4B, where B4 is the weight
of the wedge including surcharge, 4T' the cohesion C, T'4 the active
pressure P"' and 4B the resultant R on the surface of rupture. The pro-
where y' =effective unit weight ofbaddill cedure is repeated for other trial surfaces, usually by superimposing the
h =vertical projection of pressure surface force polygons, and the locus of the computed earth pressures is plotted.
.P' =effective friction angle of backfill The maximum value obtained from this locus is the active earth pres-
ro = angle between vertical plane and back of wall sure against the vertical surface AB. In this method, surcharge loads can
o = angle of friction between the soil and wall be readily added to the appropriate weight vectors as they are encoun-
f3 = slope of backflll with respect to horizontal tered by different trial surfaces of rupture.
Location of Resultant Pressure. Because of the influence of surcharge
Equivalent-Fluid Method The equivalent-fluid method is a modifi- loads and an irregular ground surface, the point of application nf the
cation of the Ranltine active earth-pressure theory for the case of the resultant pressure cannot be arbitrarily taken at the lower third point.
backfill with a horizontal ground surface [Eq. (7.20b)]. The equivalent Its location can be determined as follows:
fluid pressure is assigned a value y/ =y, •(1-sincjl)/(l+sincjl). Typical 1. Divide the pressure surface 6'B below the zone nf tension cracks
values for y / range from 30 to 45 pd. A specific value within this range into four equal parts of height h1 (Fig. 7.2la).
is often used as a standard in many offices. Although the equivalent- 2. Determine the active pressures P, P1, P2, and P3 as if the base of
fluid method is widely used, it has little to commend it. There is indeed the wall were, in turn, at B, E, D', and C'. This requires three additional
a danger that it may be misused for the case where the ground surface trial-wedge polygons corresponding to Fig. 7.2lb.
is not horizontal. Furthermore, it leads to misunderstanding and a ten- 3. Compute the increments of pressure P- P1 , P- Pv and so on and
dency to obscure the real nature of the earth-pressure problem. Finally, divide these differences by the height h1 of the parts to determine the
water pressure should also be added to this equivalent fluid for cases average unit pressure in each part.:
where water acts on the structure, which are many. 4. Determine the elevation h of the centroid of the resulting
Trial-Wedge Method The practical problem often involves boundary approximate-pressure diagram. This is the approximate point of appli-
conditions that cannot be readily incorporated into formulas based on cation of the resultant earth pressure.
the Ranltine or the Coulomb theories. For these cases, as well as for the The foregoing procedure results in the following formula:
usual case, a graphical solution known as the trial-wedge method can be
used. The method can be adapted to give earth pressures in accordance
with either the Rankine or Coulomb theory, depending on the assump- h=~(4P3 +2P2 +4P,. +P) (7.30)
3P
tions introduced at the outset. One of its principal advantages is that
every force involved is represented in both direction and magnitude. Thus, for practical applications, Eq. (7 .30) eliminates the calculations
Thus, the designer is forced to contemplate each of them independently, in steps 3 and 4 above. Although the formula is applicable only when
and the influence of the shear strength of the backflll material can 6'B is divided into four equal parts, use of a larger number of divisions
hardly pass unnoticed. The trial-wedge method is applicable for does not appear to be justified.
214 CHAPTER SEVEN
e· •1• /,Tension
#_crock
--~~~~....-~~--+~~--,---- ........--.......--.......,.__,
--- --- b
h0 • 5. 77'
~ ~........._..:::;....__~~-+-----. ~
0
t-
N
•
~
I I
I
~
l B
DlilTBIUIINING EAR.TH Pussuu type ofbacldUI. material and to classify it IJ1to one of the ftve ategorle11
The properties of the retained soil must be known in order to dekr- shown In Td>le 7.11. Por thue classifications. chartJ for estimating the
mine the magnitude af the loads that the nrtaining structure must be pressure of the ba.dmll against maining walls less than about 20 feet in
designed to resift. It is usually possible to learn in advance the general height were prepared by Ter2a.ghl. and Peck (1967) (Figs. 7.21 and 7.22).
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATIONS 215
lllble 7 .11 Type of Bacldlll far Retlllnlng W.111 For walls higher than about 20 feet. for (asel where Flp. 7.22 md 7.23
are not applicable (for aample. ~ bac:kfill), and for cues where
more refined analyses are desired. p.ropertie• of the bacldiD. should be
Come-grained soil without admtmu:e of tlne soil partlclet, very free. determined by laboratory tt.Shl and arth pre8'1.U'e$ computed by methods
draining (cleu mid. gnml. or bnilrm ltone) desaibe<l previously.
2 C--gralned toil oflow pcnneabillty due to a.d.mlltlin! al. pvtklu of
Oltme BASii PJu!SSUJU!S
3 Pine t:llty Alld; gwiul.u ma1erla1& with compicuoua clay colltelrt; or
m!dua1 toll with ttonet Figure 7.24 shoWJ a cross section through a cantllever retalDing wall
4 Soft or wry soft clay; organic slJt; or toft silty clay and the forces acting thereon. The earth pressure I• denoted by P•.
5 Medium or 4ltiff day that mq be pla<:ed !D. such a vrt:f that a negll,glble The forces W, ancl ~ ~ the weight of1oi1 ancl the weight of <:onc:rete.
amount af WllUr will cnta the mpaca bctwem the chuxib during respectively. I1 iJ CU1tomary to analyze a 1-foot length of retaining wall
1loods ot heavy ra1D.t except for the case of the cowxterfort wall. where a panel length equal to
the spacing of the counterforts Is commonly analyzed. Since a retaining
wall is rubjected 101*ra1 forces, the fuundation is usually eccentrically
These charu, partly based on theory and partly empirical, have been loaded. The eccentricity e of the re1ultant force on the base. measured
adopted by the AREA (1954). For the casei covered, reliable estimate. from the center of Che base, ls determined by taking moments at some
of earth pressum can be made without recourse to earth-pnN'W'e convellle.ot point in the plane of the hue, such as ii. of all the forces act-
theories. ing above the plane of the hue.
80
I
..
....
....'
60
I 1t2KvH 2 ~
0. 40
·t:'£"2KhH H 2
~
>
·~
20
0
b
160
l/2:1~ox
140 .,, ~
~
~ i..--
120
...... -3 :1
4
100 mox
....
'a.
~
80
/
~
~
y V/ 2
- l---"' __...-:::: v
60 ,,
--
Numerals on curves indicate
soil types described in Table 7.10
40
For materials of Type 5 ,
L...---" 1
computations should be based 20
on value of H 4 ft less than 6:1 3 :1 2:1 1~:1
II I I I I
actual value. 0
0 10 20 30 40
Slope angle B0
Rgure 7.22 ll.uth·preaute clwu fot tet&1lllbg walls lesa than 20 feet high. See Table 7.10 for aoil types (ARRA, 1954).
216 CHAPTER SEVEN
.,
I
I 1,.czK H2
-.. . -~V2t;r b
20
140
6 :1
Kh
120
Mox slope 3:1
100 Numerals on curves indicate
soil types described in Table 7.10
80 For materials of Type 5.
Mox sle>pe 2:1 -
/ computations should be based
60 /
/ on value of H 4 ft less than
40 actual value.
Kv =O
20 ~ -
c b the badc:fill indudes not only the <:e>llJOlidation that take. place in the
sub.toil but any reduction in thickneu of the ba.ddiD u wc:ll. Settlement
:\.......-Dist ribution of w.tthln the backfill .may be mJn1miud by careful compaction control
1~ active earth dur:lng co.ustruction.
I \ pressure
I \ 7.4.9 Slop4ll
I \ Pre.te'.llfly software such as SlopeW (~} can be used to dderm.lne
tI iI '\
W5 I \
slope stah!lity. Slope stability is coveml my mauy referenc:u and texts
(for ewnple. DunCUI et al, 2014; Abramson. 2001; EM 1110-2-1902.
I \ 31 Oct 2003). The follcrwing provides simplified an.alyles useful provided
l~Po the simplifying usumptiom hold.
I Coheaoliless mate.rials, such as uncemented clean sands and gravels,
I will mnd at their angle of repo.e, which Is appronn:uwtlythe angfe that
Passive pressure I
omitted dcm:lops when a. pile of the loO!e material ill Conned by pouring &om
a container held a. few inches above the pile. Angles of repose of 28 to
35 degrea are commonly Uffd for clean wids and gravels. The angle
(o ) of repose Is useD.tlaily independent of Ume and the depth of excavation
or embankment
Very loose and llllurated deporitll of granular maleriah are often
quite umtable under the action of tranalent, blast, and mock loada.
Slope angles one-fifth to one-third of those Indicated above, may be
required for stability of these materiah, unless the depoait can be made
denser by vibration prior to comtruction. Vibratio.111 ca111ed by pile
driving are often uaed.
For cohesivl: materials such as clays and sandy or silty clays, Che con-
cept of anafe of rep08e cannot be employed dnce the angle or slope to
IV which a. cohesive mamial will stand is a function of the depth of excava-
tion or embankment. The depth to which a cut above the groundwater
( b) table can be made in a cohutve toll depe.ads on the shearing strength
Flgu,. 7.24 Rellllltant force on bue of r:daining wall and unit weight of the soil. the slope angle. and Ume. The role played by
time in the slope-stibilil.y problem has not been quantitativdy evaluated
except for a few ilolaud deposits. Howevu, it is known that the shear-
ing ctre.ngth of a soil .ls affected by time. In some soils (for eumple,
If the re.tultant lies within the middle third of the base. the pre.uure.t precompmse<l and certain marine-depodted clays), the strength may
on the b~ are decreue with time, while in other cues (mr example. certain normally
comolidated clays and recent filb), it may increue with time. From
a =I,v(•+ 6e) (7.31) the standpoint of stability of the •oll. it la normally wise to complete
- BL B conruuc:tion In a temporuy m:awtion and backfill as quickly as pos-
sible. Slopes of permanent ex<:antions. such a.s highway (Utt, arc made
flatter than those of tempmary excavations. Both thete practices reflect
(7.32} an appreciation for the influence of time in slope-.ttabWty problems.
The stabWty of slopes of embrmkinents and cuts in homogeneous
where L =length of wall considered. depoms of cohmvc soils bounded by a plane horizontal top Sll1'face
If the ruultant 18 out.side the middle third, the 80ll.-pmsure diagram and a plane inclined. Jlope and underlain by a. horizontal rurface of a
la triangular a~s a length 3(B/2 - e) of the base {Fig. 7.23b}. and the firm stratum (Fig. 7.25) can be determined by Wling Fig. 7.26 or 7.27.
maximum soil pl'C$$'11Ie is The etli:cts of~ are .not d1redly accounted for In the solutions
on which th~ figures are bued. Gimi the propo.ed depth of cut (or
height of embankment) H, the ovcrall depth ofthe deposit to the fum
a_ (7.33)
homontal layer n.,H, the unit weight of thesoll y, the slope angle IJ, and
the rue.ngth parameters c and ~ (Terzagbi and P«k. 1967). the stabWty
factor N1 is determined from Fig. 7.26 or 7.27.
SlrrTLllMENT OP Rl!TADllNG WAI.LS The cohesive strength required to provide a. factor of1akty of 1 can be
The behavior of a ttta1nlng wall or abutment .Is a problem hl aoll- computed from the following equation:
structure Interaction. The lateral loads depend on the nature of the
soil in contact with the mucture and the defOrmations that oc;.c;ur. The ~ ="(H (7.34)
N,
ba.cl:fiII ii an essential part of a. retaining struc:tun. and the propertie.t
and characteriBtia of the ba.cldlll. are juat as Jmportant u the propertie11 TIWi value can then be <:e>mpand with the available cohesive stRngth.
of the concrete .In the structure. A retaining structure must support The factor ofsafety will depend on the length of time that the cut mlllt
itl backfill without detrimental lateral movement and the surface ofthe stand open, the threat of losae• in life and to adjacent property that
ba.cl:fiII mult not settle unduly. Thete deformations depend to a large might result from f'allures, the rellabWty of the soil-m:ength data. and
extent o.n the properties of the baddlll. and the subso.11. If the subsoil the probability that the top surface may nffii to <:any live load.. For
contains compressible layers, these are llkel.y to consolidate under the temporary clltil, a factor of safety of 1.5 to 2.0 ii often used in ordinary
weight of the backfill and lead to differential settlemen1J. Since the dtuationa. A larger factor of 11afety b normally required for permanent
pattern of settlement ~ds to be bowl-ah.aped. it is not uncommon cuts mu:e the effects of climate, time, and so on play a greater role.
for settlement to result ill the retainillg wall tilting toward the baddUI. ~ poai1i.OM of 1he WI~ sumce were considered in ~aring
More commonly the wall rotates forward or away from the backfill Pip. 7.26 and 7.2.7: (I) toe aurlir.ces (circlet) that pus through the base
as a re~ of the lateral forces involved. The settlement at the surface of of the ~pe or toe, (2) BUJftca that break out on the dope above the toe.
21' CHAPTER SEVEN
and (3) .midpoint or deep surfacei that break the ground beyond the hue
or toe ofthec:utorembankment. When +=O, thefililll.re~will always
II
+
pus through die toe if J3 ~ 53 depa. When =0 and J3 S S3 degrees,
any of the three type5 of fiilure may oa:ui; depending on Che 'flllue of J3
II) 10 t--+-~l---+---t~-+-
z and the depth factor n4 . Figure 7.15 shows that the fa!lure wrface w.ID. be
(1) a slope drde fur (()mbinations of Pand n4 that faD abcm the shaded.
9 t--+---+--+----~ ania. (2) a. toe c.irde for combinations dw fall w:idiin the shaded area. and
(3) a midpoint or deep circle for combinations that fall below 1he wded.
8t--+---+--+--+---t---+.f- +
area. For > 0 (Fig. 7.27). the d!ance of flllum being other than toe
fillura Is quite small< hence, the fac:tm n,, loses muc'h. of il5 importance.
7 t----+- -+--+-- --t---1>--: The limitations on Fip. 7.26 and 7.27 often seriously rmrict their \lie
in practice. When unllSUal me conditi.011.1 exist that are not covered by
6 ........-w--+-+---n• these figure•. a more involved stability aml.yaiB 18 .required.
~·=·~r:"'.
5 5~~ .soo Vu.TICAL Cun
- Toe circles The unconfined. co.mpreuive strength (q.,) is also used to estimate the
4 ..""".'-4----<1---t - · - Midpoint circles depth to whlc'h. te.mporaryvertkal. cuts am be made In c1ayllke soils. For
3 85 example. the ultimate or critkal depth of a vertkal cut H, In suc'h. a toll
--- Slope circles is given approximatdy by the formula
3
90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20° 10° 0°
Values of slope angle p
H
.=.,
q,, (7.35)
Rgun1 7.26 Relatlonahlp bdwtt1I aW>Wty fa.aor N,, slope 11J181e P, and depth where yls the unit weight of the clay, whlc'h. will usually range from 115
&ctor ""fur:.
purely ccliu!Te •oil c+ =
0) •o!I. (Terzashi and Ped:. 1967). to 12S pd When a. factor of safety of 2 is ~ the pennissible depth
of cut ii
flo ,, _____
H =!I.. (7.36)
• 2y
The unoonfined. compreuive strength of cla:ylike Joih it often used
II in analy.dng landslides and the mbllity of slope.t with nonvertical. sides.
6------·
5~-b-'I~~
aqulfen, lwst d.eposib, and lout. Simple maps, •uch u U.S. Geological
Survey qiwlrangles, can be useful In ide.ntlfylng potentially objection-
able foundation materials, such as those found in wetland areu.
Soil samples provide the advantage of a physical sample and are Cone Penetrommr The CPT (ASTM 05778-12) permits continuous
considered superior to in situ tests. In situ tests, such as the cone pen- testing. Additionally with the piezocone pore-water pressure measure-
etrometer test (CPT), vane shear test (VST). premiremeter test (PMT), ment can be taken. The piezocone permits performing pore-water pres-
and dilatometer test (OMT), are useful. However, they should be cor- sure dissipation tests, which can be used to estimate permeability.
related with physical samples and laboratory tests. Additionally, after pore-water pressure has dissipated, water pressure in a
formation can be determined.
LABORATORY TESTING Vane Shur VSTs (ASTM 02573/02573M-15) are valuable in soft to
A few laboratory tests can go a long way to help classify soils. Because medium stiff clays. They permit development of an in situ shear
strength profile. Care should be taken in interpreting vane test data by
most soils, particularly cohesive soils, are saturated or near saturation
below the ground surface, water content tests can be used to make reli- comparing to normalized shear strength values and expected consolida-
tion history.
able estimations of unit weights for cohesive soils. Atterberg limit tests,
Dllnometer OMTs (ASTM 06635-15) can be used for classification
in addition to being used for classification, can be used to estimate
as well as to estimate a host of geotechnical parameters. Of particular use
stress history. Soils with water contents near the liquid limit are likely
is the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, which the OMT simulates
normally consolidated. Soils with water contents near the plastic limit
most readily.
are likely overconsolidated to heavily overconsolidated.
Water contents of granular soils should not be trusted because water Pressuremeter The PMT (ASTM 04719-07) has gained wider use
lately. It operates similarly to the dilotometer except that it uses an
drains or evaporates after sampling and during transporation. Unit
weights should be estimated for these soils using blow counts or other inflatable membrane. It can be used to determine soil properties similar
to the dilatometer, particularly elastic properties of soils.
indicator tests.
Triaxial testing is highly recommended for significant structures.
The key to effectively specifying these tests is to specify confining 7.6 SOIL IMPROVEMENT
stresses near the stresses the soil is likely to experience during load. 7.6.1 Shallow Solls
The limitation of triaxial tests are due mainly to their sparcity during Soils used as backfill around structures and buried utilities; support for
investigations. Tests in only a few locations will tell the engineer only
pavements and structures; embankments for highways, railroads, par.k-
what the soil strengths are in those locations. Another limitation is ing areas, levees, dams, and so on; and linings for canals and reservoirs
that only some soils may be sampled. Very hard material will not
are compacted so that their strength and stability will be increased,
likely be able to be sampled because the thin-walled sampler will be their permeability decreased, their resistance to frost action and erosion
crushed by hard sample and the associated holders and cobbles. Very
enhanced, and their compressibility decreased.
soft material (below q. of 0.25 tsf) are considered too soft to sample. On projects where compaction is anticipated, representative samples
Lack of triaxial tests showing very soft material does not mean that
of typical soils at the site should be obtained at the time subsurface
these materials are not present. In these cases, the engineer should explorations are being conducted and subjected to one or more of the
pay particular attention to the geotechnical report, which will often
following laboratory tests: Atterberg limits, laboratory compaction,
fill in the gaps left by lack of testing. Another area to gain informa- natural water content, swell, and permeability.
tion on materials that are too soft to test include blow counts, which
The laboratory compaction test is performed to determine an
will show drill roads advancing with 2 or less blows per foot, or with optimum moisture content and dry density for each soil The standard
weight of hammer.
Proctor tests (AASHTO T99, ASTM 0698-12, or British Standard 1377-4)
are generally specified where light to mediwn rollers are employed. The
INDICATOR Tl!STS modified Proctor test (AASHTO TISO, ASTM 01557) is usually used
Indicator tests, such as the CPT, VST, PMT, and DMT, have several where greater compactive effort is required.
distinct advantages over standard penetration testing and laboratory Shown in Table 7.12 are typical values of standard Proctor optimum
sampling. However, each must be treated with caution and include moisture content and density for various soils. Optimum moisture
confinnatory testing. content for the standard test is usually 2 to 5 percentage points less than
Table 7.12 Typical Values of Optimum Moisture Content and Density for Various Soils
Unified cluaification
Range of mu dry unit Range of optimum
Group symbol Description weight. pef moisture content, %
GW Well-graded clean gravels, gravel-sand mixture1 125-135 11-8
GP Poorly graded clean gravel1, gravel-aand mix 115-125 14-11
GM Silty gravel1, poorly graded gravel-sand-lilt 120-135 12-8
GC Clayey grave!a, poorly graded gravel-sand-clay 115-130 14-9
SW Well-graded clean sands, gravelly sands 110-130 16-9
SP Poorly graded clean sand.I, sand-gravel mix 100-120 21-12
SM Silty sands, poorly graded sand-silt mix 110-125 16-11
SM-SC Sand-ailt clay mix with alightly plastic fines 110-130 15-11
SC Clayey aands, poorly graded sand-clay mix 105-125 19-11
ML Inorganic silts and clayey 1ilu 95-120 24-12
ML-CL Mixture of inorganic silt and clay 100-120 22-12
CL Inorganic cla}'ll oflow to mediwn plasticity 95-120 24-12
OL Organic silta and silt-cla}'ll, !OW plasticity 80-100 33-21
MH Inorganic clayey silts, elastic silu 70-95 40-24
CH Inorganic cla}'ll of high pluticity 75-105 36-19
OH Organic claya and silty claya 65-100 45-21
220 CHAPTER SEVEN
a soil's plastic limit, while for the modified Proctor, it is usually 5 to Vertical sand drains are often installed to accelerate the consolidation
8 percentage points less. Modified Proctor optimum densities are process. After removing the vegetation, a pervious gravel or sand blan-
approximately 7 to 10 pcf greater than standard Proctor values. ket of adequate thickness to support construction equipment is placed
Shown in Table 7.13 are typical compaction requirements for various on the surface of the compressible soil. Since this pervious blanket must
structures based on the standard Proctor laboratory test. Where highly function as a drain and also serve as a working platform, it should be
expansive soils are encountered or when large percentages (exceeding at least 2 feet thick.
about 20 to 30 percent) ofgravel are present in the soil, special compaction Two types of vertical drains are co=on: prefabricated drains and
requirements exist. sand drains. Prefabricated drains are about 4 in. wide, 0.5 in. thick, and as
With the start of (and during) construction, field density tests long as necessary for penetration through the compressible soil. A prefab-
(AASHTO Tl47) should be made on the following bases: ricated drain consists of a polymer core wrapped by a geotextile. The core
1. one test for every 200 to 500 ycP of backfill around structures or in has a geometric pattern of ribs, ridges, or nubs to provide an open channel
trenches, depending on the total quantity of material involved for water to flow along its long axis. The geotextile wrap is typically a non-
2. one test for every 2000 yd3 of material placed for mass earthwork woven one that prevents the soil from intruding the core while allowing
3. one test for every 500 ycP of highway or airfield pavement subgrade water to flow into the core. The nonwoven geotextile may also keep flow
4. at least one test for every 1000 yd3 of material placed in relatively channels open in the core by spanning between ridges, ribs, and nubs.
thin sections, such as canal or reservoir linings A prefabricated drain is installed using the displacement method.
5. one test whenever there is definite suspicion about the quality of The drain is threaded through a long, hollow steel mandrel, typically
moisture control and compaction rectangular in cross section, and then wrapped around a disposable
Close moisture-content control is practiced if two-thirds of all field base plate at the tip of the mandrel The mandrel and attached base plate
values fall within a range ±1 percent of the median moisture content are then advanced into the ground to the desired depth. On extraction
specified. Erratic yet often satisfactory control is indicated if only two- of the mandrel, the base plate and prefabricated drain remain in place
thirds of all field values fall in a range ±3 percent. and form a vertical drain. Speed and economy are advantages of using
Satisfactory compaction procedures are generally being employed if prefabricated drains.
two-thirds of all densities fall within 2 or 3 percent above or below the The vertical sand drains are installed by driving a mandrel of 18- to
percent maximum density required. Unsatisfactory or erratic compac- 24-in. diameter through the compressible soil, filling it with relatively
tion is evidenced where only two-thirds of all field values fall in a range clean sand, and withdrawing the casing while the sand is forced out
±5 percent. by the application of gas pressure inside the mandrel. Alternatively, an
Unless test sections have been built or the performance of a given angered hole is backfilled with sand. The piles are driven in a pattern
piece of equipment on a particular soil is already known, it is usually at a spacing of 8 to 15 feet. ~ fill is placed over the drainage blanket,
better to specify the required percent of density, moisture-content the added load forces water from the subsoil into the sand drains, from
limits, and lift thickness and allow the contractor some leeway in the which it escapes through the drainage blanket.
selection of compaction equipment and methods.
7,6.3 Lo- Gr•nul•r Salls
7.6.2 Comprenlble OllY'I)' Soll1 Sometimes, granular soils can be improved by injecting them with
If the subsoil is unusually soft and compressible or consists of organic grout. However, grouting is often attempted with materials that have
soils to a relative shallow depth, it is frequently economical to remove little likelihood of penetrating the material to be improved. In general,
these undesirable soils and backfill with select granular materials the penetration of grouts into natural soils depends on the effective
compacted in lll}"mJ. However, if the cost of excavation and replace- size D 10 of the material to be grouted. Table 7.14 shmw the relationship
ment is prohibitive, the soft compressible materials can frequently be between various types of grout and the limiting size of the material to
improved by consolidating them with a surcharge fill. Where perma- be grouted.
nent fill is required, this portion of the fill should be compacted to a Since loose soils are far more readily grouted than dense ones, the
height adequate to include the predicted settlements that will occur. grouting of soils approaching the finest sizes indicated in Table 7.14
Additional fill, equivalent in magnitude to the proposed structural should be approached with some skepticism. Inasmuch as they pen-
loads, may then be placed to force consolidation of the underlying soft etrate the void spaces of the soil, grouts are of principal value in decreas-
materials. When the desired degree of consolidation has been accom- ing the soil permeability and are often used only for this purpose. Some
plished, the excess fill may be removed and the structure built with the of the more desirable chemical grouts are relatively expensive, and
assurance that the majority of the settlement has already taken place therefore they are used only in special or unusual circumstances. In
under the surcharge load. However, this approach takes time. addition, many chemical grouts have been declared carcinogenic.
Tllble 7.13 Typlc:.I Comp•ctlon Requirements Buecl. on the Stendllnl Proctor Lllboretory Comp11Cllon Te1t
Suggested lift thiclcneM after
Denalty required aa % of compaction, in. (for hand bunplng,
optimum laboratory density Suggested range in use one-half of these value•)
moisture content
Coar•e-grained Fine-grained dry(-) or wet(+) Coane-grained Fine-grained
Purpoaeoffill cohesionless soils cohe.ive soils ofoptirnwn cohellionleas soila cohe.ive soils
Support of structure 100 98 -1 to +2 10 6
Bacldill around structuie or in pipe or utility trenches 98 95 -2 to +2 8 6
Subgrade of excavation for structure and for earth 98 98 -1 to +2 12 6
dams greater than 50 feet high
Earth dams less than 50 feet high and for support of 95 95 -1 to +3 12 6
highway or airfield pavement
Canal or small reaervoir lining 95 -2 to +2 6
Drainage blanket or filter 98 +2 to +4 10
Other fill• requiring nominal amount of strength and 93 90 -3to +3 10 6
incompreasibility
SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDJITTONS 221
llEFEIENCES
Loote free-draining sand may be lmprcm:<l by making 1t denter. Under I. Abram1on, L. W., T. S. Lee, S. Sharma. and G. M. Boyce. Slope
ruitable dmlmltanas, tru. may be a«.omplished lrith explotria, and Stability and Stabiliutiort Mctlwtb. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley 8r
1am&ctmy resukl can abo be obtained with cmupacti.on piles. Mon Som, 2001.
commonly, vibroftatation la uted. 1bJs II a patented process .in which a 2. Adu, W. L~ III. Basic Prouduru for Soll Samplmg lllld Core
laige vibntor Wlit, known u a viblo1lat, Is lmmed ln1D the sand with the Drillmg. Scranton. PA: Acker Drill Co., 1974.
udJlance of wuer jetting. Under the combined &Ction of1he jetting and 3. American Railway Engineering Asaociation. MllnllOl of Recom-
vibntion, the and ii compamd to Cunn a enter It the ground surfau mnded PN!ttlu, Pt. 5, Retrlbltng WAlls allll Abutments. Wuhlngton.
that u filled with sand. The vibrotlot is iaually 1merted at a apadng of DC: American Railwsy Engineering Auoeiation, 1954.
6 to 8 m:t .in the uea 1o be treated. Supplemental teats are requlml after 4. American Asaoc:lation of State HJghny Transportation Officials.
treatment to determine l1J effi:ctlveness. However, It la diflkuh to verify T99 Standard Method of Test for Moiature-Denaity Rela1ions of Soila
rompliance with a ~cation requirillg that a catain percentage of Uting a 2.S-kg (5.5-lb) Rammer and a 305-mm (12-111.) Drop. 1 January
zelative demlty mwt be achieved. becaute indirect methods are usually 2017.
.requiml. It ii probaliy more rullstic: to d.etermlne, In the tleld. the resuka 5. American Asaoc:lation of State HJghny Transportation Officials.
that can be achieved fur a particular vlbroflot spacing and proceed with T180 Standard Method of Tm fur M~-De11.9ity Relations of Soila
fuundation deUgn on the ham of the Ktua1ly acliieved resulbi. Ulinga 4.54-kg(lO-lb) Rammer anda457-mm (18-in.) Drop. l January
Dynamic compaction a.ccomp!Uhed by dropping a 10- to .W-tan 2017.
pounder from a height of 40 feet or more hu been uaed to improve 6. Americ:m Society tor !Citing and Materiala. Amlual Sook of
allt1Dg soils (FHWA-SA-95--07, Geom:Jmicd BoglDcaing CircWar No. 1, ASTM St.andards. Vola. 04.08 and 04.09, Soil and Rodt; Georynthetia.
Dynamic Compaction). Philadelphia: ASTM, 1995.
7. American Society fur Teating and Mataiala. 04719-07 Standard
1.1 MONrTOIUNG Test Methods tor Prebored Preauremetcr Testing in Soilt.
7.7.t Grvundw.t• 8. Ameriam Society (or Testing and Materials. Standard Tm Mediod
Car Electronic Friction Cone and Piezocone Penetration Testing of
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1electing the appropriate piezometer fur the Cormmon wu proposed Stmdml Test Methods fur Labontmy Compaction Characteristics ofSoil
by Tersaghi and Peck (1967) and can be found In EM 1110-2-1908 llill1g Standard Effort (12,..tOO ft-lbt'lft' (600 kN-mlm')). 1 May 2012.
(USACE, 30 June 1995) u shawn In Fig. 7.28. 10. American Society for Tatlng and Materials. ASTM Dl557
SUndard Tea Methodll fur Laboratory Comp8Ction Oiaracterlstica of
Soil Uaing Modified Effort (56.000 ft-lbfJftS (2,700 kN-m/~)). l May
2012.
11. Amerlc:an Society for Tatlng and Materials. D2573/D2S73M-15
Standard Test Method for Field Vane Shear Te•t in Saturated
Fine-Grained Soila. l July 2015.
12. American Society for Telting and Materials. .D6635-1S Standard
TestMethodf.orPerformingtheF!atPlateDilatometer.1 November2015.
13. American Sodety for Teating and Material•. 1>4318-17 Standard
Ten Methods fur Liquid Limit. Plastic Limit. and Plasticity Index of
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• • Wi fllt>uf Sand hlfer 17. Bishop. A. W. A new sampling tool for uae .in cohesionless sands
Jurro1111di119 Poinf
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18. Brithh Standard. 1377-4 Me1hods of tm for soils for civil engi-
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0,01 OJ 1.0 10 100 KX» 19. Chellil, R. D. Pile Poundations. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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1961.
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(Ttn.lghl an4 Peck, 1967). F. Schloaer, and J. Dunniclif£ Reill/MUil Soil Structtm:s: Val 1.
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21. Davisson, M. T. Estimating budding loads for piles. Proc. 2d 50. Matlock, H., and L. C. Reese. Foundation analysis of off-shore
Panamerican Conf. Soil Mech Found. Eng., Brazil (1) (1963). pile-supported structures. Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Soil Mech. Found.
22. Davisson, M. T., and P. Shamsher. A review of soil-pole behavior. Eng. (2) (1961).
Highway Research Record (39) (1963). 51. Mayne, P. W., and J. K. Mitchell. Profiling of overconsolida-
23. Davisson, M. T. Foundations in difficult soils-State of the practice tion ratio in clays by field vane. Canadian Geotechnical Journal (25)1
deep foundations-driven piles. Seminar on Foundations in Different (March 1988), 150-157.
Soils. New York: Metropolitan Section, ASCE, April 1989. 52. Mesri, G. Coefficient of secondary compression. Journal of the Soil
24. Density changes of sand caused by sampling and testing, Mechanics and Foundations Division (99)SM1, January 1973, 123-137.
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40. Huntington, W. C. Earth Pressures and Retaining Walls. New York: 68. Sanglerat, G. The Penetrometer and Soil Exploration. Amsterdam:
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Station, 1949. in geotechnical engineering. ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication
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45. King, Ruth R., et al. Bibliography of North American Geology, 269-290.
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46. Leonards, G. A., ed. Foundation Engineering. New York: McGraw- 4th ed. New York: Macmillan, 1979.
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48. Lutenegger, A. J. Suggested method for performing the borehole DC: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
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This page intentionally left blank
Chapter&
Design of Structural
Steel Members
BY
JAY SHEN, Ph.D., PE, SE Department of Civii Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa
State University, Ames, Iowa
BULENT AKBAS, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical Univmity, Gebze, Turkey
ONUR SEKER, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical Univmity, Gebze, Turkey
CHARLIE$ J. CARTER, Ph.D., PE, SE American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Rlinois
8.1 DESIGN OF STEEL AND COMPOSITE MEMBERS The specification uses the term ·failure• instead of •limit state." Limit
8.1.1 Introduction states are defined for strength and serviceability as:
• Strength Limit States
There are three main structural steel materials available in steel building Plastic strength is used and ductility, buckling, fatigue, fracture, etc. is
and bridge construction shown in Table 8.1. Typical stress-strain curve considered for design. Either LRFD or ASD method should be used
for structural steel for tension is shown in Fig. 8.1. for design.
Structural steel shapes are either hot-rolled or built-up shapes. The • Serviceability Limit States
standard hot rolled shapes are wide-flange W-shape, M-shape, S-shape, The element is not allowed to go beyond FY. The corresponding limit
C-shapes (or channels), angles, WT-shapes (or structural tees). hollow states are related to the daily use of structures such as displacement,
sections, and pipes. floor vibration, permanent deformation, cracking, etc. Neither LRFD
nor ASD is needed for the design of these limit states.
LRFD Dl!SIGN PHILOSOPHY The LRFD approach follows the general engineering design philosophy
The current AISC specification AISC 360 provides two design meth- and stated as follows:
ods for the design of structural members, namely Allowable Strength
Design (ASD) and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). Both
(8.1)
methods intend to provide a certain level of probabilistic safety against
failure that might occur in a member, connection, or structural system.
225
2M CHAPTER EIGHT
Fu -------------------------------------------------------
L
=
Elasticity Modulus (Young's modulus), E 29,000 ksi =F/Ey
Yield Stress, Fy
Yield Strain, £y
Tension Slnilngth, Fu a=-
T I
Maximum Elongation, Eu
A
M.,
.J T
Ductility £,/Ey £=-
L a: Stress (ksl)
T: Axial load (kips}
IL;-.L.__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Eu
-=---- L: Original length (In.)
Strain fin.Jin.) Ill.: Elongation (In.)
A: Crose-sectional area (ln.2)
- - - - - - --
t2C
J':.:k~ ,!,JJ, .r. J, ,,, xJ, *
8
Elastic
PlasticL___ _
M<My M=My My<M<Mp M=Mp
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Elutlc IlllCl888e tt momert 1.11111 1 Plutlc
moment ) tiia entire a&etlan yield; moment )
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 227
0
Round Bar Flat Bar J
Channel
L
Angle with Equal or
Unequal Legs
T
WT Shape
I
W·Shape
(Wide Flange)
I
S-Shape
(Standard)
D
Rectangular Hollow
Structural Section (HSS)
0
Circular Hollow
Structural Section (HSS)
===]- 1r--11
Jc lr
Double Channel Double Angle
[
-----
Latticed Channels
iL__j !
Built-Up Sections
Agin l.J CIOM llKtlon of typ!Ql tC!l.llion member&
is subject to a tension force, it behaves elastically until reaching one of (Eq. D3-l, AISC 360)
Che following llmlt ilate$:
• Tensile yielding in the gross aectlon (Table D3-1, AISC 360)
• Tensile rupture in the net section
• Blor.k shear rupture where A.= effective net area, !n.2
• Connection fiUlure F.,= speafied minimum tensile mength. IW
Even though there .Is no slenderness (le.agth over minimum radius U =the shear lag factor
of gyration} limit fur design of tension memben. too slender mislon A,.= net area, in.2 (A,. =A1 -d,.t,i)
memben are not desirable. Theref-ore, a slenderness ratio of !en than The shear lag factor, U, accowits foi the nonWllform sttta distribu-
300 is preferred for temlon members other than rods to avoid sagging tion when some of Che elemezm of a tension member are not c1irectly
and vibration as well aa problems during construction. cmmected as in the angle-bar connection in Fig. 85. In such case.
7tnst1t yielding In tht gross section: the tensile force h not uniformly distributed over the net area of the
This limlt state defines Che yielding ofthe grou section ofa tension mem.· member. Therefore, a reduction codlld.e.at is Introduced to account
her 'Without holes and exceuive defOnnalion of the member is imvented.. for such cue.
lluaset Plate
l.5x3x!'
8
Figure U Bnmple l.
l~_T:~l~f__.,..,
8
Tensile ruphlre In the net section: Detamine the~ Strength According to ASCB 7, Section .2.3.1,
2
the basic load combinaiiont that include dead and live loadl are as
A,. =A1 -M=(2X3.34)-4X0.l!IO x (i+i-)=6.ll ln. follows:
(I) l.4D
u =1-~= 1- 0.484 =0.92 (2) l.2D + l.6L
I 6 where p D = 50 kips and PL = 25 kips.
~ =UAn =0.92x6.11=5.62 in.
2
Gusset Plate
i=0.484" -#-
t1= 0.320"
!
...
T, t
l
2CSx6.7
1~)xo.291=6.o3 ID.
2
P. 234 1 A,,= A, - .M=U3- 2 x ( i+
<!:~=--=S.2-+A ,m1n=S.2 in.
A
•if", 1
I 0.9XS0 (aee Fig. 8.12, t.,_ = 5/8j
Based on /nl£tllre In the ntt uttion V. = V.A. <!: P, 2
i- B1+2.BH = 6 +2X(6 X6) • l.2 5 in.
P. 234 2 4(B+H) 4x(6+6)
A.~_,_=--= 5.03-+ A..-= 5.03 In.
•rF,. 0.75X62 i'
l=lO ill. > H =6 in.-+U= l - -z•l- ro=0.775
2.25
Possible mapes are given in the following table.
l '-- - -,1'
---------~------f
[__________J__ -- ------
A
Fig... 8.1 Z Net section at the slottr:d portion.
Note that the length of the longitudinal fillet welds is calculated based
OD f....u =3/16 in. (PlllCX = 7()b'). Wall Pin
A, = UA,, = 0.775 x6.03 = 4.67 Jn.2 Connection
r
PM =F.A. =62blX4.67m.' =289.7~ +t =0.75
t.PM = 0.75 X 289.7 = 217..3._..
Bleck shear rupture:
A,.= A,.,. =4 x (lxt4 ,..n)=4x(lOx0.291)=11.64 Jn.2 ;
A.t = O(see Fig. 8.13)
P,. = {0.6F,.A,..; 0.6F1 A,.lm1ir. + u,,,F,.Am = 0.6F1 A,,
P,. =0.6X50Xll.64=~.2~
~pn =0.75X349.2=261.91dp'
Determine Ifthe Member II Adequate
ti=0.75 l ~;...&.&.;~~;..&&..;:~;...&.&.;~~~
WT Steel Beam
Pin
Connection
Select a Tauioa Rod Diameter 4. The pinhole shall be localed midway between the edges of the
member in the direction nonnal to the applied force.
(1) l.4WD =l.4Xl.2=1.68ldprlft where a= shortest distance from edge of the pin hole to the edge of the
(2) l.2wD +l.6w8 =l.2Xl.2+1.6X0.6=2.41dptJll: member measured parallel to the dlrection of the force.
w = pllk width perpendicular to rod centerline.
P. = wx Lt.... 2.4ldpl/ll x6.2511 ._,. b0 = 2t + 0.63 in. but not more than the a.c:tual diatanc:e from the
275 edge ofthe hole to the edge ofthe part m~ in1he direction
T Bin& sln33~
normal to the applied force.
'tpn = '1F1Ar <?: P,. d = diameter of pin.
Ar.req ~l=~=0.85 in.2
=
t thickness ofplate.
cp1F1 0.9X36 Dimensions of the pin connection shown In Fig. 8.15 11atilfy the
requirements llWll111lrized ab<M:.
Use +718" A36 steel rod.
Check Dimensional Requirements According to AISC 360.
5"tUm DS.2, dimensional requiremeut9 are u fullowa: b, =2t+5/8"=2x!+~=I.625 in.
2 8
1. a 2: l.33b,
2. w2:2b,+ d
ll =2.25"> l.33b, = l.33Xl.625 = 2.16 i.D.
3. b,= 2t+ 'iii"~ b b =2.0" > "· =1.625 In.
t ---t'
r::=======.;i~-----------J
------ --- I
------ ----------------
Section A-A
FlgulW 8.U Block ohear rap111n:.
:U2 CHAPTER EIGHT
8.1.S CompnulonMmnMn
The primary failure mode in a column member is global budding.
Compressive strength of a column it e.uent.lally dependent on overall
elend.eme.u nilo (KL/r) and w:ldth-to-thh:kness ratio of the elements of
a column member dong with the uncertainties such u, IDitlal imperfec-
tion and midual ~s. In any steel column. an initial CW"YUUie and
a =2.25° rnidual stre1ses would be introduced during the process of making the
column. Due to the .lllilJaJ. curvature and/or ttlidual me.uee before uial
load. ls applied, the mulmum load that can be applied is .reduced from
the buc.:lcling load. This is mainly be<:ause that the m- distribution
is not uniform from the very beginning, and some areu might have
.reached yield atteH (c:s= P~ earlier than othen.
COM.POSIT!! Cotm&NS
~ P,= 27.!)ldll' Composite columns ma.y be constructed with rolled or buih-up steel
shapea, encued in concrete or with concrete placed inalde steel pipe.t
or tubes (Fig. 8.16). A compo<e columns can carry slgnUlcantly higher
loads than that of the IVC columns of the same size. For a kw decades,
Thnsile ruphm: on the net effective '1ml the encuing concrete was not considered in the calculalions. but it is
mainly used fer fire and corroalon protection.
P,, =P,,(2th,) (Eq. DS-1, AISC 360) For low-rise buildings, the sted. c:olwmis are often encated In
concrete for ht.ving a good appearance or fire protection, corrosion
P,, =sax(2xix1.62S )=94.llr.!pl +,=0.75 protection, and from vehide1 when used in garages. Considering the
effect of concrete, smaller steel shapes might be used. For high-rise
.,P,, =0.75 x 94.3 =70.7... buildings. it is poaelble to have more tloor apace, &Ince the size• of
c:omp0$lte columns a.re smaller than Is re<J.ulred for IVC columns for
SMar rupture on the tffedlve MU the same loads.
P" =0.6P.A, =0.6P,,2t(a+d/2) (Eq. DS-2, AISC MO) Limitations t111d deuiiling requinmtmu for '-"mpolite '-"lumns:
The following limitation must be satisfied in order to qualify u an
P,,=0.6xsax[2xix(2.25+1.5/2)J =lO«ldpt .,=0.75 encased composite column subject to uial force:
a. Thecrosa-$«llonalma of1he steel.core, A,. should make up at !wt
1 pCKeDt of the total composite aoaHeci:lonal area, At'
+,P,, =0.75xl04.4 =78.3.,. b. For c.:onc:nte encuement:
Bearing strength - Longitudinal bars hall to be continuoua at atory levela,
- Laterd ties or sp.lra1s have also to be used. In cues where laterd
R,, =1.8P,A,. (Bq. 17-1, AISC MO) ties are u.ed. a minimum of No. 3 bar spac,:ed at a maximum of
12 in. on center, or a No. 4 bar spaced at a muimum of 16 in. on
when!~= proj~ area in bearing.
c.:enter should be used.
c. Maximum. spadng of lateral ties DI.If not eueed 0.5 times the lean
R,, =l.8x36x(1.sx-i)=48.6lr.!pl ._ =0.75 laterd colwnn dlmeNion.
d. The minimum mnforcement ratio for continuous longitudinal
+,R,, =0.75 x 48.6 =36.Sldpa =
reinforcement, p,, A,,IA, is 0.004, where A. is area of continuous
TbUJ, bearing strength controls the de$ign. longitudinal reinfurcemeD.t.
e. Clear spacing of lit lwt l.S relnfordng bar diameter or l.S in. i•
•tP.. =36.Sldpa > P, =27.Sldpa req,uiRd between the md COl1! and longitudinal mnforcement.
(a)W-Shape
Figlft8.16 Ccmp~('.Olwiw,
(b) Rcctangular HSS
0 (c) Pipe
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 231
I
HSS to be classified u a compact section: c
- For~ Dlt S O.ISB W12x30
F,
- For rectangular HSS bit S 2.26 ~
VP, ~ 12'
i
Design strtngth oft»lffpotl~ columns subject to axla1 force:
The design compressive strength. ~.P,.. of an encased c:omposite
column subject to axial for« is the sum of the axial stnngths of the steel B
section. the reillforclng ban, and the concrete and la de&ed u
a. When W16x40
12'
P.=0.877P.
(8.2)
(8.3) H H
J
1
where A,= area of concnte, in. - lr"-
-- - - - -20·------,711'-k
.A,= cro&Nectional area of steel section, in.1
B, = elastic modulm of concrete. = w!.s
./l[. bi Figure a.17 A two-mryOM·baymoment frame.
EI.tr= effec:tive stlffnen ofcompodte section, klp-ln.2
=B,I, + B),, + C;B),
B, =elastic modulus of steel, 29,000 bi
I= I
F,.,. =specltled minimum yield mes ofreinfurdng bars, IW
I.= moment of Inertia of the concrete section about the elastic GA =1.0
Member AB-+ G• 3•06 -+ K,..AB "'l.55(Flg. 8.18)
neuual axis of the c:mnpos:ite section, in.'
=
I, moment of inertia of the steel shape about Che elastic neutral Gs=3.061
ms of the composite sectlon, .ln.4 MemberBC-+ Gc= .3 -+K.. JlC"'l.88(FJg.8.l!il)
3 3
I,,.= moment of inertia ofrdnfurdng bars about the elastic neumil 1
c =0.25+3
1 (A.;: )so.1
30.0
20.0
30.0
20.0
J:=apedfied compressive strength of concrete, bi
w, =unit weight of conc:rete, Ib/ftS (90 S w, S 155 lblftS) 10.0 10.0
+,=0.75 8.0 8.0
7.0 7.0
UA.Ml'Ll\ s 6.0 6.0
Determine Che effec:tive J.e.ngth factor. K, for the 6nt and aec:ond story 5.0 5.0
colwnns In the moment frame mown In Fig. 8.17. Moment frame Is
brued at eac:h story level in the perpendicular direction. 4.0 4.0
Wl2X S8:.l,.=475in.'; Wl2X30: I,.=.238in."; Wl6X40: I,.=518 ln.4 3.0 3.0
DetemWu: G..., G_.. and Ge
2.0 2.0
I,c1v,1~> I.cvr,>
G IlCBz11 1L1 ) IlCI1 1L1 )
1.0 1.0
GA =1.0 (Fizcdsupport)
G 2x(475/144) .3.06
B 518/240
0.0
G = 475/144 =l.33
c 238/240 Figure a.1a Efl'ecti'fe lenp &.ctnr for member AB.
U4 CHAPTER EIGHT
""
100.0
50.0
-
100.0
50.0
K
F. (L,lr'f
1
B
2
1' X29,000
(57.4)1
S6. b!
9
30.0 30.0
20.0 20.0 P.,. =(0.658-'111~ )Py= (0.65~)X50 =39,3bl
P,.=F...A,=39.3Xl7=668.111po +,=0.90
10.0 10.0 .,P,. =0.9X668.1 =601.3ldp•
8.0 8.0
7.0 7.0 llAlllPUl7
6.0 6.0
Select a double-angle for the top chord of the ttim given mFig. 8.20
5.0 5.0 ualng LRFD. The service load, P...- =P =~ ldp• conalata of 60 perce.nt
K= 1.88
4.0 ' 4.0 dead load and ~percent mow load.
3.0 3.0 p p p p p
2.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
1.0
ufJskbbtd
RguNt.:20 A tooftrv.u of an ll1dUltrial 'bullcll.ng.
0.0 1.0 0.0
Determine the ltequlml Straigdt
.l\.am =l.lJ>i,+1.6~ =l.2X(0.6xP-..,)+l.6x(OAxP-..)
=1.2X(0.6X40)+1.6X(0.4X40)=54.411po
B:IANPLB6 The nwdmum uial force obtained from. the analyau of the tru&t
Determine the comp~ clWgD. sttength ofcolumn AB in El.ample S. = 7.21P in compre"1on. Th\ll, the required strength, P, can be
is P..,.
computed u followi:
Wl2 x 58: A,= 17iD..2;11.=5.28 in.; ry=2.51 in.;P1 =50bl
P, = 7.211\.am = 7.21x54.4 = 392ldpo
Chedt Widlb-to-Thk:bas Rado ac:mrdlngto 'IllhJe M.la. AlSC 360
Select a 1iial Section (Atrame P... =0.75.F,.)
l.,.J = o.56 Jf o.s6J2 ~~
=
9 00
=13.S > 111211 = 1.82
.A,~.JL 392 16.1.ia.1
•eF., 0.9X(0.75X36)
l.,,., =l.49IX =l.49~--so-=3S.9>hlt.,
VP, 129.000 =28.1 Try 2L8 x 4 x ~ Separated by " In. Collllector$ (1Wo Angles An
Oriented with the Long leg• Back-to-Rac.k. llBB. see Fig. 8.21)
Wl2 x 58 iJ ~non-slender <:e>mpmsion member and the unbra«d tor- Ai= 17 ln.2; s ="in.; r,. = 2.SS in.; r, = 1.69 in.;'•= 0.85 in.;
sional and ftc:xural buckling lengths are the same. Thm, the limit rtate ;;j = 3.99 in.; H = 0.587 in.; J =3.22 in.4; F, = 36 bi
of flexural buckling applies (Sutlon B3, AISC 360).
(Eq. B3-l, AISC 360) 2L8x4xJ• ff- s =!·
[-t ~f-·
where,
L, =57.4<4.7~ •
29 000
, so
=113.4 IX J29.ooo
l., =o.45'JF,, =0.45 36=12.8>b/t= s =10.7
314
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 235
2L8 x 4 x %ii a non-slender compn.uion member. Thus, the limit. state Since the elastic: flez.ural and torsional buckling straaes, F.,.. Fv and
of fle:xural buckling about x-uil or ilexural-tonlon.al. buckling about P... are greaU:r than their flmual-tornonal buckling counterpart. the
y- and z-ues appll« (St<:ticns E3 and li4, AISC 360). flaural-toralonal bucldlng atreH, P,. controla. Therefore, the critical
<Ampitu BlM1k Btu:kling Strm tlbout s-s Am (KJ.,. =8 ft) strel!S, F,.. Is determined as follows:
__4_P.,.._P._.,_H~]
F.= - -
• (P.,+P•)[
2H
1- 1
(F.,+F.,)2
(Bq. .84-3, AJSC 360)
Lacing
At~alNI= ~ = -6,03
Ddermine L1lllD Da1gn. SUength The torsional unbw:ed length
- - = 037.
, m.2 -+"plMit=
L 1 m.
·
d0et not exceed the flexural buckling length.I about ''"'' and y-y axes.
Thus, flexural bucldlng Blra8 controla Che comprasl.ve atrength of the
.,P.,.
0.9X18.3
built-up ffct!OD.. Use Pl 1• x '6 in. for lacing.
K,.=K1 =1.0 • 11 of the end tie plates should not be le.u than 0.02 tirnei Che dil-
tance between the futenen.
!:t_=(!:,_) l.0X(30Xl2) 64.2 Min. tie plate thickness= O.o2x(1S-2x2)=0.22 .In.
, '" 5.61 Use %-in. thick plate fur end tie plates.
The other climendon.s of the lacing and end tie plates can be deter-
mined by using the n:quired spacing between the futenen.
B'.lLU!LPLB 9
F.,.= (0.6581,IP. )P1 = (0.65~5 )x 36 = 29._
A composite column shown in Fig. 8.23 subject to uial load conslru
.,P,. = 0.9X29X(2Xl0)=5221dpo > P, =5001dpt of a W12 x 87 enc:ued in a 20 in. x 20 in. <:0ncrete column. Eight 17
ban are used for longitudinal n:infon:ement and #3 latmal. ties spaced
Use 2Cl5 x 33.9. at 12 in. centerline to centerline are used for lateral reinforceme.nl P1 =
Dimemional B.equlreme:nta for Lacing and End Tie Platu 50 bi for m:el shape and Gnd.e 60 reinforcing bars are used. Nonil.al
Section E6-2.. AISC 366 mtu that laced built-up compression members
shaD meet the following requirements and rec.ommendations:
t:
weight conc:rete with = 6 bi is Uffd. Compute the dmgn ttrength
for an effective length of 18 ft and 9 ft about%· and y-u:es, respectively.
• AISC suggubl tb.a1 single lacing ban are preferably inclined a1 a
60-degreeangleormorewilhrapeatoeheamofthemember(Flg.8.22). A,= 25.6 in.2 ~ O.OIA, =0.01 x 20 x 20 =4 in.1 OK.
• Lacing can be selected among Bat bars or any hot-rolled ahapes F1 =50.bi< F1 =75bl.
(e.g.. ansJei or channelJ). However, AISC recommends that it is idul
that the lacing consilta of double flat bars or anglei when the diltance F,...=55bi<P1 =80bi
between the fastenen u greater than 15 in. Since the distance (1-11/16")
is leas than 15 1.n.. single ladng made of flat ban can be used. B, =29,000 bi
• Per Secti1111.E6-2. AISC 360, it i• requlmi that the alendemen ratio
of each channel betwc:en the fureners should be leu than 75 percent of E, = w!.s ,[J! = 1451.S.Ji= 4277 bi
the govemingslenderneaa ratio of the built-up member so that each part 3 blS J:=6kal.S10 bi
will not buckle before the compression member indlvldually.
For lateral tie~ #3 spaced at 12 in. OK.
.!=~= 12.688 =14.l<!x64.2=48.2
fj ,, 0.901 4 2
219.875
p.,.=A.,.JA1 =( a x -- ) /(20x20)=0.0l2:i!:0.0040IC.
• Fcm:e on lacing bar should be determined bued on a shearing 4
stn:ngth normal to the uis of the member equal to 2 percent of the A, =20X20-A,-.A.,
available compreatve attength of the member.
2
n0.875
=400-25.6- ( ax- - )
P, =4>.P,. =5221dpa-+ V...i-g =0.02xP, =0.02X522=10.44ldi>f
4
Note that V~isremtedbythetwoplaic.on both sides. Therefore. =400-25.6-4.81
the uial force acting on each plate can be computed. as:
=369.59 in.2
.F. = ± V...Jodn& = ± lOMldpt :bS.031r:1p1
pi.a 2coa300 2xcoa300 y~
Pomive and negalive signs nipresent tension and compn:uion,
respectively. n should be noted that the si2:e of Che laclng plate should be
determined bued on the 6.03 kips compressive force acting on Che bar
while the futenen are designed u«ing the tension fo.rce of 6.03 kip8.
...
1.s· 8#7ba,.
L 12.688
117
rplale 0.289X3/8
P. _ 112B _ n 2 x29,000 . ._
20 9
' - (L.lrf - (117)2
P.,. =0.871P., = 0.877X20.9=18.3lol. RguN8.ll BDmplc9.
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS 237
P,,. =F,.A, +F,..,A,,. +0.85/:A. 1'11ble 8,2 Loail Buckling Umlt St.te-Flexur•l Strength Rel.tlonshlp
P"° J [
P" =Pno 0.658P. =3,429.5 0.658 11•204 =3,017.lkips
3,429.5 ) Tllbl• 8.3 Lllterel-Torslon.I Budding Limit Stllte-Flexural Strength
Rei.tlonshlp
[
Laterally unbraced
clJ)'. = 0.75 x 3427.5 = 2262.e kips length Failure mode Nominal flexural capacity
Plastic hinge formation M,.=M,
L1.4 BHml Inelastic LTB
NON-COMPOSITE BEAMS Elastic LTB
Beam is a member that is primarily subjected to transverse loading,
often gravity (dead and live) load effects. Thus primary internal actions
COMPOSITE BBAMS
at its cross section are bending moment, M, kip-ft, and shear force, V,
kip. Most commonly used sections for beams: I-shaped wide flange A composite beam is composed of steel beam and reinforced concrete.
sections, often called W-shapes. I-shaped members are more efficient Composite beams provide greater economy and increase functionality.
for bending resistance because its large percentage of areas of steel is Ribs of the metal deck can either be perpendicular or parallel to beams
located far away from strong axis subjected to bending moment. Such (Fig. 8.24). In a typical floor framing system, the ribs would be perpen-
efficiency might be compromised if flanges and/or web are made too dicular to floor beams and parallel to the supporting girders. This way,
2Jt CHAPTER EIGHT
Girder
supporting floor
Ycon -----
'
beams
Floor beam
supported by
perpendicular to '-
the beam Y.
,
• ..
.,..__ ,...
con ~ ___
~ - - - - - - - -...,.
...,
t
1
••
weight concrete for
2-hcur fire rating
Composite metal deck
the girder
the beam I• comlclere<l to be 1ateraily braced by the floor deck S)'8tem t, = slab depth (t'or deck ribs perpendicular to beam or girder,
amtinuously. and the gird.er i1 assumed to be lalerally braced. by the concrete below top of the deck is ignored; t'or deck rib a par-
beams it supportt at certain intervah. In order to have concrete slab .net to beam or gird.er, average thicknes.11, of cone.me and
and steel beam work together to resirt be.nding under gravity loads, the deck can be used)
•lippage between them •hould be prevellted by shear connectors (Le., '=0.9
shear stud.) (Fig. 8.24). Note that PNA ii determined by the fact the total compreuive force
P11111tk: SCnngth of Fully and P.vtl1lly c:ompo111e Bunt1 for the Umlt acting in the coniprelllion area {above PNA) should be equal to the total
5'aw of YI.id Ing The nominal bendlng (flexural) strength of a com.- tenaion t'orce acting in the tension ana (below PNA), that ii, C = T.
pO<e beam, M., will be reached at a limit state {f'allure mode) when In many cases. the flexural strength of a fully composite beam ii sig-
the entire cross-sec:tion yield. in either temion or <:0mpre88ion and nificantly higher than the required nrcngth. and a certain size of steel
cone.me aushea in compre11ion. The <:0n:uponding r1mil distribution beam hu to be wied for conmuction strengdi and ltiifneu during an
on the com.poalle beam aection at ChJe llmit ata.te u called plutic dre$S unshared conmuction. For economic purpose, a partially compome
d!stJ'lbution (Fig. 8.25). beam. which has fewer number of ahear connec:tors than needed to pn-
where A,= cross-section area of the met beam vent slip, might be a good alternative. Reduction in the number af the
C =c:omprurion in the <:0ncrete, ltip5 ahear conn«tors would reduce tl~ sttength of the composite beam
Pl =minimum. yield streaa of the steel, bi to a certain degree. but has potential to lower the <:Oil due to inNllation
=span length offewer •hear connectors. There is dgnlfiQlllt dip between concrete and
M,. =nominal bending (flo:ural) strength. kip-ft steel beam in a partially compo•ite beam (Fig. 8.26).
+M,. =design bending strength, kip-ft limit state t'or a. fully composite beam is that the concrete c:rwhel
PNA =plastic neutral am under compmslon and the steel beam yield. under tension with
T =tension in the steel kips sufficient nwnber of shear connectors preventing the slip between the
Y1 =the distance between the center of compreiision amr.mcl the conc:rete and steel beam. CompO<e section can reach i1J maximum
top of beam flange tlemral strength with the conaete c;rushed in compretSion and the
=
o Che depeh of compre.uive st:re.u distribution in the concrete steel beam yielded in tension. For a partially composite be~ limit
slab state is that the shear connectors Nil before the con~ c:ruahe. under
PA compression. the stre11 distriblltion ovi:r the conc.rete and steel beam
O.SS f:P,df for PNA in cow:rete slab might wry depellding on the number of mear connectors, md the
b1, b1 =half ip&n lengths on both 1ide11 of the beam steel beam yielding. with no dip between the concrete and ateel beam.
=
b1 tlallge width of the steel shape In a partlally composite beam. the number of ahear connectors is Im
bdl' =effective width of the cone.me slab (min{U4; (b1 + bJ)/2}) than Nffldent, the shear COilnecton would fall before the full 1lexural
i = dlmnce between the centen of compreiiston and temlon strength is readie<l, md the dip between the concrete .iab and steel
an as (or moment um of internal resisting couple C and T) beam would occur.
=d/2+ Y2 Ellldlc Beha11far .nd Maml!ftt af lniertl1 of Carnpaslte Bum far
f.'= 23-day comprasivt rue.ngth of the concrete, bi Oeflectlan1 C.lculltlaft Defl~on is calculated based on elutlc
3 ks1 -S. f.' -S. 10 ksi for normal weight concrete beht1.vior of the composite beam. For a composite beam sect.Ion with
3 kJi Sf.' S 6 k.ti for light weight concrete the steel beun and concrete slab being (Ollllectecl by connectors to
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 23'
PNA
--·j--- -
(plastic neutral axis
of c:ompoeite bee.ml
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Centroldal axis
.....____ ,,..
of steal lltlape
•
Y_,=h,+t,, •
Note: In 1hls cas111h11 conaete comprH81on
8 =dl2 + h, + t,, -al2 flange thicknaa •tt' is lel8 than the alab
1hlclcn868
<PM11 =q,ce =Te
(a) PNA in conctete slab
PNA
d (plastic neutral axis) ..
.. ..
4IM11 =q.(Ce' + Cflangee")
(I>) PNA in beam 1lange
•
.. F,
..
~II= ~Ce' + caaugeen + Cwebe'~
(c) PNA in beam web
240 CHAPTER EIGHT
-
--===:=::~:::====------
-----=========----- --------===:======-------
(a) Fully compoaite beam (b) Partially composite beam
Figuni 1.26 Fullr and partial amipaslte bc1.1n1..
prevent lllippage between them, the section should remain plane after we can replace concrete by •11ee1.• t=iporarily. If we mab the strain
bending with a linear strain distribution (Fig. 8.27). The elastic stress in the concrete at any point be equal to the strain In any replaced steel
Ill concrete (l!J and rteel (1!,) at a location y above and below the neutral at that point:
uls are equal to:
l!,=I!, or (8.6)
(8.4)
E
a,= Bfo, and a, = E!-, (8.5) f,= 1/ !.=n/, (8.7)
•
where fc = stress ill concrete. bi
where a, = elastic stress In steel f, = stress in lteel, bi
B, = elastic moc!W.us of steel. 29,000 bi
a, = elastic 11tR11 in concrm r;; 11 = !...=modular ratio (is about 8 to 10)
B, = elastic moc!W.us of concrete = w~ vf.', bi E,
w, = unit weight of concrete (lb/ff') Equal.ion 8.5 indicates ",r" in.2 area of concrete are needed to resist the
J: = 28-day compressive strength of concrete. bi same force as 1.0 in.2 area of rteel. So, ifwe divide the concrete area by
Since E, ls far larger than Ji.,. a,» a, (Fig. 8.27d), even though the •n,• and the retultlllg area is called tramfunned area from concrete to
strains are the same. In other words, the elastic stress distribution Is no equivalent "m:el• area (Figs. 8.27a and b). The mOlt coll.Vellient way to
longer linear, that u, cannot be :represented with a single straight line), reduce the concrete area by "n times" is to reduce efRctlw width of
but nonlinear, that ls, can be represented by two lines. Th.is 11 because the concrete slab to be/n. The stress dlstrlbution becomes linear in
there are two different material pnipertie., E8 and Er;- To have an equiv- the trandonned 1ection (Fig. 8.27e). In other words, the tramfonned
alent linear streaa clistribulion in order to calculate beam deflection, section (Fig. 8.27b) ii a homogeneou1 rteel section fur dutic behavior.
I _,,,.-_
I
(a) Original composite
beam section
(b) Transfonned composite beam
section for elastic deflection
Positive bending
moment,M
(c) Linear strain distribution (d) Nonlinear elastic sll'9SSEIS (•) Linear stress
under bending in concrete and steel distribution in the
under bending (bilinear) transformed eectlon
Flgm'8 &.27 Elut:ic Iba• dimibatiorui in original compoorili: and tnzWormed -=ticma.
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS 241
Elastic stresses in steel and concrete can be determined based on the EXAMPLE10
transformed section as follows: Figure 8.30 shows the typical plan of a four-story steel office build-
a. Locate the elastic neutral axis (the same as centroidal axis for ing. Lateral-force resisting frames are arranged on the perimeter. On
a homogeneous section) and moment of inertia of the transformed floors, dead load is estimated as 85 psf, and live load is 50 psf for floors.
section (I,.). Determine the uniformly distributed factored load on beam Bl. Select a
b. Find the elastic stresses at the top and bottom of the steel beam. W-shape forthe floor secondary beam, Bl using LRFD. A992 steel is used.
f, = Myt Determine the Factored Load on the Beam
(8.8)
" I,. w0 = 85pof XlOft /lOOOlblkip' = 0.85 kip/ft
(8.9) According to Section 4.7, ASCE 7, floor live load, L0 , can be reduced
if the product of live load element factor and the tributary area of the
member, KuA.i- is equal or greater than 400 ft2•
c. Find the elastic stresses in the concrete at the top of slab.
ABl = 10X25= 250 ft2 <400 ft 2
T
f. =My, (8.10)
Thus, it is not permitted to reduce the live load on Bl.
' nI,.
wL = 50Pof x iofi 11ooolblldp• = o.5o kip/ft
where M = applied moment WM= l.2wn+l.6wL =l.2X0.85+1.6X0.50=1.82 kip/ft
I,. = moment of inertia of the transformed section
y 1 = distance from the neutral axis to the top of the steel section Select a Trial Section (Anume M,. = M;>
Jib = distance from the neutral axis to the bottom ofthe steel section L2 82 252
y, = distance from the neutral uis to the top of the concrete slab M = .!!L_ 1. x 142.2 kip-ft
, 8 8
SHEAR CONNECTORS cjlbMp = cjlbF1Z,, ~ M,
Shear connectors are needed to prevent slippage between the concrete
_ M, 142.2X12tn./ft 3
slab and steel beam (Fig. 8.28). The horizontal shear, created by com- Z z-ulftd - 37.9 in.
pressive force C (Fig. 8.28) acting on the concrete at any cross section at ~~ cjlbFy 0.9X50
the interface between the steel beam and the concrete slab, needs to be
transferred by shear connectors. Due to the fact that the bending moment Try W8 x 40 (Z,, = 39.8 in.3; I,, = 146 in.4; bn.t1 = 7.21; hit,. = 17.6)
changes from section to section, and shear force transferred by shear con- Including the beam weight,
nectors varies through entire beam. For a simple design, the shear con- WM =1.2wn +l.6wL =l.2X(0.85+0.04)+1.6X0.50=1.87 kip/ft
nector design has been based on the design models in Figs. 8.28b and c.
We will consider a segment of composite beam between the point of M = wML2 _ l.87x252 -146.lkip-ft
muimum positive moment and the point of zero moments, segment AB r 8 8
(Fig. 8.28a). It is assumed that the total horizontal shear force, V ', Check Limiting Width-to-Thidmeu Ratio aamding to Table 84.Ib,
between the concrete slab and steel beam will be uniformly distributed AISC360
among equally spaced shear connectors between A and B. This total
horizontal shear force V" is determined based on three limit states:
concrete crushing, tensile yielding of steel section, or strength of shear vfK
'Ap,f = 0.38 F, = 0.38
l9,000
---SO = 9.15 > I.f
l~
connectors. In other words,
= b!2t1 = 6.08 Compact flange.
LF~ = 0, i.e~ LG•+ A:sFy = (A,-A, )Py (8.12) Determine the Design Shear Strength Per Section G2, AISC 360,
the nominal shear strength is,
where A, = area of the steel beam (Eq. G2-l, AISC 360)
A, = the portion of steel area that is needed to satisfy equilibrium
in beam length along x direction where A,.= area of web, the overall depth times the web thickness
Detail limitations for shear studs are given in Fig. 8.29. C,1 = web shear strength coefficient
242 CHAPTER EIGHT
c
Section B
U2
(a) Bending moment diagram (the whole length af the beam Is under positive bending)
PNA
V', kips
U2
Interface between
concrete slab and
steel beam- t:::=====::=!E=:!5!:!!!!!:=:=:=:::====
V', kips
PNA
U2
Top~
N.Odstw1 I"--·-~--~---
Top flange
0 0
I
© I
- - -25•-_,_--25'- >
_A~-1~tA Secondary
Deck Orientation
(Section A·A)
Beam
.f OlU;t ~~ U J; U :i
0LI. ., \
•I 1- - - :r
Moment Connection
J L=25' J
For webs of hot-rolled I-shapes, c.i and +,vary depending on the The stiffness ofW8 x 40 Is not sufficient. Select a deeper shape.
width-to-thidcnen ratio of the web.
=sw,r:o?~ =...!:....
.v = = 11
1.0 and C.,. 1.0 when - <224JBIP1
t.,
(Bq. G2-2, .AISC 360)
A
...._ 3841!1 lid 360
I _ 1800wz.L' 1800x(O.S/12)x(2Sx12>3 182 in.4
11 384 x 29,000
-=36.9<2.24JBIF1 =2.24,J29.000/S0=53.9=>+.,=l.O; C..1 =1.0 ......... - 384B
t.,
Thy Wl2 x 30 (Z.. =43.1 in.~; I..,= 238 in.'; bl2t,=7.41; h/t,.=41.8)
.A,, = d x t., = 8.25 x 0.36 = 2~
2
M =w,L2 1.856x25
2
145
ki -ft
v. =0.6F,A,.C.1 =0.6XSOx2.97xl.0=89.lldpa r 8 8 !P
+tM,=+.i1,Z.. =0.9xso1a1x4.1.11a.• n.zraJtt.
• • V." =1.0x89.I =89.lldpo > V.r = w,.L = l.87x2S =23.4ldpl
2 2 =161.6 kip-ft> Mr= 145 kip-ft
WIO x 17 is adequate for attength requirements. ••V,. =+,(0.6F,.A,,C.1 ) =I.Ox (0.6xSO x 3.19xl.O)
Check the Verticcl Lift Lolill Ddledion =95.91dpo >V, =.!.!:. l.856X25 23.21dpo
Wz. =0.50 kip/ft 2 2
~ =SWLL4 sx(O.S/12""'*)x(2SX121a./t1)4
~ =Sw.1.L' =5X(O.S/12iDJll)x (2Sx12ia.ll)' 384EI 384 x .29,000 x 238
384El 384x29,000x146 L
= 0.64tn. <411m1t =-=0.831a.
=1.CM.ID.>~ =
L 25 x 12rn.Kt =o.af"- 360
360 360 Tbu.s, Wl2 x 30 u adequate.
244 CHAPTER EIGHT
Lateral p p
AE,.~".
Flgu.. 8.J1 A colll:llmoaa beam made of W27 x l OZ (A99Z).
i· !Oft r,.~10.t
UAllPLBll Section E is not laterally braced due to the fact that the flange in
As seen in Fig. 8.31, a W27x102, F =SO bi, beam is loaded with the compreaion at section E is its bottom flange. but the only bracing point
1 is at the top 6ange. As ah.own in Table 8.4, segment DF has the largest
service load, P as shown. Both top and bottom flanges at A, F, and H
have lateral bracing. However, only the top flange at B, D, E, and G has L. and segment BD has the smallest C,.. Thua, Hgments BD and DP are
lateral bracing. The location• (top or bottom flanp) of bracing are the critical 1egmenb.
ah.own in the ~ by a solid dot. Find the maximum 9erVil;e load P • Fla.ural capacity of Segment DF (the segment with the largest i.,
(consUta of 60 percent dead. load and 40 pen:ent live load) that can be Fig. 8.33)
applied to the beam based on LRFD. Neglect the beam weight
Stradunl Analym Under Sentce Loadl The bending moment Tlbl.aA IJ'I Umlt St.• fw bdl Segment
diagram of the continuous beam is drawn on oompression side. as given
In Fig. 8.32.
Segmeot c. L~ (ft) ~ Lim.itmte
Determiae the Flaan1 Stmtgtb of W21 x 102 Com1da1ng LTB AB 1.67 10 lOP/3 Ine1ut!c LTB mJght be po&llble CL,< 4< I.,)
ead Loc:al Buddlnj IJmlt States BD <1.67 10 5P lru!lutic LTB might be poMible CL,< 4 < LJ
(I) Checlc. the limit Rak oflocal buckling
A. < A,. compact section. The limit state of local budding does DF" <1.67 20 5P Inelastic LTB mJght be po&llble (Z.,< 4< I.,)
not apply. FG 1.67 10 SP Inelutic LTB might be polllible (L,< 4< LJ
(2) Checlc. the limit state ofLTB
GH 1.67 10 5P Ine1ut!c LTB mlgbt be polllible C!:£< 4< I.,)
W27X 102: L, = 7.59ft, 4 = 22.3 ft, Z,, = 305 In.J, S,, = 267 In.J,
F1 = SOkn. "lbc moll alllcal ...,.....i.
p p
A B
!c D :o; 0
F G
l ~X7i
11
A
IL 10'
l S' iL
11 s·x 10'
f
E
10'
t
10' iL 10'
11
H
/1
IL
Latmi.I
5P
bracing point
41=20'
Cb3< 1.67
Flgu,.. 8.32 BendiJi& moment dbgnm due 1D sezvlce loads.
S'
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 245
L1 =7.59ft<1' =20 ft~ L, =22.3 ft Inelastic: LTD would occur. Find P_ for LRJID The miallcst nominal flemral <:apacity iJ
obtained from 1egment DP. Therefore, the 1lexural design strength of the
157.3idpa~p,..p..,. =157.3kipl
C. = 12.SxSP =l.39
.Dl' 2.SXSP+3X(SP/3)+4XSP+3X2.SP BXA.XPLB l:a
A 60-foot span simply supported plate girder made of A36 sted mown
M =l.39x[1210-(1210 o.7 x 50x:267)( 20- 7·59 )] in Fig. 8.35 iJ subject to a uniformly distributed of w. and «>nGCD.trated
" 1P 22.3-7.sSJ load of P~. Unifonnly distributed dead and live loads are estimated as
=118!1 ldp-:ft.<M1 =1270ldp-ft 1.25 ldp/ft. and 0.75 kip/ft., respectively. Concentrated dead and live
loada are 50 kips and 30 kips. Determine the adequacy of the girder
M,. =1189 kip-ft usingLRFD.
• Plemral capacity of Segment BD (the 1egment with the amallut. C~ Amlyze the Beam under the Factored Load& (LBFD)
FJg.8.M)
w,. =1.2wD+l.6w1 = l.2xl.25+1.6x0.75=2.70 kip/ft
L1 =1.59:ft.<1' =10 ft SL,= 22.3 ftine1asticLTBwould occur. (Gir&rwmght.is included,)
M..t=25P/6 M,.._=M•=5P
( ~ )_ =12Ji'f'F, when i~a.s {Bq. Fl3-3, AISC 360) R,, =O.&Ot![I+3(~)(:; rJ~BF::tl QI (Eq. Jlo-4. AISC 360}
(!.) =0.40B when ~» 1.5
t,._ F It
(Bq. P13-3, AISC 360)
When e < d/2 and ltfd ~ 0.2
.R,,=o.40t![l+3(~)(~rJ~.m::''Q1
1
where a u the clear d!mnce betweai. tram\'erse "1fl'eners. (Bq. JJ0-511, AISC 360)
Since dmgn of the stlft'cnen it not complete. the clear dl!tance
bet.ween the stiffeners is assumed. to be 15 A.
Whene<d/2 and4/d>0.2
_!= 15><12 2= .68>lS-+(!.) OAOB 0.40><29,000 3222
la
(!.)
67
tlll -
t,.._ P1 36
A B c D E
For the interior seaiom subject to the COllcentratecl for« of • Shur mength of the end panels (AB and DE)
P,. =108 kip! (e > d/2): Shear strength ofweb1 in end panels are computed without con-
aldering tenalon-field action u fullows:
~=qG~[1+{~)(:; rJ~BP(I QI h
When - ~UO,/k.BIF1 -+ C,1 =1.0
t.,
(Eq. G2-3, AISC 360)
1a uopw;
=0.75X0.80X(3/8)2[1+{!:)(!~rJ 29,000X36Xl5 Xl.O
3/8
When-> uoJk,BtP1 -+ c,.,
t,,
~
t,,
(Bq. G2-4, AISC 360)
=186.3.... > P,. =108)1pt Since transvme ttiffeners are used. the web plate buckling coef-
Bearing st:lffenen are not required for the hxterlor teciioiu. ficient. k,. is determined according to Bq. G2-5, AISC 360. Note
For the end aecii.ons subject to the support reaction of R .243= that the clear dl.rtmee between the st:lffenen, a, is conservuively
kips (e < d/2): taken u 15 ft.
alh =154 x12~ /67111. =2.687 < 3-+ k,, =s+
5
Vtl =1s11o=0.2l>0.2 .. 2
(a/n)
+in =+o.40f![1 f
+(4;-02)(:; ]JBP::tf QI =S+
61
5
(IS x 12/67)2
S.693
29
=o.1sxo.40x(31stx[1+( ';:s -o.2 )(~~;f]
.!!.._=
t., 3/8
=178.6>1.IO,/k..B/F. =UOx /S.693x
1 ~ 36
•000 =74.5
c., uop;P;
force. V, and the web would buckle along ita dia,onal in the diremon 104.6
of this compremve stress. Afta- the diagonal with a certain bandwidth hi 0.586
bucldee, the web does not ne«aaarily loae ita function completely since t,.. 178.6
the other diagonal portion (tendon field) of the web Is subJe<:ted to Thua, the nominal shear strength. V.,, is computed u,
temlon, and a post-buckling strength miaht be possible. With proper
rupport from the stiffen.en, the tension field. be.having lib a diagonal v,, = 0.6.F,A,,C,., = 0.6 x 36 x (67 x 3/8) x 0586 = 318ldpl
"trim" member connected to the sWTenen and flanges, might siglilii-
cantly Increase the shear strength. of the plate girder after web buckling ll>"V,, =0.9X 318=2861dpo > Vr = V,. = 2431dpo
due to tension field aaion. Therefore, Shear mength of webs w.rlea
bued on the contribution of tension field a.cti.on. Tension 6.eld act.ion
is pos.t:ible when the web plate h adequately supported on all itt four
slde.s by flanges and stiffuners. In the following cases, tendon deld
action is not permitted to be used:
(1) Tension field cannot be fully developed in an end panel due to
the fact that absence of one of the adjacent paneh reduces the horl2:onW
A 8 c
component of the diagonal. force produced by the tension field.
(2) The resistance provided by the tension field reducea as the
panel aspect ratio becomes smaller. Therefore. when the panel ~~
ratio, lil/h, is greater than three, it is not permitted to use tension field
action.
(3) Pllrthenuore, I-shaped glrden with. relatively small flange-to-
web area ratio or large heisJit-to-flange width ratio are allowed to u.e
limited tmsion field a.cti.on shear llrength.
Initially, Che transvene nifi'enen are epace<l eveDly every 15 ft, u
.,f--s··--..}--10'--7.,._~---1s·---71.,,_k
shown .In Fig. 8.37.
241 CHAPTER EIGHT
~]]
(1) Per Section G2-3a, transverse stifi'eners are not required where
(b2) Otherwise 4 v. = 0.6F1 A,. [c. 2+ [ l-
1.15 alh+ l+(a/h)2
hit., :52.46JEIF,.
(2) It is permitted to use stiffeners shorter than web height to
transmit a concentrated force. The distance from the near toe of the
(Eq. G2-8, AISC 360) weld that connects girder flange to the web, to the end of the welds by
5 5 which the stiffener is attached to the web should be between 4tw and 6tw
le., = 5 + (alh)2 = 5 + (10Xl2167)2 6559 (Section G2-3b ). For the practical purposes, it is usually necessary to
provide full-depth stiffeners on girder webs to attach torsional braclngs
.!!_=178.6>1.lOJlc.,EIF, =l.lO X 6.559 x 29,000 =80 between the girders.
t., 36 (3) Stiffeners should satisfy the limiting width-to-thickness ratio
requirement for flanges of I-shaped sections, (blt) 11 :;;.o.56JEIF,,. , as
per Table B4.la, AISC 360, since the stiffeners are treated as cOlumn
~= 2X(67X3/8} _l .l 2 < 2 .25 members (Section G2-3d).
Aft+ Ati 2X (15X1.5) (4) Stiffness of a transverse stiffener should be sufficient to develop
h h 67 web shear buckling and/or post-buckling resistance (Section G2-3e).
- = - = - = 4.47<6.0 (5) Strength of transverse stifi'eners should be sufficient in terms of
bfc bft 15
global stability and bearing limit states.
• Bearing stiffeners at points B, C, and D
=> v. -_ 0.6P1 A,. [ C,2 + J1-C,
1.15 l+(alhf
2 ]
11y2Pl. 4X %.
C,2 =
1.5llc.,E
(hit.,) 2 F1
when hltw > 1.37 J1c.,EIF1 (Eq. G2-ll, AISC 360)
(blt) 11 = -=10.7
4
3/8 Fy11
G;
<056 - =056x../29,000/36=15.9
.l,,,i =minimum moment of inertia of die transverse ltifF- The ltiffuner stiffness is adequate..
enen ffiJ.Uired for the development of the full shear Global mbility of the stiffeners is determined wing an effec.
post-buckling l'e$lstanc.e of the ltJfl'ened web panda, live length of 0.7Sh. Thu.t, the cro11-sectional properties of the
V,= Vrt column member are:
I.a.= minimum moment of inertia ofdie transverse 8tiff-
enen requiRd for the development of the web shear A1.., =2('1.it.,)+25t! = 2X(4X3/8)+25X(3/8)2 =652 in. 2 ;
buckling reslatance, V, = V'2 1,, =18.4 ln.4
Va =aYllilable shear m:engdi. caL:ulated with v. as ddined
in Sation G2.1 or G2.2, as appliQ!ble
v'2 =available shear 1trength, kip1 (N), calculated with
u;: V6.Si
/ii.i = 1.68 m.
r. =VA,.., =
.
V.=0.6P~C.i.
V,. =required Shear strength in the panel be.Ing <:OI1sldered Kl.=0.15.h-+ 0.7511 = 0.7SX67 =l9.9
b, =smaller of the dimension a and h ,,, 1.68
(bit).,= wid.th-to-thirlneas railo of the stiffener 2
p.,=larger of Pyw_IP10 and 1.0 P. = ,rB n x29,000 320.211111
p,, =mulmum shear ratio within the web panda on each ' (KL/r" 'f (29.9)2
side of the tnnsvme 811Hener
Moment of inertia of the mffimera. f., will include a strip of
F~ =(0.658">-11\ )F1 = (0.6S8361l20.2)X36=3U11111
the web having a width of25t., (Fig. 8.39). P., =P~l.lt =34.3X6.52=223.,..
1
., =030
I
I
I
I ..P,, = 0.9X223.9 = 201.Slfpt >Pu = 1081dpt
Determine Bearing SVength according to Section J7, AISC 360:
:'
II T ...If- tst =3.
u :'
II
R,, =I.IF,A,. (P.q. /7-1, AISC 360)
I I where A,. Is Che projected area in bearing.
\ bst= 4• \
R,, = 1.8X36X(2X(4-l/2)x3/8)=170.lldpl •=0.75
+R,, =0.75X170.1 =127.6ldpt >P,. =108ldpe
UM!2Pl.4x'6.
• Bearing stiffeners at point A and B
Thy 2Pl. 6 x %.
I I
I I
(bit)" =_!_=12<056x429,000/36=15.9
t- =si"-+ /
I 0.5 (P.q. G2-I2, AISC 360)
I
1.2 _ -![c 25
alh
1
25
• 167>2 2] x61xc31sr =-s.843)
· \2-2]•t.. =[c1sx12
![( 25
h.)2 -2]11,t! =[(
5
2. )2 2Jx60x(3/8)3 =3.535)
O.Sby! =D.SX67X(3/8)3 =1.767
l.n = al SX12/67
O.Shy! =0.SX60X(318)'=1.582
=1.767
7 =3.535
Vd = 0.6X36X(67X318)x[0.217+ l-0.2l ]= 246.71dpt
1.15 x ~1 + (2.687)1 V,1 =0.6P1 A,,.Cv1 =0.6X36X(67x3/8)X0.586=318ldpl
Va =0.6P,A.C.,2 =0.6x36x(67x3/8)x0.217=117.8ldpt
s 5
.I:., = 5 + (alh"/ =S+ (Sx12/67f =ll.235
P.. =( v,-vd )O?oVei-~2
hit,. =178.6>1.37X ll.23Sx 29,000 =130.3
36
=( 94.5-117.8 )<O-+ =O c. 1.51)(11.235 x 29,000 0.428
178.61 X36
2
246.7-117.8 p,.
I,, =18.4>Ia2 +(I41 -I42 )p., =1.767+(I.tt1 -I.tt1)XO=l.767 V,2 =0.6P1 A,,.C.1 =0.6X36X(67X3/8)X0.428=232.3lfpt
250 CHAPTER EIGHT
.!!_=178.6>l.lO~k.,EIFy=1.lOX
r,1 =~
79 6.559X29,000 = 80
= 3.19 in. t., 36
7.76
KL=0.75 h-7 0.75h = 0.75X67 =l 5 .75 c = uoptii; uoxJ6.559x29,000136 =0.44S
'.i 3.19 •• hit,. 178.6
ZE 2
F =-'It--= 1C X29,000 _ 1154bl Vc1 =0.6F1 A,.C,1 =0.6X36X(67X318)X0.448 =243klp'
2 2
• ( KLlr, 1) (15.75)
hit,. = 178.6>1.37~k,.EIF =1.37 x 1
6 559
Fa = (0.658
361115
' ) X36 = 35.5kol
· ~: 9,000 = 99.6
1.51X6.559X29,000
cjl.P. =0.9x7.76x35.5=248.2kipo > R =243kip' C2 025
• 178.62 x 36 .
Determine Bearing Strength accord.Jng to Section J7, AISC 360: Yc 2 =0.6F1 A,.C,2 =0.6x36x(67x3/8)x0.25=135.7kip'
cjlR. = 0.75 Xl.8X36X [2X (6-1/2)X 1/2] = 267.3.k!po > R = 243klp•
=( 229.5-135.7) = 0.874
Use 2Pl. 6 x ~. p,. 243-135.7
• Intermediate stiffeners 1,1 =34.9> ls12 +(Is11 -Is12 )p,. =1.767+(22.03-l.767)X0.874= 19.48
Try 2PI. 5 x %.
The length of the stiffener: The stiffener stiffness is adequate.
5 Therefore, 2Pl 64% x 5 x % intermediate stiffeners are adequate.
In =h-5t,.-a,. =67-5x(318)-1/2=64- in. Detennlne the Plemral Strength according to Section PS. AISC 360
8
• Compression flange yielding (Section FS-1, AISC 360)
Strength requirement for the intermediate stiffeners is as follows:
M. =RpgF1 S.., (Eq. FS-1, AISC 360)
An ~P, = ~[o.15DA,.(1-c.)l-1st! J
V~J ~ 1.0
F11 cjl.V. R = 1- a,. (!i-5.7 (Eq. FS-6, AISC 360)
'Pf 1200+300a,. t,.. F1
where P, is the force on the intermediate stiffeners.
Ast= 2lV,1 =2X(5X3/8)=3.75 in. 2 a,.= h.t.,. ~10 (Eq. F4-12, AISC 360)
bfatfa
cl>.v. = 277kipl where R,,1 = the bending strength reduction factor
v, = 229.5kipo s~ = elastic section modulus referred to compression flange
h, = twice the distance from the centroid to the inside
D=l.O faces of the compression flange when welds are
c. = c, 2 = 025 used, for built-up sections (h, = h)
bfo = width of compression flange
=>P, =
36
36
x [o.15 x l .Ox(67x318)x(l-0.25)x
2295
277
-18x (3/8)
2
J tfo = thickness of compression flange
l.5)x( 10 ~i.5 rJ
=-0.189 2 15 53
i" =I +Ad =2 x [ : ;· + (15 x
Since P, is negative, the intermediate stiffeners should be
designed based on local buckling prevention and stiffness
requirements. + 0.375 x 673 62,195 in.4
Member slenderness requirement: 12
(h· V~J
Stiffness requirement:
Rp, =1 a,. -5.7
2 1200 + 300a,. t,.. F1
2
I st = X [ts1b!
12 + t,,bst (b
11 +t,.J
2 J
=l l.l1
7
1200+300x l.117
x (l78-5.7X ~2936
'000J=0.988<1.0
Mn = RpgF S.., = 0.988 x 36 x 1777/12!n./ft = 5268kip-ft
1
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 251
-.I -1 J
II
WhenL, <4-+F., =( ~
C.~B
J SP1
(Eq. PS-3, AISC 360)
B
Brae~ poht
L1 =1.lr,~
MA=3677t..ft
(&J. P4-7. AJSC 360}
M•=39741r.-ft 125X4455
Mc=4233t-ft C..BC 2.5X4455+3X3677+4X3974+3x4233
L, =~~O.:P, (Eq. P4-7, AISC 360}
M-=445St.11
=1.10
r,=------
" (Bq. P4-11, AJSC 360}
12(1+~0,,) P"=C.[P1 -(0.3P1 { ~=~; )]
where rt b the effective ndJus of gyration for the limit state of =Uox[36-(0.3x36)( IS-l0.3 )]=37.4'"" >P. =361m1
LTB. 35.3-10.3 1
~ ~
9,000
L1 =1.lr, =l.IX3.976X --=124m.
36 'J.M =0.38Jf,=0.38J2
9
:° =9.15>'J.1 =b1 t2t1 =15/(2X1.5)=5
H H
r4 li! in.
b in.
,- .-·
·-++:,,,-;/-::::.....-....
'
H -···-···- ------.. H
i io
, -~
"'II
' '
'
''
'' BeamA -
(.\I
0
co
H :' H H
42'
Rgure 8.41 A typical floar plan and cmM-HdiQD of Bum A.
ZSZ CHAPTER EIGHT
• 3 In.
Y1 e
Centroidal axis
3 in <:0mpodtl: ded: (Fig. 8.42). Assume that teIVicelivc load is 100 lb/ft', The nominal bending strength of a fully composite beam (with
and conltruction live load is 20 lb/ft'. Select an appropriate beam me sufficient number of mear studa):
for beam A. and detamine the required number of ahear etuda per
AISC Manual. The ribc of the metal ded:are perpencllcularto the beam. M 0 = Txe = P,A,xe= 50x13.5x15.76/12= 887 kip-ft.
a. Loa.di and Moments: '1.M. = 0.9 x 887
Dmt!Load:
Slab =
0.075 klp/ft1 = 798 kip-ft> 719 kip-ft OK.
Beam weight = 0.008 ldp/ft1
Ml.tceDaneow = 0.0 I Oldp/ftl
Alternatively, from Table 3-19 In AISC Manual, Wl8 x 46, Y1 =
0.0, Y1 = Y""" - a/2 = 7.S - 1.5812 = 6.71 in.:
LMLollll:
=
Non-reducecl 0.10 kip/ft' ••Mn 6 71 6
= 788 + · - .5 (814-788) = 799 kip-ft from the manual
Since each beam is spaced at 12 ft: 0.5
Tot.I dead load= 0.093x12 = 1.12 lcip/ft with malgh1 line Interpolation.
Total live load = 0.10 x 12 = 1.2 lcip/ft From the AISC Manual. Table 3-20, W18 x 46, Y1 = 0.0, Y2 =
Comtruction dead load (Ulllhored) 6.71 In.:
=(0.075 + 0.008) x 12 = 1.00 kip/ft
Construction lift load (undiored) 6 71 6 5
I =2340+ · - ' (2450-2340)= 2386in.4 OK.
=0.020 x 12 =0.24 kip/ft. .u 0.5
The requiRd lltrellgth: 4 3
A= sw,,L' = 5 x l.lx 42 Xl 2 =l.251n.<...!:_= "2Xl2
"'• = 1.2 )( 1.12 + 1.6 )( 12 384Blu 384x29,000x2386 360 360
= 3.26 kip/ft =l.41n. OK.
M,. = .!. x 3.26 )( "22 = 719 kip-ft d. Check flexural lltreDgth and deflection under comtructioll load:
8
W18 x 46, I,.= 712 ln.4
v.• =!2 x 3.26 x "2 =69 kip The requiRd atrength:
wu= l.2X 1.00+ l.6x0.24
b. Select W aectlon: = I .S9 kip/ft
Y..,.. = t..., = 7.S in. (the distance from top of slab to top of steel 1
flange, Fig. 8.42) M,. = -X l.59X421 = 351 kip-ft
8
=
Alsume a = 1.0 in. < t, 4 in., PNA la located within the con-
c.rete, Y1 = 0.0 •i.M..
= 340 kip-ft < M. Unuf.e
Y2 = Y- - a/2 = 7.S - 1.0/2=7.0 in. 1ry W18 x SS (Wl8 x SO doe.I not work for CODJtructi.on load,
Bnta- the AISC Manual Table 3-19 withM,. = 719 kip-ft and Y2 = W21 x 50 alao world. let'• bep Wl5 for .lb depth).
7.0 ill., Y1 = 0.0 (which meau all lteel aection 18 aubject to tenaion, W18x46CA,= 16.2 ln.2, d= 18.1 in., I,.= 8901n.•. t.= 0.39 in.)
u a fully campoate beam). it seems that •even! WlS. (46 lb and Check flaural nnlll!lh and deflection under service load:
50 lb) would work.
7ry WIB x 46 (A, = 13.5 in.l, t1 = 18.1 in, I.= 712 in. 4) P1A, - 1.89 ln.< t =-'~Jn.
Concrete f.' = 4.0 bl, Steel P1 = 50 bi, P. = 65 kal.
c. Ched: flaural ltrellgth and d.eflection under service load:
r
0.8Sf :b,. _ 0.15 )(sOx llS.2
4 )( 10.5 )( 12 <
Alternatively, from Table 3-19 in AISC Manual, W18 x 46, Y1 = possible to provide cjl~. of about 719 kip-ft with Y2 "' 6.6 in. This
0.0, Y2 =Yam - a/2 = 7.5 - 1.72/2 = 6.64 in. occurs when Y1 = 0.473 in. (in the top flange ofthe beam) andI.Q. =
454 kips, I.Q.fF,A,= 454/810 = 0.56 > 0.25 (OK.)
cjlbM• = 945 +- - - 975- 945) = 953 k.ip-ft from the manual
6.64-6.5(
0.5 454
with straight line interpolation. a' = I.Q,, - -1.06 in.
For a fully composite beam to develop these moments, the mui- 0.85f :botr 085 x 4 x 10.5 x 12
mum shear force between the concrete and steel beam is: Y2 = Y""' -a/2 =7.5-1.06/2= 6.97 in.
I,o" =0.85xf;xb.tr x a= 0.85 x4x10.5x12xl.89=810 kips 6.97-6.5
cjlbM• = 765 +---(782-765) = 781kip-ft>719 kip-ft OK.
0.5
(the same as listed in Table 3-19 for W18 x 55, Y1 = 0.0);
Also, l:Q. = A,Fc = 16.2 x 50 = 810 kips. Compute I.he Load Dededion: From the AISC Manual. Table 3-20,
Notice that in tfuscase, the construction strength controls the W18 x 55, Y1 = 0.473, Y2 = 6.97 in.
design (requires W18 x 55). and there is significant over-strength
for a fully composite beam under service load: 6 97 6 5
ILB =2300+ " - • (2390-2300)= 2385 in 4 OK.
0.5
~M. = 948 = 1.32 (32 percent over-strength) 4 4 3
L 42xl2
M~ 719 A= 5wLL = 5Xl.2x42 x12
l.2in.<-=--
384ETLB 384 X 29,000 x 2385 360 360
To meet the flexural strength requirement under service load,
we only need to have cjl~. = M. = 719 kip-ft. If the same steel =1.4in. OK
beam section is used, a reduced flexural strength due to a parti.al-
composite action with reduced number ofshear connectors might be Check Flexural Strength and Deflection under Construction Load:
an option. In other words, a partial composite beam with Wl8 x 55 Wl8 x 55, Ix= 890 in.4
might work well with a reduced flexural strength of 719 kip-ft as The required strength:
long as it satisfies the strength and deflection requirements under 1
service loads. M" = - x 1.59 x 422 = 351 kip-ft
Note that when we have fewer shear connectors than required 8
to develop full flexural strength, the shear connectors might reach cjlbMn = cjl•Mp = 420 kip-ft> M. OK.
their collective shear strength, l:Q.(< A,l1y). and there will be a slip 4 4 3
between concrete deck and steel beam. In such case, concrete will ... = 5wLL = 5x 0.24x 42 x12
il 0.65 in.< 2.5 in. OK
not reach its compressive strength J: before the shear connectors 384ETx 384 x 29,000 x 890
fail, and the equivalent PNA, at which stress= 0.0, but the concrete e. Design of shear studs fur the partially composite beam
slab has not reached its compressive strength yet, and has to move Use perpendicular deck with one % in. diameter weak stud per rib
into steel beam since total compression force in the concrete, C = in normal weight 4 ksi concrete.
I.Q. < A,FY' is controlled by the shear connectors (Fig. 8.28c). In AISC Manual, Table 3-21, with deck perpendicular to the
In a pirtially composite beam, characterized by the fact that beam, normal weight concrete:
I.Q. < A,F. we can use the same equilibrium as used in a fully
composite beam to determine the location (say, Yi) of the equiva- Q. = 17.2 kips.
lent PNA since the sum of forces along the beam length should be From AISC Manual, Table 3-21, W18 x 55, Y1 = 0.473, I.Q. =
equal to zero, that is, 454kips.
The number of shear studs fur the half span of the beam =
LF• =O, I,Q,,+A.xm,pF1 =(A,-A.xm,p)F1
W. = 454 = 26.4 (use 27)
0.85 fc'berr a' = L Q. Q,, 17.2
The total number of shear studs in the beam is 27 x 2 = 54
a' = I,Q,, Spacing along the beam length: with 6 in. flute metal deck, one
0.85/:bcff stud every flute (6 in. apart) in the middle 12 ft, and one stud every
two flutes ( 12 in. apart).
where Aoomp = the area of steel above the equivalent PNA that ia
subjected to compression, in.2 Check the Spacing Rcqujrcments:
g' = equivalent depth of the concrete from the top
Minimum spacing= 6dmd = 6 x % = 4.5 in.
assuming that the concrete has a uniform stress of Maximum spacing= 8t.w. = 8 x 4.5 = 34 in. OK.
0.85J.' f. Check shear strength:
After PNA is determined (say, Yi) ia known from the above The shear strength of fully or partially composite beams with shear
equation, we can find the flexural strength M. by summing all connectors is based on the properties of the steel section alone
(neglect the contribution from the concrete fur shear).
forces taking moment about any point in the section. It is obvious
that M. in a partially composite section is reduced in proportion to Wl8 x 55, d = 18. in., t,.= 0.39 in.
W.IP,A, ratio. This ratio is equal to one ( 1.0) in a fully composite
beam, and equal to zero (0.0) in a non-composite beam (with no v. = 0.6 pA= 0.6P,T,.D = 0.6 x 50 x 0.39 x 18.1 = 212 kips
shear connector at all). The smaller the ratio is, the lower the flex- cjl v. = 0.9 x 212 = 191 kips> v. = 69 kips OK.
ural strength. As a minimum ratio to keep any composite action,
AISC suggests that I.Q,.IP,A,~ 0.25. Otherwise, the beam should be Final Design: W18 x 55, F, = 50 ksi. Fifty-four % in. diameter
treated as non-composite bare steel beam. headed shear studs.
In AISC Table 3-19, a fully composite beam is given as Y1 = 0.0,
which indicates I.Q.fP,A, = 1.0 regardless where the real PNA is 8.1.5 Bellm-Column Members
in the concrete. For Y1 > 0, Table 3-19 might be used fur partially When the axial load and bending moment acting on the member are both
composite beam case, where 0.25 :!> I.Q.fP,A, < 1.0. significant, the member is treated as a beam-column. The rules set forth
For thia problem, if we make cjl~."' M.. = 719 kip-ft, we can in the previous chapters (Column Buckling, Laterally Supported Beams
go to the case in Table 3-19 in the specification where Y1 ia largest and Lateral Torsional Buckling of Beams) apply fur beam-columns.
254 CHAPTER EIGHT
AISC pl'O\lide. intcraaion equations fur die dclip of beam-column de6nmon of P-6 and P-A. and die moment amplification by the appro:s:i-
elemenbl (Stdion H, AISC 360). Interaction between aJial fo.rce, P, and mate 1econd-order analysis (effective length method.).
bending moment, M, IB the main clmacter of a beam-column m.e.mbei, Direct analysis method (DAM) of design req,uJre.io a structural
wb1cb. affix:ta boCh sides of design equation: capacity and demancl. For ellglneering softwue and is becoming a 8tandard mediod. fur mbllity
imtanc:e. bending moment aiplldty mluca aignl&ant}y as uial load analyset among structural engineer•. The e111eI1tial• of this method all!
increuea or 'rice VCl'IL Demand on a beam-column member ii also IUIXllilari2:ed below (see a!Jo Table 8.5):
afi'ected by the P-M interaction due to the fact that stability fur the whole a. There b no llmltat!on for the uae of thi8 mediocL
structure and for each ttructunl element ii diredly related to this interac- b. The uial loads actlng on the gravity-only columns should be
iwn. Therefore. a second-<llder mdysls taking into llCcount both P-6 md included in die mucturil mod.cl.
P-A. ii needed. Thae ff«lI!d-order efli:d3 can be considmd eidier by c. AD stiffn~e• (uial. ftaural. shear) of die structural elementJ
an apprmimate method. or by c1lrect analysit. Figure 8.44 lllumates the llhould be reduced 20 percent
::
j I I
..
I I
p
.,......'
I '
I '
I ,'
: \ Deformed
,( shape due to q
(a) P-8
I
I
I
I
...J
I
I
I
M M =FL (first-order moment)
M =FL + Pt\= 8i(FL) (second-order moment)
(b) P-4
Rguni 8M murtrat1o11. ofP~ and P·b. effectt.
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 255
d. Notionalload.s,N11 thatc:olllid.crimp~onuhouldbeadd.edtothe
only gravity-only load.combinations except in Che case where the n.t.io of
themuimum. second-order drifttomuimum first-order drift (~liii,J
aceeds 1.7 in which case notional loads should also be added to the
Valylng ~ 8tl:fl'nea!et for-cl-onier analyii.: combinations that include other lateral loads {earthquake uid wind).
er = o.tT.iir
N, =0.002Y, {8.13)
BA"=0.8BI
-t'f.=1.0 where Y, Is 1he gravity load applied at level i {kip8).
e. Stiffneas reduction parameter, 't'., is~ to adjust the flexural .uff-
P.
P1
>0.5 -t 'I:. =4(P.
P
1
)(1- PP.)
1
ness of all members (see 'Ilible 8.5)
P, = ~ uial cmnpmm:A-e lltttngth ELUIPLE14
P1 =P,A, Figure 8.45 shows the elevation of identical moment frames on lines
K=l.O A and C and a typical plan of a three-story building. The building is
A,,,Jt:.,,. ~ 1.7 -t national load.tin sn~tr~nlr load subject to dead (D), live (L), and wind {W) loads.
oomblnationt, otherwise In all load oomblnatlo11t • Gravity loads on each floor: Dead Load= 100 ps:t live Load= 50 psf.
that inclacle lateral loaclt • Gravity loads on roof Dead Load= SO pd; Live Load= 20 pd.
Nj=O.OOll'j • Wmd loads acting on story levels are computed as P1 =67.5 kips.
Fixed RA!dU«ci llliffneNet for aeamcl-onier anaiym.: P1 =60 kips, and P,= 30 kips for one frame either on line A or line C.
Br=0.8EI • Govemlng load combination: 1.2 D + 1.0 W + 1.0 L + 0.5 L,
E.A•=o.SEI Using appro:.r.lma~ 8e(X).!ld-order analysis {effective length method),
determine the adequacy of the pn:liminary member 1dectd for the
-i.=1.0
second-story exterior column (Column Al).
K=l.O
Using the tributary areas, gravity and wind load dhtrl.button on the
A2,,;/A,. ~ 1.7 -t national loada in gnvity-only load &ame is determined u given in Fig. 8.46. The &ame i• andp.ed under
wmblnatlOill, otherw:t.e In all load wmbib.ltloJ»
that IDdude 1amal 1oadt
the given loads and the mat-order moment and uia1 lon:e diagramJ
due to Che factored gravity {1.2 D + L + 0.5 L,) and lateral (W) loads are
N.=0.00311 plotted in Figs. 8.47 to 8.50.
@ ® ©
~ r '
,___25•
-:t -------- H
' 25°- ' -'
:t 'W18x40
'If'
1 W18x4o ~ I
i i _j'
i
@j'J- H -H 8
i
i
W21x57 ~
~
i
W21x57 sI
i 12·
i _!
· I--__ H I ~ I
8 W21x93 W21x93 8
i ~ i
(J-I
15'
____ I
...i
H
...i
H
i ..
H
J
.i.:..--30•- - i - - -so•----+
1.Braced Frame
Figura &A5 A typical plan for floon lll1d l'OQf (left) lll1d eknl:iOll. on line A (right) •
... •• ••
fiture 8M WlDd (left). dacl (middle). and live (rfp.t) load dir!rlbutlOD OD the frame.
56.57 -56.57
-52.26
~ A~ ~~ 52.26 A 52.26
,.,,--- .... ,
~ llllY l~D7
76.74 'LI 11
- t.........-76.74
- __ ,,}
-71.76
~ L11H 71.76
-20.81 20.81
Figure 8.47 Moment diagram due to 1.2 D + 1.0 L (no translation, M.J.
~ ~
-73.05 ~c::i:=~,,,,,.------==;;;i ~ -134.51 ~c:::E==------===;;:J ~ -73.05
C\I
38.38 E\i ..........,.--, ; 92.62 S!
-181.88 ~[LLLL=I="" ~ -325.22 ~~
~ ~
164.3 in .-er:rr111 ~332.42 ~ ~~ 164.3
""'52.86 -110.48
~
4.68
~
-4.68
~ ~
n
18.98
,,[ L
[-rr)
' .... - ..,.,,
D
45.13 -45.13
257
25' CHAPTER EIGHT
Bi C...
l+aP,IP.i
~ 1.0
1240/12 +722/12
1170/30
4.2
K,. sl.9
=[(1.2x100Jllf +1.oxsot"' )+(1.2xsot"' +I.ox201"' )]
x(soft~~)
=375. .
lOOOMlp
2070/30
=2.218• -1.0~ = l.12!n.
C,,. = 0.6-0.4(M1/M2 )=0.6-0.4x (71.76/76.64)=0.225 H=.l\+.fi+&
P, =P,. +P,, =52.36+18.98=71.34.,_,. = 61.5+ 60+ 30=157.5.lr:lpt
R,.,=0.85
P = i"Hr nzx(29,000xl240)= ..,_
1 4741 a=l.O(LRFD)
'1 (41) (l.9Xl2Xl2)2 '
Amplification factor for P-4 effectJI, .Bz, ill computed. u folloW5 for
a= 1.0 (LRPD) the second story:
Bi= 0.225 0.22<1.0 1
l+l.OX
7134 Bi I- l.Ox375.lr:lpt
1.02
4741
157.Sldp' X(128 X121D./A)
0.8SX la.
Thwr, B1 =1.0. 1.12
ace
2Jl8
2.$4
2.42
2.2
1.88
1.78
1.64
1.32
1.1
OJlll
o.ee
0.44
Q..22
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS 259
Using the amplification factors and the first-order analysis results, the Step III: Apply Notional Loads The notional load, N,, is taken as
required strengths are determined as follows: 0.002 times the total gravity load at each story level
Kx=l.90; K1 =l.0 'ND, Notional Dead Load; NL, Notional Llvt Load; NLr, Notional Roofl.lvt Load.
(L,)
..'Notional loadl arc only Included In gravity load comblnationa.
r x
= l.90X(l2Xl2)
6.22
«>(L') r
=l.OX(l2Xl2)
3.73
38 .6
1 Step IV: Verify ~A1.. AISC 360 requires the ratio ofsecond-order
Thus, inelastic flexural buckling occurs about x-x axis. drifts to first-order drifts to be examined. If the ratio of second-order
drifts to first-order drifts is less than 1.7 for all combinations, it is not
F.,.= (0.658501147.a)X50 =43.4b! required to include the notional loads in the combinations with other
P., =cjl,FaAg =0.9X43.4X32=12501dpo lateral loads (AISC 360, Section C2.2b). Note that each column in the
frame is divided into 4-ft long element to take P-o effects into account.
• Flexural strength, M, As given in Table 8.7, second-to-first-order drift ratios are less than 1.7
W14 x 109: L1 = 13.2 ft, Zx = 192 in.J; Compact for flexure with for all combinations. Therefore, the notional loads are not included in
F1 =50ksi combinations 4 through 6.
L, =13.2ft > 4 =12ft -+The limit state: ofLTB does not apply.
Tllble 8.7 The Rnlo of s-ncl-Order Drifts to Flnt-Orcler Drifts CA.i,.J.A1 .J
M, =cjlbMp =cjlbF1 Z,, = 0.9x50x192/12ill.lft =720kip-ft
First-order drift Second-order
• Check axial force-bending moment interaction according to Combination Story (in.) drift (in.) A..JA,n ratio
Eqs. HI-la and Hl-lb, AISC 360 0.009 0.009 1.03
2 0.010 0.010 1.03
M, =262.3k-ft) P. 71.7 3 0.008 0.008 1.02
kip• ...L=--=0.06<0.2-+ UseEq.Hl-lb 2 1 0.010 0.010 1.03
P, = 71.7 P,. 1250 2 0.011 0.011 1.03
k-fl ~ 3 0.007 0.008 1.03
M, =720 ~+ M, =--2.!2._+ 262.3 =0.4 0<l.O
P,. = 1250liF• 2P, M, 2x1250 120 3 0.009 0.009 1.03
2 0.010 O.Oll 1.03
3 0.008 0.008 1.03
Preliminary design is safe but not economical
1 0.590 0.604 1.02
EXAMPLB1S 2 0.644 0.660 1.03
3 0.479 0.491 1.02
Determine the required strength of the second-story exterior column
(Column Al) in the building shown in Fig. 8.45 using DAM.
s 1.179 1.211 1.03
2 1.288 1.323 1.03
Step I: Create a Model with the Leaning Columns A leaning col- 3 0.959 0.981 1.02
umn consisting of rigid truss elements is incorporated in the numerical 1
6 1.179 1.199 1.02
model. The column is loaded with the vertical gravity loads supported 2 1.288 1.310 l.02
by the columns that are not part of the moment frame. 3 0.959 0.974 l.02
JI!':~, =(12.Sftx6oft)xlOOpeC /10001blldp =75ldpo
C~, = (12.5ft x 6oft) x soP.r 11ooolb/ldp = 37.sldp• Step V: Check if 't• = 1.0 To determine the actual "• values, enve-
Step II: Reduce All Stiffnesses That Contribute to the Stability To lope of the axial force diagrams is plotted in Fig. 8.52.
account for the reduction in stiffness, flexural and axial stiffnesses are Example i-. Cokulation for the Second-Story Exterior Column
reduced by 20 percent (assuming Tb = 1.0). AISC requires an additional (W14 X109: ; \ = 32 in,Z):
reduction in the flexural stiffness by using a factor, Tb• when the axial
force in a member is greater than 50 percent of its axial load-carrying P.r,mu = 70.9klpo ~n =-
I ....-,,mu o_70_.9 =0.04<0.50
1·_x
capacity. P1 =A1 F1 =32X50=1600kipl P1 1600
Thus, tb = 1.0
The 'tb values for the exterior and interior columns are summarized
in Table 8.8.
HO CHAPTER EIGHT
g
-1~.9
~ -3~
9
-21.ka
-2i.21 _i -2Jlsa
J.51
~.75 8
_.
~1 -2~
8-dj12
.Q.67 9 ma 9~1
.Q.16 m39 ~
.liJ.es m99 -~
~.0'2 ~44 8-~
8
I
-.. , . 1 9 ~ 1~s
- 11 ~ -GW
~ -6i71
-~ ~ -tl33
~ ~ -~
cb cb et
Flg11re8.SZ Envelope ofthe uial fim:e diajiraml obtained &om aeamd~nla analylil.
The required uial force and flexural strengths are obtained from the
lnt.etlor c.olwmi.
second-order analysle as follows:
P/P~ M, = 270.3i..a)
Story Sedio11. P,(klps) M:as 'f> Sec:tlon P,(klps) (kips
"'~ P, =70.9
1i1pt
P. 70 9
;:.c_=-·
P. 1290
=0.06<0.2-+U1eEq.Hl-lb
3 Wl4X68 22.2 0.02 1.0 Wl4X82 39.1 0,03 1.0
lr-t ...
2 Wl4X109 70.9 0.04 1.0 W14Xl32 111.6 0.06 1.0 M,=no ~+M'=~+270.3=0.40<l.O
1 Wl4X109 133.5 0.08 1.0 W14Xl32 195.6 0.10 1.0 P,=1291f!P' 2P, M, 2><1290 720
4 4
K0.875 ) +6x ("°·875
I.,.1 =( 8x~ - - )
x7.W=213.6.ln.'
8#71>618 4
20 201
1•., =( ;2 )-49.1-213.6
= 13,070.6 ln.4
BI.ir.1 =29.000 x 49.1+29.000 x 213.6 + 0.374 x 3904 x 13,070.6
=26,702,631 kip-in.1
=
P..:c= 'lf(BT..ir.:JIL~= rc2{29,371.248)/(l.O x 18x12)1 6213.2 .kips
~buckling about x-axes controb
#3 bars spaced
at 12 In. P.,1 ='li'f.BI<dl)IL!,=11:2(26,702,631)/(1.0 x 9 x 12)2 = 22,594.7 kips
cerrter11ne to
cerrter11ne P,.. = 2479.4 =0.40~ 2 .2S
P, 6213.2
~---..-;;;_
h,, =20•
P,. =P,..[0.658-t)=2479.4(0.658=)=2097.2kipt
•.P. = 0.75 x 2097.2 = 1572.9 kips
Rgurea.5.1 Bnmple 16. F1emra1 Strength: Plastic section modulus of reinforcement about
x-am:
For lateral ties #3 spaced at 12 in. (OK.):
1
Z,=(A.,-A,,,>(~ -c)
K0.875
p.,=A.,IA1 = ( Bx- - )
/(20x20)=0.012~0.004 OK.
4 = ( 8 x no!752 -2 x no.!751 )( ~ - 2.31)
..\ =20x20-A,-.A,.
=27.74m.3
=400-11.1-(ax m>.!752 )
A,,,= 2x is0.:1sz = 1.203 in.z
=400-11.7-4.81
=area of ranfon:mg ban at centailne of compode section
=383.49 iD.2
P.., =P1 A, +P,...A..+0.85/,;.\ Plastic section modulus of concrete:
=1932.5 in.)
c. =0.25+3( 112ox20
•7 +4.8l)=0.374~0.7 1
MD =Z~1 +z,P,.,.+ z.co.ssf.')
2
Effective Stiffness Uoiat x-A:a:a
= 39.8 x so+ 21.14xss+!x1932.S x co.as x s)
BI4'< =BJ~+ BJ..,.+ C1BJ,,,. 2
I,.,.= 146 ln.4 =7622.3~in.
=635.2 kip-ft
1,,.,,. =(s x 30 '!:
54
)+6x( m>.~s' )x7.692 =213.6 in. 4
= 7622.3-50 x 38.3-0.85 x 5(
27
:.2) = 0.846 x 2479.4
= 2105 kips
= 5129.9 kip-in.
Plf=APB
= 427.5 ldp-ft
= 0.846 x 0
cjl•M• =0.90X 427.5= 384.8 kip-ft
=O
~= 600
=0.38>0.2
cjl,P. 1572.9 Pe=APc
= 0.846 x 1629.8
Use AISC Specification Equation Hl-la:
= 1378.8 kips
Pu=APn
=0.846X815
= 689.5 kips
c. Design interaction curve (cjl, = 0.75; ell.= 0.90)
A new section is needed that satisfies the interaction equation.
PA.= 0.75 X 2105
Alternatively, a less conservative interaction model using plastic stress
distribution can be used. = 1578.8 kips
a. Interaction curve for nominal strength without length effects: Pr=0.75XO
Point A (MA, PA) (pure axial compression):
=0
PA = P1 A, + P,,,A..,. + 0.85J;A, pC' = 0.75 x 1378.8
= 1034.1 kips
1t0.875 +0.85X5 X383.49
=50Xll.7+55 X 8X--4-
(
2
J PD"= 0.75 x 689.5
= 517.1 kips
= 2479.4 kips
MA.=0.90X0
MA=O =O
Point D (MD> Pd): Mr= 0.90 x 427.5
= 384.8 kip-ft
Pn = 0.85J:.\ MC'= 0.90 x 427.5
2 = 384.8 kip-ft
0.85 x 5 x 383.49
MD"= 0.90 x 635.2
2
= 571.7 kips
=815kips
It can be seen from Fig. 8.54 that the axial and flexural demands
Mn= 635.2 kip-ft {previously calculated)
(P,,. M.) fall within the interaction surface. Therefore, the member
Point B (MB> P8 ) (pure flexure): is adequate.
Simplified interaction curve as defined by AISC Specification
PB=O Commentary Equations C-15- la and lb {Fig. 8.55) can also be used
MB= 427.5 kip-ft {previously calculated) as follows:
3000
2500 ...............
·---...........__
i~ 2000 ·---
~
~
'.
------------
. ~--~
Cl) 1500 ····· ·········- .. ~---~
j
(jl
!a.
aE 1000 ··-
... ~
·· .. D
/ ... >o·
500
0 -1---~~-+~~~-+-~~~1--~~-4-~:..__~+-~~-+~~~~
1600
1200
i;g
.c
w
e
0 800
J Mu, Pu
ia. •
8
400
o +-~~+-~~+-~~1--~--1--~--1--~--1~~--1~--'..._~~---f
,..bi• 8.9
~ •nd R, V.lues for the Most Ba5ic Load Combinations:
Commonly sed Steel GnidH The basic load combinations for strength design to be used for seismic
Steel grade design of moment and braced frames are as follows:
R, R,
1. l.4D
ASTM A36/A36M 1.5 1.2
2. l.2D + l.6L + 0.5L,
ASTM A572 Gr. 50 1.1 1.1
ASTM A500iA500M Gr. B 1.4 1.3
3. l.2D + l.6L, + l.OL
ASTM A500iASOOM Gr. C 1.3 1.2 4. (1.2 + 0.2Sns)D + pQx + 0.5L
ASTM A572/A572M Gr. 42 1.3 1.0 5. (0.9 - 0.2Sns)D + pQB
where D is dead load; L is live load; L, is roof live load; Sm is design
spectral response acceleration parameter at short periods; p is redun-
Local Buckling (Limiting Width/Thickness Ratio) Requirement: dancy factor; QB is effects of horizontal forces resulting from seismic
AISC 341 also specifies member requirements in SFRS elements (beams, base shear.
colwnns, braces, links in frames, and braced frames) to prevent local Seismic loads replace the horizontal seismic loads, pQ» in load
buckling until sufficient ductility is achieved. The provision classi- combinations (4) and (5) with Ed or E,.n ( = ~Qx) in special cases such as
fies the members as highly ductile, ).,.,. or moderately ductile, A.,,.,. connection design or element design required by AISC 341, where Ed is
Table 8.10 shows the limiting width/thickness criteria fur the most the capacity-limited horizontal seismic load effect; E,.n is the effect ofhor-
commonly used members in moment and braced frames. The members izontal seismic forces that includes overstrength; and ~ is overstrength
required to satisfy these limits in SFRS are also given in the table. factor (Fig. 8.57 and Table 8.11). Ed is equal to the maximum force that
table 8.1O Limiting Wldth/lhlcknea R.tlos for Members In Moment •nd Br.ced Fr•mu
Llmiting width/thickneH ratios and members in SFRS 8}'8tem1 required to satisfy these limit values
Width/
Description thickn- A.1o1 Member in SFRS 1.,.., Member in
of element ratio ffighly ductile members systems Moderately ductile memben SFRS systems Example
J[4•
FlangesofW Beam.s and column.1 Beams and b
shapes E inSMF oolumt1.1in
(unstljfened 1 1 IMF
element)
I~h
WebsofW Braces in SCBF Braca in OCBP
1.57~ R,F, ~ R BF
hftw
ahape1used E 1.57 andEBF
as a brace 1 1
0.65~ R,P,
~+
1.18~R EF
Redangular HSS bit Beam.s and column.1 Beams and
uxdua E In SMF, SCBF, columns in
beam or andEBP 11 IMP
.."
:i
E
column
~ WebsofW For c.~ 0.114 Beanu and column.1 For c.~ 0.114 Beams and
B·
hftw
11 ahapesused In SMF, SCBF. columns
i as a beam
or column
2.57 ~R EF (1-1.04 C
1 1
4 )
andEBF 3.96~R EF (1-3.04 c.)
1 1
inIMF
0.88~ R,F
B (2.68-C.)~l.57~ E
RF
1.29~R EF (2.12-C.)H57~
RF
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C=_!ii._
" 0,P1
JY=R1 R,A1
-EtT
0.053_!_ 0.062_!_
used asa R1 F1 R1 F1
brace
!'.BI', eccentrically bzaccd f'nm•o; !MF, intum•diate mom•nl fnmoo; OCBP, ordinary amomtrically bzacod f'nmoo; OMP, ordinary momODt f'nmoo; SCBP, opocial amCClltrically bra=i fuunoo;
SMP, mpecial moment frame..
HS CHAPTER EIGHT
-------- :::;..-<11>-----.....
.....
~
Sdl.tml.c bo..U! lluar (V) =pQE
1he formation of plastic hinge. (Figs. 8.58 and 8.59). AISC 341 requim
Scl&mk force rellUting 'f'1m!.t (SFRS) ~
Chat MP1 rustain luge inelastic deformalions without failure of beam-to-
column connectiont. Thete large inelutic defurmat!ont are .mamtalned.
Special, lmamedim and Ordinary Moment Frama 3 Chrough beam 1lexural yielding.
Special and Ordinary COll.O!!l1tri.ca Braud Framea l
STOllT D.IUl'T (LAT.lllt.AL STIPPNESS)
E=ntriQll Braced~ l
Rl!Q.UllUIMllNT
Baclcllllg-mtra!ned Braced Framet l.S
Lateral stlfi'nen of MFs are the smdlut among aD. steel SFRSs. That Is
why the design of a typical MF i• governed by the story drift req,uire-
QUl develop in the element ob1a!ned. dirougb plutic ana1ysl!. Thu.. the ment u speciDed. by ASCB 7 (Bq. 12.8-52) as follows:
load combinaliom (4) and (5) becmnes
6. (1.2 + 0.2SD.JD+ 0,,Q.r (or BJ+ O.SL Ii,,=~ (8.16)
7. (0.9- 0.2S.os}D + 'loQ, (or Ettl I,
~ In the above load combination• need not to exceed B.,. It ls clear and
that. 1he proYision allows plastic analym to determine the muimum
(8.17}
homontal selmllc load effect instead of using the effect of horizontal
Klsmlc forces that Include overmength and .In so.me cases it Is the only where S...,: elut!c lateral displacement of story (the lateral ddlection
way to do so. determined. by elutic: uia}ysls under seismic: for«$).
IS; ampliiled. lateral displacement ofltmy (approximare inelastic
8.2.1 Momwitfnmu displacement, a,.= IS..,C,,).
Beium and columns are rigidly connected In MFe to tramfer lateral C; deflection ampllftcation factor.
forces through. flexure uid mear In these element.. :MFs are selamlcally !!.,;. lnelutic; miry drift.
dmgned. in such a way that yielding ~ & the beam ends through 11.; allowable story drif\.
I Beam .. I Beam I
I
Shllarplam
! ! Panel zao.e
I
/
I Beam I I Beam I
I I I
Figure &.511 A moment frame.
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 267
....
I I
I
I
,.........
I
I
~--~~~~--.;--..- .....~--~~~~ .... ~
STIUINGTH RBQUI.lULMBN'I'
Strength requirement. for beams, girder-. and columns ue u follows
(AISC341):
Beams and Girders:
Beams and girdeni are mJ,UiRd to N1isfy the mamnum. loa.d effect obWned
M*~wi
I
~..... -
from the load ccmb!nattom specified .Ill AISC 7 (load comb:lnatiom 1
Chrough 5 In Sect!on 8.2.1). v'I.•
M~(j
[)~~
Columns:
The l'C<luirecl strength of a column in a SFRS should satiJfy the greater
of the following requirements:
a. The load eB'ect obtabled from. the load combinatio.nt spec!Bed In
ASCB 7 (load combinations 1 through Sin Sec:tlon 8.2.1).
b. The comp.resslve u:ial strength and tensile mength as determined
wing the oveu!Rngth seismic load (load combinal:ion 6 and 7 in
Section 8.2.1). Bend.Ing momenb are allowed to be ignoud in applying
Ch1s requirement
STRONG COLUMN-WEAi: BJIAJll
/
AP,......,
M•,_.,dalll
The required aheu strens1h of the (Ollllecti.on. v... can be obtained by Mid..story height
superposing the capacity-limited 1ei11Ilic load etfect. B<l> with the gravity (poillt qf ilifkction)
load e1f'ect, V..-,. (Fig, 8.61). u follows:
v.. =B.i +vpi!ty (8.19)
where .Ed= 2M,/L,.
M,,_ =probable maximum moment at plastic hinge
=c,,R,.P,z.
F +F.
c,, =..L......!.
2P 1
!i: 1.2
)
!',=minimum yield stress, bi
=
F,. mlDJmum. tensile atmlgth. kal
Z, =effective plut.ic sect.Ion modulm of sect.Ion u plastic: hinge
locmon.mm'
L,. =distance between plastic hinge locations
V..,m:tr =ahear force due to gravity loading (Including vertical
ae.lamlc load effec:t)(l.2 + 0.2Sos)D + O.SL)
v..,.
RguN 8.62 Bllim.alinlJ requiml. ahear mength for a. panel zone, R,..
If laseral bracing u provided as stated above, the beam C'UI achieve
:1:1l.04 rad. drift angle without significant !011 of ftcxural capacity (not
less than 0.8M_,).
Ltt
Co.LU.MN SPLICBS
Column splice1 in all framing types are to be ammged 4 ft or more a.way
from the beam-to-column flangeconnectione, wherepoaalble4 ft w.lllbe
mearured from the flnlahed floor devatlon (AISC 341, Section D2.Sa).
Pm!Q'U'AIJPIED MOMENT CONNECDONS
The bulc: seismic: detailing requirement fur a moment connection in
an MRF Js that the .MRF should sustain large ductility with.out failure
of the beam-to-column connection. The minimum requirements for
a beam-to-calumn connection in SMP a.re specified in Chapter K of
Flgun1 8.61 Compalillg the requlfcd !hear ftl'ell8'h. 1he AISC 341, whereas prequallfled moment connectiom are listed in
AJSC 358 standud. In the first edltl.on of thJs standard,. there were only
PANBLZoNBS
two piequallfied connections: Reduced beam section (RBS} and bolted
Shear in a. t7Jric:a1 be~-to-c:olwnn joint ca.lled panel zone in an MRF (unlltiffened and stiffened) extended end plate moment connections.
ill quite high due to high moment gradient in the joint region. Panel The latest release of this standard. lists 16 prequalified moment connec:-
zone regions are a good source of yielding and dlsalpating energy due tlone (AISC 358). RBS connection b commonly llSed In SMF and !MF
to sheu yielding. Section E3.6e of the AISC 341 sped.fie. the mlDJmum as prequaWled connections.
requirements for design of panel zones. AISC 341 allow• for llmlte<l
yielding within the panel zone. The design shear strength of a. panel CoNTllnll'rY PLATES
zone it obtained co1t1idering the limit state of shear yielding u t,.R,. The uee of c:ont!D.ulty plates should be conslateD.t with the type of
(+,, = 1.0), whereas the required ahear m:ength {R,,) can be determined preq_ualifled mome.nt co!lllection. If the thickness of the column 8ange,
a follow• (Fig. 8.62): t,f' .a.tisfies the following criteria. the continuity plates a.re not required.
(.AISC 341, Section B3.6f) for W- or built-up I-shaped columns:
>~
(8.20)
t<f (8.22}
where I,M1 =the 1um of the probable maximum momenta at the plu- where blfis the beam t1ange width. Continuity plate thicknm for one-
Uc: hinges at column facea (M,.i.11 + M~ 1ided mould be at least 50 percent of the thickness of the beam t1ange,
Vco1 =shear force In the portion of the column outside the whereat for two-sided connections should be at least 75 perc:eat of the
pane zone dilckness of the thicker beam 8ange on either side of the column.
l.AT.llll.AL BRACING Rl!QUDEMENT
8.2.2 Dfflgft E:ample of a Six-Story St:HI
Lateralbradng requirement fur MF beam.sis stated as follow; (AISC341, PllrfrMt. F,.me 116111111
Section D1.2b):
The building u dmgned in accordance with AISC 341 (2016), AISC 360
(8.21) (2016), AISC 358 (2016), and ASCE 7 (2016).
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 2ff
©
2'
---
-1==1 l==l==I
__"_;___"~}=-,.=--=H=--==-I
-It! I~ IS'
"~=I
-1 1-1 1
N
Moment CoMecllGn
.l-~~~-=~~~~::__ 1w•~~~~~~~~~-.;
- H H - t
{a} Typical floor plan
-r
13'
Roe!
l ~d!l
-r~!!'I-~
- - 1= I" y _ - - - -
~ -r~~-1!~
13' -1= -
-" -" ""'
y_ • - -
+ ~!:Id-~r
13'
11•Flo«
18'
J _a~~ ....
H
•• ;-is
H
••H ••H ••
H
••
H
} -26''- -.l--30',- -ll-25·'- +-I- I
80''- -lJ-25' --4
I
0 © ~ ~ ©
(b) FJ.cwalian of framm on lines A and H
~ ~
' • ' • • lo
.
r • '
,~'r<:lt
' • • •
4' abOIM llilb
.-----
Y•• ---
Plrwiad Flmd
~ ••r- •• •• •• •• •• •
'
f 26'
H H
f-2jj· !-30' .~
H
26'
H H
f-so· I. 25·--t-
H
24' -f
@ @ @ @ @ ® @ ®
(c) Elevati.D11 of frames on lines 1 and 6
avoiding biaxial bending at the comer columns, the edge spans on Seismic design parameters and site-specific values for the office build-
lines 1and6 are designed u part of the gravity frames. Therefore, tllil ing are 1WDI11ariud in Table 8.13.
example w:lll. cover the deaign of the Jdeatical. S.M:Fs on llne.t 1, 6 and
A, H. The composite tloor symm consists of 3~-in. thic:Jc lightweight
C(l]lcrete with wire mm on B~-in. steel deck. The orientation of the 'niblt 8.13 Shll·Sl*lfk lnforrMtlon
floor system is shown in Fig. 630. The typical story height is 13 ft and
the &at story 18 18 ft (Figs. 8.63b and c). The calumne in the S.M:Fs are P&ra.llleter Site apedfic value Refumce
assumed to be fixed at the base. Mapfled MCBa 11Pect:ral rap>me Ss=l.SOg USGSwebli1e
acceleration parameter at llhort
DllTBll.MINATION OF Gll.AVIT1' LoAD EPPECTS per!odt
DtadI.olUI Mapped MCBa spectral rap>me S1 =0.60g USGS website
Dead loads consist of the self-weight of the structural. and nonmuctural IUXl!!mmon parametzr at a
members lnC01porated into the building u well u the fixed service period. of l acco.nd
equipment. as summarized in Table 8.12. Short-period lit<! caefficimt P.= 1.0 'Dible 11.4-1, ASCE 7
Long-period Ille coefficient P,= 1.5 'Ilible 11.4-2, ASCE 7
Tlblel.12 DNdLoacls Long-period tr.w:ltion period Ti= 124«. ~· 22-12, ASCE 7
Unload In which S, and S1 are the MCJ!a spectral. mponse acceleration param-
Uniformly dirtributed live loads, L,,. for ftoors and roof are determined eters adjusted for me class effectj at short periods and at a period of 1
in accordance w:ltb. Tablt 4.3-1, .A.SCB 7, as fuilows: sec., respectively. According to ASCB 7, Section 11.4.5, T0 and T, can be
Floor 1.1.w Load= 50 p4f and Roofl.l\11: Load= 20 p4f obtained as 0.12 sec. and 6.60 sec., respectively, us:lllg the spectral. ae«J.-
DllTERKINATION OF SBISJaC 1oAD EPPBCTS
eratl.on parameters, Sm= 1.00 g and S01 =0.60 g. The design response
spectrum is given in Fig. 8.64.
S.llmlc Dulgn P&rMH!tsl The seismic de1ign parameten fur the Since 0.50 S S:np 0.20 < ~ 1 and S1 < 0.75, the mucture ill assigned to
office building located In Downtown, San Francisco, are u foll.ow;: Seismic Design Category D (Tablts 11.6-1 llnd 11.6-2, .A.SCB 7).
Risk c~ory n = (Table 1.5.l, .A.SCB 7) StNCtural P~ The structural parameters for the lateral-
furce-mlrtlng system are given in Table 8.1.C.
Seismic Importance Factor, I,= 1.0 (Table 1.5.2, .A.SCB 7) Note that no limmtion on building height. h,.. is specified for SMP1
Site Soll Cla111&ation: Site CLw D - "Stiff soil• utlgned to seismic dmgn category D.
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 271
1.2
O -l-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0 2 3 4 5
Period, T (sec)
Tlble e.14 5'Ndur1I PlrMMt. . for Stlsmlc Fol'CHlalstlng S,attms V=C,W (Eq. 12.8-l, ASCli 7)
Panmetu CoeB'ldellt Refe.ICllCe
s
Sdmllc Force-~ Sywtem Special Moment
Prame(SMP)
C• =*lDl
T-
R whenT<T.£ (Eq. 12.8-3, ASCE 7)
The approldmate fundamental perlod fur both orthogonal dlnlcttone, The vertical force dimib'Ution along the bulldlng height Is NDIJlUUiud
as per ASCB 7, Sectkm 12.8.2.l, .Is <:dc:ulate<l as follows: in Table 8.16. using the ASCB 7, Bqs. 12.8-1 l t.md 12.8-12.
T. =C,~ =0.028X83o.t =0.961ee. {Bq. 12.8-7, ASCB 7) P,.=C,..V (.Bq. 12.8-ll, ASCli 7)
5.i.mk8-SM. Selamlc base shear, V, to be employed.in Equlvllle.at
Lateral Force (ELF) procedure in both N-S and E-W dlnlctlons.ls deter- C,.,= :>! (Bq. 12.8-12, ASCB 7)
minecl in compliance with ASCE 7. Semon 12.8.1; l:w,hf
1-1
272 CHAPTER EIGHT
Tallle 1.16 Vertical FGrat Dlltllbutlan 8ued on r. The allowable atory drift. per ASCB 7, Table 12.12-1, is 0.02 time
the story height (4,. = 0.020h...). Note that, according to ASCB 7,
Stary "'• (kipa) h.<*> W}I! c.. F.(kip)
Stetton 12.8.6.2, it is permitted to determille story drifbl baaed on the
Roof 893.2 83 204.W.2 0.1"5489 137.0 fundamental period of the structure without considering the upper
Sth 2233.0 70 415,304.0 0.294968 2Tl.8 llmft on period. Therefore, the drift re<i.uirement is to be checked
4th 2233.0 57 322,568.2 0.229103 215.8 through an iterative proce11. In this example, firrt, the BLP1 are to
3.rd. 2233.0 44 234,607.7 0.166629 156.9
be c:alculated based on the C,.T., period specified in ASCB 7 with the
purpose of reducing the number of Iterations, since it is very l1kely
2bd 2233.0 31 152,500.2 0.108313 102.0 that the period determined from the modal analym af the numerical
ht 2233.0 18 71,Hl.3 0.0554-99 52.3 model will be pater than its approximate counterpart. After dmr-
I 1,407,964.7 1.0G 941.8 mining the member si%eS that tatbfy the drift requirement, a Jecol1d
Jteration Is performed using the seismic bue shear computed based on
the fundamental period obtained &om the first Iteration. Consider-
ing the strength requimnent. two iterations found to be sufficient. It
in which, should a!Jo be noted that the reduction in lateral rtiffneu due to the
:flange c:w (e.g., reduced beam conneciione) needs to be taken into
ac:count when computing elastic: drifts (AISC 358-16, Section 5.8).
l
l.OwbenTSO.Sec.
In this eumple, however, the seismic force. for story drift calc:ula.-
k= 2.0wbenT::!:2.S~. tiom are determined band on a. period of 1.87 sec:., while the ac:tual.
O.ST+0.75 whenO.SS T:!::2.5 fundamental period of the etructure is 2.18 sec:. Therefore, 14 percent
difference between the base shears computed based on a period af 1.87
For T = 0.96, k = 0.5x0.96+0.75=1.23 and 2.18 sec. is assumed to be adequase to account for the potential
rtiffneu redw::tion.
ANAI.YllUI 1" Iteration Based on CuT.
A ID-numerical model of the identical SMF1 on the perlmeter is l" iteration for determining the optimal section sizes that satisfy the
built in a muctural amlysls •oltware, SAP2000 v.19 [S]. Columns are sttffneu requirement began by assuming prelimJnary member sizes.
spliced 4 ft above the beam flange and fixed at the base. Beams and The prc1imin.ary members are given in Table 8.17. The sei&mic: base
columns are modeled 111ing elutic beam elements c:onnected to rigid shear determined. based on the upper limit on period, C,.T,.. and the
jolnu. Rigid end of'Uets are incorporated at the panel iones. The floor preliminary daign of the frame are utilized u a starting point for the
slabs are assumed to be rigid diaphragm. in the.lr own planes. Mwes stiffness design.
are amuned to be lumped at jointa. To account for the second-order
effects (P-4 and P-5), a leaning column consilting af rigid ttusa ele-
ments b introduced and the gravity load1 not supported by the MPs
are transfemd to thelOe columns at each story level. Columns are 'nlW. a.17 PnlmlnlllJ MemlMr SlzH
meshed into ft~ equal segmentJ to take the P-6 effect into account Story lnterlor oolwnn Enerior colwmi. Girden
properly when conducting stability anal~is. The numerical model is Roof W14X82 Wl4Xl45 W24XSS
presented in Pig. 8.65.
5th W14x82 Wl4X14S W24X84
SToRT DmPT RBQVDl.BM.llNT 4.th W 14Xl45 W 14X 193 W27X94
Subsequent to detennining the seismic and grn:ity load effiw on the 3rd W l4xl4S W14x193 Wl7xl02
SMP1, the design proce11 began by checking the 1tiffne11 requirement. 2nd W 14x193 W 14x257 Wl7xll4
As per ASCB 7, Stetton 12.8.6, ampllfled atory drlfte are to be lea than
the allowable limit for an stm:le~ (4,. :S .\). lilt W14Xl93 Wl4X257 W3GX148
Rigid element
-~Ith pinned ends
,
..
, . . .....
Spliced4ft
above the Leening
beam flange column
. --- (rigid fJ'USS
~
members)
• ---Rigid----
,
joint
.. -- .
,•'
Meshed Into __ .a. ____,
five equal Fixed support I
segment8
JI(
,,
,
---.. Elastic
beam
cc c::i IC cc cc CJO
elements
Figure 8..65 2D numerical model of!he SMFs.
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 273
1.2
I
I
: C11r. =1.344 s
0 +-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
0 2 3 5
Period, T (sec)
Fi9ure 8M Spectral acx:dcralion cormpondlllg to c.T. =1.3« (8nt !tefatlon).
Table 8.18 showi the vertical seismic forces at each diaphragm lel'd. I 3,()34,594.. 672.9
Due to the rigid diaphragm uramplion. the sei.lmic design story shear
Is d!str:lbuted horizontally baled on the relative stiffness of the SMFs. Fint, the ruuctural. model with the prelimiD.ary members (Table 8.18)
Therefore, the two SMF~ parallel to the dir«Uon ofloading (dlhe.r In is analy:zed. under the sei.lmic load dl«ts bued on C,.T,. = 1.344 S«.
E-W or N-S direc;tion) UNmed to withttand the halfof the total lateral (Fig. 8.67). However, the computed design story drifb were not close to
force acting on the center of mus, Px1. Figure 8.67 pmentl the lateral the allawable llmlt. Therefore, the member a1zea were graclually reduced
force dlmibution along the height of one SMF. for a more economical deaign. The member sizes that satisfy the drift
F/;=104.1 k 13'
_5_111_ ~ 1
~
Fl=TT.''f< 13'
~ 111- ~ f
4_
FA=53.&k 13'
~ - i:lc!C! J
8"!.
r 83'
13'
~=32.7"
--+ 211C!~!f
-
Fl =15.1k 13'
--+ ~~!t
1_
••
H
••
H
••
H
...
H
••
H H
Q l'CKald
.....Lewi
18'
requimnc:ntunderthe sc:ilmicforcesc.omputed based.on c:r.. =1.344 a«. T.lble 1.20 1he 5eol'J Dlfflll lued an CJ:.= 1.544 a
are given in Table 8.19. h. (in.) c, A. (in.) A. (in.)
Tlblt e.19 Memb9' Sias '1lllt Sl'dny DlffUlequlrwntn'«
Story
Roof 156
&..
3.18
'· l)x
1751 1.54 3.12
(Rl'llt ttemlan a.MCI an CJ:.= 1.544 a) Sth 156 2.90 15.9'7 2.86 3.12
41h 1S6 2.38 13.11 2.85 3.12
Story b.terlor colwnn Interior ciolllJllD Ginlen 5.50 1.00
3rd 156 1.86 10.26 3.12 3.12
Roof W 14X74 W 14X 109 W21 xSS 2D<l 156 1.30 7.U 2.96 3.12
5th Wl4X74 W 14X 109 W 24x62. ht 216 0.16 4.17 4.17 4.32
-lth Wl4X 176 W 14X 193 W24x84 'tabltt.21 Vtnkll Fora Dfmllu'lton Based an r, • 1.17 s
3rd W14xl76 W 14X 193 W27x84 Story 111, (kips) "·(ft) k W}I! c.. P,(klpa)
2nd Wl4X 193 W 14X283 W27x94 Roof 893..2 83 1,529,685.3 0.1746 84.4
ht W14x 193 W 14x233 W 27x 102. 51h 2233.0 70 2.670,025.3 0.327588 158.4
41h 2233.0 57 2.030,227.3 0.231732 112.1
1.685
3nl. 2233.0 44 1,312.542.2 0.149815 72.5
The computed elastic deflections (s,.), shown in Fig. 8.68, are ampli- 2nd 2233.0 31 7:27,511.7 0.1133039 4.0.2
fi«I \I.Sing a. deflection amplification factor of 5.5 (c,. = 5.5) to obtain ht 2233.0 18 291,091.6 0.()33226 16.l
the inelutic detleci:ion.1 (6.J u well as the inelastic story drifb (aj. The
I 8,761,083.5 ~3.6
Inelastic story drifts are compared with. the allowable nory drift for each
story. as seen in Table 8.20. The funda.mentd period ob~ed from the
frame with the ~tural members pm in Tible 8.20 is 1.87 •econcb.
Thm, the base shear u1ed. for determining the story dritU in the second P-a EPJ1scrs
iteration is computed based o.n a period of 1.87 sec. To determine the slgniflcance of the P-a effi:cts in the struc:tme and to
inaeue the stiffness of the mucture accordlng}y. Seaicn 12.8.7. ASCE 7
=
Swmd Itm.rtion Based on T 1 1.87 su. de.tcribes an elutic stability coefficient, e. of each story of a rtructure..
Subsequent to the flrst Iteration. a &«ond .Iteration I• performed using
the fundamen1al period obtained from the flra iteration. The selmlk:
design bue shear deten:nin«I wling the spectral a.cceleration cone- 8=~ {Bq. 12.8-16, .ASCB 7)
V,.lt..,C4
=
spondlng to T1 1.87 sec. is 483.6 kipi. The vertical distribution of
Che selsmk base shear for the ffcond Iteration IB given in Table 8.21.
Likewise. the vertical dlstrib1rtlon of the ELPs along the height of one e.,,.. =.!:!.
pc, s o.25 (&/. 12.8-76, ASCH 7)
SMF is d.cmonltrated. in Fig. 8.69.
The SMP is analy.Eed under the seismic loads based on T1 1.67 uc. = where P,,= the total vertical detign load at and above Level .x:; when:
(Fig. 8.69). Following a auC«&tton of attempts to achieve the optimal computing P.. no individual load factor need exceeds 1.0
design, the member mes that meet the drift requirement under the a= the design story drift occurr!ng simultaneously with v.
seiunic forcet computed band on T1 = 1.87 se<:. are given in Table 8.22. v.. =the seismic mear fi:lrce «ting between Levels" uid " - 1
Table 8.23 draw1 a compamon between the inelutic story drifts and h,. =the story height below Level"
the allowable story drlfta. Note that the fundamental. period of the frame JS= the ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the story
shown in Table 8.3.15 Is 2.18 sec. between Lewis x and x - 1.
1.64
1.32
1.1
~1 =0.76" o.ea
O.M
0.44
Q.22
C:::J C:::J C:b C::J C:::J Cb
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 275
fi=42.2k Roof
--+
fi=79.2k 13'
5th Floor
----- "
~=56.1 k 13'
4 th Floor
'
/=§=36.3k 13'
SrdF1-
--+ - - - - - ......
83'
~=20.1 k 13'
2ndfloor
~
J=1=8.1k 13'
1at Floer
--+ - --- ~
••
H
••
H
... ...
H H
••
H
.....
H
Ground 18'
Uwel
'111111• uz Rnel Sedlol'll Bued on Drift Requirement The summary of the c.:omputed stability coeffic;lents for an stories is
Story Intaior calumn B:ll:aior calumn Girder shown in Table 8.24. The rtability coefficients of the nm ~e stories
Roof exceeded 0.10. at shown in the table. Therefore, the ucond-order effew
W 14x82 W l4x74 W l8x50
wlll be aplicltly Included in the sttength design of the beams and col-
Sth Wl4X82 Wl4X74 W21X57 wnns In the following sec:tion.s of thi• de&gn e:nmple.
4dl Wl4Xl45 Wl4Xl32 W21X73
3rd W 14Xl45 Wl4Xl32 W24X76 T1blt 8.24 SUblllty Cotfl'ldentt. 9
2Dd W 14Xl93 W 14Xl76 W24x84 Storr h,.(in.) P.(kipe) A. (in.) I., v.(kipa> c, e
ht W 14xl93 W 14xl76 W24x94 61h 156 1418.6) L.60 L.00 84.44 5.50 0.03
Sdi. 156 4.965.22. 2.74 1.00 .242.87 5.50 0.(fl
'lllW.8.23 1M StlalrJ Drifts Bued on T1 =1.fl71 4di. 156 3511.80 3.04 1.00 354.9-i 5.50 0.08
Srory "'(In.) s.. c, I. 6, A,, (in.) A. (in.} 3rd
2Dd
156
156
12.058.39
1S,60U7
3.08
3.05
1.00
1.00
427AD
467.56
5.SO
5.50
0.10
0.12
Qoof 156 3.23 17.79 1.60 3.12
Sth 156 2.9' 16.20 2.74 3.12 lat 216 19,151..56 4.ZB 1.00 483.63 5.50 0.14
4th 156 2.45 13.45 3.04 3.12
5.50 LOO
3rd 156 u' 10.41 3.08 3.12 CoNNllCTION DBSIGH
2a.d. 156 1.33 7.33 3.0S :u2 The <:e>nnections in the latcral fo.rce-misting system• c.:omprue RBS type
lrt 216 0.73 .u8 4..28 4.32 moment connec:t:iOD.11 (Fig. 8.70) for their ruperior energy-dW:ipal.:ion
capabWtiet. A representative RBS design example for the fint-story
Bxample caltulation ofthe sta'fnllty coejftclent, 8, far the first story:
P...i =(Sx(13,a X18911)x(8Spd +501"')+(13911 Xl8,a)
x(34fd +20pd ))/IOOOldplAb =19,1Sl.61dpa
=
A, 4.2~ (Table 8.23 and Table 8.24)
Ill P.rJ-4.iI, 19,1Sl.6X4.28Xl.0
vi 0.143 <e.....
V,.i1.,,J.Cd 483.6X216XS.S
girder with 25-ftspan lenp in acc:ordanc:ewith Ouzpter 5, AISC 358-16 Finto the average values ue used:
ii 1umm.arued below.
a= (0.50 + 0.75}1'.Jl = (0.50 + 0.75} x 9.07/2 = 5.67 ID. Use 5-1111&'
Cross-Sedion1il and Mizteri4l Properties:
b = (0.65 + 0.85)d•/2 = (o.65 + 0.85) x 24.312=18.23 in. Ust 18%•
Beam: W24 x 94 (b1 =9.W, t..., = 0.515", tl<f= 0.875", "• = 24.3", c = (0.10 + 0.25)btl2 = (0.10 + 0.25) x 9.0712 = 1.59 ID. Ust 1-9116"
zs =z. =2S4 in.$}
Step 2. PUu& stction modu1w ofRBS, ZDll:
Exterior Column: Wl4x176 (tr1= 1.31", t.,,=0.830", d.= 15.2")
ZDS =z.. - 2ct~d- t,.) AJSC 358-16 (5.8-4)
Interior Column: Wl4x193 (t</= 1.44", t..,= 0.890•, d,= lS.5'1
ZDS = 254- 2 x 1.5625 x 0.875x(24.3-0.875)=19011&.
Materials: A992, Grade 50 for W shapes, 111d A36 or A572 for {75'!6 Z.. ofW 24 x 94)
plates; me<:ttode - F_ =70 k&1; A32S bolts are awilable.
Step). O:nnputt the probable mrWnium mo~ M,,. at the unter of
Loads on the betm: WD = 0.354 kip/ft; Wi = 0.208 .kip/ft the RBS:
Chet:k ift:M RBS c.cm be usul (Section 5.3.I, AJSC 358-16): AISC 358-16 (5.8-5)
Beam depth and weight are limited to W36 and 302 lb/lt.
respectively (W27 x 94 < W36 x 302) C =F1 +.F,.=50+65=1.IS<l.20
11 2P1 2X50
Beam t1ange thicb.es.'I it limited to H(" (fif = 0.745" <I"")
Span length over beam depth ralio is limited to 7 (12.4 >7) M11 =C,..R,P,Zm =l.15Xl.1X50X190=12017.5i...1a. =1001.SM
Column depth ii limm:d. to W36 (Wl4 < W36) Step 4. Omtpute the shearfaru tit the center of.RBS (V.u.J;
No limitation on wlumn weight and wlumn ftange thicb.m Figure 8.72 show• the free.body diagram when plati' hinges Conned
at the beam encb.
Thus. the RBS can be used.
w = 1.2wo +0.SwL = 1.2 x O.S2ldpld + 0.5 x 0.3ll:lpllt = 0.78ldpld
Step-by-Step DtJ/gn Process
Step 1. 'IWal design values (t1, ft, mul c) for the .RBS (Fig. 8.71) L,,=L-(2si.+d.Jd\12+d...... 12)
O.SO b61 s as 0.75 bit AJSC 358-16 (5.8-1)
'h =a+ bi2=\, + 1841 ..), 2=14 13.,
11. (
16
0.65d ~ b ~ 0.85d AJSC 358-16 (5.8-2)
0.10 b61 S 'S 0.25 ~ AJSC 358-10 (5.8-3)
11. =25'*-(2><14~!·+15.5°/2+15.2°/2}<12111.1111)=21.2511
r
v; = 2M,.. ± wL,, 2xl001.5u ± 0.7ak'll X21.25'*
.us L,, 2 21.251 2
= 94.3± 8.3=102.6tip /86.....
I zone--t
Proteeted Note that_ Mr: might change dlrec:tton u ground shaking moves the
structure back and forth. TherefOre, a shear force of 102.6J:lpa and 8~
t Reduced Beami
Sedfon
might O«\l1' at both encb.
Step 5. O:nnpute the probable mrWnium moment ot tM fau of the
wlumn:~
Figure 8.7~ ahOWll the free-body diagram of the beam between the cen-
terllne of the RBS and the column face. Note that the gravity load on the
small portion between die RBS center and the column fac:e ii neglected
when determining the moment at the column face.
V-= 102.6 ldps (collSl.derlng the .ma:dmum. po&!lble at each beam e!lid)
Mf=M,.+ V1.11S5A AISC358-16(5.8..0)
_______ j _:_j_____,____j
Step 6. Compute the pl.cutic monm1t ct1pacity of the bt:.r.1nt based on tht
up«ted yield mas, M,.
M,. =R./1/lt AJSC 358-16 (5.8-7)
M,. = 1.1 x SO x 254 = 13,970- = l 164Jo.A
R =(4c2+b2)1Bc Step 7. Cited: the flaimll strmgth at the face ref the column flange,
M1 S ,.,M,. AJSC 358-16 (S.8-8)
-.1.._=t.----- - i : I
I
=========l bbl
M1 =1128k-ft <• 4M_,. =l.OX1164k-A
--=t-----~~----J: -----1
Summary of the RBS design for each joint is swnmariud in Table 8.25.
I
Step 8. Requirul shear strength of the beam and web-to...:olumn
wnnection:
Figure &71 ~d beam KCtion e>onnedion. V,= V.m= 102.6kips
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 277
CLIW CL11111
a+b/2 d/2
- - - - - - - L=2Sft - - - - - --.i
Figure a.n ~ody dlasram of the beam with a. plutlc hinge 111 eacli encl
iIi W21x57
W21 x73
4.125
5.188
15.813
15.875
1.125
1.438
99.09
12U7
1.15
1.15
522.30
677.15
12.03
13.13
21.81
21.58
56.40
71.15
578.84
754.98
591.25
788.33
&M.77 14.6)
J
W24X76 S.625 18.000 1.563 167.86 1.15 21.33 91.26 995.99 1026.67
W24X84 5.625 18.000 1.563 167.86 1.15 884.77 14.63 21.28 91.48 996.21 1026.67
W:UXN 5.688 18.250 1..563 1•.95 1.15 1001.18 14.81 21.25 101.60 1127.80 116U7
w 18)(50 4.688 13.500 1.313 74.92 1.15 39'.89 ll.44 26.90 ll.55 426.87 462.92
s....
Ill
W21 x57
W21 X73
4.125
S.188
15.813
15.875
1.125
1.438
99.09
128.47
1.15
1.15
522.29
677.15
12.03
13.U
26.80
26.58
49.41
61.31
571.84
7400
591.25
788.33
]"' W24X76 5.625 18.000 1.563 167.86 1.15 884.77 14.63 2633 77..46 979.18 1026.67
.a W24x84 5.625 18.000 1.563 167.86 us 884.77 14.63 26.27 77.S9 979.34 1026.67
W24X94 S.688 18.250 1.563 189.95 1.15 1001.18 101 26..24 86.53 1107.99 1164.17
27a CHAPTER EIGHT
A.= l4tt di= l4 x 1t x " 1 = 0.442 in.2 +R,. =0.75x(sxr".-. +r,,.-,.)=0.75x(5x38.ll6i:!i>t +52.21dpt)
v. 102.61dpt
=224.71dpt > v. =102.fiildpt
•~<·"· )F,,,.~V.,-+n ' 5.7
",....., +,.AtF,.,, 0.75X0.4421n. x54lal.
Block shear f11il#re (Pig. 8.75):
Use s!J: (6) " In. diameter A325 - N bolta.
Check the required length for the shear tab: R,. ={0.6F,.A,,..; 0.6F1 A,,}- +P,.A,,,
Dimnce between two at«aS hole., L ... d• - 4tlf =24.3 - 4 x 0.875 = A,. = [(18-1.S) x 112) = 8.25 iD.2
20.8."
Note that it is pe.r:mltte.d to extend the elngle ahear tab connection A,,. =8.25-[5.S x (3/4+1/16+1/16)) =3.4375 in2
betwu.n the weld acce# holes (AISC 358, Section 5.6). A,,, =[l.5-0.SX (3/4+1/16+1/16))=1.0625 in2
Use L =18 Ill. Ieng shtor tab plate (Fig. 8.74).
Check shear strength of 18" x 4" x Y.t" thear tab plate (A36 steel, F1 = +B., =0.75x(o.6xssblx3.!_•, 0.6x361a1. xs!·) +0.6xssbl x1.!.•
36ui and P,. =s&bl): 16 4 mill 16
Pl. 18"xA"xll2"
=135.,..,. > v. =102.6~
0
0 S@3"
18"
J J '
~ 2.S" ~1.SJ
1.5"
Flgurd.74 Geometry of the shear tab.
RguN 8.75 Blodr. ah.ear &ihm! mode.
I
hi' AISC 341, Stction B3.6f, aD applicable limit states rupul.atl:d
Center bolb: in AISC 360, S«tion J need to be checked. For coD..Gections with
beam mbs with a bolted connection to the column, P1 can be
,_ =l..2L,tp1mF,, s 2.4J4tplnP,. (;()lllpllk<I as Collom:
r,,.- =52.2.klpsJbolt where tl' is the di.stance between the flange antniick.
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 279
I
"- < CJP
/ f-Redu~ Beal'l!..i
I Section I
L«4l flange Bending: continuity plate thickness shall be at least equal to 75 percent of
F<>r Wl4 x 176(t</=1.31") the thianeas of the thic.ker of the two beam flang~ on either
side of the a>lumn. t, ~ t.,= =
0.75 X 0.875" 0.656." Thut, a pair
+R,, =+{6.25.R,F,fI )=0.9X(6.25Xl.l xso1"" Xl.3lln.) of 11116-ln. continuity plites is complete Joint penetration (CJP)
welded to the column ftanges uid web (or doubler plates} at the
=405.3klpl < P1 =57811ps top and bottom flange level.I of die connecting girders for the
interior conned.Ion.
ForW14X 193(t"=1.44") For one"'1ded (aterior) connections (Wl4 x 176). continuity
plate thickne~ shall be at least one-half of the thicknes. of the
.a., =+(6.25.R,F,fI)= 0.9x(6.25x1.1 x so1"" x l.44tn.) beam ftange, t, ~ twf2 =0.875"/2 =7/16", a pair of7/16-in. con-
=445.Stips <P =578... tinuity plates are CJP welded to the column t1anges and web (or
1 doubler plates) at 1he top and bottom flange leveb of the connect-
Local Web Yielding: ing girder for the exterior connection. u preKll.ted in Fig. 8.78.
ForW14Xl76
Step 11. Cir«* column paMl zone
.a., =.CR,P,...t,,(sk+'6)J=l.Ox[l.1xsob'xo.s31a. (a) Check panel Zo.lle St.re.agth
SCIWB Rl!QtnlWOINT =
!,M;. 3551n.' x(so'*- 28Uldp• /56.81n.
2
) +355111.•
Example calculatio.ns for the SC/WB requirement for the interior 2
x (sob! -213.4...,./56.s8'- )=32,3aat.1a.
Joint of the •econd story are summarized herein based on AISC 341,
Section BJ.4. Detalls of the interior joint are given in Fig. 8.79. !,M;. =2699t-8
w,
(A) Onwlded (Qlador) ('b) One-sided (interior)
FlguN 8.77 Calnmn puiel zone dimens!ont.
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 2'1
CLRBs
I
I
I
I
1.1 RyF.ZRas
I)
Flexural
Flexural Yielding
Yielding
W14x193
---~---
*:.=
P,, above
Ag... 8.71 SCIWB requiremem at the interior joint of the acamdltory.
The required. uial strength of the column. P,. ii determined from the l',M;. =2008M
greater of the following:
1. A:Jial. force obtained from (1.2 + 0.2S~D ± .O.,Q.e + O.SL "'t'M• le*
~ ,. = 2699. =1.34>1.0
2. A:sia1 fom: obtained from the sec.ond-order analym with reduced
stiffneues, as deWled in Che latter nctiom (DAM for lbbility). I;M;. 2oos"·*
Thus, SC/WB requirement .Is met for the joint SC/WB check for aD.
l',M;. =l',[1.1R1 P1 Z.us + V,m(S11 +d.12)) beam-to-column c0.11nections is summarized in Table 8.26.
To satisfy the requirement, the size of third-story interior columnJ
l',M;.=[2x(Uxl.lxsob'xl67.86m.')+(77.61dp1+91.51dpc) is increued from W14 x 145 to W14 x 159 and the fil'th-story girders
x(l4.62SIA +IS.Sm./2))=24,094k-1A are slightly reduced from W21 x 57 to W21 x 50. Note that the SC/WB
j 4th
3rd
2n4
WHX132
W 14Xl32
Wl4xl76
93.10
197.00
321.00
928.21
875.99
1163.08
WHXl32
W 14Xl32
Wl4xl76
197.00
321.00
465.00
875.99
313.67
1093.95
18000
1639.66
2262.03
769.12
1013.42
1015.65
let W l4X 176 465.00 1093.95 W l4xl76 627.00 1010.55 2104.50 1149.09
6th - 0 0.00 W l4X82 19.00 570.00 570.00 868.57
i 4th
3rd
W l4Xl'5
WHX145
78.70
148.00
1043.40
1008.24
W l4xl45 148.00
226.00
1008.24
968.66
2051.64
1976.119
1522.00
2002.31
! WHX145
2n4 W l4Xl9l 226.00 1361.46 W l4xl93 309.00 1313.2.3 2679.69 2007.85
lit W l4Xl93 309.00 1318.23 Wl4Xl93 -t03.50 1269.01 2587.24 2270.31
212 CHAPTER EIGHT
Joint Column above P,...,,,...(klp) M,..i.... (k-ft} Column below P,,_(ldp) ~(k-ft) I,M;. I.Ar,.
6th 0 0.00 Wl4X74 24.00 Sl3M 513.44 437.01
5th Wl4X74 24.00 513.44 Wl4X74 92.20 480.59 994.03 509.98
b <lth W 14X 132 9.2.20 923.66 W 14X 132 196.00 876.49 1805.16 761.95
s 3n!.
lnd
WHX132
Wl4X 176
196.00
321.00
876.49
1168.0S
WHX132
Wl4X 176
321.00
463.00
813.67
1094.98
1690.17
2263.06
1012.20
1014.36
ltt Wl4Xl76 463.00 1094.98 Wl4Xl76 626.00 1011.07 2106.05 1147.79
6th 0 0.00 Wl4X82 19.20 569.90 569.90 868.57
..
<>
Sth
<lth
Wl4x82
Wl4X 159
19.20
79.00
569.90
11S5..37
Wl4x82
Wl4X 159
79.00
147.70
541.°'
1120.19
llll.00
22'15.57
1013.43
1523..22
1i
Ji 3n!. W14Xl59 147.70 1120.19 W14Xl59 224.00 1081.12 2201..31 2003.89
lnd Wl4X 193 224.00 1362.50 Wl4X 193 307.00 U19.27 2681.77 2007.85
ltt Wl4Xl93 307.00 1319.27 Wl4X193 401..SO 1270.0S 2589.32 2270.81
requirement does not apply to the joi.Im at the roof. The moment 4. (1.2 + 0.2SDS)D + PC4 + O.SL
ratiOll for each jointafterthechangesaregiven in Table8.27. TheSC/WB 5. (0.9 - 0.2Sru)D + pQ.r
requirement 18 met when the members given in Table 8.27 are Redundancy factor. p, is taken u 1.0 ill conformance with ASCB 7,
employl:<l. and th11&, the stiffne. (drift) requirement is e:umined once Section 12.3.4.
again {Tllble 8.28) to make sure that no.ne of the stories does not exceed ~Load Dlsa1bU'don To detumine the vmtcd forces ac:ting In
the allowable limit due to die slight change in the lateral stiffness. the plane of the SMF• o.n line. 1 and 6 due to dead and live loads, first,
the bibutary areas for the each uniformly distributed and conce.11tnted
loads are computed. F.lgure 8.80 mOW11 the typlcd tributary areas fur
'lllblti 8.28 Mmnbs Sims 'lllllt s.usly SCWI each member.
"*IUll't!Nflt The gravity loads in the plane of the SMF• are C(II!IJluted a. followa:
Story .Em.rior cdumn Interior oolamn Girder• DudUiads
Roof Wl4X74 Wl4X82 Wl8XSO Ullifomily Distributed Loads
5th Wl4X74 Wl4x82 W21 xso w:"" =(6.167't)x34"' x(lldpallOOOlb)= 0.21~
<lth
3zd
Wl4X 132
W14xl32
W l4Xl59
W l4xl59
W21 x?3
W24x76
lw:t- =(6.1678 )xWS x(lldpo/lOOG°')=0.52ldplft
Con«ntrated Loads on Interior Columm
lnd Wl4X 176 Wl4Xl93 W24X84
ltt Wl4Xl76 Wl4X193 W24X94 P/t'4
=(27.511 X8.3311 )x3~ X(llr.!p9 /100G°')=7.8ldpl
STIU!NGTH RBQ'Uilll!MlrNT
I P:-
={27.sft x&.33'*)xsspo£ x(l. ./Iooo•)=19.sldp•
Conmitrated Loads o.n &terior Columns
Uiad Combinraions
1.UD Po"""' = (25* xus*)x 34,a x(lldp 11ooo") = 7.lldpa
1
~ -----
8 ·2·1=
~·~
2' I
25~ . 25'
I
30' 1
I
25' 30' !-
I
25'
I
I I I I I I
@ ® © @ © © ®
Fig1119 8.80 Trlbumy ueat for the loada acting 011. S'.MP 011. llnea 1 and 6.
mu MEMBERS
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL 213
lw.&-
w~ =(6.167A)x20"' x(lldpl/10001b)=0.12i:lplll
Step I: Crurtt: a model with the lummg wlumn.s
= (6.16711 )xso"' x(lldpl110001>) = 0.31..,..a
S"J' II; Rdtl" aU stijfnu:us thl# "'1ttribute to the st4bility
Concentrated Loads on Interior Columna According to AISC AISC 360, Section C2.3, an additional factor, 't"' is
p'ft"' =(27.511 X8.33ft)x2o"' X(lldpt /looo8')=4.61dpt to be introduced for t1emral ltiffne11 adjllltme.ab bated on the level of
19.Sk 19.Sk =
19.Sk w0 o.s2"fpa/ft 19,5k 17.7k
17.7" ~;::;[l:::I:I:I:lfjo;:;i;::;[l:::I:I:LGµ:;i;::;[l:::I:I:~IT:Z;::;[l::;i;:;r;:~a::;r;:::;a:;i;:;r;:~ _!?ttl _f!o_or
4th Roor
3rd Floor
2nd Floor
1stRoor
Ground
Level
H H H H H H
~25' ~ 30' 25' 30' 25·---+
I I I I I
@ ©
F1gureU1 Dead load dimibut.ion to the SM&.
© © 0 ©
214 CHAPTER EIGHT
Wt=
-Roof
10.4k
11.sk 11.5k 11.sk Wt=0.31~ 11.sk
-'.. J.. .... J._ .l J • .I. J • ..l .l J.. .. 5th Floor
-
10.4k
11.sk 11.sk 11.sk Wt=0.31~ 11.sk
-4th Floor
11.sk 11.sk 11.sk Wt=0.31~ 11.sk 10.4k
u
-3rd Floor
11.sk 11.sk 11.sk Wt=0.31~ 11.sk 10.4k
,_
u
'·
-2nd Floor
11.sk 11.sk 11.sk Wt=0.31~ 11.sk 10.4k
.J. 1st Floor
-
Ground
Level
~1zl 12<Zi!I IZi~ ~Zi! PZ !z!J PZ ?Z"
H H H H H H
}----25• 30' 25 30' 25•---f
I I I I I I
® © © © ® @)
Rgure8Jl2 Llve load diwibution t.o the SMF1.
111111• 1.29 Load Codllnetloftll lndudlng Notion.II Load Efllldl Biuttnple -r• C1.1la.t1'1tion for the fo1t-Jtory extt:riM column (W 14 X 176,
Combination A,= 51.8 In.2):
Combll l.4D:l:UND
P,-=39Sldpt } aP. 1.0X395
Combtl 1.20 + l.6L +O.Sl,. :I: (l.2ND + l.6NL +0.5NLJ ,,m.2 11111 '-=---=0.15<0.50
P1 =A,rF1 =Sl.o- xSO =2590klpa P1 2590
ComW3 1.20+l.OL+1.61.,:1: (1.2ND+ l.ONL+ UNI.,)
Combl4 (l.2 +0.2ScJD± pQ,. +O.SL
Th'IU, 'C~= 1.0
Combl5 (0.9-0.2YJ>± pQ,. Note diat P,,.... = 395 kips is obtained from Comb#4. The 't• values
for the exterior and interior columm are rummarl2:ed in Tablet 8.31 and
8.32. re~ctively.
noUonal lo;ld8 to be included. Table 8.30 preae.nu the .mulmum drift '1llllle1J11 Tt Veluu for Exterior Columns
ratioa fur each combination given in Table 8.29. Story Sec;tion P, (klpe) P,{'k:lp) P,JP1 '?.
6th W 14X74 16.00 1090.0 0.01 1.0
lllble 8..30 1111! Ratio ol Sec:IDnd-Ordl!r
Dlffb to FlnlM>rder IDrtfts f.Y"1.J 51h Wl4X74 71.00 1090.0 0.07 1.0
Comblnalion 4..14... ratto• 41h Wl4Xl32 140.00 1940.0 0.07 1.0
Comb#l 1.20 3rd W14xU2 216.00 1940.0 0.11 1.0
Combn 1.19 2lld W 14xl76 301.00 2590.0 o.12 1.0
Comb#3 1.18 ht W 14Xl76 395.00 2590.0 0.15 1.0
Combl4 1.2:2
ComblS 1.09
TllllleU2 Tt Veluu far Interior Calumn1
Since the ratio of second-order drifts to fim-order d.rifU is 61h Wl4X82 17.00 1200.0 0.01 1.0
leN than 1.7 for all combination•, it is not req,uired to include the 51h Wl4X82 79.00 1200.0 om 1.0
notional loads in the combinaiions with other lateral loa.ch (AISC 4di. W }4X 159 144.00 2335.0 0.06 1.0
360, StttWtl C2.2b).
3rd W14X 159 213.00 2335.0 0.09 1.0
Sttp V: C1ieclc tf 'f'. =1.0 2Dd Wl4xl93 234.00 2840.0 0.10 1.0
The actual 'C~ values are to be checked to confirm that the assumption
made in Step His true. Ill Wl4Xl93 360.00 2840.0 o.u 1.0
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 2M
M,.=c.[M,-<M,-0.7P,s..{~=~: )]~M, diMipation, latual bracinp of highly ductile beams in SMF are spaced
a1 a maximum JPacing of 4 =0.095r,El(JY',). per Stdion Dl.2, AJSC 341
(Table US).
1
M1 =z..11,=320"'- xsobl n2Mn. =1333.3i..ft The second-order analysis results of Che girders under the spedtled
loads in Comb.#4 are shown in Fig. 8.84. It should be noted that these
M,.=2.lll raulta are only plo1Ud fur the three span1 including the mid-JPm and
two edge JPllU when the structure l.9 subjected to seismic loads from one
x[1333.3i.-ft _(133S.3i..a _0.7x28lm.s xsoW1(121nJft))( ~:a~41~:)J dlre<:tion along with the factored gravity load!, tince the struc:ture is sym.-
metrlc:d.. Al& mown In Fig. 8.84. Che llllllmum bending moment wries
=2842" from span to span. Provided Chat Che same girder size it employed at each
story level. the maximum bending moment among the girders of each
M,. =2"2Jr:.tl >M =1333.3k-tl story level Is taken as the required strength of that story. The required
1
ThUJ, flexural strength for eacb. story level obtained from Che Bnt·order md
second-order analyses are summarizecl. and compared with the flexural
M, =~ x M1 = 0.9 x 1333.3 =12oe>k-ft capadty of the gird.en in 'Illhle 8.36. Similar to detigD of the columns, the
Tllbla 8.JJ Strength Chtlck far Extlll'lor Columns 8ued on Secand-Order AHlysis Results
P-M
Comb. Story Section Pr (kips) P,(kips) M,. (k-ft) M, (k-ft) Interaction
6th Wl4X74 12.50 735.00 ll.40 472.50 0.03
.... 5th Wl4X74 43.60 735.00 16.80 472.50 0.07
i
u
4th
3rd
2nd
W14X132
W14x132
W14x176
75.30
107.50
140.30
1540.00
1540.00
2090.00
19.70
22.90
27.80
877.50
877.50
1200.00
0.05
0.06
0.06
lit W14x176 173.60 1890.00 37.40 1200.00 0.08
6th W14x74 13.40 735.00 16.00 472.50 0.04
5th W14x74 60.70 735.00 23.70 472.50 0.09
~ 4th 108.70 1540.00 25.50 877.50 0.06
Wl4X132
1u 3rd
2nd
W14X132
W14X176
157.10
206.10
1540.00
2090.00
28.60
33.90
877.50
1200.00
0.08
0.08
lst W14X176 255.50 1890.00 36.70 1200.00 0.10
6th W14X74 19.00 735.00 15.70 472.50 0.05
.1.., 5th
4th
W14X74
W14x132
59.00
99.00
735.00
1540.00
19.40
22.60
472.50
877.50
0.08
0.06
3rd Wl4Xl32 139.00 1540.00 25.20 877.50 0.07
8 2nd W 14X 176 181.00 2090.00 30.20 1200.00 0.07
lst Wl4Xl76 222.00 1890.00 34.80 1200.00 0.09
6th W14X74 16.00 735.00 64.00 472.50 0.15
5th W14X74 71.00 735.00 149.00 472.50 0.36
:: 4th W14x132 140.00 1540.00 204.00 877.50 0.28
~ 3rd
2nd
Wl4X132
W 14X 176
216.00
301.00
1540.00
2090.00
256.00
290.10
877.50
1200.00
0.36
0.31
lst W 14X 176 395.00 1890.00 617.00 1200.00 0.67
6th W14X74 10.00 735.00 56.50 472.50 0.13
1
."' 5th
4th
W14X74
W14x132
36.00
75.00
735.00
1540.00
131.00
180.00
472.50
877.50
0.30
0.23
3rd W14Xl32 121.00 1540.00 226.00 877.50 0.30
8 2nd W 14X 176 174.00 2090.00 252.00 1200.00 0.25
lst W14Xl76 235.00 1890.00 552.00 1200.00 0.52
'Summary of the .00.. a.lculation1 are inclicat<d in bold.
Tllbla 8.34 Strength Chtlck far lntlll'lor Columns &.Hd on Secand-Order An•!Jsls Results
Comb. Story Section P, (kips) P, (kips) M,. (k-ft) M,. (k-ft) P-M Interaction
6th W 14X82 16.50 809.00 6.60 521.25 0.02
.
.... 5th
4th
W
W
14X82
14 X 159
57.70
99.00
809.00
1720.00
11.60
18.00
521.25
975.00
0.06
0.05
1u 3rd
2nd
W
W
14X 159
14X 193
140.40
182.00
1720.00
2290.00
23.10
30.80
975.00
1331.25
0.06
0.06
ht W 14x 193 224.00 2080.00 42.30 1331.25 0.09
6th W 14x82 17.50 865.64 7.80 521.25 0.03
..,
N
5th
4th
W
W
14x82
14X 159
80.50
143.50
865.64
1770.00
14.60
19.40
521.25
975.00
0.07
0.06
~ 3rd
2nd
W
W
14X 159
14X 193
207.00
270.00
1773.14
2365.41
24.20
31.50
975.00
1331.25
0.08
0.08
ht W 14 x 193 334.00 2123.52 40.40 1331.25 0.11
6th W 14 X 82 25.00 865.64 8.40 521.25 0.03
..,.., 5th W 14 X 82 78.00 865.64 12.60 521.25 0.07
4th W 14 X 159 130.00 1770.00 18.00 975.00 0.06
~ 3rd
2nd
W
W
14X 159
14X 193
183.00
236.00
1773.14
2365.41
22.50
29.50
975.00
1331.25
0.07
0.07
lit W 14X 193 289.00 2123.52 38.50 1331.25 0.10
6th W 14X82 17.00 865.64 99.80 521.25 0.20
5th W 14X82 79.00 865.64 211.00 521.25 0.45
i 4th
3rd
2nd
lit
W
W
W
W
14X 159
14X 159
14X 193
14 X 193
144.00
213.00
284.00
360.00
1770.00
1773.14
2365.41
2123.52
344.00
417.50
506.00
747.00
975.00
975.00
1331.25
1331.25
0.39
0.49
0.44
0.65
6th W 14 X 82 9.00 865.64 91.00 521.25 0.18
..,"' 5th
4th
W
W
14 X 82
14X 159
33.00
60.00
865.64
1770.00
196.00
319.00
521.25
975.00
0.40
0.34
~ 3rd
2nd
W
W
14x 159
14x 193
90.00
122.00
1773.14
2365.41
380.00
442.00
975.00
1331.25
0.42
0.36
lit W 14X 193 159.00 2123.52 664.00 1331.25 0.54
Zll
DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS 287
'hble8.35
Story
Sp11clng of Latenil Bniclngs
Section rz (in.) L,_. (in.) L•~•
. .
L....,
Limiting width-to-thickness ratio for the web is defined as a function
of the axial load to capacity ratio, C0 :
Roof Wl8X50 1.7 82.7 5@5" 6@5'
5th
4th
W21X50
W21X73
1.3
1.8
65.l
90.7
6@4'-2"
4@6'-3"
7@4'-3"
5@6'
l..i.a =257
W, P.
(l.O-l.04C8 )whenC. =-"-~0.114
c!lePy
•i...., and L..,. repreoent die odectcd unbraood lengths in 2S ft and ;io ft bcyo. ~
Example calculation far the first-story exterior column (W14 x 176):
Wl4 X 176 ~ bl2t1= 5.97andhltw=13.7
maximum ratio of demand to capacity is about 68 percent for the girders
owing to the flexibility of steel framed structures. For flanges:
MEMBER REQUIREMENTS
b
'J..,=-<'>.i.a=0.32
2t,
-- W, R1 F1
C
•
P.
___
11>~1
409.sklp•
o.9x(uxsi.s1n. xsobi)
0.16>0.114
co
.....
·•••11•:x::wz
r:::
Flguni 8.84 Moment diagram of girden obtained from second-order analysU under Comb.#4 (M,>nd, k-ft).
'nlbltt.38 UmldftfJWlchh-to-llllduuus Radot for C'olumnt strengdi, stiffness, and SCJWB requimnenb along with the compact-
.nm .requlmnent are glve.n iD. Tuble 8.39. In addition to the eelecUon
Column b12t, ~ hit,. ~. of the structural. memben, a design aample of RBS connecUon ls also
!l Wl4X74 6.41 7.35 25.4 54.8 pmaite<l in d.etall. Conliderlng the coat of the add.ltlonal plaie. and
! W14Xl32
W14X 176
7.lS
5.97
7.35
7.35
17.7
13.7
51.8
54.l
die rigorous detailing nquimnentll in the panel zone1, wher than
brtrodud.ng doubler plates to the column web, it would be cost-e1fectlve
co iD.creaA1e the column sizes where doubler plates are required. To do
Wl4X82 5.9:2 7.35 22..4 54.8
so. the stiffness requirement can be checked using the seismic loads
J W14Xl45
Wl4X 193
6.54
S.4S
7.35
7.35
15.3
lU
53.4
51.S
computed based on C,,T.. in lieu of thele bued on the period obtained
from the numerical model. Even though it is permitted to determine
Che sdsmlc loads without considering the upper llmlt on the period
when ((Imputing elutlc drlfta, the reduction in the column size vrould
29,000 re1ult in weak. panel zones, u indicated in the example. h ii very lib:ly
hit,. =13.7 <l-,,., =0.88X --X(2.68-0.16)
uxso Chat the cost of the potentlal need for doubler plales, and their connec-
tions, in particular, would e:ueed the cost of Increasing the column dte.
=54.l> l.57X~ =36.l Therefore, It would be more economical and le.s time conrwn!ng to
compute the drifts under the t<tlsmic I~ bued on the upper limit on
The aummary of Che member requireme.nte for the girden and col- the period for strength design.
umns are presented In Tabl« 8.37 and 8.38, .respectivdy. 8.2.3 C-ntlfcamy BrUl!d FramK {C8FI)
CoNCLUDING RllM:AJucs CBFs are wnsiderecl to be tnus systems resisting lateral forces by tnm
As lined at Che beginning of thl8 chapter, several requireme.ntt key to action and therefore among the most cost-effective SFRS (Fig. 8.85).
ensure safety, servlceablllty, and energy-dissipation capability of the Brace mem.ben Jn a typical CBF are expected to <&alpate energy Chrough
~ arc met while dmsning the framel. The members that satiJfy inelastic action by yielding In tension and buckllng In comp.resslon.
B1111111
Shear plate
Beam
X·Bracing
V-Bnieing
Two-Stmy X-Bracing
F1gure8M Bradngco~111.
290 CHAPTER EIGHT
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS FOR V- AND INVERTED The approximate fundamental period for both orthogonal directions,
V-Bll.ACED Fii.AMES as per ASCE 7, Section 12.8.2.1, is calculated as follows:
Beams in V- and inverted V-braced frames should be braced to T. = C,h; = 0.02 x 83°·75 = 0.55 sec. (Eq. 12.8-7, ASCE 7)
satisfy the requirements for moderately ductile members (AISC 341,
Section F2.4b). Seismic Base Shear According to Table 12.6-1, ASCE 7, ELF procedure
can be employed for the SCBFs. Seismic base shear, V, in both orthogo-
MEMBER REQUlRBMBNT nal directions is computed in compliance with ASCE 7, Section 12.8.1
All structural elements (beams, columns, and bracea) must satisfy the using c.T. = 1.4 x 0.55 = 0.77 sec. Note that despite the elevators are
requirements for highly ductile members (AISC 341, Section P2.5a) supported by an additional frame vertically, the contribution of the
(Table 8.2). An additional requirement for braces is the slenderness weight of the structural and nonstructural members of the elevator
requirement which is L/r should be less than 200 (Le is effective length shaft to the effective seismic weight is incorporated roughly by assum-
of brace, KL, and r is the governing radius of gyration). ing that the slab is continuous along the spans where the elevators are
located.
8.2A Design Example of a Six-Story Steel
Bullcllng with Specl•I Concentrically Bnicecl Frames c =~= 0.60 0.130 (Eq. 12.8-2, ASCE 7)
' T(R!I,) 0.77(6/1.0)
The building is designed in accordance with AISC 341 (2016), AISC 360
(2016), and ASCE 7 (2016). The design steps for lateral force-resisting C, shall not be leas than the following:
systems are as follows:
(1) Design of brace sections using seismic forces based on ASCE 7; C,,min = 0.044SDSI• = 0.044xl.Ox1.0 = 0.044:;,: 0.01
(2) Design of girders and columns in braced bays using capacity- (Eq. 12.8-5, ASCE 7)
limited seismic forces.
The example covers: In addition, as specified in ASCE 7, Section 12.8.1.1, seismic response
1. Determination of seismic and structural design parameters; coefficient, C,, shall not be less than the following for a structure located
2. Gravity and seismic load calculations; where S1 ls greater than or equal to 0.60 g.
3. Analysis of braced frames for the design of braces;
4. Design of braces;
C,,min = 0.55i/(R/I, )=0.5X0.60/(6/l.0)= 0.05 (Eq. 12.8-6, ASCE 7)
5. Analysis of braced frames under two different loading cases; Thus, C, ={0.130; 0.044; 0.05}mu: = 0.130
6. Design of girders and columns in braced bays. The total seismic base shear calculation for each direction is shown
Bulldlng DeKrlptlon The office building of rectangular plan is below.
189 ft long and 139 ft wide in E-W and N-S directions, respectively. The
building is located in Downtown, San Francisco. As shown in Fig. 8.88a, V=C,W=0.130Xl2,058=1567kips (Eq.12.8-1,ASCE7)
various span lengths of 25 ft and 30 ft are employed in both directions.
The vertical force distribution along the building height is summa-
Special ConcentricaDy Braced Frames (SCBFs) with common multi-
rized in Table 8.42, using the Eqs. 12.8-11 and 12.8-12.
story X bracing configuration are used as SFRSs in both orthogonal
directions. Elevators located in the central bays are surrounded by the Fx= C.,,V (Eq. 12.8-11, ASCE 7)
braced frames arranged on lines 3, 4 and B, D, E, and G. The self-weight
of the lift and its mechanical and operating systems is supported by an (Eq. 12.8-12, ASCE 7)
additional frame not shown in Fig. 8.88. The comp0$lte floor system
consists of 3'A-in. thick lightweight concrete with wire mesh on 1%-in.
i=l
steel deck. The orientation of the floor system is shown in Fig. 8.88a. The
typical story height is 13 ft and the first story is 18 ft (Figs. 8.88b and c). Bnice Design According to AISC 341, SCBFs are designed to dissi-
pate the input energy mainly through yielding and buckling of the
DETERMINATION OP Gll.AVJTY AND SEISMIC braces. Therefore, bracings in SCBFs are designed based on the design
LOAD EFFECTS base shear force, which is equal to elastic base shear force divided by the
Gravity Loads Details of the gravity load calculations for floors and response modification factor (Vdea!gn = V.adR where R = 6 for SCBFs).
roof are presented in the MF example. Summary of the gravity loads is Seismic force distribution along the height ofeach braced frame is given
given in Table 8.40. in Fig. 8.89. It should be noted that each braced bay is assumed to with-
Seismic Loads stand one-quarter of the total seismic base shear in each direction.
Seismic Deslgn Parameters The seismic design parameters for the office The bracea provide the gilders with a vertical support at the mid-
building located in Downtown, San Francisco, are given below. Detailed length of the brace-intersected girders. Hence, the impact of gravity
calculations of the spectral acceleration parameters are summarized in loads on brace design is determined by assuming a statically indeter-
Example 1. minate beam to the first degree, as shown in Fig. 8.90 for the sake of
simplicity. Note that the axial deformation in the four bracings located
Risk Category = II (Table 1.5.1, ASCE 7) above and below the gilder is neglected when calculating brace forces
Seismic Importance Factor, I,= 1.0 (Table 1.5.2, ASCE 7) due to gravity loads. The total reaction force induced by gravity loads, R,
represents the sum of the vertical components of the produced internal
S8 = 1.50 g S1 =0.60g forces in braces. The magnitude of the concentrated gravity loads act-
ing on the girders is estimated based on the tributary areas shown in
Sns= 1.00 g Sm= 0.60 g T0 = 0.12 sec. T,= 0.60 sec. Fig. 8.90. Therefore, the contribution of the gravity loads on the demand
Thus, the structure is assigned to Seismic Design Category D. on the braces can be computed as follows:
The structural parameters are given in Table 8.41. M per Table 12.2-1
and Section 12.2.5.4 of ASCE 7, it is permissible for SCBFs assigned P,°B:, =4 x DL =[(6'-3") x (l5')]X85paf
'
x(1000
1
kip )= 7.97k!pa
lb
to seismic design category D to have a building height, h., of 240 ft
except for the buildings having extreme torsional irregulaxity or with 1
Pu.. =AG xll=[(6'-3")x(l5')] x 50paf x( kip )=4.69klp'
f ,door "T 1000 lb
the frames resisting more than 60 percent of the total seismic forces in
each direction. Therefore, the building height of 83 ft does not exceed GIWVitr R 2.37P1
the allowable limit. 1\l>C< = 4sin0 = 4sin0
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL mu MEMBERS 2'1
J------~1w-------
t
-
(a) Typical !loor plm
---r - - . - - - - . - - - ----...--....,.-------r------,
-j13'S!I f!o« ,_____,____ _____- + - - - - - + - -----< .............
cy •
-f ~-~ 1 - - - - 1 - - - ---lf--- -+--- - - l - - - - - - l
...
13'
- l ~Floolt' l----!-;;=:---t~o----+---1-------i
~
1 2.ftdAoor l - - - - f - - - ---lf----+---- - - 1 - - - - - - l
13'
··--
.
1 1"~ 1----1-----+--~-+-----l------l
18'
. J~
H H H H H H
r--25' .' .'
r -30'- r -25' - r -30' .' I- 25'
@ ®
(b) mevation of braced framu on lines B, D, B, and G
l
;~.- "°°1-
-r~~ r----~~r-----t----r------------1 ~
13' y ____ _
l1!1!~ 1 - - - -1--------lll---- - + - - - - + - - - - - - + -- - - + -- - - - l
13'
' *"IF'loor l---~E----11-=:::----t---t----+----*--+----i
•l1~~Aoof z~..._--
13·
' 1'11- 1----f--'lf----ll-----+----+-----+-~-+-----l
1a·-
. ....... ?"""
I H H H H H H I
t 25• 25' -i 30' t 25• ~ 30' ~ 25' ~ 25'
' ' '
@ @ © @ ® ® @
(c) Blevation ofbnced frames on lines 3 and 4
Figure l.U 'fyp:ial floor plm and ele-n!io11.1 of die bullcling.
2t2 CHAPTER EIGHT
Tlble 1.41 Structur'll Ptl'mnners Due to dead loads.,. Jbz. = '7 .971dpt -+ .Pt.m.
2
·~xx~9;;,. 6.561r
Parameter CoetRdeut
Duetoliveloads.,.Pu. =4.6~ -+.Pt.u.
37 4 9
Seiamk Poree-~ Sf>edal CollCelltrlclllly x .6 :
2. 3.86'
SJ11!em Brued Pmne (SCBP) 4Xsin46
Buildllli HtJaht. ls. 8H\
Due to earthquake loads :::t rz =(S4.7 +112•7>1"'° =F120.S1
Jteapo.me Modlflca!OD 6 711Wt 12.2·1, ASCB 7 •1t1JB 2XCI0946°
Coeflldait. R
~Factor,~ 2 Tobie 12.2·1, ASCB 7 .('!:. =(1.2+0.2Sm~,m. +P&41+.l\,u.
Dell«t!o.D. Ampll&«ttOD s Tobie 12.2-1, ASCB 7 P, =.C =(l.2+0.2><1.0)x6.561 +1.0x120.s" +3.86.t
Fador,C,
Approximate Period 0.02 '.nable 12.B-2, ASCB 7
=133.S"(Conapression)
Parameter, C1 As teen from the above calculation, the contribution of the gravity
App.rmimate Period 0.75 '.naWt 12.B·2, ASCB 7 loads in the to1al allial furce demand on brues it relatively low com-
Parameter." pared with that of the seillllic loads.
The Coeflkle.ot for Upper u ToWt 12.3·1, ASCB 7 The nominal co.mpreuive strength of the filth-story braces are cal.cu-
Umitonc.I~ lated accord.mg to AJSC 360, SectWn B3, as follows:
Period, C. Try HSS6.625 x 0.312 (ASTM ASOO Gr. C)
.A1 =6.02in.2 ;r = 2.33 .in.;P1 =46ksi;R,=1.3; K., = K1 =1.0;
111111• M2 Vuttc:al r - Dllltrtbutton bHd o" c.T,, i..,. =,/12.52 +132 =1a.m ft
Srory w. (ldp&) Is,. (ft) w.~ C.. P. (kips)
Roof 893.2 83 134,620 0.140 218.7 J.. Kl.i.,. 1.0X18.036 x(lt"-/lft)
Sth 2233.0 70 277,384 0.287 450.6
-;=-,-= 2.33111.
'th
3rd
2233.0
2233.0
57 219,692
163,762
0.228 356.9
266.l
=92.86 < 4.71~=4.71xl'~:x'=118.3
2nd. 2233.0 "31 110,050
0.170
0.11' 178.8
59,379
Limit state of lndastic flmual buckling applies. Thus. the c.rttical.
lit 2233.0 18 0.062 96.5
sir-. F.,. can be detmnined u per AJSC 360, Eq. E3-2, AISC 360.
I 964,837 1567
P.,. =(0.6581)1~ )P,. (Bq. B3-2, AJSC 360)
2 1
n B n x29 OOO
S4.7kipe E '1 33.19bi (Eq. E3-4, AJSC 360)
---+ • (L,lr'f (92.86)
F., = (0.65~m) x 46 = 25.75bi (Eq. EJ-1, AISC 360)
112.7lcipc II P.ft =A
2
P. =6.02111. X25.75QI =155ldpt
--, ..
0 --
0 --
30'
R=2.~P11
0--
25'
0 -- H H
+--2s·---+
I I
(!) 0
Figure IJIO 1rlbmry am. for the gra'fltr loada acting GD lhe girdcn on line 4.
,- ,
=
/'
Fuu. -6.56k
',- ,
Fb.DI. =-6.56k
(b) Due to dead 1ow
Flgur.Ul Flfth-ttory brm forcea due to~ and gra'fltr loadt.
, -
, /'
=
Fb,u. -3.86k Fb,U. -3.86k
',-
(c) Dae co live loads
=
,
'Btatt.t are made of ASTM A500 Gt. C; "Wad! afhnta fmm cenw!liie to «lllZ:dW; ·~ nlio< ol all bcuet are i... than :l.00;-rhe ~ dlametet-io-....U thld:n... nllo (Dlt)
for hJthlf ~ ~ membm made of dmllu HSS It).,.,; O.OS111Jl,.l'1 ;.2S.7ll; --rhe R>qlllrcd al&l~P,. It «>llttlllled by-lo&d «>mblll8tioo UPI>+ P114+ Pu,.
ZM CHAPTER EIGHT
Girder Dalgn Bued on the capacity de.ign approach. AISC requires Expected ltrength 1n tendon
that de.ign of the members of the lmral fmce-relisting system other
than braoee (e.g., girdera) ahall .remain elutlc. Thul, the required ~ TBn = Tn-5 • R,..F,A, = l.3 x 46"' x 6.021a. =3601dpe
strength of the girders .Is determined bued on the capad;ty-llmited
ldam.ic load effi:ct.. Per Seaion F2.J. AISC 341 (2016), two structural
Bxpemd bidling strengdi
malym cue1 an required for the design of the girden md the columm ... c.- =C- •{R,P,A,; (l/0.877)F...A,}m1a
ill braced bays of SCBPt. The required ttreagth of girder• and columns
aball be taken u the larger of the fon:e1 dctmnined from the aforemen- i. =.!!i. 0.15><1.0>< 18.03ft x (1l1--11• ) _ 7893
tioned two andym. The capldty-~d scUmic loads to be empl~ , , 2.33"'
in each malysis cue ue lbown in Fig. 8.92. >.. seen in Pig. 8.92, the two
Note that when determining the apected critical ·s tml, F,... in lieu of
analyals euet amslder the flrtt-mode deformation when determining the distmce from telltuline to centerline, the distance from bnc:e end to
the aigD of the llltemal forcea. brace end ii uxd u the bnc:e length. Since the detailed geometry of the
Each analysis cafC repraenu a different st9 of the hysteretic frame .la not yet detumlned, the end-to-end dlatance u aaaumed to be
raponae when an SCBP ii 1uhjectEd to m earthquake ground motion.
85 percent of the total brace length from centerl.lne ro centerline.
Brace forcea to determine the capacity-limited seismic load effect on the
girden and columm are attpulated 1n .AISC 341, P2.3 u followa:
The apected brace ttrength 1n tendon: Tlft = R,F.A
F. = w;1B =
2
r x 29,000 _ 4S.941r11. (Eq. £3-4, AISC 360)
The apemd bnc:e strength in comprenion: Cn" = the lc11er of • (L,,/ r ) (78.93)2
R,FA and (1/0.877) P.,..\ F.,. = (0.658 1.-JtUf)xl.3 >< 46 = 34.68bl
=
The espected pottbuclding brace strength: CBPB 0.30 C.u ill which 11111 .....
F.,. is the apected critical buckling streas and the factor of (l/0.877) (l/0.877)P. A 34.68 X 6.02 238.lldc>e
accountl for the initial lmperfectlon1. _.., 0.877
Dalgn ol file ,,,_.ln'-dlad Glnlen In addition to the gra.vity- =>C11, =C111s • {~; 238.lldpe}- =238.lldpo
load-!nducecl bending mome.ntl, the brace-intersected girden in SCBFs
with V-, Jnvuted V-, and Split-X-type bra.clngs an: subjected to se:lsm.ic Figure 8.93 show1 the free-body diagram of the fifth story for deter-
loads due to the unbalanced brace forces that Induce both uial force m.ining the 8uural and uial force demandl on the brace-.111tenec:ted
md bending moment. Th~. bra~inter•ected girders. in gencral, girder. Then, flexural demand on the flfth-atory girder due to 1elmllc
cm be tnated u beam-column members. loads can be cdculated u :
Amz~is Qis~ I
In thia cue, it is uswned that all braces reach their expected strength in M~ 1 = ~[(CiN -Cas )+(T1r5 -Tm)Jsina
temionor In compreaion. Therefore, theapected brace capacities c:an be 4
cdcul&ted u fOfunn.; ft
M~1 = ~[(l38.lldpe-238.1~ )+(3601dpe-3~))1in46° =O
Brace In tenalon => T117' • R,F1 A1 4
B.race .In compretalon ::::>C• = {R,F1 A1 ; (l/0..877)F.,.A1}- and the uia1 force demand wi be computed u fullcwa:
•',
I '
'
I
..
I - •
'
Undeformad '''
I -
Shape •',
. '
H H H H
Analysis Case I Analysls case 11
Figure U2 Strudllrai analytlt c:uee far ginlen and aiiWDDL
DESIGN Of STRUCTURALSTI:fJ. MEMBERS 2H
Pc.LS Pc,RS
FBD of 5tt. story under
capacity-limited seismic loads
t
MQE = [(CEa1i-CEBS)+(Tm·Tm)]slna.
~,:ilii ~~
MQE1 Diagram
~
H
Analysls Case I
H
~
PoE1 Diagram
AJ seen &om the ~ calClllation and the Free Body Diagram• determining the flaural. demand on the girder. Assumed ddlected
(FBDs) mown in Fig. 8.93, when the same brace m:tion ii employed mown
shape of the girder under gravity load. is in Fig. 8.94.
in the two consecutive sto.rie.t, the seismic loads acting on the brace-
.Intersected girde.rs usually amcel each other out. In other words, the M~1=0
brace-.lnte.rsecte<l girders are not affected by the 8d.smic loads and thus,
<:a11 be designed to S'llpp01t gravity loads ~olely. Mm, =0.SXP.m,Lll'd =0.SX7.971dpax2S* =99.63M
Thus, ~ =1.4Po.z. +Pq. +JU. =O Mu. =O.S x Pu.L..,... =O.SX4.69ldpa x 25ft =S8.63k-A
Since the uial load demand 18 u.ro, the flfth.-story girder can be M~ =UM.m. +MQBl +Mu. =1.4x(99.63lr.-A)+0+58.63k-ft=198.lk-t\
treated as a beam member. With the pu.rp08e of being coml.stent
with the UNmptions ngarding the brace deformation in the inelastic The nominal flo:\ual strength of the Mh-mry girder Is computed
stage, Che vertical supports provided by the braces are neglected when according to Staion P2, AISC 360, as follaw1:
To determine a trial section for the girder, strengths for the girders are presented in Tables 8.44 and 8.45, respec-
tively. Note that girders shall be designed based on the larger force
M 198.lk-ftx(l21n./lft) determined from the two analysis cases. However, as indicated in
Z - _r - ---,-',------'-
.t:,mln - F - 50bi Table 8.45, the capacity-limited seismic load effects on the third- and
1
fifth-story girders are zero for both analysis cases. Hence, the required
7Ty W18 x 35 (ASTM A992) axial and flexural strengths obtained from the two analyses are identi-
Z,= 66.5 in.3; S,=57.6 in. 3; P =50ksi;.R,= l.l;L =4.31ft;L.=12.3 ft cal for the brace-intersected girders other than the first-story girder,
Per AJSC 341, Section P2.4b, both flanges of the beams in SCBFs shall in which the angle of brace inclination above and below the girder is
be laterally braced and the lateral braces shall have a maximwn spacing slightly different
of 0.19r,El(R,F1 ).
Ana!Ysis Case II
bi
9 122In. In the second case, it is assumed that braces in compression reach their
Lb.mu:= O.l9r Et(R F ) = 0.1 x x !9,000 122.21n. > 4 = 75in.
1 11 l.lXSO expected postbuclding strength and braces in tension resist forces corre-
sponding to their expected strength in tension. Therefore, the expected
Selected lateral brace spacing satisfy the requirement for moderately brace capacities can be calculated as follows:
ductile members, as per AISC 341, Section Dl.2a.
Brace in tension => TET = R1 F1 A1
Check the limit state of LTB:
It is assumed that the composite slab does not provide a continuous Brace in compression => CBPB = 0.3 times the CllB
lateral support at the compression flange since the steel deck ribs are
parallel to the girder (Fig. 8.88a). Therefore, the impact of the compos- Example calculation for the design ofthe first-story girder is shown below:
ite slab is conservatively neglected. Expected strength in tension
LP = 4.31 ft< Lb= 6.25 ft< 4 = 12.3 ft and =>TETI = TET2 = R,P,A, = 1.3 x 46° x 13.it"· = 831.2kips
Check ccmpactnw requirement for W18 x 35: F.,. = (0.658ux-16/6S.t? )Xl.3 X 46 = 40.8lal
According to AlSC 341, Section F2.5a, beams shall meet the require-
ments for highly ductile members stipulated in Table Dl.1. (1/0.877)F A - 40.8bix13.9m.• -646.7.kipo
m I 0.877
29,000 =>CBPBl =0.3X{831.21dpa; 646.7ldpo}"'"' =194ldpo
b/2t1 =7.06d..ho=0.32 =0.32X --=7.35
l.1X50
The expected postbuckling strength of the second-story braces can be
Use W18 x 35 for the fifth-story girder. calculated in a similar manner.
Summary of the expected brace strengths in tension and compression
for structural analysis case I and the required axial force and flexural =>CBPB 2 =0.3 X{831.2klp'; 731.6klp'}min =219.51dpa
•z.. ii ...wned to be 85% ofthe brace length from centerline to cmterline, L.,.
Tllble B.45 Selected Brace-Intersected Girder Sections for Structural Analysis Ca1e I
Girder F. MQBl MDL Mu. PQBl• M., P., M., =«>.,M,. P,=«>)'. Strength
Story section (kips) (k-ft) (k-ft) (k-ft) (kips) (k-ft) (kip•) (k-ft) (kips) ratio••
5th Wl8 X 35 0.0 0.0 99.6 58.6 0.0 198.l 0.0 249.0 NA 0.80
3rd W18x35 0.0 0.0 99.6 58.6 0.0 198.1 0.0 249.0 NA 0.80
lit Wl8X97 -238.0 497.0 99.6 58.6 119.0 695.1 119.0 791.3 1151 0.93
'Pontive lign mean1 compreaion; "Por AISC 31>D, Secti011 For Eq1. Hl-1& and HI-lb.
DESIGN Of STRUCTURAL$1EfJ. MEMBERS 2'7
Figure 8.95 shows the free-body diapm of the tint story for deter- Per AISC 341, Su:ticn F2.4b, 1*ral braces are to have a mulmum
mining the ftexural and u:ial force demands on the brace-intersected spacing of0.19r,W(R,,P,) for the brace-intersected beam.a in SCBP1.
girder. Then, flexural demand on the first atcry girder due to eelamic
loads can be calculated as: 2
It-= 0.19r1 E/(R.P.1 ) O.l9 x "6t;fn-x;,oorf"l 265.4111. > 4 = 7t;fn-
, l.1x5
M~ =~[(TBr1-Cm1)sin11t +(Cm1-T.rn)sinllz]
Selected la1eral brace spacing satisfy Che n:quirement for moderald.y
ft ductile members, u per AJSC 341, Section Dl.2a.
M~ =~[(8'1.11dpo -19411pt)x s1nss0 +(219.Slr:lpl-831.2..,.)x&ln46°]
4 Ch«k the llmU ~ofLTB:
=Sll.t" Since L• =6.25 ft< L1 =9.36 ft, limit state ofLTB does not apply. Thus.
and the uial force demand can be computed u follows: M, =••M,. =~1 =791.3"°*
p'Qn =J\u/2 Ch«k compactneu '"[Uiremt11t for W18 x 97:
.l\u =[(Tn1+Cm1)cosa1-(C.BPll1 + Tn2)cosai1 According to AJSC 341, Section 112.Sa, beams shaD meet the require-
ments for highly duc:tile memben rtipulated. in Table Dl.1 .
.l\u =[(831.21dpt + 19'1dpt)X cos55°-(219.5ldp1 +831.21dpa)X c:os46°)
=-141.8...
PJn =± 141.81dpa/2=± 70~
=
Plaage: b/2t1 = 6.47 < l.,.. 0.32
W, 29,000
= 0.32x - - = 7.35 OK.
uxso
ForC.,~0.114~2.5'7 i
l
The required uial force and bending moment for Che first-story B (1-1.04C.)
R1Py
girder is detx!rmined con•lderlng the ldsmie IOtid combination: Web:h/t.,<'].,,..=
(l.2+0.2Sm)DL+pQii+LL ufollowa:
ForC.,>0.114~0.884RBP (2.68-C.)~l.57 4 B
RyPy
P~2=70.91dpa)
1 1
hit., =30<Aw=2.5'7x~
29 000
Mb,a2 =512.IJr..A} •
1.lxSO
x(l-IJMX0.054)=55.7 OK.
Mm. =99.63k-ft M:i =l.4Mm. +M~ +Mu. =1.4x(99.63H)
<:ompresstve Stmlgth: In the Jnelutic atage. the braca are aaaumed .not
Mu =58.63"°1l to provide vertical .upport when the b.race-l.Iltenected girders buckle
+512.10" +58.63" =71D.2" about their major am. Therefore. the unbrac:ecl lcnsdi for major-axis
flexural bw:.kling ill taken u the entire span length (L..,. =25 ft). As for
The flexural rtrength of the tint-story girder ill computed acxmding the minor am flemral and torsional buckllng lengths, due to the orien-
to AJSC 360, Section P2, aa fullowr. tation ofthe steelded:(steel deck with ribs parallel to the beam) and the
'.l)'y W18 x 97 (ASTM A992)
torsional bracing $'p«lng (both flange~ are braced tt 6.25 ft), the girder
ill assumed to be unbraced between the lateral bracing point.I for both
=
Z_. = 211 in.'; S" = 188 in.~; A1 28.5 in.2; r_. = 7.82 in.; ry = 2.65 in.; flemral and tonlonal buckllng. Since Che buckling lengthi for flexural
F1 =SO bi; Ry = 1.1; L1 =9.36 ft and torsional buckllng are the same (L<,r =L.,. = 6.25 ft), the flexural
: Pc,L1 PC,R1
FBD of 1tt story under
capactty-llmltad seismic loacls
"j~s;""'T'(c.,,.,.r.,,i•oa,i
• Moa Diagram •
~
H H
Analysis Case II
~
PoaDiagram
2ff CHAPTER EIGHT
, J; -____ ... -
1·
....~"'"""-------- 4JC=2S' --------'~/ij<..v
, x Lateral Brace
buckllng strength about the mi.llor uis will be lower than the tonlonal Chedc tui4l fatu-bending moment infmlction:
buckling strength. Thus, the compressive strength will be governed by The interaction of uial force and bending moment is ch~d using
one of the flmual buckling strengths. The buckling shape~ of the gird.er AISC 360, Ells. HI-la, and H1-1b.
are shown in Fig. 8.96. The buckling le.11gth1 used to determine the cmn-
preu!ve strength of the first-story gird.er and the detailed calc:ulatiom M, =710.21<-t1) P. 70.9
&((Ording to AISC 360, Section li3, are rummarized below: P, =70.911p, t = USl =D.116<0.2-+ UteEq.Hl-lb
L..,. =2S ft. (Flexural buckling length about the x-uis) M, =791.3
M. ...
!L+~= 70.9 + 710.2 =0.93 <1.0
L.., =6.25 ft (Flemral buckling length about Che y-ui.s) .P,=115111po 2P, M, 2X1151 791.3
L.,. =6.25 ft (Tornonal buckling length about the z.axis)
Use WIB X 97 for the first story girdtr.
Thu.s, the c:ritiC"al nr-. F.,. Qil be determined a per AISC 360, Summary of the expected brac:e capadlies in tenalon and co.mpreulon
Ell· B3-2. based on the limit stale of inelastic: flemral buckling. for structural analysis case II and the required u:lal for(e and 11emral
strengths for the brace-intX!rsecte<l girder• ue giwn in T«ble. 8.46 and
L. =(£.~ .~J
11
zs x(12:11a) 38.3<4.7lxJ29.ooo =ll3.4 8.47, rupectm:ly.
, ,... ,, - 7.83 so o.tp E1tllmplcs ol lhe Glr*fs Not lrrlllnectld fly BnKti The gird-
ers not lntemcted by bracings in the two-wiry X-brac.ed frames are
P. = x2B Jt2X29,000 195.lbl. subjected to an uial. force due to unbdanc:ed brace forces ed bending
• (L,lr'f (38.3)1 moment due to gravity loacb. Therefore, the girdeu located in the n'm
P., =(0.658'°'195' 1)XS0=44.9lrli
ltories aR to be d.e1igned for combined flame and uial forc:e under the
two structural analym <:asea. SimJlar to the design ofbrace-!ntersected
x~ =1151.ldpt
2
P.~ =•eP.11 ="'A "R =09x28.S1a.
,,, rr:r • girders, the heavier gird.er 8ec:tlon obtained from the two analysis casu
I
<:ontrol• the design of the girdm not intme'tecl by ~inp. Example Cluck axial force-bending moment intlmlaion:
calculation for the design of Che fourth-story girder ii shown below The interaction of axial lon:e and bending moment ill c:.hecla:d Wling
ualng the FBDs given in Fig. 8.97. A15C 360, Bqs. Hl-la. and H1-1b,
AN.ilysis Case I
M, =198.llt-11
lr.!p9
P. 104.9
_L._=--=0.25>0.2-+ UeeEq.Hl-la
TET.s =3601dpt P, =104.9 P, 411.S
=> { TET4 =615~ M,=294
Jo.A =>
P, +.!Mr= 104.9 +!198.l=0.85 <1.0
P, =411.S.klpa P, 9 M, 411.S 9 294
=>{C 1115 =238.1.ldpa
C114 =435.9t1p Cluck compactness 1"[Uiremmtfor W18 x 40:
Using the FBD shown In Fig. 8.97, the 'elsnlk Wal force de.zmnd
Flange:b/2t/ =5.73<~w =0.32X
29 000
can be computed u follows: • =7.350K.
1.lxSO
&u =[(T.ll'J'• +c.. )-(C!BS +T.11r5))COSOI P. 104.91tpo
Web: C., u =0.18>0.114
&u = [(615.9ldpl +435.91tpo)-(238.1.ldpa +3601tpo)]coe46° = 315.2._.. •,P1 0.9x(l.lxll.81n. xscf"l)
PJe =&u/2+(T.ll'rs-CBB4 )c:osa=315.21r.!p9/2+(360ldpl-435.91tpo)
1 29,000
hltw =50.9>1w =0.88X l.lXSO X(2.68-0.18)
cos46°=104.9ldpl
The req,uired u!al force and bending moment fur the fourth-story
girder are determined '°nsid.ering the •eiunic load wmbinatio.n:
(1.2+0.2Sm)DL+pQii+LL as follows:
Wl8 x ~ doea not satiafy the requirementa for highly ductJle me.mbera.
I
lll•*a L 'l 29,000
..........e:u/2t1 =S.01<11ow=0.32X UxSO =7.350K.
Pu.=O
9
M~=O M~ =IAMm +MQBI +Mu.
Web: C
•=•.P,P,, =0.9x(l.1xl3.s111.
l04. 111p1•
xsoDI)
0.157>0.114
MD£ =99.63lt-A
M1.1. =58.63Jc. 11 J
hltw =44.6<1w =0.88X l9,000 X(2.68-0.157)
uxso
= l.4X(99.63Jt.A)+0+58.63t.1I =198.lt.A
Try W18X40(AS™ A.9.92)
=51~1.57x~l.IXSO 29 000
• =36.I
M,= ••M,.=294" UseW1Bx46.
Design aummary and the aelected girder seciiom fur the analyils case
P, =.,P,, =411.5ldpl I are mown in Table 8.48.
l'llble B.41 Sedlons for the Girders Not Intersected by Br- 8.sed on Structu ..I An11lysls C.se I
p •
Girder F. M~, MDL Mu. M,, Pr1 M,= Cll.,M,, P,=lll)'. Strength
Story aection (kip•) (k- ) (k-ft) (k-ft) (lei';) (k-ft) (kips) (k-ft) (kips) ratio..
6th Wl8X35 415.4 0.0 39.9 23.5 42.3 79.2 42.3 249.0 328.4 0.38
4th Wl8x46 315.2 0.0 99.6 58.6 104.9 198.l 104.9 340.0 463.0 0.74
2nd Wl8X46 355.0 0.0 99.6 58.6 97.1 198.l 97.1 340.0 463.0 0.73
'Pocitive sign mean1 compracion; "Per AISC 360, Eqo. HI-la and HI-lb.
+0+58.63k-ft =198.lk-ft
I
FBDs for determining the axial force demand on the fourth-story
columns are shown in Fig. 8.99. Even though the columns to the left
Tiy Wl8 x 55 (ASTM A992) are under tension, considering that the columns can be inclined in both
Check axial forr:e-bending moment interaction: directions, both columns are to be designed for the identical compres-
sive forces. Example calculation for the fourth-story columns is given
M, = 198.1k-ft P. 268.7 below.
kip• -L.=--=0.43>0.2-. UseEq.Hl-la
P, = 268.7 P, 618
= F5uX26'+PsuX13'+CBB~sinax25'
l
k-ft ~ pl
M, = 420 P, +!~ = 268.7 + ! 198.1=0.85 < l.O c ,u 25'
Analysis Case I ~ , , ,
Pc= 618kipl P, 9 M, 618 9 420 pl = F5uX26+Psu X13+TET4 sinaX25
C,li 25'
Check compactness requirement for Wl8 x 55:
pi 415.4k x26'+ok x13'+435.9 x sin46x25'
Flange: b/2t1 = 5.98 < /.,~d = 7 .35 745.6kipo (Tension)
C ,I• 25'
Web: C.=~= 268.71c1p'2 0335>0.114
cll,P1 o.9x(ux16.21n. x501m1 ) pi = 415.4k X26'+0k Xl3'+615.9X sin46X25'
C.114 25'
29,000
hit.,= 41.1</.,lwl=0.88 x - - x (2.68-0.335) = 47.4 :2: 36.1 = 875.ll:!po (Compression)
1.1X50
(kips)
M,.
(k-ft)
P,,
(kips)
M,=c).,M,,
{k-ft)
P,=<))'.
(kips)
Strength
ratio••
6th Wl8X35 299.7 0.0 39.9 23.5 100.2 79.2 100.2 249.0 328.4 0.59
4th Wl8X55 219.0 0.0 99.6 58.6 268.7 198.1 268.7 420.0 618.0 0.85
2nd Wl8x60 211.2 0.0 99.6 58.6 381.0 198.l 381.0 461.0 681.0 O.M
Fev =299.Jk
'
'
'
Fsu =fi<' r - - - - - M , - - - - - 1
''
=
Fw fj< l - - - * " " " - - - i
I
=
Fw fj< >----"*"------1
I
I
I
I I
I I
Fw =238.fi< Fw= 141.ek
I
I
H H H H
(a) Stractural anal.ysu case I (b) Structural analysis cue II
=
Feu 299.Jk
I
Fw= fi< ~·
13'
F4 u=21WC I
25'
! l
(a) Structuml analysis cue I (b) S1Iuctunil llDlllysis case II
Rgure L99 FBDt ofthe murth-mny columna under apacit:r-limilzd aeimlic load effecta.
302 CHAPTER EIGHT
Summary of the rest of the column axial forces, PQBi• is given in Table 8.SJ Required Axlal 5trength for Columns
Table 8.51. PQEI PQE2 Govunillg PQE Pni Pu. P,
Story (kips) (kips) analysis case (kips) (kips) (kips) (kips)
P2 = Fw x26'+§u x13'+Cl!Pll4sinax25'
6th 259.0 259.0 I and II 259.0 25.7 15.1 310.1
C.L< 25'
Analym Case II::::> , , , 5th 216.0 155.8 216.0 90.0 52.9 395.0
!
P2
c.11•
= ~u x26 +~uX13 +TBT 4 sinax25
pLL =A x LL= (2x 27.S'x 27.S')xSOpoe +(27.5'x275') x 20poe P,, = 1540ldp' > P,. = 1246.sldp• OK.
CJI• T (1000 lb/1 kip)
Check compiictnas requirement for W14 x 132:
=90.Ski"° According to AISC 341, Section F2.5a, columns shall meet the require-
ments for highly ductile members stipulated in Table Dl.1.
P,4 = 1.4Pm +PQB +Pu
-P"'-~ -
' ...
i
'
;!
ii:
ofthe braced &ame. NotedW the first period of vibration obtained from
the numerical mod.cl is around 1.01 sec. (T1 = l.Ol 1ec.). The structural
13' ii
memben other Chan bl'8.Ce$ are de.ligned ualng capacity-limited seismic
loada. Therefore, subsequent to the design ofbracings, the rest of the
structural members are analyzed under the unbalanced brace furces.
+ ~'"-~- 8'
However, due to the anticipmd nm-mode lide-awa.y mechani.nn, the 13' i
i
+ ..._~_
unbalanced braced forces impo.ted on the brace-intersected girden
other Chan the first story cancel.ed each other out. Therefore, the brace- W18x3S
~>
lnte!'leCte<l glrden are deligned for the gravlty-load-impo.ed bending 8S'
moment only. which rmili«t in very light girder tection1. In the cour1c :ll ~
of the design proce.u, Che load. factor on live load in the governing load
combh'lation 18 intaltionally not reduced to 0.5 with the pwpoae of
not having web light girder sections, even Chough It Is permitted. to
do so. It ahould be a1ao noted that owing to the large latua1 atiffncn,
+~. .':' "-
13'
~~~
WUbceo
'
i
i
i i...
the maximum inelastic story drift ralio along the height is found to be JJ<j)
0.014. which is lett than Che allOW11ble limit of 0.02 radiant. Thua, the i' tit i
~"-FI_"! _
13' ~
de'1gn of the braced frame Is controlled by atrcngth. The final design of
the muctuul members in the braced bays on lines 3 and 4 arc gi'fcn in
1lible 8.55 and Fig. 8.100.
~
'niblt t.55 Ami Stcdom forth• Mtmben In die
Bt'HtCI bp on UlllK 31nd 4
Storr
6th
Bracet
HSS6.87Sx0.312
Girdcn Col11JDM
W18x3S Wl4.XS3
l 18'
Ground
Level
- - - - -
3:
REFERENCES
1. ANSI/AISC 360-16, AISC 360 fur Structuul Steel Buildings, 4. ASCEJSEI 7-16, Minimum De'1gn Loach and Altoc!ate<l Criteria
American Imt.itute ofSteel Collll:ruction, 2016. for Building• and Other Structures, American SocietyofCiYil Engineers,
2. ANSI/AISC 341-16, AISC 341 fur Structural. Steel Buildin.g1, 2017.
American Institute ofSteel Construct.Ion, 2016. S. SAP.2000, Integrated Software for Structural Analysis and Design,
3. AISC 358-16, Preqlllllified Cormeaionsfor SpeQ#l t111tl Intmneditite Computers and Structures, Inc. Berkeley, CA. 2000.
Stetd Montent Promu for Sei:smic Appliamrms, ANSIJAISC 358-16, 6. Engelhardt. M.D., Design of Sd.smfo-Resist.irrt Stul Building
American Imt.ltute ofSteel Construct.Ion, n.. Structures. 2007. American Institute ofSteel Comtruction, V.1.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 9
Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Structural Members0
BY
NABIL A. RAHMAN, Ph.D., PE FDR Engineers, Raleigh, North Carolina
HELEN CHEN, Ph.D., PE American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C.
of
CHENG YU, Ph.D., PE University North Texas, Denton, Texas
t.1 SHAPES AND APPLICATIONS thicknesses greater than the minimums. Some trades may still use an
old ~gage numbers• designation for cold-formed steel members, but
Cold-formed steel structural members are shapes c.ommonly manu-
design standards are promoting the mil thickness designation, as it is
factured from steel plate, sheet, or strip material The manufacturing
more accurate for structural design.
process involves forming the material by either press-braking or roll
Cold-formed steel members can be classified into two major categories:
forming to achieve the desired shape. Forming in press brms is ec.o-
framing members, and panels and decks. The ease of manufacturing
nomical for moderate production volumes of a specific shape. However,
framing members provides a variety of cold-formed mapes. The depth
the production of large quantities of identical shapes is best accom-
of these sections generally ranges from about 0.75 to 16 in. and the thick-
plished by roll forming. This is a fully mechanized, high-speed process
ness from 33 to 118 mils for structural applications and 18 to 30 mils for
that is superior for mass production. Although it is possible to produce
nonstructural applications. These dimensions frequently result in plane
shapes up to 1 inch thick by cold forming, cold-formed steel construc-
elements having large flat width-to-thickness ratios. Such slender ele-
tion is generally restricted to the thicknesses given in Table 9 .1.
ments are c.ommonly stiffened with edge stiffeners or intermediate stiff-
eners to forestall premature local buckling. The more common mapes
Ttlble9.1 Thlcknea of UnCNted Steel Sheets
used in building construction for wall studs, floor joists, trusses, built-up
Minimum bue steel beams, and columns are C-sections, Z-sections, hat sections, and angles.
thickness Design thicknes! A few typical sections used as framing members are shown in Fig. 9.1.
De1ignlltion thickne11
(mib) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) Geometric properties ofsCM:ral standard framing members are tabulated
in the AISI 0100 Design Manual (Ref. 1).
14 0.0141 0.355 0.0149 0.378 Figure 9.2 depicts several typical panel and deck sections that may be
18 0.0179 0.455 0.0188 0.478
23 0.0226 0.574 0.0238 0.605
used as roof and wall paneh, floor deck. roof deck. and bridge forms.
27 0.0269 0.683 0.0283 0.719 These members are load-resisting shapes capable of providing a work
30 0.0296 0.752 0.0312 0.792 surface and a durable enclosure against wind, rain, and snow loading.
33 0.0329 0.836 0.0346 0.874 Generally, the geometry of such shapes ranges in depth from 1.5 to
43 0.0428 1.087 0.0451 1.146 7.5 in. and the thickness from 14 to 54 mils.
54 0.0538 l.367 0.0566 l.435 Although framing members are optimized to produce maximum
68 0.0677 1.720 0.0713 1.811 strength and stiffness per unit weight of material, panels and decks must
97 0.0966 2.454 0.1017 2.583 satisfy a variety of functional requirements of which optimum strength
118 0.1180 2.997 0.1242 3.155
is only one. Other requirements are the coverage provided by a given flat
width of sheet, that is, the flat width-to-thickness ratio, and the ability
Sheet and strip steel are the more common materials used for cold- to function for floor electrification and telecommunication conduits.
formed steel members and are designated by the mil thickness, which An optimum design must therefore serve multifunctional requirements.
represents the minimum base steel thickness in decimal inches multi- The most typical applications for cold-formed steel structural mem-
plied by 1000. The design thickness is permitted by design standards bers are stud framing for load-bearing (gravity) walls and exterior
to be slightly larger than the minimum base steel thickness to reflect wind-bearing walls, joist framing for floors and roofs, and trusses for
statistical data that mow steel sheet material typically delivered with floors and roofs. Other structural applications include moment frames,
purlins and girts for metal buildings, three-dimensional trusses for towers,
corrugated meet for decks and panels, storage racks, and storage silos.
"Original material fur thill chapter was written by Roger A. LaBoube, Ph.D., P.E., Figure 9.3 shows the application of cold-formed steel members to wall
We i-Wen Yu Center for Cold-Formed Steel Structures. framing in a multistory building.
30f CHAPTER NINE
.:::Q___
~F
hll<ll
_ _ _._
.,___ ..,.j
~------------------
9.2 MA'IERIALS
A considerable variety of sheet and strip rt.eels h available fur use in
cold-formed conrtructl.on. To be suitable, the material muat posseas
adequate and rdlahle strength and ductility. The yield point is the
primary criterion for member strength under static loading, whereas
the ultimate tensile strength is the primary criterion for connection
strength. Tensile strength ls usually less lmpomnt for member itre.ngth
considerations provided that there is 11. reuonable 'Pread between the
Flg\IN 9.J Cold-furmed steel wall. £ram!ng ID. a mullirn>ry bulld!D.g. yield and tensile strength Ta!ues of the met. Fal.igue and brittle fracture
DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 307
relate primarily to the tensile strength rather than the yield point and Section A3.l of the AISI SlOO Standard (Ref. 2) lists the ASTM stan-
are rarely applicable considerations in cold-formed steel construction. dards that define the qualities of sheet and strip steels suitable for cold-
Fatigue is more common in cyclically loaded structures like machine formed construction. Certain steel grades within these ASTM standards
housings crane systems, and the slenderness of cold-formed steel mem- have elongations that vary based upon the thickness of the material and
bers often hinders the development of the triaxial stress conditions therefore are excluded from the designated groups. Some of the most
necessary to initiate brittle fracture. Ductility is required to enable the used ASTM steel standards are given below, while Table 9.2 shows the
material to be cold-formed to relatively tight radii without cracking and, principal properties of these steels as given in Ref. 2:
in the formed member, to provide plastic stress redistribution in regions ASTM A36/A36M, Carbon Structural Steel
oflocalized stress concentrations such as bolted connections. ASTM A500/A500M, Cold-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon
Elongation in a 2-in. gage length in combination with the ratio of the Steel Structural Tubing in Rounds and Shapes
tensile strength to yield strength F,)F1 is used as a measure of ductil- ASTM A529/A529M, High-Strength Carbon-Manganese Steel of
ity. Generally, sufficient ductility is available if F,)F1 is greater than or Structural Quality
equal to 1.08 and the elongation in 2-in. gage is greater than or equal ASTM A572/A572M, High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium-Vanadium
to 10 percent. Steels that do not satisfy these requirements can be used Structural Sreel
but only for shapes that require mild cold forming and that are used ASTM A653/ A653M (SS Grades 33 (230), 37 (255), 40 (275), 50 (340)
without highly stressed connections, for example, roof and wall panels Class 1, Class 3 and Class 4, 55 (380) and 60 (410); HSLAS and
and deck sections. HSLAS-F, Grades 40 (275), 50 (340), 55 (380)
Percent Percent
elongation elongation
ASTM F1 bi F.kil in 2 in. ~ ASTM P1 ksi F.hl In 2 In. ~
designation Grade (tnin) (nrlnfniax) (min) py(mi.) designation Grade (tnin) (nrlnfniax) (min) Fy(mm)
A36/A36M HSLAS-F
Plates and Bars - 36 58/80 23 1.61
40 40 50 24 l.25
A500/A500M 50 50 60 22 l.20
Round Tubing A 33 45 25 1.36 55 Class 1 55 70 18 l.27
B 42 58 23 1.38 55 Class2 55 65 20 l.18
c 46 62 21 1.35
60 60 70 18 l.17
D 36 58 23 1.61
70 70 80 14 l.14
Shaped Tubing A 39 45 25 1.15
80 80 90 12 l.13
B 46 58 23 l.26
c 50 62 21 1.24
A79'J/A792M
D 36 58 23 1.61
Sheet SS
A529/A529M
Plate& and Bar• 50 50 65/100 21 1.30 33 33 45 20 l.36
55 55 70/100 20 1.27 37 37 52 18 l.41
40 40 55 16 l.38
A572/A572M
50 Class l 50 65 12 1.30
Plate& and Bar• 42 42 60 24 l.43
50 50 65 21 1.30 50 Class4 50 60 12 l.20
55 55 70 20 1.27 60 60 70 10 l.17
60 60 75 18 1.25 70 70 80 9 l.14
65 65 80 17 1.23 80 Class 1 80 82 - l.03
A653/A653M 80 Class2 80 82 - l.03
Sheet SS 80 Class 3 80 82 3 l.03
33 33 45 20 l.36 Al003/Al003M
37 37 52 18 l.41 Sheet ST33H 33 45 10 l.36
40 40 55 16 1.38
ST37H 37 52 10 l.41
50Clan 1 50 65 12 1.30
12 ST40H 40 55 10 l.38
50 Class 3 50 70 1.40
50 Class4 50 60 12 1.20 ST50H 50 65 10 l.30
55 55 70 11 1.27 ST55H 55 70 10 l.27
60 60 70 10 1.17 ST57H 57 70 10 l.23
70 70 80 9 1.14 ST60H 60 70 10 l.17
80 Class 1 80 82 - 1.03 ST70H 70 80 10 l.14
80 Class 2 80 82 - 1.03 ST80H 80 90 10 l.13
80 Class 3 80 82 3 1.03
HSLAS
ST33L 33 - 3 -
ST37L 37 - 3 -
40 40 50 22 1.25 ST40L 40 - 3 -
50 50 60 20 1.20
55 Class 1 55 70 16 l.27
ST50L 50 - 3 -
55 Class 2 55 65 18 1.18 ST55L 55 - 3 -
60 60 70 16 l.17 ST60L 60 - 3 -
70 70 80 12 1.14 ST70L 70 - 3 -
80 80 90 10 1.13 ST80L 80 - 3 -
JOI CHAPTER NINE
Class 1 and 2, 60 (410), 70 (480) and 80 (550), Steel Sheet, Zinc- line in the elastic range up to yielding, a definite horizontal inelastic
Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by yield plateau followed by a strain hardening range up to the ultimate
the Hot-Dip Proce3S point. Figure 9.4b shows the behavior of a gradually yielding steel
ASTM A792/A792M (Grades 33 (230), 37 (255), 40 (275), 50 (340) beyond the elastic range and up to the ultimate point. For such steels,
Class 1 and Class 4, and 60 (410)), Steel Sheet, 55% Aluminum-Zinc the yield strength is defined either by a 0.2 percent offset or by a stipu-
Alloy-Coated by the Hot-Dip Proce3S lated amount of total elongation, usually 0.5 percent.
ASTM Al003/Al003M (ST Grades 50 (340) H, 40 (275) H, 37 (255) The strength of cold-formed steel members is generally controlled by
H, 33 (230) H), Steel Sheet, Carbon, Metallic- and Nonrnetallic- local and overall instability (buckling). The strength of members that
Coated for Cold-Formed Framing Members fail by buckling depends not only on Young's modulus E but also on the
In addition to material ordered and produced to the ASTM standards tangent modulus E1 (see Fig. 9.4b) determined at the magnitude of stress
listed in AISI Sl00 (Ref. 2), other sheet and strip steels are permitted to at which buckling occurs. Current design procedures are formulated
be used To ensure the safety of such use, the minimum physical prop- for steels having a proportional limit (the range for which E is linear)
erties of such steels should be specified in a manner similar to that of not lower than 70 percent of the specified minimum yield point. This
ASTM steels and their structural suitability established by stipulating precludes the use of the AISI Specification for materials such as stainless
an adequate spread between yield and tensile strength and sufficient steels in which the proportional limit is often considerably lower.
elongation. Adequate controls by tests and analyses must be instituted However, ASCE has promulgated a specification for the design of
by the producer or purchaser to verify the specified properties. stainless-steel cold-formed structural members (Ref. 3).
Steels with yield points of 30 ksi or less are rarely used for structural
applications. The bulk of the usage lies in the range of 33 to 55 ksi.
!l.J CORROSION PROTECTION
Higher-strength steels are limited to specific situations.
The static strength of steel structural members depends not only on Cold-formed steel members are manufactured from relatively thin steel
the yield point but also on the shape of the initial portion of the stress- sheet, and corrosion protection is of primary interest to manufacturers
strain diagram. Sheet and strip steel and their manufactured structural and designers. Bare steel is subject to corrosion if it is not covered by an
members exhibit one of the two types shown by Fig. 9.4. Figure 9.4a approved method of protective coating. The most common method of
shoM! the behavior of a sharp-yielding steel with a practically straight corrosion protective coating is metallic hot-dip zinc galvanization.
Strain
(a)
Strain
(b)
Figure !IA Streu-strain curves of steel sheet and strip (a) o1wp yielding and (b) gradual yielding steel
DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 309
In this method, steel sheets are cleaned and then dipped continuoualy Standard (Ref. 2). Design tables, charts, and examples that are devel-
in a bath of molten zinc. The high temperature of the zinc bath enhances oped based on this specification are provided in the AISI 0100 Design
a reaction between steel and zinc, thereby creating a tight, metallurgi- Manual (Ref. 1). The AISI 5240 Standard (Ref. 4) is a standard that
cal bond between the two metals. The coating of zinc will eventually includes provisions that are specifically applicable for cold-formed
oxidize, but its corrosion rate is much lower than that of carbon steel steel light-framing construction, such as structural wall stud and floor
in the same air environment. The zinc coating is known to sacrificially or roof joist framings. For seismic design, AISI S400 Standard (Ref. 5)
protect any bare steel edges. Therefore, it is not required to re-treat shop should be followed. An in-depth discussion of the behavior and design
or field-cut edges, punched and drilled holes, or scratches in these cold- of cold-formed steel members can be found in the publication Cold-
formed steel members with zinc material. The zinc surface near a bare Formed Steel Design (Ref. 6).
steel edge or a scratch will cover the area with zinc oxidation, preventing
the steel from corroding until the nearby zinc is consumed. t.4.2 Design BHis
Several other methods of protective coating for steel sheet exist in Both the allowable strength design (ASD) and load and resistance factor
the industry and provide equivalent corrosion protection to hot-dip design (LRFD) methods can be used to determine member design
zinc galvanization. Table 9.3 shows industry-approved methods of strength. In the design standards, ASD and LRFD are founded on the
protective coating and minimum coating requirements for normal same nominal strength. The allowable strength is obtained by divid-
exposure conditions. These normal conditions are defined as having ing the nominal strength by a safety factor when ASD is used, and the
the cold-formed steel members enclosed within a building envelope or design strength is obtained by multiplying the nominal strength by a
structural assembly within a controlled environment. A heavier coating resistance factor when LRFD is used. The required strengths, that is,
might be needed for more severe exposure conditions, such as marine member forces, determined according to ASCE 7 Standard load com-
or industrial atmospheres. In addition, heavier coating is recommended binations (Ref. 7) and with consideration of structural stability (consid-
for connectors and fasteners at structural joints where higher levels of ering P-A and P-S effects), should not exceed the member's allowable
humidity or moisture can increase the risk of corrosion. strength (for ASD) or design strength (for LRFD).
simpllfies the 8tre# dlmibution by replacing the no.nllnear actu.al stress Fat= filement local bucJdinB 8tl'e#
caused by local buckling and post-bw:.kling with a linear streu disttibu-
tion on the effective widths. The e8'ectlve widths are detenni.aed by - k 11:2.li 2 (-t )2 (9.4)
- 12(1-jl. ) w
equating the total force of the no.nllnear stress distribution to one with a
linear meu distribution on the effective widths as ffiust:rated in Fig. 9.6. k =Plate budcling coefficient
The effective width for unifon:nly compn:ued elementa can be calcu- =4 for a lliffened element rupportfld by a web on each longi-
lated using the following equations: tudinal edge
B:ffeciive width b =pw (9.1)
=0.43 for an element supported by a web on one longltudinal
~e and&« on the other end
where w =Flat width of element B =ModulWI of elasticity= 29,500 bi (203,000 MPa)
p =Local reduction fllctor JI.= Poisson't ratio of steel= 0.3
=1 when '>. :S 0.673 t =Thickneii of element
=(I - 0.22/')..)/'>. when'>.> 0.673 (9.2) For o1her st:rells dlnribution.s and edge fixity conditions, the effective
widlh can be determined Wling the provilions in Appendix 1 of the
1 =Slendemea factor AISI 8100 Standard (Ref. 2).
- !I (9.3) DIRECT STJU!NGTH METHOD {DSM)
1JP,;; lmtead of a>midcring individual element bw:.k.ling separately, this
f =Compreaaive me. in element .method determlnu the buckling loacb of the whole Cl'Olll eectian ao that
1he intuaction between the elements 11 comidered. The .method then
determines member ruensth• due to various budcling mode~. Shown
in Fig. 9.7 ii a ligna.tw:e bw:.kling curve of a C-section member under
1.5
0.5
b/2
~I b/2
0 ~1,__~~~~~~......,.10.,,_~~~~~~---,-!100
compression. The curve shows how the ratio of buckling load, Pa, to the (c) Flexural-torsional buckling:
yield load, PY' varies with respect to the critical unbraced lengths. The
illustrations of the deformed cross section indicate that member local Pm= ~[Ca.. + a 1 )-~(aa. +a 1 )2 -4~a..a 1 ] (9.11)
buckling occurs at a short buckling half-wavelength, and gradually the
buckling mode is switched to distortional buckling at an intermediate ~ = 1 - (x.Jr0 ) 2 (9.12)
buckling half-wavelength, and finally to the global buckling mode at a
long buckling half-wavelength. In design, the minima of the local and where K, L, and r = effective length factor for flexural buckling,
distortional buckling modes are used to determine the corresponding unbraced length, and radius of gyration about the axis of buckling,
member strength. The smallest strength due to global, local, and distor- respectively; E = modulus of elasticity = 29,500 ksi (203,000 MPa);
tional buckling will govern the overall member strength. = =
r0 polar radius of gyration about shear center; G shear modulus =
11,300 ksi (78,000 MPa); J and C,. = torsional and warping constants,
t.5 STRUCTURAL STABILITY IN DETERMINING respectively; K1 and L1 = effective length factor and unbraced length
MEMBER FORCES for torsional buckling, respectively; a.,. = flexural buckling stress about
x-axis; and x0 = distance from the centroid to the shear center along
Structural stability can be maintained only when the structure remains the x-axis. For other cross-sectional types, equations are provided in
balanced even in its deformed shape after being subjected to applied Appendix 2 of the AISI SlOO Standard.
loads. This means that when computing the member forces, those forces (2) Nominal compression strength, Pnl.• due to local buckling inter-
caused by structural deformation, joint displacement, geometric imper- acting with global buckling. Both EWM and DSM can be used to deter-
fection, and stiffness reduction should be considered in the structural mine the nominal strength as follows:
analysis. Three approaches are described in the AISI SlOO Standard, =
(a) Effective width method: The nominal strength Pn1. A)I. S P...,.
Section Cl, Design for System Stability. Readers may refer to AISI SlOO where F. is determined in accordance with Eqs. (9.6) and (9.7) and
for design provisions and AISI DlOO Design Manual (Ref. 1) and the A,, is the effective area determined according to Effective Width
design examples. Method in Sec. 9.4.4.
(b) Direct strength method: The nominal strength, Pnl.• is calcu-
t.6 MEMBER DESIGN
lated as follows:
o~;7} ,
r
Forl..d::!>0.561; Pnll=P1 (9.16)
For A., > 1.5, F. = ( (9.7)
load of Pr!J and to possess the axial stiffness of llm· Both Pr!J and (3,.,, are where (9.32)
calculated as follows:
M •• = Nominal flexural strength for lateral-torsional buckling as
(9.21) defined in Eq. (9.24)
A = 2(4-(2/n))(QP. ) Mat= Critical elastic local buckling moment= Fcrt:SJ (9.33)
ForASD, (9.22)
""' 4 "' Fcrt = Local buckling stress that is controlled by the lowest element
where il = 2.00 and P,,. is calculated per ASD load combinations: buckling stress. Fat can be determined numerically using software (such
as CUFSM) or approximated by simplified method as described in the
1
llr1> = 2[4- ~2/n)]( ~)
ForLRFD, (9.23) AISI Direct Strength Method Design Guide (Ref. 8) and Appendix 2 of
AISI SlOO (Ref. 2)
(3) Nominal strength, M""' due to distortional buckling. M.4 is
where cjl =0.75; and P,. is calculated per LRFD load combinations. determined as follows:
(6) Compression members with holes: Specific design provisions are
provided in Chapter E of the AISI $100 Standard, which accounts for
the effect of element holes on member strengths.
9.6.2 Flexur•l Strength
Similar to compression members, flexural member strength is deter-
mined by considering all of the global, local, and distortional buckling
For 1..4 S 0.673; M. 4 = ~
(9.35)
(9.36)
modes and the smallest strength governs the design.
(1) Nominal strength, M,,., due to yielding and global buckling. The
~=s11, (9.37)
nominal member strength is calculated as follows:
Mad=Sf1ad (9.38)
M •• =s1 F.s~ (9.24)
Fad = Elastic distortional buckling stress determined per Appendix 2 of
F. is determined as follows: AISI SIOO Standard or using Table 11-5 ofthe AISI moo Design Manual
for standardized stud/joist sections.
(9.25) (4) Member bending strength: The nominal bending member
strength, M,.. is governed by the smallest value of M,.., M,.,, and M"". The
For 2.78F1 > Fere> 0.56FY' (9.26) available strength is M,.JOb for ASD, and c)lr,M,, for LRFD, where Ob = 1.67
and cllb = 0.90.
(5) Bending members with holes: Specific design provisions are pro-
For F= S 0.56F,. (9.27)
vided in Chapter F of the AISI SlOO Standard, which accounts for the
where s1 = Full section modulus relative to the extreme fiber in yielding effuct of element holes on member strengths.
about the bending axis considered,~= Yield moment= s1FY' and Fere= 9.6.J Shur Strength
Elastic global buckling stress. For symmetric and singly symmetric cross
sections (with x-axis as the symmetric axis). lateral-torsional buckling Flexural member shear strength is determined based on the shear buck-
controls global buckling, and it can be calculated as follows: ling and the post-buckling strengths. The nominal shear strength Y11 for
members without transverse web stiffeners is determined as follows:
Cbr0 A
F= = - - '~a.,at Forbendingaboutx-axis (axis of symmetry) For A,, S 0.815, v.= V, (9.39)
s,
Vn = 0.60t ~F,k,,F1
2
(9.28) For 0.815 < A,, S 1.227, (9.40)
where Ch = Bending coefficient dependent on moment gradient in the For A,,> 1.227, V11 = Ver= 0.904Ek.,t3/h (9.41)
unbraced length; and aey =Flexural buckling stress in accordance with
Eq. (9.9) with K. L, and r computed about y-axis. The lateral-torsional where rv;
• vv.:
l = (9.42)
buckling about the y-axis or buckling stresses for other type of cross
sections can be obtained from Chapter F or Appendix 2 of the AISI
S100 Standard.
V, =Shear force of cross section at yield= 0.6A,.F1 (9.43)
(2) Nominal strength, Mw due to local buckling. Both BWM and A,..= Area of web element= ht (9.44)
DSM can be used to determine the strength Afnt as follows:
h = Depth of flat portion of w~b measured along plane of web
(a) Effective width method: M,.,, = S,F. s Sa Py (9.29) t =Web thickness
k,. = Shear buckling coefficient
where S, = Effective section modulus calculated using the effective 5.34
width of the flat elements determined with the extreme fiber compres- = 4.00 + - -
2
when a/h S 1.0 (9.45)
sive stress at F. computed using Eqs. (9.25) through (9.27). The effuctive (alh)
widths of the elements can be determined in accordance with Appendix 1 4.00
of the AISI SlOO Standard. S., = Effective section modulus calculated = 5.34 + (a/h)2 when a/h > 1.0 (9.46)
with the extreme tension fiber stress at F1•
(b) Direct strength method. The nominal strength is obtained a = Shear panel length of unreinforced web element and clear distance
as follows: between transverse stiffeners of reinforced web elements
The available shear strength is V,.JO. for ASD and ell.v. for LRFD,
For 1..1 S0.776, M,.,,=M., (9.30) where 0,. = 1.60 and ell.= 0.95.
9.6A Web Crippling Strength
(9.31) When cold-formed steel members are subjected to transverse con-
centrated loads or reactions introduced by bearing on a flange, web
DESIGN OF COU>FORMED mu $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 313
(a)
Rgure t.8 Web crfpf>lillg of wld-formed steel Kdi011L
(b)
For LRPD: 0.91(:.) +( ~) :S 1.33f, += 0.90 (9.52)
whereP,M=Concentratedloadorructio.nandthemomentattheloca-
c.rippling may occur due to the interaction ofhigh local transvem web tio.a determined per ASD and LRFD load comblnat.lom, respectively;
compression and longitudinal web compre11ion from tlaure as ahown P,, = Nominal web crippling strength determined per Sec. 9.6.4 above;
.In Fig. 9.8. and M..t,o =Nominal flexural ltrength for globally braced member.
The nomlD.al web alppllng 8trellgth. P,.. Is determined by1he fuDowlng The lnteract.lo.n checb for an I-section formed by two C-ieclions
equation: or Z-•ectlon memben are provided In Section H3 of the AISI SlOO
Standard.
1
Pn =CelP sme(1-c1tl)(1+cN~)(1-c~~) (9.47) DllSIGN b.ulPLB l
Check the strength of the pin-pin aupported column 3625162-54 thown
where C, Cll> CH' c,, = Coefficienb that are provided in .AISI 8100 Sec- .In Fig. 9.9 under combined compression and bending using ASCB 7
tion GS; t =Web thlclmen; G=Allgle between plane of web and plane Standard load combinations (Rel 7). The column is braced agaimt
of bearing rwface, 45° S 9 S 90°; R =Inside bend N4tlul; N =.Bearing lateral budding aboui the y-uis and torsional and distortional buckling
length [*·in. (19-mm} minimum); and h =Flat dimension of web mea- at the enda and mid-span. The groae crots-sectional properttea can
sured in plane of web. be calculated using the line method or obtained from the AISI DlOO
The aafety and realatance factors fur dete.rmJn.!ng the available Design Manual The DSM is used to determine the member stmigtha.
strengths are provided .In the tables for most S«t!0.11 types ahown in The local and distartional budding for«!S and moments are computed
S~on GS of the AISI 8100 St:an<Urd. When the member doe# not have UB!ng the eoftware CUFSM. The followJng buckling loada are obtained:
sufficient web crippling strength, a lliffener(1) shall be provided at the
location of the applied load and/or reaction. P1 =A,P1 =(0.422)(50)=21.1 klJl' M, = S1P1 = {0.482)(50) = M.1 lclps
t.6.!I F-orc:e C'.amblrwcl Actlo1111 P..t = 0.75P1 =15.8 ldpa Mat= 3.15M7 = 75.9 kip-in.
Cold-formed steel members need to be c.hecbd f'Or the f'Ollowing com- Pcrc1 = l.llPy = 23.4 lap5 M.r.t = 2.02M', =48.7 kip-in.
bined actions as applicable:
(1) Combined bending and compmslon In this aample, the elut1c altlc.a1 global buckllng limits are gov-
P M,. M 1 erned by ftexural-torslonal and lateral-torsional bw:kling, which can be
-+-+-~1.0 (9.48} c.alculaled using Eq. (9.11) for compression and Eq. (9.28) for flexuni.
P,. M.,. M., rapectively. The following global buckling limib in compreulon. and
where P, M,., and M. =Required member CO!Dptt$S!ve uial. fur« and flaure from these equations are
bending moments fut x- and y-azl.s, 11:$pectivdy. In accordance wi1h
ASD or LRFD load. combinatlona and with consideration of additional P'" =7.8 kipt Mae= 38.3 kip-in.
loading from lltr'ucture defon:n.ation; P,. =Available uial. l'IRngth deter-
mined in accordance with Sec. 9.6.1 above; and ~ -¥., AVllllable = 1. Comprefilon strength: The compression strength b governed by
the amallest nominal strengths P,. (global budding). P"' (local buck-
flexural strengths about the ce.atroidal. uu, determined In ac:c:ordance
with Sec. 9.6.2 @ove. ling), and P114 (distortional buckling). These nominal strength• can be
(2) Combined bending and lhear computed using 1he equations provided in Sec. 9.6.1, and the results are
For beams without lhear stiffeners: awnmarhed .In Table 9.4.
2. Bending strength: The bending atn:ngth is governed by 1he smalbt
nominal strensths; M,.. (global buckling), M..t (local buckling), and
M )2 +(V)z Sl.O (9.49) M.ttJ (diltortional buckling). The1e nominal llrengtht can be computed
M111,o v. UB!ng the equatiom provided In Sec. 9.6.2, and Che rerulb are summa-
rized In Table 9.5.
For beamswithahearlliffi:ners and whenM/M""' > 0.5 andV/V.,> 0.7, 3. Calculate the required strength: By lnspedion. the ASCE 7 Standard
the follow:ID.g Interaction equation must also be satisfied: load combination D + L (ASD) or l.2D + 1.6L (LRFD) control! the
design. The dfedlve length method described in AlSI SlOO Standard.
0.6c:.J +(:. Js 1.3 (9.50)
Section Cl, DeQgn. for System Stabillty, is used in Ch1s example. Check
the strength adequacy u the mid-span: since die column i• pin-sup-
pored at both ends, the member forces, P11 and M1;p at the mid-span
where M, V =Required moment and ahear force, rapedlv~ Jn due to lateral 1nmlatio.n equal 2ero, and multiplier, B:z, accounting the
accordance with ASD or LRFD load. comb1nation.s; M,. = Available P-4 effect equal zero as well. The aDal force and mome.at caltulatl.on
flexural 1trength detamined in accordance with Sec:. 9.6.2 above; V. = md the compmsion and bending interaction check per numbered 1Ut
.Available ahear strength determined accordance with Sec. 9.6.3 above; em I in Sec. 9.6.5 are summarized in Table 9.6.
314 CHAPTERNINE
t P 01 = 0.9 kips
PL1 = 0.3 kips
j1.625 in.
~1 P02=0.15kips
PL.2 = 0.1 kips
Table 9A Nomlnal Compression Strengths, P... P,.,. and P..,, Calculadon Summary
P,,.
From the ..!oea .i,.,.., P. = 6.86 kip.I, which ia IJIM'llled by global budding. The nallable ru.ngth. are fur ASD, P.._...,=PA=
3.81 k;p.; fur LRFD, p<.).m> - ~)'. - 5.83 kipa.
A.1 =JM,..
M.,,, =0.54<0.776
> 0.56F1
M =51 10(
- 1-10F
-1-) P M..! = M,,, =22.1 kip-in.
"' 9 36F.,. 1
= 22.1 kip-in. =23.Skips
From the nluea .bow, M,. = 22. l kip-In. which 11 governed by global buckling. Tbe nallable llreng1:lu are fur ASD,
Mvm = M,Jil,, = 13.2 ldp-ln.; fur LRFD, M.__i.m, = oil,,M,, = 19.9 kip-In.
DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 315
ASD LRFD
Mid-span momenlll: M.,_ASD = Mn +ML = 7.5 kip-in. M..,Jlll'D = 1.2Mn +1.6ML = 10.2 kip-in.
From the interaction check results, the member strength ill adequate load design, respectively. In addition to the tabulated shear values for
for the applied loads. specific assemblies, a closed-form approach, the effective strip method,
For a complete deaign, the member web crippling at the pinned endwp- can be used for calculating the nominal shear strength of Type I shear
ports and brace points should be checked, and the bending and web crip- walls sheathed with steel sheet. AISI S240 and AISI 5400 also provide a
pling interaction at the mid-tpan should be checked. The brace strength method for determining the deflection of Type I shear walls with wood
and stiffness should be deaigned per numbered list item 5 in Sec. 9.6.1. structural panels or steel sheet sheathing. The deflection of Type I shear
walls with other sheathing materials or Type II shear walls can be deter-
mined by a detailed rational analysis considering the deformation of the
9.7 ASSEMBLIES AND SYSTEMS
sheathing and its attachments.
Cold-formed steel members have been used in a variety of construction Light-framed strap-braced walls are another commonly used lateral
applications for decades. These members are often used as part of an force-resisting system in cold-formed steel light frame construction.
assembly or a systcm in order to attain the required strength and stiffness. AISI S240 and AISI 5400 Standards include design provisions for strap-
It ill well documented through advanced analylles and laboratory tests that braced walls for wind and seismic design, respectively. The energy dissi-
the performance of cold-formed steel members in assemblies and systems pating mechanism of strap-braced walls is yielding of the tension straps,
surpass their performance as single elements. Thia section presents some of and the strength of the strap ill determined from the expected strap yield
these systems and provides information on methods of anal}'lis and design. point and the gross cross-sectional area. Strap braced walls can develop
large lateral strengths by using relatively wide, thick straps. However,
9.7.1 Lat.nil Fora!-Reslstlng Syst•rns the response modification coefficient (R), over-strength factor (n.,), and
Cold-formed steel lateral force-resisting systems typically fall into one deflection amplification factor (C 4) for strap-braced wall systems differ
of the following categories:
• Cold-formed steel light-framed shear walls with wood structural
panels (plywood or oriented strand board) or steel sheet sheathing
• Cold-formed steel light-framed strap-braced wall systems
• Special bolted moment frames
A typical cold-formed steel light-framed shear wall transfers lateral
loads in the plane of the wall through the sheathing and framing mem- Top1nd
bers and into the lower floor or foundation through the stud wall bottom
track and its connection. The induced overturning forces are transferred End post
lnlmmodiate fumring --+---fff---il
through the vertical boundary members (end posts) to the foundation
via the overturning restraint system (hold-downs) at the ends of the wall --++->--- Sheathing
Figure 9.10 shows a typical cold-formed steel shear wall assembly. Height
AISI S240 and S400 Standards (Refs. 4 and 5) recognize two basic
types of cold-formed steel shear walls: Type I and Type II. A Type I
shear wall is defined as a fully sheathed wall resisting in-plane forces
with hold-downs at the end of each wall segment and where detailing ~-----++---Hold-<lown
for force transfer around the openings is provided if the wall has an
opening. A Type II shear wall is defined as a wall with wood panel or
steel sheet sheathing, containing multiple wall segments resisting in-
plane forces, with one or more openings between wall segments and
with hold-downs only at the end ofthe wall. There is no requirement to
detail for shear transfer around openings in a Type II wall.
The tabulated shear values for cold-formed steel shear walls sheathed Tension Compression
with wood structural panels or steel sheet sheathing are provided in the
AISI S240 and AISI S400 Standards for wind load design and seismic Figure 9.10 Typical Type I cold-formed steel ahear wall.
31f CHAPTER NINE
aignifitantly from those for wood structural panel or ltcel •heet ahear and roof puiliN (c::old-formed mel members), and metal roof and wall
walb in the ASCB 7 Standard. cladding symms (1ee Fig. 9.11).
For ff.!mlc deaign. to emure that net tectlon fracture of the temioD. Chapter I in the AISI SlOO Standard i.acludet design iDfonnatio.11 on
straps does not oo:ur prior to yleldiDg of the strap groa cross section, usembliet for metal bulld!ng system• such as aDal. and flexural c::apaci-
the AISI S400 S1andard. place. speciflc: llmltt&tions on the stnp connec:- ttes of cold-formed C ed Z ahapea with cold-formed steel aheathing
tiona. These sysrems all! mated similarly to cold-formed steel shear att.ac::hed to one Bange. The capacities provided. arc empirical and pro-
walb so that the chord studs (end pom), collectors, and anchorages vide a. lingle stn:ngth value that envelopes all of the pertinent flexural,
are required to be designed for the apec:ted ttte.ngth of Che sttap- :flaural-toratonal, lateral-toratonal, dlatortional, and local buckling
braced 'W!llls. The ruap connection• must alao be detigned for the stnp limit mtu. These capacities have bee.11 devdoped through teatiD.g
expected. strength to enSUie that the designaled. energy dillipating performed. by the Metal Building Manufac::turcrs A.noc::iati.on (MBMA}.
med!anitm, stnp yielding, can be activated. prior to any other limit state MBMA publiahea a design manual, the Metal Building SyitemJ Manual
being .realized. The deflec:tlon of strap-braced walls am be dete.rmiD.ed (Ref. 9). which includes topic& for metal bulldlngs auch u load applica-
from prlndplea of mediania with con&ldert&tion of defo.mW.lon of the tion, crane loada, drift and ddlection c:rilerla, fire rating• information.
maps. chord mids, hold-downs, and anchorages. and energy GOnaervation. The manud alllO include• material on GOm-
Cold-formed steel special-bolted moment framea (CFS-SBMP) are mon industry practic:u. guide specification.a, and climawlogical data.
conatdered as a UDJque lateral force-ttaisting syrte.m. Thla type of one- for the United States.
atory frt&ming S)'8tem. uae. hollow structural KCt.lons {HSS) uprights and
relaiively atocky C-sec:ti.on beamJ with a apecially detailed bolt group at t.7.l lndul'lrLll Slor11ge lladm
the beam-to-column connection. This 1peciali2ed syltem. is commonly Industrial. steel storage racks were devdoped to store palletmd, con-
used iD. industrial me:uanlne and open-span tt.tldentiaJ. atructum. ta!neraed. or large unit loadt U"1lllly placed in the raclc by mechanlc:al
CFS-SBMF aystems are designed to withstand substantial in.elastic: handling equipment. The height of a rack. structure is limib:d only by die
defOrmati.on during lipific:ant •eimlic; events throllfh fric::tion and equipment u.secl to atore or retrieve the material. The dmgn criteria for
bearing at their bolted amnec::tiom. The design of CFS-SBMP1 require detennining the llructural performance of lted rack. ltzuctw:a all! con-
that connectlom be contlgured. eo that a ductile limit date (e.g., bearing, tained i.11 the Rack Manufacturen lnBtitute Sp«ifkation for the Design,
loc:al yielding) conttols the awflable strength. Beaim and colWWls are Ttsting, 11t1d UtiUzatlon <1fIndustrial S'"1 Storage Rads (Ref. 10).
pIOtec:ted in order to remain elutic: by capacity dmp principles. Drift
calculaliona mould include deflectiom due to the membera aa well aa t.7.4 1nluu
the deformation in the connectlona. The AISI S400 Standard include$ Cold-formed steel truues are made up of either standard C-teetlont
design p.rovislom and quality control procedures for the CFS-SBMF or proprietary members assembled together directly or through. gusaet
symm. plaie. with saews, boltB, or welds. Tru..esue typicallyprede&igned and
preengineered into cUJtDmized roof shapes. Truaes are a!Jo typically
9.7.2. Mttll Buldlng s,stlms prefahrlca.ted to accelerate the construction procu• and reduce on-site
Metal bullding systems have evolved over the years ID.to wemblies Jabor costs. The design of cold-formed steel ttua members sJWl fol-
of structural elements that work together u a muctura1 sy8tem. The low the AISI SlOO Standard. while the AISI S240 Standard. provide•
basic elemcnt.t of the metal building systems are primuy rigid framea additional provisions on the design, quality usurance, inatallalion, and
(structural steel members}, secondary members GOmpo1ed of wall girls teltlng ofthe cold-formed steel tnm uaemblies.
Purlin
Door jamb
Endwell girt
WlndowF.O.
Flgure9.11 Anammyofa.metalbailding.
DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 311
t.I CONNECTIONS molt common. Lengtha typically'\'Uf &om '4. in. (13 mm) to u much u
3 in. (76 mm) depending on the spplica1ion. Screws are generally" in.
Conventional methodl of attaclunent. that it, fuaion welds, re1iltanu
(10 mm) to ~ in. (13 mm) lonFf than the thickneu of the connected
wdd,. and bolta. 6ncl appllcation in cold-Conned steel conmuaion.
H~. bea\ile of the re1WTdy am.11 thiclme• of the memben,
matuials 1 0 that a minimum of three thread. man mend beyond the
connected material. It. ii important that the drill point be at leut u long
other fonm ofjoining. 1uch as •cran. powcr-actmted famneq (PAFs), u the material thiclmeu being f.a.daied together to complete drilling of
.uipte.. adbaiva, 111d teanu formed by mechanically enpging the
the hole prior to engagement of the threads. The correct futmer type
members. are also commonly found. and length for each spplicalion mould be aelected br consulting the
1crew manu&cturer'a teclm.ical apecificatiom.
ta.L1 W.We11Connedl11111
The aaew connection ~ ue fmly atnightforward: capacity
Pulkm wddl are llSed i>r on-cttc mcl off-cttc welding to COllDCCt aild- deperut. upon the thid:Deaa and =aile sticngth of the sheet .tee), and
formed stcd to cold-i>rmeci lb:cl or cold-formed llllel to hot-rolled llllel the diameter of the ecmv. Deaign provisiom of llCrew' oonnectiOIUI in
memben. Weldlng of thin meet. whkh 1' often plYanbed, requlra wdd- cold-formed steel iire included in Section J4 of the AISI SIOO Standlnt
ing ahapu mcl 'Wddlng tulmiqua that are often dJ1fi:rent from thOle 111eci Minimum lpacing ~ l t m Q I.I typically 3d. where aI.I the nominal
for wdd1Dg thicker meet. p1att. and shapes. Mc weldlng or reslstana: •~ diameter. and m.iDimuln cliltanc.e from the center of the K.reW to
wddlng may be Uled to connect thin lheet mel and In die building am.- any edge or end of 1111 connected part is 1.5d. The AJSI SIOO Standard
struction indultry, the ate wddingprocea ii byfvthe most common. Mc identifies three limit statee for a tcreW connection rubjected to a .he.
wddlng II the procea of fualngmaterlal together by an electric an:. usually fort-.e: bearing. tilting. and lcm¥ body shear failure. The bearing limit
with the additlA:G of'Mid filer metal Ralsbmce wdds are commonly Uled "* genmlly refen to failure in the connecil:d element/component
for connecting thin lheet mela In the automotive or appliaDce .iDdustries. rmilting £mm loc:tl defurmation It the loaded fKe of the fastener. 'Ihe
The most common weic!Jng typel to connect framing members are the tilting limit mie iimllYa rotation of the ~ followed. by threW tear-
flilet weld and the dare groow wdd Arc spot weldl, also called puddle ing out of the lcnm meet. which re~ the connection shear capad1y.
welds, are the llW1dard method of attachlng a floor or roof deck to muc. The ~body shear limit 1tate datribes the rnecbaniw ~ ofthe
tural framing. The 'Midi are made by bum1ng through the deck and then •~ mdf in .hear. For a ~connection aubjeaed to a tenaion foru.
fllllq the hale wllh nd material Thi. gl:ft8 the same type of connection
u a plug weld ill ttructural lteel members, where the hole i. predrilled or
three limit ftates are at.o identit'ied: pullout. ~ and •crew body
tenaion failure. Under tu.lion, a KJeW connection may &ii by having the
prepunched. Groove we1dl In butt jointl are commonly ueed dwing the •tm¥ thread. pulling out froi:n the member not in contact with the acrew
roll-funnlng proceM to connect the flat lheet of ODe coil to the nat coil. head. by baTing the l=I sheet in amtxt with the acrew head cleformiJll
The dulg:D of welded OOD.llectiom for cold-formed steel comtruction tnd pulling am' the acrew head. or by temile future of the screw ittd!
ii governed by SectiOll J2 of the AISI SlOO Standard. and the Structutal Combined aheu and tcmion on lcrew' 4'0llDCdiom shall also be cbecbd
Welding Code-Sheet Steel, AWS Dl.3 (Ref. 11). The AlSI SlOO Standard ifbodi.IO&da an! ipplied aimultaneoutly. The aheu end teQile strength.I of
Includes requirenwlu for groove weld.I, arc spot welds (paddle -idl), the scmv fumier itself~ u-.Ily emblithed and publithed bythe acrew
arc team welds, fillet welde, flare groove weldJ, llld plug welde. The manufaaun?r. When this u not the cue, the AISI SIOO Standard applie. &
AWS Dl.3 welding ClOde contalm detailed provilloa1 on welding pro- 25permrtadju.9tment1D the A£ety tnd JUimDce factors whm the lheu
ceduret, control. and !Npectio.n. and should be comulted on all matteu tnd temilestmigths.need to be detmnincd byteltlllg. Figule 9.12 mow.
concemillg fualon welding of cold-formed steel memben.. 1ample failure modes fur eaew connecttona.
t.a.2 loMd Coftnectloll• 9.a.A ~FUMnerCoM1ectlDrw
Bolted connectiom in cold-formed steel comtruction may behllft JVM:r-a(tuated f.a.daiing i1 a commonly uted method to attach cold-
10D1ewhat differently from bolted connections in heavier construction. Cormed steel members to other tubrtratet such u ltrUc1ural steel
The chief reucm for tlm lies in the rela1iTe dimensiom of meets and
bolb, the meet thickuea gmenlly being a miall fraction of the bolt
P+----~~--p
diameter. Ttslio.g hu ahown that bolted cold-formed steel connections
are llllCCptI'ble to any of the following four failure mo&1:
1. Shearing of the material parallel to the direction ofload.
2. Tearing o( the aheet perpendicular to the direction of loading. Tlltlng
A failure of tbU type I.I cm:mnonly r*rred 1D u a net section f.ailure. mode
3. Bearing of the bolt Oil the meet. (a)
4. Shear and temion on the bolt.
Unlike connectiom in heaTf conmuction, the QPW.ty of a cold-
fo:nned steel bohed connection may be enhanced ~tly by the
u.e of wuhen under both the bolt head and nut. Section J3 of the AISI
SlOO Standard contains specific de.ign p.nm.iOIUI for avoiding each of
the above failure model. The AlSI SlOO Standard at.o provides 9J>edfic
de.ign prclVi.aiom for bolted conncc;tione when oversized or .totted
holea are present. Minimum spacing between boltl I.I typically 3d. where Pull-through
d it the nominal bolt diameter. and minimum dl.ltance &om the cmter (b)
of the bolt to any edge or end of any connected part I.I I.5d. For~
sized and doaed hole.. the minimum dear distance between the edp
~· ~·
oftwo &dj~ holea ii 2d, md the minimum clear dl.ltance to an e~
or end ofany wnnKted part ii d.
t.&3 Scnw Connedllln1
ScreM vethemolt commonlyuaed f'utene.nin cold-Conned steel con-
atruc:tioo. Hole1 ue not typl.cally drilled In lteel framing before imtlll- Low tilt angle Large tit angle
iDg the scmn. Therefore, telf-drilling. self-tapping tcrews are the moo
(c)
common futmen ued to frame m:el members. Saewa: are available In
diameter. ruig1Dg from No. 6 to No. 14, with No. 8 to No. 12 being the F19u.. 9.12 l'lallure m~ for 1cmr connec:tlom
31' CHAPTER NINE
9.&5 01flerConMCtlont
Other connection methods, Nc:h u c:linching. rivetc. et('.., are also UJecl. Cold-fomiccl
in cold-nmnecl. steel construction. However, the beha:rior of these member
connections is less well und.entood compared to the connection types
d!Kussed above. The AlSI SlOO Standard does not ezplldtly address
these special connectl.om.
Clinching is a &.stener-leu connection that rerista load by the inta-
locking of one sheet of steel into anolher. Crimping is another fastener-
!e&11 connection but is typ!cally only ueed for non.structural drywall
framing uid has a rel.attvely small conne<:Uon capacity. R.tvettng of
cold-fonned steel can aho be seen in roof mm connections. Rivm are
pre111ecl. into both layenof sheet steel, and the legs of the rivetsp:rudout
to develop the connectl.on capacity.
In addition to these conne<:ttons, specific connectors have been Clip angle amnectol' 2•
developed for specific; application•. Some of the mort common are
deflection dip connectors and deflection tra.c.b used in non-load.-
bearing cold-formed rtee1 framing to accommodate gravity and lateral
defle<:ttons of Che 1loors and roof without applying corresponding Figure 9.13 l!:a:ample 2 connection cluip.
loads In the &aming members. Some ~ pl'od.uct manufactur-
ers have cold-form.eel. steel.-speci6c connecton ruch u hold-downs.
bypw deflection conneeto.n, jo.lst hangers, and mm connectors. Most Cold-Formed. Steel Member-to-Clip Angle Connecdo.11. A:aume
of theae connectors use screw, bolt,. or welded connections, and have P is applied In the plane of the vertical leg of the dip angle and le oon-
(Ollilection-spedfk capacities llmd in the technic:.al data published by celltl'ic with the screw group. The •hear strength Is govmied by two
the manufacturers. A design method based on laboratmy tl:lltl £-or clip limit statea. tilting and bearing. and thear in the la'CW1, per Section J4
anglu used in cold-formed steel construction has been developed and of the AISI SlOO Standard. As.rume 1crew1 are driven from clip angle
p.reselltecl. In Che AISI Research Report RP15-2 (Ret: 12). .Imo the .member.
SluuJr Strtmgdl Umlt4ul by Tll#nf ad B#lrinf
Durcm ExA:KPut :r. t
Since ....! ~ 1, P,,, shall be taken as the &mdleat of equations:
A C-ihaped cold-formed steel member is connected to structural stcel t,
support 111ing a c:old-fonned steel dip angle a shown in Fig. 9.13. Tim
connection i. deilgnecl. to resist an In-plane vertical shear load P = P,.. = 4.2(t~d)1'2 P112 = 4.2(0.0346' x 0.190)1'2(4.5,000) = 530 lb
350 lb (ASD) or P = 560 lb (LRFD). In this enmple, screws are UJecl.
at the cold-formed. steel member-to-dip angle connection, while the P,,, =2.7t1dF14 =2.7X 0.0346X 0.190 X 45,000 =799 lb
dip angle-to-llruc:tural steel connection it chec.bd for both screws
and bolb. Spacing and edge/end distanm of screws and bolts uaed are P,.. =2.7t2dPvz =2.7X0.0346X0.190X45,000=799 lb
assumed to meettheminlmumrequlremenuofthe AlSISlOO StUldard.
The furces applied. are assumed.10 act conc:entrically with the tc:mY" group Screw tilting governs.
of the oold-formecl. member-to-dip angle cmmection. For the screw group P,,.=S30lb
(er bolt group) of the clip angle-to-tteel connecttan.1here lB an eccen1rldty
between shear force P and 1he screw (bcit) line. The e<Xellttldty ii assumed For A.SO, '1=3.00
to be 1in. The two connectlcm are c:hecbd. separately In this aample. For LRFD, •=0.50
.Mataia1 Prapertiel
Cold-formed steel. member: 33 mil. design thickllw 0.0346 in,.= Assume three •crew• are 114ed u 1-ln. spadn! and check the theu
bm:e in ea.eh screw:
F =33bt.Fv=45k.d ASD
Olp tngle: 33 mll. design thidcneu =0.0346 In., F1=33 kal. F,. =45 ksl
Structural steel. member: minimum thic:lmeS1 =3/16 in., minimum,
Pv=S8 bi
V=~= 350 =1171b
3 3
Screws: size #10, nominal diameter, d =0.19 In.
Bolt.: ASTM AJ(fl, nominal diamew-, d =0.25 in., washer diameter V < P,.. = S30=177 lb O.K.
d.,= 0.625 in. Q 3
DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 319
ASD
LRFD 1326
V=210 lb < Pm = =663 lb 0 .K.
'1 2.00
LRFD
So REFERENCES
BY
J. RANDOLPH KISSELL, PE
10.1 INTRODUCTION listed in Table 10.1) and a three-digit number, with an optional prefix
letter, for cast alloys (those that are solidified from a molten state in a
Aluminum has several advantages for structural applications: it has a
mold). Wrought alloys are generally more ductile and have fewer dis-
high strength-to-weight ratio, is easily formed into custom croas sections
by extruding, has good corrosion resistance in most outdoor environ-
continuities than castings and thus are more widely used in structural
applications. Aluminum alloys have greater strength but less corrosion
menta without coatings, and becomes more ductile at temperatures
resistance than commercially pure aluminum (the lllXX series).
below room temperature.
The scope of the SAS includes 27 wrought alloys.
10. 1.1 Design Speclflcnlons
ThMPllllS
The International Building Code (IBC) Chapter 20 requires that alu.minum
structures comply with the SP«ificatjon for Aluminum Slructures (SAS}. The strength of aluminum alloys is increased by tempering, designated
This Specification is Part I of the Aluminum Design Manual (ADM}, pub- by a suffix on the alloy designation. Before tempering, material is in the
lished by the Aluminum .Aasociation (www.alu.minum.org} and revised annealed condition, designated by the -0 suffix. Tempering is achieved
every five years, most recently in 2015. Other para of the ADM provide a by strain hardening (designated by an -H suffix; for example, 5052-H32)
commentary to the Specification, section properties for common alu.minum or heat treatment (designated by a -T suffix; for example, 6061-T6). All
structural ahapes (channels, I beama, angles, tees, zees, pipe, and round and alloys can be strengthened by strain hardening, but only heat-treatable
rectangular tube}, design aid tables (including buckling constants and allow- alloys (2xn, 6xxx, and 7:a:x alloys) can be strengthened by heat treat-
able stress tables for 24 common alloy-tempers, welded and unwdded), and ment. Heat treatment is a two-step process: first, solution heat treatment
31 illustrative examples demonstrating use of the Specification. (for example, a -T4 temper) and then precipitation heat treatment (for
The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications and the AASHTO example, a -T6 temper), also called artificial aging. Both strain harden-
LRFD Spectfications for Structuml Suppom for Highway Signs, Luminaires, ing and heat treatment increase strength but decrease ductility.
and Traffic Signals also address aluminum structural components. The ANSI H35.l defines the Aluminum Association alloy and temper
equations for the nominal strengths of aluminum members and connec- designation systems, which are used internationally.
tions in these AASHTO specifications are very similar to those in the
SAS. The strength equations in this chapter are from the SAS. P!lOD UCTS
10.1.2 ~.,...
Aluminum products used in structural applications include wrought
products such as sheet, plate, extrusions, and forgings, and castings
ALLOYS made by the sand casting and permanent mold casting processes.
For structural applications, aluminum is alloyed with other elements Table 10.2 shows the ASTM specifications for aluminum products com-
to improve its strength.. The Aluminum Association assigns a four- monly used in structures. The SAS requires that material comply with
digit number for wrought alloys (those that are worked into shape and these specifications.
321
322 CHAPTER TEN
hble 10.2 ASTM Aluminum Produd Spetlflc.tlon• (F1uw) of weld-affected zones are given in the Specification Table A.3.3.
ASTM
The Sp~cation designates the cross-sectional area of the weld-affected
specification Product zone as A,.. and defines this zone as extending 1 in. from the centerline of
a groove weld and the heel of a fillet weld. The actual extent of the weld-
B26 Sand castings affected zone is a function of many factors, including welding process,
Bl08 hrmanent mold castings travel speed, amperage, and material thickness.
B209 Sheet and plate
B210 Drawn tube
B211 Bar, rod. and wire 10.2 DESIGN OVERVIEW
B221 Extnmons 10.2.1 Design Methods
B241 Seamle11 pipe and seamle11 tube
The SAS provides two aluminum structural design methods: allowable
B247 Forgings
strength design (ASD) and load and resistance factor design (LRFD).
B308 Standard structural shapes Both require that the available strength equals or exceeds the required
B429 Extruded pipe and tube strength. The available and required strengths are determined dif-
B632 Rolled tread plate ferently for the two methods and depend on the type of structure
B928 High-magnesium aluminum alloy sheet and being designed (for example, building-type structure or bridge-type
plate uaed in corrosive environments structure). Both methods, however, use the same equations to determine
the nominal strengths, which are factored to determine the available
An ASTM aluminwn product specification typically addre35es mul- strength.
tiple alloys and tempen, and all include requirement.. for chemical In ASD, the required strength is determined using the nominal
composition, dimensional tolerances, and minimum mechanical prop- loads, and the available strength is the nominal strength R,, divided
erties (usually tensile yield strength FIf' tensile ultimate strength F"" and by a safety factor a, which depends on the limit state. In LRFD, the
elongation). Some ASTM specifications include corrosion resistance required strength is determined using factored nominal loads, and the
requirements. Much of the information in these ASTM specifications available strength is the nominal strength R. multiplied by a resistance
for wrought products is also given in Aluminum Stand11rds and Data, factor cjl, which depends on the limit state. Safety and resistance factors
published by the Aluminum Atsociation. for building-type structures are given in Table 10.4. Load factors are
provided in codes (such as building codes) for specific structure types.
PllOPBRTIBS
10.2.2 Buckllng
Material properties at room temperature are given in Table 10.3.
Strengths are expressed in terms of the tensile yield strength F ty and The Specification uses the Euler buckling stress 'lf?-E/A.2 (where A. is the
tensile ultimate strength Fn. since Pty andF,,. are usually stated in product slenderness of the member or cross-sectional element) for elastic buck-
specifications. ling. and a straight line for inelastic buckling.
For inelastic buckling, the Specification provides three buckling con-
l'llble 10.3 Material Properties stants: B, the inelastic buckling stress for slenderness= O; D, the slope of
Property Symbol Value the inelastic buckling stress as a function ofslenderness; and C, the slen-
derness at which the inelastic buckling stress equals the elastic buckling
Poisson'• ratio v 0.33 stress. The Specification provides different buckling constants for axial
Modulus of elasticity E 10,100 ksi = 70,000 MPa compression, flexural compression, and shear and different buckling
Shear modulus of elasticity G 3800 bi= 26,000 MPa constants for material that is precipitation heat-treated (in Specifica-
Coefficient of thermal apans.ion a 13 x ltr"l"F = 23 x ltr"l"C tion Table B.4.2) and material that is not precipitation heat-treated (in
Density y 0.10 lb/in.3 = 2.7 x 103 kg/m3
Specification Table B.4.1). Buckling constants are a function of the yield
strength (which varies by alloy and temper) and the modulus of elastic-
Shear yield strength Fq 0.6F1y
ity (which does not vary significantly by alloy or temper) and are tabu-
Shear uhimate strength F,. 0.6F,. lated for various alloy-tempers in ADM Part VI Table 1-1 for unwelded
Compremve yield strength material and Table 1-2 for weld-affected material.
Unwelded -H temper material Fq 0.9 F1y
All other material Fq F1y
10.J DETERMINING REQUIRED FORCES
Density, modulus of elasticity, and coefficient of thermal expansion Because aluminwn's modulus of elasticity is less than steel's, alumi-
vary slightly by several factors, including alloy and temperature. More num structures are more flexible than steel structures. Consequently,
precise values for density and coefficient of thermal expansion are given the stiffness of aluminum structures may change significantly as the
in the ADM Part IY. load increases. Thus, determining the required forces and moments
in aluminum structures must address potential nonlinear behavior.
10.1.J EffllctofTemperatureon Properties The Specification requires that the required strengths of members and
Aluminum alloys that have been strain hardened or precipitation heat- connections be determined from an elastic analysis that considers the
treated lose strength when heated above about 200°F. The loss of strength following:
is proportional to temperature and the cumulative time at elevated 1. Flexural. shear, and axial deformations, including all member
temperature. Heating to 650"F anneals most alloys, and melting occurs and connection deformations that contribute to displacement.. of the
around 11 OO"F. Therefore, welding or fire exposure significantly reduces structure.
the strength of strain hardened or precipitation heat-treated aluminum. 2. Second-order effects, including P-!J.. effects (the effect of loads
Below room temperature, aluminum gains strength and ductility, acting on the displaced location of joints in a structure) and P-l> effects
unlike steel. For this reason, aluminum is used in cryogenic applications. (the effect ofloads acting on the deflected shape of a member between
joint.).
10.1.4 Weldlng 3. Geometric imperfections. The effect of geometric imperfec-
Welding reduces the strength of non-heat-treatable alloys to the annealed tions on the stability of the structure is accounted for by analyzing the
strength, and the strength of heat-treatable alloys to slightly less than the structure with the joints displaced from their nominal locations by the
solution heat-treated strength. Yield strength (Fi,w) and ultimate strength erection tolerances.
AWMINUM STRUCTURAL DESIGN 323
n.ble 10.4 S•fatJ •nd Reslst.nai F•ctors for Building-Type force-resisting systems. Preliminary studies suggest that an appropriate
Stnicturu R for aluminum braced frames would be 3. Alternatively, using an R
Members:
Limit state
• n SAS section of 1 would resist earthquakes elastically, a very conservative approach.
1o.5 AXIALCOMPRESSION For members that are fully weld-affected, determine the nominal
member buckling strength P"" = P,.,.. using budding constants B,, D"
The available compressive strength of members is the least of the avail-
and C, for welded material using Specification Table B.4.1 and Fcyw.
able strengtlu for the limit states of member buckling, local buckling,
For members with transverse welds and:
and the interaction between member buckling and local buckling.
a) supported at both ends with no transverse weld farther than 0.05L
Strengths for these limit states are provided below.
from the member ends, P•• = P,..
b) supported at both ends with a transverse weld farther than 0.05L
10.5.1 M11111bllr Buckling from the member ends or supported at only one end with a transverse
Member compressive strength may be limited by yielding, inelastic weldP.,=P..,
buckling, or elastic buckling, depending on the member slenderness For members with longitudinal weld$, the nominal member buckling
A. The nominal member compressive strength P"" is the product of the strength P,,, is a weighted average of the welded and unwelded strengtlu:
member stress F, corresponding to the strength and the gross cross- P,,,=Pna(l-~!A1) +Pnw(~!A1)
sectional area A,:
Buckling may be flexural, torsional, or flexural-torsional. Flexural buck-
P,,,=F,A, ling is buckling about a principal axis of the cross section, for which the
slenderness A. is L/r, where L is the member length and r is the cross
where section's radius of gyration about the principal axis. Torsional buckling
is buckling about the longitudinal axis of the member, manifested by
Limit state F, Slenderness limits twisting about the member's longitudinal axis, and may govern the
A.~ B,-F" compressive strength of doubly symmetric shapes, such as cruciforms.
Yielding Fey
D, Flexural-torsional buckling is a combination of flexural and torsional
buckling, experienced by unsymmetric shapes. The slenderness for
(B, -D,A.)( 0.85+0.15 c -A,)
c:-A, B,-F" A. C
Inelastic buckling - - < <'
D, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling is A.= 11 /I, where F, is the
0.85ic 2E
~F.
Elastic buckling A.~c. member elastic buckling stress determined using tlie equations given in
~ Specification Section E.2.2, which account for the member's resistance to
bending, twisting, and warping.
A.= greatest column slenderness 0 85 2
E
The 0.85 factor in the elastic buckling stress ~ accounts for 10.S.l 1.oc.11 Buckling
member out-of-straightness. A. Local budding is buckling of an element of a member's cross section,
For members without weld$, determine the nominal member buck- such as the web of an I-shaped member. The uniform compression
ling strength P"" = P.0 using buckling constants B" D" and C, local budding stress for five cases (for example, the web of an I-shaped
(see Section 10.2.2) for unwelded material using Specification Table member, a flat element supported on both longitudinal edges) is given
B.4.1 for material not artificially aged and B.4.2 for artificially aged in Specification Section B.5.4, and the provisions are summarized in
tempers and Fo/ Table 10.5. When the slenderness A. .s.1..1 , F, is the yield strength. When
SAS Section A. Element type Edg<!a Edg<!b yield A.1 Inelastic buckling ~ Elastic buckling Poatbudding
B1 -Fey c, ic2E
B.5.4.1 bit Flat Yes No F.,,, B1 -5.0DP)..
5.0D1 5.0 (S.Obltf
ltBP ki-JB;E
s.on, 5.0blt
B1 -F.,,, c, ic2E
B.5.4.2 bit Flat Yes Ye. F.,,, B, -1.6D,A.
1.6D, 1.6 (l.6bltf
kiB, k:.JB;E
1.6D, 1.6hlt
B.5.4.3 Flat Yes Stiffened See B.5.4.3: F, =Fur+ (Fsr - FllT)PST
ic2E None
B.5.4.4 4.62 (~) I i+A,l(bt) Flat Yes Ye. F.,,,
B,-F"
B,-D,A. c, y
t 1+ 1+ 10.67!. D,
bti
With intermediau
stiffener
None
~
B,-Fey B,-D,A. c, ic2E
B.S.4.5 Curved Yes Ye. F.,,,
D, 2
16A. (l+iiJ
B.S.4.6 Entire shape Fey
B1 -Fey
B1 -Dp>.
k,.Bp k:.JB;E
icJf -A.-
F, D, D,
AWMINUM STRUCTURAL DESIGN 3:ZS
the slenderness ;\.1 < A< Ai, F, is the inelastic buckling strength. When 10.6.1 Ylelcllng
the slenderness A~ Ai, F, is the elastic buckling strength or the post- For the limit state of yielding. the nominal flexural strength M,,p of wrought
buckling strength for those elements for which postbuckling strength is products is the least of ZF.,., l.5StFl1' and l.5S,F.,..
recognized in the Specification. where
The local buckling strength of the full cross section is the average Z =plastic modulus
of the local buckling stresses of all the elements of the cross section, S1= section modulus on the tension side of the neutral axis
weighted by their cross-sectional area. S, = section modulus on the compression side of the neutral axis
The local buckling stress of a shape can also be determined from its The limit on the sbape factor Z/ S of 1.5 precludes extreme fiber yielding
elastic local budding stress, which may be determined by an analysis at service loads. Using the plastic modulus recognizes that even when
such as the finite strip method, by which the member is divided into the extreme fiber yields, the material in the cross section closer to the
strips running the length of the member. This is useful for shapes that neutral axis has not yielded and that the stress-strain curve is nonlinear
contain elements that are not addressed by the five cases in Specification once yielding occurs.
Section B.5.4, which often occurs for extrusions since they may employ
multiple stiffeners or other custom features. The elastic local buckling 10.6.2 Rupture
stress F, for the entire cross section is used to determine the slenderness For the limit state of rupture, the nominal flexural strength is
A= 1t /I of the sbape for local buckling. This slenderness is then M•• = ZFtrJJc,
'JF. 10.6.3 Local Budding
used with Specification Section B.5.4.6 to determine the local buckling
stress of the sbape. This local buckling stress may be elastic or inelastic, Elements of flexural members may be in uniform compression or flexural
depending on A. This approach not only addresses more cases than compression. The compressive strength of elements in uniform com-
Sections B.5.4.1 through B.5.4.5 but also is more accurate. pression in flexural members (for example, the flanges of an I-shaped
member) is determined in the same manner as the compressive strength
10.5.3 lnlllrildlon blltwaen l.oCill Buckling and of elements in uniform compression in axial compression members
Membllr Budding using Specification Section B.5.4. The compressive strength of elements
If the elastic local buckling stress F, is less than the member buckling in flexural compression (for example, the web of an I-shaped member in
stress F" local buckling reduces the member buckling strength. When major axis bending) is determined using Section B.5.5, whose provisions
this interaction occurs, the member buckling strength is are shown in Table 10.6.
The local buckling strength of a sbape is the sum of the local buckling
13
P
nc
=[0.85x2EJ
;1,.2
F• A
213
I
stress for elements in uniform compression multiplied by the section
modulus of these elements and the local budding stress for elements
in flexural compression multiplied by the section modulus of these
where A is the member buckling slenderness. This interaction only elements.
occurs if the postbudding strength of elements of the shape is utilized, Alternately, the local buckling stress can be determined from the
which only occurs when the shape has slender elements. flexural elastic local budding stress of the entire cross section, which
may be determined using a computer analysis such as the finite strip
method. The elastic local buckling stress is then used to determine the
10.6 FLEXURE
local buckling stress using Specification Section B.5.5.5.
The available flexural strength of members is the least of the available
strengths for the limit states of 10.6.4 Laten1l-Tonlon11I Buckllng
a) yielding MllJ>' Member buckling for members in flexure is called lateral-torsional
b) rupture M"", buckling because material on the 'ompression side of the neutral axis
c) local buckling Mnlb> and buckles and displaces laterally, while material on the tension side of the
d) lateral-torsional budding M.,.&· neutral axis does not. This results in lateral di.spla,ement of the 'om-
Strengths for these limit states are provided below. pression side and twisting of the cross section.
~ c, ~E
B.S.S.4 Curved Yes Yes Bt11-DoJ. ctb B,-D;J., None
16l (1+~)'
2
~GfF, k,,./Q
B1r-l.5F /ciB1w
B.5.5.5 Entire shape l.5F'1 2 B11 -Di)..
~ v ... l
326 CHAPTER TEN
LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING STRENGTH Once Cb has been determined, it is used to reduce the slenderness for
The Specification provides two equations for the lateral-torsional buck- lateral-torsional buckling described below.
ling strength Mnmb-one for inelastic: buckling, whic:h reaches the limit
SLENDERNESS FOR LATERAL-TORSIONAL
state of yielding ~ when the slenderness is zero, and one for elastic
BucKI.JNG
buckling. The inelastic: buckling strength equals the elastic: buckling
strength when the slenderness equals the buckling constant C" The slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling depends on the member's
cross-sectional properties, the location and direction of any transveise
Limit state Slenderness limits load, the loading, the unbraced length Lb, and the bending coefficient
Cb. The Specification provides simplified equations for the slenderness
Inelastic budding M
., (1-~J+
c, .,flt).S"'
c; of specific shap~. suc:h as shapes symmetric about the bending axis,
closed shapes, and rectangular bars, as well as the equation for slender-
Elastic budding ness of any shape. These equations are summarized in Table 10.7.
For the limit state of torsional rupture, the shear stress F, corresponding
where Mmu: =absolute value of the maximum moment in the unbraced
to the torsional strength is
segment
fur unwelded members:
MA =absolute value of the moment at the quarter point of the
unbraced segment
F, = F,,.l'fc,
MB= absolute value of the moment at the midpoint of the
unbraced segment for welded members:
Mc= absolute value of the moment at the three-quarter point
of the unbraced segment F, = F,,.(1 - A,../J.,)l'fc, + F""'A,.../Ag
I,c =moment of ineitia of the compression flange about the
y-axis The torsional rupture strength T0 is then calculated using F, as shown
~=moment of inertia about the y-axis
in Table 10.10.
Cb may be conservatively taken as 1 or determined using the equation
TORSIONAL Yll!LDING AND Toll.SIONAL
above for members between brac:es. Cb for other c:ases, suc:h as c:antile-
veis and shapes with various bracing and loading conditions, may be BUCKI.ING
found elsewhere, suc:h as the AISC Specifictition for Structural Steel For the limit states of shear yielding and shear budding, the shear stress
Buildings Commentary. F, corresponding to the torsional strength is
Table 10.7 Slendemess). for Latt!ral-Torsional Buckling
s. [~Cw +0.038J4 J
.JI; 2
TI"=
Between brace points of beams subjected to transverse loads applied on the atreme fiber (where the load ia
free to move laterally with the beam if the beam buckles):
IT[±~+ 1 2
r,,.=
S, 4 16
d +Cw+0.038J4
IT I1
]
d/4 is negative when the load acts toward the shear center and positive when the load acts away from the
shear center
where the y-axis is the principal axis in the plane of bending and
I., = moment of inertia about the y-axia
S. = section modulus about the l:-uis
d =depth of the beam
F.4.2.2 Singly symmetric and unsymmetric If .r,..~i,.. determine the slenderness using Section F.4.2.l where 'r is calculated with .r,.. s., and] deter-
about the bending axis mineil as though both flanges were the same as the comprca&lon flange with the oveiall depth d remain-
ing the same.
F.4.2.3 Closed shapes
42
- [u + u• + - - - +c.-, J
o.o3SJ4
I,
2
I,
system ls the intersection of the
principal axes. where
U = CiKo + c,_p;2
C1 and C.,:
a) Ifno transverse loads are applied between the endsoftheunbracedsegment, C1 =0 and C,.= 1.
b) Iftransvene loads are applied between the ends of the unbraced segment, C1 = C,. = 0.5.
1fo =distance from the shear center to the point of application of the load; g0 la positive when the load acts
away from the shear center and negative when the load acts toward the shear center. If there is no
transverse load, 1fo =0.
P. = coefficient ofmonoapnmctry
P.= _!_(I y'dA+ Jyx2 dA)-2y.
!, A A
P. = 0.9d1(T-1)[1-(trJ
where
J,.. = moment of inertia of the comprcaaion flange about the y-axis
"f =the distance between the flange centroids
Yo= distance perpendicular to the bending uis from the cross section's centroid to the shear center; positive
in the direction of the load
F.5 Angles See Specification Section F.5
327
321 CHAPTER TEN
G.3 bt bit
B,-F'J' c, B, - 3.0D, bit
2
it E
3.0 F'J' (3.0blt) 2
3.0D,
2.9(~f(~f _s_
l.3B, -F'J' 2
l.3it E
G.4 it(D~ -Dl}l8 Pq 1.3B, - l.63D).
l.63D, 1.25 (1.257..)2
G.5 ltD214 NA NA NA Fq NA NA
Tllbl• 10.10 Torsion.I Rupture Limit Si.tes P, = required axial strength determined in ac:cordance with Speci-
SAS fication Chapter C
section Shape T. Pc = available axial strength determined in ac:c:ordance with Speci-
fication Chapter D for axial tension and Specification Chapter E
H.2.1 Pipes and round or oval tubes P,JIR fur axial compression
H.2.2 Rectangular tubes P,C M, = required flexural strength determined in ac:c:ordance with
H.2.3 Rods 0.262P,D3 Specification Chapter C
Mc = available flexural strength determined in ac:c:ordance with
for unwelded members: Specification Chapter F
Using this equation is predic:ated on determining the required forces
F, = Fso and moments in ac:cordance with Specification Chapter C; otherwise,
for welded members: this equation may be unc:onservative.
2.9(~f(~f _s_
B,-P,, 'IC2B
H,2,1 F,JIR F., B, - 1.25D, bit
l.25D, 1.25 (l.25blt) 2
H.2.3 0.196F9'D3 NA NA NA Fq NA NA
AWMINUM STRUCTURAL DESIGN 329
With proper selection of the filler alloy to match the strength of the Dimensions and strengths for bolted, riveted, screwed, and pinned
wdd-affected base metal, the strength ofa groove weld is governed bythe connections are given in Table 10.14.
base metal. Conversely, for almost all selections of filler and base metals,
the strength of a fillet wdd is governed by the strength of the filler alloy. BOLTED CONNECTIONS
The only bolts addressed by the Specification are alwninwn bolts
10.9.2 Mech•nlc.lly F•1tened Connection• that comply with ASTM F468, which includes the three aluminum
The selection of fastener material depends on anticipated service condi- alloys shown in Table 10.15. Although bolts of other materials are
tions and intended service life. Because alwninum cathodically protects often used to connect alwninurn parts, the design rules for bolts of
steel and stainless steel, fasteners ofthese materials are often used to con- these materials are provided not in the Specification but rather in the
nect alwninwn parts. While alwninwn suffers galvanic corrosion while codes that address those materials such as, for steel bolts, the AISC
protecting steel fasteners, because the volume of the connected parts is Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. The Specification provides
much greater than that of the fasteners, the galvanic current density is requirements for slip-critical connections using zinc-coated A325
small, and therefore the corrosion of the connected alwninum parts in bolts connecting aluminum parts with a 2.0 mil profile abrasion-
such connections is usually slight. Conversely, alwninum fasteners con- blasted faying surfaces.
necting steel parts may quickly corrode when moisture is present.
RIVETED CONNECTIONS
1'11ble10.13 Al11mln11mW.ld The only rivets addressed by the Specification are aluminwn rivets.
Fiiier Strength• Riveted connections are not designed to resist tensile loads.
Tensile ultimate One-piece alwninum rivets are not commonly used in construction.
atrength P..., Other rivets that utilize a sleeve and pin are used, but their strengths are
Piller {Qi) usually determined by testing since their performance in shear is com-
plicated by cold working and the geometry of the deformed components
1100 11
once they are installed.
2319 35
4043 24 SCREWED CoNNECTIONS
4047 25 The Specification addresses alwninwn tapping screws with a nominal
5183 40 diameter D from 0.164 in. (No. 8) through 0.25 in. Screws may be
5356 35 thread-forming or thread-cutting, with or without a self-drilling point.
5554 31 Aluminum screws are often ineffective in drilling or tapping a hole, so
5556 42
steel screws are more often used to connect alwninum parts. Design
rules for steel screws are given in other codes, such as the AISI Cold-
5654 30
Formed Steel Specification.
330 CHAPTER TEN
Tllble 10.15 Nomln1ll Strengths crf Aluminum Bolts strength than machine thread screws and flat wall chases than ribbed
wall chases. The nominal strength R. for the limit state of pull-out of a
Shear ultimate Tenaile ultimate
Alloy and atrengthF,. strength F..
%-in.-diameter screw in a screw chase is
temper (bi) (bi)
2024-T4 37 62
6061-T6 25 42 where
7075-!73 41 68 Fn. =tensile ultimate strength of the screw chase extrusion
11 =number of threads/in. of the screw
L, =length of engagement of the screw's threads in the chase,
cal,ulated by deducting any chamfer at the top of the chase
Aluminum screws are available in two alloys with these strengths:
and the portion of the fastener at it.I point without full
threads. The dedu,tion for the point is 0.250 in. for AB
P,. F,. screws; 0.050 in. for UNC screws; and 0.225 in. for F screws.
Alloy-temper (ksi) (bi) w, =nominal width of the chase but no less than 0.72D and no
2024-T4 62 38 greater than 0.88D. For ribbed wall chases, the nominal
width is the average of the inside and outside widths of the
7075-1'73 68 41
chase. A common chase width is 0.75D, which, fur a %-in.-
diameter screw, is 0.188 in.
The nomenclature used below is that the connected part under the In order to minimize flexing of the chase walls (which reduces the
screw head is material 1 and that the connected part under material 1 pull-out strength), the nominal thickness of the screw chase walls
is material 2. should not be less than 0.6D, and the nominal depth of the chase should
The tensile strength of a screwed connection is the least of the pull- not exceed 3D.
out, pull-over, and screw tensile rupture strengths. The nominal strength R. fur the limit state of pull-over for non-
For screws in holes, the pull-out strength varies for machine thread countersunk screws is
screws and spaced thread screws, aa well as the thickneas of the tapped
part. Pull-out strength equations are provided in Specification Section
J.5.4.1.1.
Screw slots are used to connect a screw to the end of an extrusion. where
The screw's axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the extrusion and c,.. = 1.0 for valley fastening and 0.7 for crown fastening
the slot is C-ahaped to avoid the need for a hollow in the extrusion. t1 =nominal thickness of the part in contact with the screw
The nominal strength R. fur the limit state of pull-out of a screw in a head or washer
screw slot with the dimensions shown in Specification Figure J.5.1 and F"'J =tensile ultimate strength of the part in contact with the
Table J.5.3 is screw head or washer
D..,, =larger of the nominal washer diameter and the screw head
R. = 0.29DL, Fn. diameter, but no greater than 5/8 in. Washers should be at
least 0.050 in. thick.
where Dh = nominal diameter of the hole in the material under the
D = nominal diameter of the screw screw head
P"' = tensile ultimate strength of the extrusion Additional provisions in the Specification address the pull-over
The screw e.mbedment length in the screw slot L, must be at least 2D. strength fur screws in tight-fitting holes and of 'ountersunk screws.
Screw chases are used to attach screws perpendicular to the longitu- The shear strength of a screwed connection is the least of the bearing,
dinal axis of an extrusion. Spaced thread screws have a greater pull-out tilting, and screw shear rupture strengths. Screw tilting is only a limit
AWMINUM STRUCTURAL DESIGN 331
state for screws connecting a thick£r part under the screw head than function ofthe intended service. For example, the deflection of mullions
the part below that. supporting windows must be limited to prevent wind from cracking the
window glass.
PINNED CONNECTIONS The full width b of elements whose stress f« exceeds the elastic local
Pinned connections permit the connected parts to rotate around the buckling stress F, is not effective in resisting deflection. This may occur
axis of the pin. Aluminum bars are often an economical choice for pins in shapes with slender elements (such as roll-formed sheet shapes) uti-
connecting aluminum parts. Pins are not used to resist tensile loads. lizing postbuclding strength. For such shapes, the moment ofinertia for
Because the connected parts have a clearance between them so the parts determining deflections should be determined using the effective width
can move independently, flexural stresses can occur in pins. b, of the elements of the shape, where
The available strength of an aluminum pin in shear is the lesser of the
available strengths for the limit state of shear yielding and the limit state b, = b.JF. If.
of shear rupture. The available strength of an aluminum pin in flexure is
the lesser of the available strengths for the limit state of flexural yielding 10.11 FABRICATION AND ERECTION
and the limit state of flexural rupture.
10.11.1 Tolerances
For pins subjected to shear and flexure,
The Specification requires that members not deviate from straight or
(~J +(::J ~1.0 intended curvature by more than the member length divided by 960.
10.11.2 Weldlng
where The Specific11tion requires that welding comply with AWS Dl.2 StructurAI
V, = required shear strength Welding Code-Aluminum. Dl.2 includes provisions for qualifying
V, =available shear strength welding procedures and welders, fabricating welds, and inspecting
M, = required flexural strength welds but refers to the Specification for the structural design of alu-
=
M, available flexural strength minum welded members and welded connections. Dl.2 addresses gas
10.9.3 BlockShur metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and
friction stir welding (FSW) processes.
The strength for the limit state of block shear rupture for mechanically
fastened connections on a failure path with shear on some segments and
10.12 FATIGUE
tension on the other segments is
Specific11tion Append.ix 3 addresses fatigue, the limit state of crack ini-
R,, = (P,., (A,..+ A,.)12 + Piu A,,,)llci tiation, and growth due to the repeated application ofloads. Repeated
where application ofstress can rupture parts at stresses less than the minimum
A,.= gross area in shear ultimate tensile strength F,,,.
A,..= net area in shear When the number of load cycles exceeds 100,000, the Specific11tion
Am= net area in tension requires that the design stress range Srd equal or exceed the applied
The strength for the limit state of block shear rupture for welded con- stress range S,.., the algebraic difference between the nominal maximum
nections on a failure path with shear on some segments and tension on and minimum stresses applied (tension is positive and compression is
the other segments is negative). The deaign stress range is a function of the number of load
cycles and the severity of detail, which ranges from category A (best;
R. =F,,..,~ + Pn.w'\tw + (P,...\w + P,.A,to)l°k.r for example, extruded members) to category F (worst; for example,
where fillet welds). Based on the fatigue category, Specific11tion Table 3.2 pro-
A = gross weld-affected area in shear vides fatigue constants c,and m that determine the deaign stress range
l; = gross area not weld-affected in shear Sni = CjJYlim as shown in Table 10.16.
Ap, = gross weld-affected area in tension
A,t. = gross area not weld-affected in tension Table 10.16 Fdlgue Dulgn
s,.. for S,,,for
10.10 SERVICEABILITY
Fatigue N= 100,000 N=5 million
category c, m cyclea c:ycles
Serviceability is the preservation of a structure's function under service A 96.5 6.85 18.0 10.2
load combinations.
B 130 4.84 12.0 5.4
10.10.1 Vibr.tlans c 278 3.64 11.8 4.0
Vibrations occur when the natural frequency of a structure approxi- D 157 3.73 7.2 2.5
mately equals the forcing frequency, such as vortex shedding due to E 160 3.45 5.7 1.8
wind. The vortex shedding frequency of tubes subjected to a constant F 174 3.42 6.0 1.9
wind velocity is gM:n in the Specification Commentary Section L.5. It
is usually more efficient to change the natural frequency (for example, Aluminum fatigue strengths are approximately one-third those of steel.
by using dampers) than to deaign the structure for the number ofload In order to reduce the effect of stress risers that promote fatigue cracks,
cy~ induced by vibrations. Specific11tion Section 3.4 provides additional fabrication and erection
requirements for parts subject to fatigue. This includes adding fillet
10.10.2 Deflections
welds to transverse tee and corner joints and a %-in. minimum radius
Deflections govern the design of aluminum structures more frequently for reentrant corners.
than for structurea made of material with a greater modulus of elastic-
ity. Unlike the analysis for determining required forces for the strength REFERENCES
limit state, the analysis for determining deflections for the serviceability
limit state should use the full modulus of elasticity E. Aluminum Association (2015), Aluminum Design Manual, Arlington, VA.
Deflection limits are not given in the Specific11tion; rather, deflec- Kissell, J.R. and Ferry, R.L. (2002), Aluminum Structures, John Wiley,
tion limits are established elsewhere, such as in building codes or as a New York.
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Chapter 11
Design of
Reinforced-Concrete
Structural Members
BY
MUSTAFA MAHAMID, Ph.D., SE. PE. P.Eng. University of minois at Chicago
DAVID A. FANELLA,. Ph.D., SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
Tllble 11.1 Deformed Bllr Dulgnmtlon Numbers, Nomlnml w.ighU, Nomlnal Dimensions, •nd Dllformetlon Requirements
Nominal dimensions* Deformation requirements, in.
Bar Cross- Mu: gap
designation Nomlllal. sectional Mu: average Min average (chord of 12Y.t'l6 of
No.' w.!ight, lb/ft Diameter, in. area, in.2 Perimeter, in. Mu: OD,* in. spacing height nominal perimeter)
3t 0.376 0.375 0.11 1.178 7/16 0.262 0.015 0.143
4 0.668 0.500 0.20 1.571 9/16 0.350 0.020 0.191
5 1.043 0.625 0.31 1.963 1-1/16 0.437 0.028 0.239
6 1.502 0.750 0.44 2.356 Jli 0.525 0.038 0.286
7 2.044 0.875 0.60 2.749 1 0.612 0.044 0.334
8 2.670 1.000 0.79 3.142 l~ 0.700 0.050 0.383
9 3.400 1.128 1.00 3.544 l~ 0.790 0.056 0.431
10 4.303 1.270 1.27 3.990 1-7/16 0.889 0.064 0.487
11 5.313 1.410 1.56 4.430 1% 0.987 0.071 0.540
14 7.65 1.693 2.25 5.32 1-15/16 1.185 0.085 0.648
18 13.60 2.257 4.00 7.09 2¥.i 1.58 0.102 0.864
Slzea 14 ancl 18 arc largo ban generally not carried In regular stock. They arc anllable by arnng<mcnt with the tuppller.
•The nominal cllmeDS!ODI of a cleformecl bar arc equivalent to those of a pWn rouncl bar having the same weight per root as the cleformed bar.
'Bar numb en are b...cl on the number ofeigbtho of an indl in the ll01lllDal diameter of the ban.
'The mulmum outoide cllamettt IDcluding deformatlollO may be Important .. wbtn punchlllg holea In atrw:tunl-otee:I momben to accommodate bara, or in fitting
eoupllngo. or in natlng or bundling ban. &let climCDOiono .ary lllllODg manufaeturen. Tabulated value• lllow for cleformations, longitudinal ribo, llDd out of round.
twbile No. 3 b1r1 &I10 .....cl for .tirrupa, column tieo, etc. it ii mggoatod that olab bu1, in gmeral, be No. 4 or laigu.
334 CHAPTER ELEVEN
Type of steel and Yield strength Ten1ile strength Elongation in Bend test
ASTM 1pecilkation Size DOI. inclusive Grade mln,psi mln, pal 81n.mln, %" pin dlamctcr"f
Billet steel A6l5 3-6 40 40,000 70,000 ll-12 3.5d-5d
3-18 60 60,000 90,000 7-9 3.5d-8d
6-18 75 75,000 100,000 6 7d-9d
Rail mel A6l6 3-ll 50 50,000 80,000 5-7 6d-8d
3-ll 60 60,000 90,000 4.5-6 6d-8d
Axle steel A6l 7 3-6 40 40,000 70,000 ll-12 4d-5d
3-ll 60 60,000 90,000 7-8 4d-8d
Weldable steel A706 3-18 60 60,000* 80,0001 l0-14 3d-8d
•see ASTM 1pecl&ation fur detaill. Vcpcndo on bu llze. Plain rowul bm with diameters up to 2 In. may also be furn1ahed mectlllg ASTM A615, A.616, and A617 requirements.
•d= bar nominal dlamctcr.
*78,000mu.
'1.25 x actual yield mln., but not i... than 80,000.
higher strengths usually being accompanied by a lesser ductility and Because fabric may be made of drawn wire and even high-strength
vice versa. Properties of bars are covered by ASTM specifications, which or deformed wire and has welded cross wires, such fabric is permitted
are revised as need arises. Table 11.2 summarizes the main properties of certain higher stresses in code specifications.
the commonly available types. Some use is made of glass fibers, plastic threads, chopped wire, and
Reinforcing bars are usually cut and bent in the detailed form at a similar reinforcements.
fabricator's yard, tagged and delivered, ready for placement In certain
areas, the bars are delivered cut to length and are bent at the job site. 11,J SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, AND STANDARDS
Sometimes they are delivered in stock lengths of appropriate sizes and
The ASTM maintains specifications for the quality of all the items
are cut and bent at the job site.
incorporated into reinforced concrete and for methods of mixing and
Welded-wire fabric consists of sheets or rolls of mesh made by weld-
detailed methods for sampling. testing, and approving both the indi-
ing each intersection of crossing layers of the same or different gage
vidual items and the finished concrete.
wires at equal spacings each way (square mesh) or different spacings
The American Concrete Institute publishes Building Code Require-
(rectangular mesh). Sheets or rolls may have a maximum width of 12
ments for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318) and a large collection of
or 13 ft (depending upon the width of welding equipment available) by
guides and manuals, including the Detailing Manual (ACI 315) and the
whatever length can be handled.
Manual of Inspection, SP-2. The Portland Cement Association and the
Welded-wire fabric is designated by two numbers and two letter-
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute both publish extensive design aids.
number combinations, such as 6 x 8 - W8.0 x W4.0, where the first
The provisions in this chapter are per ACI 318-14 (Ref. 1).
number gives the spacing in inches of the longitudinal wires and the sec-
ond number gives the spacing of the transverse wires in inches. The first 11A GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STRENGTH
letter-number combination gives the type and area of the longitudinal AND SERVICEABILITY
wire and the second combination the information on the transverse wire.
The Wrre Reinforcing Institute (WRI) established the letter-number 11 .4.1 Introduction
designation, which relates to the cross-sectional area of the wire. The letter This section contains the fundamental requirements for strength and
W designates smooth wire, and the letter D describes deformed wire. The serviceability that form the basis of design of all reinforced-concrete
number following the letters W or D is the cross-sectional area of the members. The basic concepts of the strength design method are pre-
wire in hundredths of a square inch. A W8.0 wire is a smooth wire with sented, as are the general provisions for deflection control
a cross-sectional area of 0.08 in.2; a W4.0 wire has a cross-sectional area Throughout the years, there have been basically two design philoso-
of 0.04 in.2 Commonly available styles of welded-wire fabric and their phies for reinforced-concrete members: working stress design and limit
properties are given in Table 11.3. state design (referred to as the strength design method).
From the early 1900s until the early 1960s, working stress design was
the primary design method for reinforced concrete. In working stress
Tlible 11.3 Cammon Stuck Styles of Welded-wire Fllbrk design, members are proportioned so that maximum elastic stresses due
to unfactored loads (also identified as service or working loads) are
Steel area, eq in./ft equal to or less than the allowable stresses prescribed in the Code.
Style Weight, approx.
deaignation Longit. Trana. lb/100 ft2 Llmit state design involves identifying applicable limit states and
determining acceptable levels of safety against occurrences of each limit
Rolla: 6 x 6-Wl.4 x Wl.4 0.028 0.028 21 state. In general, a limit state is a set of performance criteria that must be
6X6-W2.0XW2.0 0.040 0.040 29 met when a structure is subjected to loads. The two fundamental limit
6 X 6-W2.9 X W2.9 0.058 0.058 42 states are as follows: (1) ultimate limit states, which correspond to the
6x6-W4.0xW4.0 0.080 0.080 58 loads that cause failure (strength and stability), and (2) serviceability
4 X 4-Wl.4 X W1.4 0.042 0.042 31 limit states, which correspond to the criteria that govern the service life
of a structure (e.g., deflection and crack width). A structure or structural
4x4-W2.0xW2.0 0.060 0.060 43
member is said to have reached a limit state (or, equivalently, is said to
4 X 4-W2.9 X W2.9 0.087 0.087 62 have •failed») when it is unable to carry out one or more of the required
4x4-W4.0xW4.0 0.120 0.120 85 performance criteria. The statistical methods used to determine the
Sheds: 6 x 6-W2.9 X W2.9 0.058 0.058 42 level of safety required in the design process are discussed later.
6x6-W4.0xW4.0 0.080 0.080 58 The 1956 edition of the ACI Code was the first to include provisions
6 x 6-W5.5 x WS.5 O.llO 0.110 80 for the •ultimate strength design method:' The strength method was
essentially established as the preferred design method in the 1971 Code,
4x4-W4.0xW4.0 1.120 0.120 85
although an updated form of the working stress design method-referred
DESIGN OF REINFORCED-CONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 335
to as the alternate design method-was still permitted to be used. It was because concrete is a composite material made of constituent materials
not until 2002 that the alternate design method was of6.cially deleted from whose properties vary. The strength of reinforcing steel can also vary
the Code. A more comprehensiw: history of the evolution of the strength but usually to a lesser degree than concrete.
design method can be found in Chapter 5 of Ref. 2. Member dimensions can differ from those specified in the construc-
The gradual elimination of the working stress design method from tion documents because of construction and fabrication tolerances. The
the ACI Code primarily had to do with the following shortcomings of diameter of reinforcing bars can also fluctuate because of rolling and
the method: fabrication tolerances.
• Inability to correctly account for the variability of loads and mem- Reinforcing bars in a concrete section can be placed at locations that
ber resistances are different from those specified in the construction documents. Toler-
• Inconsistent factor of safety in member design ances on reinforcement placement are prescribed by the ACI.
Chapter 4 ofthe Code contains the basic performance requirements for 2. To allow for inaccuracies in the design equations. As will be shown
structural members and structural systems. The main limit states for in subsequent chapters, a number of assumptions and simplifications
reinforced-concrete structures are strength (ACI 4.6) and serviceability are made in the design equations for nominal strength. These assump-
(ACI 4.7), and both must be considered in the design process. tions and simplif'ications introduce inaccuracies that must be accounted
The basic requirement for strength design is set forth in ACI 4.6.2 for when determining the design strength.
as follows: 3. To reflect the degree of ductility and required reliability of a metn-
design strength <!: required strength ber. Reinforced-concrete members that are more ductile, such as beams,
or are less sensitive to variations in concrete strength compared with mem-
cjlSn~U
bers that are less ductile, such as columns.
Spiral reinforcement confines the concrete in a column better than
where Sn is the nominal strength of the member. tied reinforcement. Thus, spirally reinforced columns are more ductile
In general, the design strength of a member, which is equal to the and have greater toughness than tied columns.
applicable strength-reduction factor cj1 times the nominal strength of 4. To reflect the importance of a member. The failure of a column in
the member Sn, must be equal to or greater than the required strength. a structure is usually considered to be more detrimental than failure of
The required strength, which is represented by the symbol U, is deter- a beam.
mined by multiplying service load effects by code-prescribed load factors. ACI strength-reduction factors are given in Chapter 21. Factors for
Design and required strengths for structural members are given in the different types of actions and structural elements are contained
Code chapters and are discussed in more detail in the following sections. in Table 21.2.1, and factors for members subjected to moment, axial
The load combinations in the 2014 edition of ACI 318 Code (Ref. 1) force, or combined moment and axial force are given in Table 21.2.2.
match those in ASCB/SEI 7 (Ref. 3) and, for the most part, the load ACI 21.2.4 contains the strength-reduction factors for shear of elements
combinations in the International Building Code (IBC) (Ref. 4). ACI in special moment frames and special structural walls.
load combinations are shown in Table 11.4. For more details on load A summary of pertinent strength-reduction factors is given in
combinations, see Chap. 1 of this publication. Table 11.5.
Tension-controlled and compression-controlled sections are based on
r..ble 11.4 ACI LD•d Combhmlons the magnitude of the net tensile strain in the extreme layer of the longitu-
ACI equation number Load combination dinal reinforcement at nominal strength Ei and the value of the net tensile
strain used to define a compression-controlled section eiy In very general
5.3.la U= l.4D terms, members with tension-controlled sections are usUally beams, and
5.3.lb U = l.2D + L6L + 0.5(4 or S or R) members with compression-controlled sections are usually columns.
5.3.lc U = L2D + L6(L,. or S or R) + (LOL or 0.5 W) Lower strength-reduction factors are assigned to compression-controlled
5.3.ld U = l.2D + LOW+ l.OL + 0.5(4 or S or R) sections because they are less ductile and more sensitive to variations in
5.3.le U = L2D + LOE+ 1.0L + 0.2S
concrete strength than tension-controlled sections. Also, columns tend to
support areas much greater than those for beams, and the consequences
5.3.lf U=0.9D+LOW
ofcolumn failure in a building or structure are generally more severe than
5.3.lg U= 0.9D+ LOE those attributed to beam failure. The advantage of using spiral reinforce-
ment in a column is reflected in a strength-reduction factor that is greater
11.4.2 Design Strength than that for other types of lateral reinforcement
OVBR.VIBW A linear transition in the strength-reduction factor is permitted
between the limits for tension-controlled and compression-controlled
The design strength of a reinforced-concrete member is equal to the
sections; this transition is illustrated in Fig. 11.1. Also provided in the
nominal strength of the member s•. which is calculated in accordance figure are the strain diagrams corresponding to tension-controlled and
with the provisions of the Code, multiplied by a strength-reduction fac- compression-controlled sections for Grade 60 (Grade 420) reinforcement.
tor cjl that is always less than 1. The subscript n is used to denote nominal According to ACI 25.4.1.3, development lengths for reinforcement
strength. For example, the notation for nominal flexural strength of a
do not require a strength-reduction factor. Strength-reduction factors
reinforced-concrete member is M,,. Subsequent chapters of this book are also not required when determining lap splice lengths because such
contain methods for determining the nominal strength. A discussion
lengths are a function of the development length.
on the purpose of strength-reduction factors follows. Information on the strength-reduction factors for shear in special
ACI Table 20.2.2.4a contains upper limits for the yield strength of
moment frames and special structural walls is also given in Chapter 11
reinforcement that can be used in design calculations. The deflection of Ref. 2.
provisions of ACI 7.3.1 for one-way slabs, 8.3.1 for two-way slabs, and
9.3.l for beams are directly related to fy. 11.4.3 Control of Deflections
STR.BNGTH ReDUCTION FACTORS 0VERVIBW
Strength-reduction factors are commonly referred to as resistance fac- Deflection control is part of the serviceability limit state that must be
tors or cjl-factors and play a key role in the determination of the design satisfied in the design of reinforced-concrete members. The main mate-
strength of a reinforced-concrete member. The main purposes of these rial parameters that affect deflections are the modulus of elasticity E.,.
factors are as follows: the modulus of rupturef,. shrinkage, and creep.
1. To account for the understrength of a member due to variations in Excessive deflections of floor or roof members can result in damage
material strengths and dimension. The strength of concrete can vary to nonstructural components of a building, such as partitions, doors,
3ff CHAPTER ELEVEN
0.65+0.25 (£,-tr)
(0.005-~)
Campraaion-<antrollrd. KC!iom (r., ~ ~ Memben with spiral reinforcement OOllfurmlng to ACI 25.7.3 0.75
Other 0.65
Shear l!lemem. not part of~ moment frame. or~ rtructaral wall.t 0.75
Blemem. that are part of ipecial moment Cram.ea ar i!p4!cial lltU.ctunl waJla wh~ the
nomll1al shear lltre2lgth of the member la gmiter than ot equal to the llhear COtn!tf'ob.dfng
to the development of the nominal moment ltl'enf,1h of the membert
.Blement9 that are part of spedal moment framet ar !pedal tl.fUctunl. wan. where the nomi· 0.6
nd shear etn.ngth d. the member la lest than the shear co~ondlng to the cleftlopment
of the namiml moment llrmjjth of dte member'
Bcun-ClO!umn jo:lnt.t lb apedlll momeflt frame. md cllagona1ly rdb.for<:ed c:oupllng beam& In 0.85
spcdal.~ wa1lt
0.75
0.65
0.90
-0-
..:
0
~c
.2 lral
0.75
g
il: Other
5c 0.65
I!!
ii)
e,=0.005
·=··:zo.
0.003 0.003
•=0.6d[]•.
e.r= 0.002 f.t=0.005
<e.r-
C!ty)
Splral:q.= 0.75 + 0.15 (0.005-Ety)
<e.r-
Ety)
=
Other: q. 0.65 + 0.25 (0.005 _ t!.ty)
DESIGN OF REINFORQl>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 337
or glut win.d.om, to name a few. Such deilec:tions can also result in on yield ltmla of reinfon:ement produce1 comervalive ruulu for valuet
the malfuactton of sensitive equlpmeat Jnside a buJ!dlng. Unsightly offy between 40,000 a.nd 80,000 pa
crub Wl appeu in struc:turd members that ht1.~ deflected in excett For simply supported members. minimum thick.nm Is l/20 and t/16
of the mab!Uhed. limitations. Exc:essive deflection of roof members W1 for one-way slabs and beams, respectively.
cawse ponding of water on the roo£ Roof membe.n will deflect under The minimum thickness limitation• oullined earlier are an integral
the we.lght of mter, and JC the deflection 18 ace~slve, additioaal water part of the de.t!gn procedure for typ!c:al beams and one-way slabs: The
cm accumulate on the roo' which am lead to eve.n more deflect.Ion. In thicknen of a member wlD. usually be determined tlm on the basis of
ememe c;asu, the p.rogreasive inanse of defl«tio.n can muh in the Rrength requirements ancl then chec:ked apinst the minimum thic:k-
collapse of a roof. For thae and other n:uom, it is important to limit neu requirement! for deflection.
the deflection of reWor«d-«l!lcrete members. In cate.t where members are supporting elemente that a.re !Jkely to
.ACI 24.2 provid« two methods for controlling deflections due to be damaged by relatively luge deflect.ions, the provisions In ACI 24.2.3
"1\'ic:e load.sin one-way and two-way Boor and roof symm.: (l)mini- and 24.2.4 m\llt be 1ISed to determine d.cflection•. Immediate and lol18'-
mum thickness limi:tations and (2) computed deflection limitatiom. term deflect.ions mwit both be calculated, and the magnitude. of the
de:llec:tione m\llt be leas than or equal to the limiting viluea given in
On-WAY CoNSTRUC'l'ION A.Cl Table 24.2.2.
The minimum thic:kneas limitations given in ACI Tllble. 9.3.1.1 and
7.3.1.1, which appeared in the ACI Code at. the time that the strength Two-WAY CoNSTlltl'CDON
desiga method was introduced, are applicable to beams and on&-way ACI 8.3.1 c:onW.111 minimum thlcklless requirementt for two-way
slabs, respectively, that are .not attached to partJtlons or other construc- construc:tloa. By ddinition. a two-way slab system has a ratio oflong-
tion that Is likely to be damaged by relatively large deflect.ion•. Ddlec- to-short spam that ii Im than or equal to 2.
tion criteria are essentially utistied £-or members that have a thickneu F«two-way slab Sf*ma that do not have any interior beamt, the mini-
equal to or greater than that given in the appropriate table. A summary mum tl.ab thlcknestes are given in ACI Table 8.3.1.1 as functiom ofJ, and
of the mlDJmum thic:kn"'es for c:oatinuous and cantilevered members the dear 'Pan length In the loog direction t,.. For slab\I wllhout drop plnels,
Is given In Fig. 11.2, where It Is the overall thidcneas of the member. the thkknes. must be at leut S In. (125 mm), and fur slabs w:llh drop pan-
Value. of minimum thicknm mown in Fig. 11.2 all! applic:able to els. the thic:.knet.t must be at leaat 4 In. (100 mm). D.n:ip pands ~ de6ned.
members with nmmal-weight concme [w,= 145 pd'(2320 kglm')J and in ACI 8.2.4. It hu been demOlllbated. through the ~ that a1abs a>n-
Grade 60 (Grade 420) .relnforc:emenL For other conditions, the values ill forming to theae minimum thl.clcnel!.ll requirements have pertixmed ade-
the figure must be modified u follo'WI: quately wllhout any problems due to short-term or laag-term deflections.
• For stnlc:tural lightweight havinB w, in the range 90 to 115 pc:t For two-way •lab systemJ with interior beams, the minimum slab
multiply the values by (1.65 - 0.005wJ ~ 1.09. thicbeu is d.etmnined by ACI Table 8.3.1.2. In addition tofy and t,., his
• ForJ,othertb.an60,000psl,multiplythevaluesby(0.4+.f,/100,000). calc.:ulated at a functiml. of the beam sttfm.eti aloag the cOlumn lines.
In Sl units, the modltlc:atioa flaors are the following: Comp.rehell.SM: cov~ of these equations Is provided. ill Chapter 7 of
• For mic:tural lightweight having w, in the range 1440 to 1920 tg!m', Ref.2.
multiply the value.1 by (1.65 - 0.0003w,) ~ 1.09. The deflection limits of ACI Table 24.2.2 are also applicable to imme-
• For!, other than 420 MPa, multiply the valuea by (Q.4 +f,1700). diate and long-term calculated deflec:tiom for two-way alabe. Calc.:ula-
No com:ctloa factor Is provided for concrete with w, greater thm tlon of deflections for two-way slabs ls c:ompla. ed more illformatloa
US pd because me arch hauhown that the c:orrec:tion factor woukl be on the me1hodf Ufed to determine such deflectiont Wl be f'-ound
dose to 1, where w, ii between 115 and 145 pd.• The oorm:tion factor in Chapter 7 of Ref. 2.
Beam or
ribbed .,_...,..___ _ _ _ +-...,.......----+--41---o---t----1'"""""--
one-way
slabs A B c
11.S GENERAL PRINCIPW OF1ME STRENGTH the neutnl ul•, which iJ located u a distance c from the compretsion
DESIGN METHOD fac:e of the section.
11.5.1 lntrodudlan Becawe the strain diltrlbuilon is IJnear, the strain in the concrete s,.
at the ememe c:ompraaon B.ber is directly proportional to the strains
This section coven the fundamental principles and requiremenb of the in the reinforcement. For example, the ratio of~ to the main in the
strength dealgn method used In the deatgn of reinforced-concrete struc- reinfon:ement farthest from the compre11ion face E..c can be obtained
tures. Pmeated. ue the design assumpttons of the method and the bulc: by slmllar trianglea:
techniquei to determine the nominal .ireigth of a reinfwced-«>ncretc
sed:ion subjected to fta:ure, uial load, or a combination of both. e, c (11.3}
Al a rdllforced-c:oncrete member app.roache.t lb ultimate strength.
both the concrete and the rdnfurdng steel beha~ !nel.astic:ally. This
£'4 =tl4-C
inelastic; behavior must be c:aptumi in the dmgn theory. It ii evident Similar rdationships can be emblimed between ~ and the other
from the information on material propertiu given in Chapter 2 of Re£ reinfon:ement strains and between the vuious reinfon:ement attains.
2 that it is Cu euler to analytically e:zpreai1 the Jnelutlc: behavior of Note that the largest tensile strain occun in the relnfcrc:ing steel far-
re!.nfon:ing sted than that of concrete. As such, slmpllfying UNmptions thnt from the compression face.
are made in the mength dmp method relak<l to 8tre# distribution in
conam. DESIGN AssmanON No. 2.
The strength de.tign method is based on the Collowing two fundamen- The muimum Wlllble strain at the extreme concrete compre111ion fiber
tal c:onclitlon• (ACI 22.2.1): Is 0.003 (ACI 22.2.2.1).
I. Sutic: equilibrium. The compressive and tendle forc:eis acting on
any c:ros.11-sec:tion of a member are in equilibrium. DESIGN AssmanON No. 3
2. Compatib.ility of strains. The strain in a reinfordllg bar that is The llnlss in the mnf'cm:ement J. bc:low its specified yield strength J, ill
embedded in concrete Js equal to the itraln In concrete at that levd. equal to the modulm ci elut:id.ty ci the rteel B, time.t the rteel strain e,.
Thefimcondltionmustbelltitl.diedttt:Verfc:ro8S-aec:tlonofamember. The stms In the reinforcement is equal to f, for stralm £,greater than or
his shown latllr in 1his c:haptu that the basic: equalions of equilibrium are equal to!, IP., (ACI 22.2.3.2 and 20.2.2.1). the modulus of elalticity c:an
111ed in determining nominal stn:ngths of reinfon:ed-conc.rete members. be tabn u 29,000,000 pli for all grades ofmnforcing md (ACI 20.22.2).
The second condition implies that there is a perfect bond between
the concrete md the re!.nfon:lng steel and that both Che materials act DB41GN A$$uMPTrow No. 4
together to miJt the effects from atanal loads. This has been proven The tensile strensth of concrete is neglec:ted In the uial and ftexural
by research, and it is due to deformed bars as well u the adhesion calc:ulation1 of reint'-orced concrm (ACI 22.2.22).
between the c:onc:rete and steel. The tensile resistance of concrete is used in other situations. most
.notably Jn serviceability c:alc:ulatJon1. For example, the modulus of
11.5..2 Dalgn Allumptlom
rupture f, , which iJ related to the temlle strength (see Chaptx!r 2 of
The design urumptions Wied in the strength design method are out- Re£ 2), ii uliliud in the determination of the immediate deflec.tion of a
lined in ACI 22.2.l Chtough 22.2.3. They are applicable in the deaign of relnforced-c:oncrete member.
members subjec:ted to fla:ure, Wal loads, or a combination ofboth. The
nominal strensth ofa re!.nforced-conc:rete member Is detmnined on the DB81GN Assu.Ml"l'row No. s
buiJ oftheae de1ign u1umptiom. The relatiomhip betw=n the c:oncme compressive-stress distiibution
and the amcrete stnin shall be ISIWlled to be R'>Ctangular, 1npc2'.oida1.
Dl!.$1Gw As$UJ11PTION No. 1
parabolic:, or <'L UJ.yOther Wpe that ruuJts in pred!dioo cf mength in aub-
The stnins in the reinforcement and the concrete .will be usumed stantiaJ. ~ent wlih the results of comprehensive tests (ACI .22.2.2.3).
directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis (ACI 22.2.1.2). Rcmn:h has ahown that models using~ parabolic:, trape7.oi-
For deep beams, which are defined in ACI 9.9.1.1, the strain ls not daJ. and oCher-ahaped compresaive-strell distributions can adequaidy
linear. and a .nonlinear d!ltr:lbution ofstrain must be utilized, or a strut- predict teat lUllltl. The uaumptton gMll. Jn ACI 22.2.2.4 permlb the Ille
and-tie model u olltlined in Chapter 23 of the Code may be used. of an equivalent rectangular c:onc:rete-mess distrlbutton. which l.s covm:d.
The strain d.illtribution over the depth of a rectangular reinforced- under duign aNUmption no. 6.
c:onaete section at ultimate rtre.agth ii depicted in Fig. 11.3. For illus-
trative purpoea, it la wumed that the stral.ns are compreSlive above DESIGN ASSUMPTION No. 6
the neumu am and ue tendle below it. The 8tN!ns in the concrete The requirements of ACI 22.2.2.3 are aat!s1ied by an equivalent rect-
and the reinforcement are direc:tly proportional to the distance from angular conc:rete-sttess distribution, which is defined In ACI 22.2.2.4.
Compression face
Layer 1 • •
Layer2 •
Layer3 •
Layer 4 •
•
Tension face
F1gure 11.3 Theurumedatraindirtributinn in a mnfi:m:ed-canaeteaec:tion.
DESIGN OF REINFORQD-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS Ht
€0 = 0.003
c -- c
cb = 0.6d
1
------ -----~--------1
NA d,
• •
• • • T t1 = £y = / 1 /E,
Rgure 11.S The balanced main candition with Grade 60 (420 Mh)
1'dnforcement.
The Code permitJI Che use of the equiVlllent rectangular a:mcn:te- 6ber of the ooncme reac'h.es its muimum value of 0.003. The strain
stress distribution defined In ACI 22.2.2.4, .known u Whitney strut distribution for the balanced condition is depicted In Fig. 11.5.
block, whic'h. ls illustrated In Fig. 11.4. At the atreme comprasl.on flber, the stnin in the concrete Is equal
A unifonn strC8I equ.al to 85 pm;cnt of the concrete-compressive to the mulmum value af 0.003, and the fl:rain in the tension reinforce-
mmgth fc is dimibuted aver the depth o. which ill equal to the factor fS 1 ment. which is located at a di.IWlce t4 from the extreme compreaion
time• the depth to the neutral ul8 c. Although this assumed atwa flber, 18 equ.al to e,. By definition, d, u the d!mnce from the extreme
d.lstribution does not repment the actual compressive-stress distribu- compremon 6ber to the centroid of the longitudinal tensl0.11 steel that
tion in the concrete at the ultimate state, it does provide bwc:ally the is farthm &om the atnme compremon 6ber. With only one layer of
same re.rults a1 thOlle obtained &om experimental invertiga1ion1;2 a1 steel. the distance d, is the same as that from the enreme compression
noted previouily, this is a requirement of the strength de$!gn method flber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension steel. which is desig-
(see design assumption no. 5). The need for the factor P1 ls due to the nated as d.
variation In shape of the stren-strain CW'V" for different co.ncrete c•
The ratio af the nell1ral u:is dep1h to the ememe depth d, to pro-
rtrengths. It i1 evident that the strns-strain curves af higher-strength duce a balanced ltnin condition in a section with million reinfmument
concrete• are more linear and exhibit less lnelartic behavior than those alone may be obtained by applying main compatibility conditi.0111:
of lower-strength concretes. Up to co.mprualve strengths of 4000 psi.
the ratio of the rectangular stress block depth a to the neutrd u:is ~='4-ct (11.2)
depth c that best approximate.I the actual concrete-rtre11 distribution E,. E.y
is eq,u.al to 0.85, that 19, j)1 = 0.85. For compressive strength• greater Substituting the definitions af a;.= 0.003 and e.,.=f ,fB, into Bq. (11.2)
than 4000 psi, p1 must be lea than 0.85 in order to produce adequate
and rearranging the terms result in
results. ACI 22.2.2.4.3 requim that P1 be reduced linearly at the rue of
0.05 for each 1000 psi in e~N of 4000 pn for «1mpreuive ruength.1 ~ e.,. 0.003
up to 8000 psi; above 8000 p1i, '• = 0.65. The following equatiom (11.3)
d, £1 +£,. 0.003+ f 1 f'E,
define fS 1:
For2500pn sf:s4000psi,P1 =0.85 For Grade 60 reinforcement, ACI 21.2.2.1 permits the yield strain €y
of the mnforcement to be taken as 0.002, as oppoa«I to 0.00207 thit
For4000p&i <f:saooopai, Pi =1.05-0.00005/: would be obtained by dividing the yield stR11 (60 bi) by the modulus
For J:>8000pti, .Pi =o.65 of elasticity (29,000 bi).
lnSI:
11.6.S Compt'HllJon.C.onirolled Sedlol'll
For 17MPa sf:S28.MPa.ISt=0.85 According to ACI 21.2.2, a 1ection i5 dauified as compre11ion-
For 28MPa <J:s;56MPa,fS1 =l.OS-0.0011/: comrolled lf the net tensile main in Che ext:mne tension steel at namlnal
For J:>56 MPa, !St =0.65 sttength t, Is le11S than or equal to the tensile strain~when the concrete
main in compression reac'h.es it. U$\Ulled fl:rain llinit £u of 0.003. For
11.6 GENEMLPRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS
deformed ninforament. ;, ii equ.al to f /B,. wbic'h. can be taken as
0.002. u noted previously.
11.6.1 Owrvlaw Note that e, Is defined as the strain in the relnforce.ment after applica-
The nominal strength of a remforced-c:cncrete member is establilhed ble strains due to creep. shrinkage. and temperature have been deducted
using the fundame.n~ conditions ofequlllbrl11m and stnin compatibility, from the total strain.
and the UN1I1pti.ons pmented above. Presented In this tectl.on are the A brittle type of failure is generally expected in compression-
buic principles utilized in the llRngth de.Ugn method. controlled sections. Thill type of fl!lure occun suddwy with little or
Design strengdi equatiom for cross-sectiom subjected to tlexure or no wamlng. It Is common for columns to have compmmon-controDed
combined flexure and uial load were originally prese.nted In Ref, 2 w:tiont, that it, 1ec;tions where t 1 ~ f,IB,. However. columm that are
and we.re derive<l using essentially the same design assumptions as subjected to a relatively 1mall uial-compressive force and a relatively
those summarized in thill section. Theae equations frum the basis of the large bending moment, for example, may have aeciioDB that are .not
nominal strength equations llipulated in the Code. compresslon-<ontrolled.
11.6.2 •i.nc41d sallln Conditions 11.6.4 TM.llon·Contralllld Sedfon1
A balanced strain condition exiltl at a emu-sect.ion of a reinforced.- A tenslon-c:ontrolled section is defined u a section where e., <? 0.005
concrete member when the strain In the tension reinforcement e,. whe.n the conaete in compression reac'h.e11.lts assumed strain llmlt e,. of
farthest from the compression flee reac:hes the strain corr«panding to 0.003 (ACI 21.2.2). The main d!Mbution fur the case where£,= 0.005
yield (I.e., t, = t:,, = f,!H,) just as the strain In the extreme comprmlon Ui ah.own in Fig. 11.6.
:MO CHAPTER ELEVEN
tu= 0.003
c1 = 0.37Sd,
Balanced failure
Tension failure
• • t1 = 0.005
Curvature
Rgure 11 A Strain distribution at the temlon-controile<l llmit.
Rtllnl 11.7 The !deal!zed .m.omellt-c:urvature d!agnm. for II. re!ll6>rced-<>oll.Cl'de
beam wtdi.onelaya-oftensloo ~
The ratio of the neutral am deplh c, to Che extreme depth d, at the
tendon-~trolle<l limit ll1llf be ob1a!ne<l by applying main (O.!llpatibil-
ity conditi.011.1. Rdming to Fig. 11.4 and using limilar trianglu,
In suc:h cues, a member will typically edtlbit large defurmat!om and
..1='4-c, (11.4) slgnifl<:ant c:racking prior to collapae. and it .ls anticipated that there will
6u e, be ample warning prior to failure.
Now, assume thaia.dditional. mnfon:ing ltl:elii added to the section with
Subltituting 6u = 0.003 and£,= 0.005 into Eq. (11.4) and reuranging all of the other penmetera remaining 1he nme so that at f.illure, 1he rtin-
the tenm retult in fordng steel yield.I at the same time1he c:onaete crushes. Thi& Is c:ammonly
0 003 refmed to u balan«d. &!lure. Referring to Pig. 11..S. balanc:ed &IN.re occurs
'r E,. · 0.375 (11.S) when the stnin in the c:mmi.e compICl!il:m fiber of the a>nam reache!
tl, £1 +t:u 0.003+0.00S
Cheill.!UID.ed awhlngstrain cf0.003at1he same time that 1hemalnin the
Beama, one-way~ and two-way slabs \l8Wllly ~tensloo-controlled .relnfmdDg steel reaches Che yield ma1D. The momait-aimiture rdatlon-
secti.om. Unlike cmnpress:ion-controlled 1ectiorus, tension-oontrolled sec- shlp fur balanced fiillure is also plotte<1 in Fig. 11.7. It is evident 1hu no
tio.11.11 are ductile and generally exhibit iigllificant deflections and cracldag ductility is c:shibimd when IUCb a failure OCXU111.
before Dllure. Finally, assume tha1 even more relnfon:ing steel is added to the sec-
Sections with £, between ~ and 0.005 are wd to be In a transition tion 'o Chat the total amount Is greater Chan that corresponding to bal-
region between compnmion- and tension-controlled sediom. A linear anced failure. In sw:h affS, the concrete In the extreme c:omp.resslon
t:ran.9llion in the mength-redu.ctlon factor occ:un between the limits for ftber reaches the anumed crushing strain of 0.003 prior to the reinfon:-
c:omprefflon- and tensl.on-controDed sections. This transition ls illus- lng steel yielding. The moment-curvature diagram for tuc:h a. member
trated in Fig. 11.1 along with the applicable rueogth-reduciion factors does not have the duc:tJ!e post yield1ng mpome dlqla.yed by a member
for c:ompreNion- and tention-conaolled nc:tiom. with an amount of rehlforc:ement smaller than the balance<l amount
Although the preceding dilc:W1Sion hu focused on a rectangular (see Fig. 11.7). Tim tnie of &ilu.R. whic:h is called c:ompreNion failure.
aeciion with one layer of tension reinforc:aneat, the basic: melhods ocam suddenly in a brittle manner without warning.
are applic:able to rec:tangular and nomec:tangular sections with more Tension failures are fa.vore<l over compression failure• In memben
than one layer of reinforcement. The dfed:s of aoss-seaion shape and subjected pr:lmarily to fla:ure. The amount of te.a&!on relnforceme.at Is
multiple layen of reinfo.rc:cment are automatically accounted for in the limited by the Code to enSlll'e that it is ac:hieved in design.
atraln c:ompatiblllty equatio11.1 that are used to determine e,.
11.7.3 Mufmum Rtl~rament
11,7 ONE-WAY SLABS. TWO-WAY SL.ABS, The Code requires that one-wv.y slabs, two-way slabs, and beams have
ANDIEAMS properties that ensure that tension f'ailure occun.
Imtead of ~ a maimum reinfora:ment ratio, whic:h wu
11.7.1 Onnf-
rttpulated. in ediliom of the Code prlor to 2002 u 75 percent of the bal-
Beams, one-way slabs. and two-way slabs~ membert in one-way and ance<l reinfurc:ement ratio, ACI 7.3.3.1, 8.3.3.1, and 9.3.3.1 require that
two-'Wll.y c:onstruc:tion that are subjected to the effects from flexure with nonprestressed one-way tlabs, two-way slabs, u.d beam-. respectively.
very small or zero dl'ects from uial forcu. For purposes of discussion be designed so that Er ~0.004. For beams, thia Rqllimncnt need only be
In this sec:t.lon, it is assumed that the members are primarily subjected salisfied when the :&.ctored uial co.mpreW:ve furceP,.isleas than 0.10}".A,.
to bending moment.. where A,is the groas area ofthe sec:tl.on. ln eMeD.ce, thls.requirementllni-
Presented next are the different types of flexural. failure and the 11$ the amount of tension relnfol'(enlent that can be provided at a aeciion:
ulationahlp between failure and the amount of reinforcement in a eec:- For a given Cl''OSS-Section and matm.a1 properties, the attain in the mn-
tion. Also p?e$e11.te<l are the baa!<: equations to determine the nominal forcemmt at nominal strength ii invenely proportional. to the amount of
mength of members or seal.ons subjected primarily to flexure. reinforc:emem that is provided at that section. Thus, the atraiD. dee.ream
11.7.2. 1)pes of Flllllnl Fellu,.
as the amount of relnfo~t increases. The llmitatlon on £,If sllgbtly
more c.omervative than that required previously.
Consider a rdnfurc:ed·c:onaete beam with. tension reinforcement only.
A..ume that the amount of tension reinforcement in the section is 11.7.4 Mlnhwn~IMflt
such that at failure, the Rinforcing steel will yield in tension before the Minimum. reinforcement requirements for one-way slabs, two-way
concrete crushes in c:ompnmlOD.. The ulationmtp between bending slabs, and beams are gr.en in ACI 7.6.1, 8.6.1, and 9.6.1, re1pectively.
mome.nt and <:W'Wl:Ure ofthls beam is plotted to Dllure In Fig. 11.7. It These.requirement.are also applicable to footings (see ACI Chapta- 13).
is evident from the diagram that there is a long plutic region; that Is. Members with aoss-S«Uom that are larger than that required for
the beam exhibits a. ductile response up to failure. Tim is commonly strengdi will urually be gvvemed by the provi&lons for mlDimwn
referred to u tenslOD. failure. and the section u tension-controlled. reinf'on:ement.
DESIGN OF REINFORQl>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 341
To avoid this sudden type of failure. the Code prescribes a mini- antllever beams where bending moments aumot be rediatribu~d to
mum amount of reinforcement ~ that is to be provided at any adjoining framing members.
pc>iltive or negative bending moment region of a one-way slab, two- The aforementioned minimum areas of reinforcanent need not be
way slab, or beam where such te.aslle rdllforcement 1s req,ulred. For provided at any section where the provided A, is at least one-third
beams (ACI 9.6.1.2). greata' than A, required by analysis (ACI 9.6.U). Thi• exception is
deemed 1ufficient for large members where the amount required by
A,.-= 3./T.'b,.d ~ 200b,.d (11.6) AC[ 9.6.1.2 would be exte$S!ve.
fy fy For one·Wlf and two-way slabs, the minimum tlciural. reinforcement
requirements are given in ACI 7.6.1.1 and 8.6.1.1, respectively, and are
In SI: A,.- 0.25f'b.,,d ~ 1.7;' the same u the minimum tcmperarure and shrinkage reinfcm:ement
requirementt of ACI 24.4.3.2:
• For deformed bars with/,;< 60,000 psi. (420 MPa): .A,,..m =0.0020-\
In this equation, the (()naete-<ompresslve strengthJ:lw the unit of • For deformed bars and welde<l wire reinforcement with f, ~
poundJ per square inch (MPa), and b,.. is defined u the web width of 60,000 psi (420 MPa): Al,m!a =gre*r of 0.0018 x 60,000 AJfy or 0.001'/A1
the member. The limit of 200 b., dlf, [U b...dlf,J c:onb:oh for amaete- • [In SI: As,m1n =greater of 0.0018 x 420 A,lf, or 0.0014 A,]
compremve atre.ngths less than approximately 4Ml0 psi (30 MPa). A design width of 12 ln.18 typically used In suc:b. cases, an.4 reinforce-
ACI 9.6.1.2 a1ao (()nt11im m.lnimum rehlforcement requirements for ment is specified In square Inches per foot (square millimeten per foot).
stati.c;ally determinate beams where the flange of the beam is in tcmion. While it may be appropriate to distribute Wllperature and shrink-
An c:umple of such a beam it illuma.ted in Fig. 11.8. The flange of the age reinfrm:ement between two facet of a Jlab, the minimum. flexural
c:antllever beam, which lw a width of b,. u in te.Dslon due to the uni- reinforcement should be placed u close to the fac:e of the concrete ln
formly dlstt:lbuted load that is applied along the length of the member. tension as practical.
According to ACI 9.6.1.2, A""'"' is detennined by Eq. (11.6), where b.,in
the equation it replaced by the lesser of two times the actual web width 113.S Noml1111I FkDanll StNng'lh
of the member (2b.,) or the flange width b1• ft is especially impol'Wlt OvmlVIl!W
to provide a minimum amount of reinfo.r(ement In members such u
The nominal tlcxural. strength of a reinforced-concrete member is
determined using the two fundamental conditions static equilibrium
and compadbWty of strains and the design assumptions giml in this
section. Methods to determine the nominal flexural strength M,, are
covered in this section.
RECTANGULAR SBCTIOMS
Single LaJl!r of Tension Relnl'arcemmt Couider the reinfor«d-
conc.rete beam with one layer of tension reinforcement dqicted in Fig.
I • • • • • • • I 11.9. The strain dim:lbuilon and equivalent rectangular atR&t diatrlbu-
lJ
~
tion are also Shown In the figure. Because there Is only one la~ of
reinforcement in this beam, the distanced, from the extreme compret-
lion fiber to the centroid of the ex!Rme layer of longitudinal ten.lion
steel 19 equal to the distanced from the extreme compresdon Bber to the
centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement
The uhlmate rualn in the concrete i. 0.003, and the strain In the reln-
forc.ement it greater than the yield strain~ a.uuming that the total area
of relnfo.n:ement A, 19 such that the reinforcing steel yieldt in tension
before the concrete aulhes ln compreHlon:
Elevation Section C=0.85 J:ba (11.7)
Rguni 11.8 A cantilem- beam 'With the flange lo ttll.llon. In Eq. (11.7), b u the width of the cross-section as shown in Fig. 11.7.
0.003
- C = 0.8Sf~ba.
h a
d--
2
I, b ,I
342 CHAPTERELEVEN
The tension force T in the reinforcement is equal to the total area of Substituting these quantities into Eq. (11.11) results in the following
reinforcement A, times the yield strength of the reinforcement fy: nondimensional equation for Mn:
T=A,fy M
(11.8)
&i'J:= ro(l-0.59ro) (11.12)
In order for equilibrium to be satisfied, the sum of the forces and
bending moments on the section must be equal to zero. From force Flowchart 1 shown in Fig. 11.10 can be used to determine Mn for
equilibrium, C = T. The depth of the equivalent stress block a can be rectangular sections with one layer of tension reinforcement.
obtained by equating Eqs. (11.7) and (11.8) and solving for a: Multlpla Layers of Tension Reinforcement Under certain conditions,
the required tension reinforcement cannot adequately fit within one
a=--
A.J, (11.9) layer in a section (spacing requirements for reinforcing steel are covered
0.85J:b in Chapter 6 of Ref. 2). In such cases, the bars are provided in more than
one layer, as shown in Fig. 11.11.
The nominal flexural strength of the section Mn is obtained from The nominal flexural strength is determined for sections with mul-
moment equilibrium. Moments can be summed about any point on the tiple layers of tension reinforcement in the same way as that for sections
section. It is usually convenient to sum moments about either C or T. with one layer. When determining the nominal flexural strength, it is
Summing moments about the point of application of the resultant important to check that all of the reinforcement yields.
force C yields the following expression for Mn: Considering the section shown in Fig. 11.11, assume that the bar size
and the number of bars are the same in each layer and that all of the bars
M=Af (d-~)2
n ' 1
(11.10)
are located below the neutral axis. Also assume that the yield strain Ey
occurs at a distance of d,.from the extreme compression fiber. From simi-
lar triangles, the following relationship is established between d, and c:
Substituting Eq. (11.9) into Eq. ( 11.10) results in the following: c d -c
--=::L....:.._ (11.13)
0.003 e,
(11.11)
Solving for d,. results in the following:
Define the reinforcement ratio p
index ro = pfyfJ:..
= A)bd and the reinforcement
d1 =c(l+~)
0.003
(11.14)
Determine A.,mm:
No Yes
A,f,
c= """'~~,.-
0.85J;bl31
Figure 11.10 Nominal flaural strength-rectangular section with one layuoftension reinforcement
DESIGN OF REINFORQl>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 343
No Yes
a=P1c
Reinforcement llmlt of ACI 7.3.3.1,
8.3.3.1, er 9.3.3.1 Is net satisfied.
Redesign section.
0.003
- c = o.ast:ba
a
h
d --
2
As
....
• • • • •
· ---~
.,.__......... T = Asfy
For Grade 60 reinforcement (ty =60/29,000 =0.00207), Eq. (11.12) • • - Compression reinforcement
red.ucuto
d1 =1.7e (11.15}
can be achieved ill dtuatione where the dimenaione of a beam are Solving for d; rerulbi in the following;
limited and the amoW1t of tensile reinforcement that Is reiilll.red to
milt the factored bending moments ii gruter than that permitted d'1 =e(1-~) (11.17)
by ACI 9.3.3.1. 0.003
Reinforcement ill the compres.tlon zone contrlbutet to the tot1l For Grade 60 reinfurcement (~ =60/29,000 =0.00207), Eq. (11.l'i}
nominal fleJ:Ural strength of a section, though the Increase ill M.,, is reduces to
usually relatively small The presence of compremon reinforcement in
a. section also resuha in larger values of E,. whic.h e1sentially produces d; =0.3lc (11.18}
more dw:tile beh.avior. Thi• haa a direct impact on the magnitude of
the stre.ngth-reduc:t1on factor~ because t I• directly proportional to e, Compress.Ion reinforcement located a distance equal to or lesa
(see Sec. 11.4). For example, consider a rectanglilar beam where the £:
than d[ from the extreme compression fiber yields {i.e.. ~£1 and
strain £,is equal to 0.0045. The maximum reinforcement provisions of J:'~f,J.
AC[ 9.3.3.1 are ufutled becaUAe Et> 0.004; however, the section is not Wlien the compmslon steel yieldl, Che depth of the equMlent streu
te.nslon-conttolled because t, < 0.005. Thus, the strength-reduc:tlon block. a can be obtained by sltlllfyiog force equJlibrium:
factor Is less than 0.90 (see Sec. 11.4). Adding a N1flc1e.at amoW1t of
reinforument in the <:0mpreesion zone transforms the l<!ction from T= C+ c; {l l.19a)
one that is in the transition region (t < 0.90) to one that is tension-
coatrolled Ct =0.90). A.I,= o.85J.'N+ A:!, {11.19b)
Compmsion relnfo.rcement is also added to help .reduce long-term
defieai.OM. M~ iniOrmation on 1hi.s topic is also providccl in Chap1a' 6 (A,-A;)/7
of Re£ 2. 8 (11.lllc)
0.85f.'b
Longitudinal reillforcement muat be provided at both the top
and the bottom of a reillforced-concrete beam at ce.rtaill locatlon&
regardless of whether it is needed or not for fleJ:Ure. It is shown in The total nominal flexural strength M,, ii c.onlidered to be the ND!
Chapter 6 of Ref. 2 that tranrverse reinforcement. which i1 usually of two parb. The first part M,,1 ii provided by the couple consisting of
in the form of stirrups, u required in a beam to resist the effects the force ill the compreulon steel A; and the force in an equal area of
from shear. Stir:rups must be anchored to the top and bottom longi- tensl0.11 steel (see Fig. 11.14):
tudinal bars to properly develop them in tension (see ACI 25.7.1). M1t1 =A;f1 (d-d') (11.20)
Thus, longitudinal ban are needed wherever stirrups are required.
Stirrup' enclose the compression reinforcement and prevent it from The se«md part ~ is provided by the «>uple comisting of the
buckling. remaining tension steel A,-A; and the comprenion force in the
Nornlul Ftmnl S"tftfth Wh•" Cornprado" Relnforament YM!ds concrete C:
The main and 1tre11 distributions in a. doubly reinforced section a.re
illustrated in Pig. 11.13. Similar to the cue with multiple layel'$ of (11.21)
tens.Ion steel, the nominal flel:l.U'll ftrength of a doubly reinforced
section depends on whether the compression reinforcement yields Thus, the total nominal flexural strength of a. doubly reinforced
or not. section. where J;= f 1 , ls
A:aume thai the yield strain Ey occurs at a distance of J1 &om. the
extreme compression flber. From similar triangle.t, the following rela-
a,
tiomhlp is established between and c: =
M,. (A,-J>.;)/1 ( d-i) +A;f (d-d')
1
(11.22)
0.003
• • • d' c; = A~fs'
A~ - - c = 0.85f~ba.
h a
d- -
2
I. b
,I
Figure 11.1! Stnin andlln!N diatribal:iona in a doubly reinfcm:ed.·concme beam.
DESIGN OF REINFORQl>-CONCRETE $TRUCTI.IRAL MEMBERS 345
0.85[/
M
c: -- c
d -d' + d-~
2
FlfuM 11.14 Force dlmlbutlo11. ln a doubly relnfo.rced beam when the co.mpmalo11. ldllforceme11.t
y!eldt.
I:
beat.use the mqnitude of ii unknown. A rdatiomhip between and I: Once the neutral am depth c 1' dete.rmJ:ned by Eq. (11.Uc).
Che neutral uis depth c can be obtained from strain compatibility. The Eq. (11.24) can be used to c:alculate /;.The nominal flexural strength is
strain In the compression reinforcement ~ is related to c as follows: obtained by salilfying moment equilibrium. Summing moments about
the centroid of the temlle reinforcement results in the following equa-
e c-d'
(11.23}
f:
tion fur M,., where </ 7:
o.003=z
Sulmituting e: =J:JB, into Eq. (11.23) and solving for t: results in (11.27)
Determine A 8 ,min:
No Yes
(As -A;lfy
a=-----'-
0.85J;b
Figure 11.15 Nominal flexural streDgl:h-:rectangular section with tension and compression :reinforcement.
In Fig. 11.18, s,.1 and sw2 are the clear distances between adjacent beam reinforcement in the web can be included where the nominal flexural
we~. and l,.1 and l,. 2 are the clear span lengths of the beams. The strength is determined by the equations developed previously for
nominal flexural strength of flanged sections is detennined using this doubly reinforced sections (see the Flowchart 2 shown in Fig. 11.15).
effective flange width. Namln•I Flaur•I Strength-Fl•nge In Compres.ion At locations of
Namlrnil Fluunil Strength-Fl•nge In Tension The flange of a T-beam positive moment, which usually occur away from the faces of a support
or an inverted L-beam will be in tension at locations of negative moment, in a continuous system, a portion of the flange or the entire flange of a
which in a continuous system usually occur at the faces of a support. The T-beam or an inverted L-beam will be in compression. The detennina-
strain and stress distributions fur a T-beam in such a case are illustrated tion of the nominal flexural strength depends on whether the depth of
Jn Fig. 11.19, where it can be seen that the compression zone falls withln the stress block a is less than or greater than the thickness of the flange.
the web of the member. An inverted L-beam would have similar Both cases are examined next.
distributions. Depth af Stress Block Leu Thn or Equ.I to Fl•nge ThldUl111s (a s hi
The nominal flexural strength is determined by the equations When the depth of the compression zone a falls withln the flange of a
developed previously for rectangular sections with a single layer or T-beam or an inverted L-beam, the compressive zone is rectangular
multiple layers of tension reinforcement (i.e., two layers of reinforce- with a width equal to the effective flange width b, (see Fig. 11.20). The
ment in the slab), where b = b,.. Flowchart 1 shown in Fig. 11.18 can be nominal flexural strength of the section is detennined by the equations
used to determine M •. If needed, the contribution of the compression developed earlier for rectangular sections.
DESIGN OF REINFORCED-CONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 347
a
c=-
~1
Yes
c =- b1 ±Vb~ + 348a1AIJ'/2a1
[In SI: c =- b1 ± Vb~ + 2400a 1A!J'/2a1]
where a 1 =0.85/;b~ 1
b1=87A;-A3 f,[ln SI: b1=600A;-A3 f,]
No Yes
Depth of Stress Block Gr••t•r Th•n Fl•ng• Thkkn.u (a > hi When the compressive force in the overhanging portions of the flange. This is
the depth of the stress block a falls within the web of the beam, the depicted in Fig. 11.22. The following equation for Atf is obtained from
compressive zone is T or L shaped as opposed to rectangular (see horizontal equilibrium, assuming that the tension reinforcement
Fig. 11.21). The resultant force C is equal to 0.85f. times the area of yields:
the compressive zone and is located at ita centroid. In such cases, it is
convenient to divide the tensile reinforcement into two parta. The
_ o.ss /
Atf-
:c&,- &,. )h (11.28)
first part Atf is defined as the area of steel that is required to balance f:,
M8 CHAPTER ELEVEN
Slab
Web/Stem (typical}
b ei
r
L:F~
·1 ·1
LJ"' LJ
I• •I•
bw1 Sw1 ,1,bwz,1, Sw2
I
I I
I
bwJI
fn1 ln2
bw1+U bw2+4
FlgUM 11.1I Bffedive flange widtht for a T-beam and an iDftrted L-beam.
DESIGN OF REINFORCED<ONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS Mt
Flgu,. 11.1 t Strain IDd atrea dlstrlbutiom In a T-beam wllb the fWi3e ID teD&lou..
~f.__.__i:-
---r~] ___ :i
I, bw .I
Rg ... U.20 Strain and streN di«rib'lltiomln a T-beam with. the flange ln'°lllp!ftdonand a~ h.
0.85/;
h
r--i
~f1--1--- --u
-t c1 = o.asr:<b. - bw)h
I,
A,,
b,.
:
I
I
I_ _ _• _ _ .J
,I
If
d
n
Flgunt 11.22 Stresa dist:ribu.tian conapondins ta OR.dianglng ftanp.
-~
2
Tr = Asrfy
J50 CllAPTERELEVEN
O.Bsf:
h
~u- -- ---ul-
r ---------- ---- a[
H
- Cw = 0.8sf:bwa
d a
d-2
The nomlDal flemral ttllltance provided by the tenalle reinforce.. the face of a aupport for gravity load efl'ecta can be detennl.ned using the
menl Aef Is obttined from moment equilibrium: coefficients given In ACI 1ible 65.4.
The loations of the aitlcahection.1 Cw ah.ear are given in ACI 7.4.3 for
M 111 =A.{f,(d-i) (11.29) one-way slabs and ACI 9.4.3 for bemm. It u permitted ta design sectiom
located leu than a dl.ltance d from the face of a aupport for V., computed
The remaining part of the tensile reinforcementA,-A</ I& balanced by at the distance d, provided the following three criteria ve 8&tlstled:
the compression force In the rectangular part of the web (tee Fig. 11.23). 1. Support reaction• in the direction of the applied shear forte intro-
Ai u.ual. the depth of the ltrat blocl: " ii determined from horiz.ontal dnce oompm1ion into the end regiom of the member.
equilibrium: 2. Loads are applie.d at or near the top of the member.
3. No concentrated loadl occur benwen the face of the support and
(11.30) the critical tection.
SH!!Aa Snl!N!rTH PROVIDED BT CoNCJmT.I
The nominal flexural railtance providedby the tmsile zeinfon:ement
(A, - A,P la obttined from moment equilibrium.: For memben without uial force, ACI 22.55.1 contains two sets of
equationt to dmrmlne die ahear mength provided by the concrete v.=
M•z•(A,-Atlf,(it-i) v. =2'A.J7.'b,,d
I
(11.31) (11.35)
Tlnu, the total nominal flemnl dralgdi oCthe leClion M,. where" > h
(t.9'>.../J:+2500p.~}·"
I
ii the addition of the two pub correspo11dlng to the overhutging flanges
and the web:
v. -Leutof (11.36)
M. =M. +M.
1 2• A.JJ,,(d-i)+(A,-A.{)f,,(d-i) (11.32) •- (I !J'>.../l: +2500p,, )b.,.d
3.S'A.J];'b.,.d
Flowchart 3 lhown In Fig. 11.24 can be uaed to determlne M,. a a
T-beam or an l!noerted L-beam where the flange la In c:ompreaslon. Llk.e In
tbe cue of rectangular aeaioEa. the minimum and mu:imum reinforce..
J:
where has the unltt of pounds per lq\WC Inch (psi).
InSI:
( I
ment niquirements of ACI 9.6.1.2 and 9.3.:U, .respectively. mll.lt be aatilfied.
v. = 0.17'>..Jf.1'.,d (11.37)
11.7.6 Sh•rStn!ngth
brrl\ODUCTIOM
0.16'>.../J:+I7p.. ~} .."
I
1n general. the deap l'or lhear comim of calculating the maximum
factored shear fo:ru V., and requiring that it ia equal to 01 lea than the
design shear ttrength ~v.: v. =Leut of .d l7i
(0.1"""'1/f. +17p,.}11.,d
(11.38)
No
a= _!di_
0.85f;b,
No Yes
(A, -Aq)f,.
a=
0.85/; hw
a
c = f,
£, = 0.003 (~ - 1)
Figure 11 .24 Nominal flexural nnngth-T-beam 01' an inverted L-beam where the flange is in
compression.
351
352 CHAPTER ELEVEN
ifVe= t/2'>../F.b.,. d
[In SI: +vc ='°.17'.../F.b,. a]
No
No shear reinforcement Is
required at section.
Figure 11.26 Required shear reinfurament for members subjected to shear and flexure.
354 CHAPTER ELEVEN
The maximum compressive axial load that can be resisted by the reinforced members including tied reinforcement (see Sec. 11.4
concrete P, is equal to the following: and ACI Table 21.2.2). It was noted in Sec. 11.4 that the larger
lj>-factor for columns with spiral reinforcement reflects the more
(11.39) ductile behavior of such columns compared with columns with tied
reinforcement.
In this equation,"'.", is the gross area of the column and A" is the total
area of longitudinal reinforcement in the column; thus, (A1 - A") is 11.1.4 Longltudlnal Reinforcement Limits
equal to the area of the concrete. The factor 0.85 is based on the results ACI 10.6.1.1 prescribes the limits on the amount of longitudinal
of numerous tests (Ref. 2). reinforcement for columns, which are applicable to all such members
The maximum axial load that can be carried by the longitudinal regardless of the type of transverse reinforcement:
reinforcement P, is equal to the area times the yield strength of the • Minimum A,,= 0.01'\
reinforcement: • Maximum A,t = O.OIL\
The lower limit is meant to provide resistance to bending, which may
(11.40) exist even though an analysis shows that it is not present, and to reduce
the effects of creep and shrinkage of the concrete under sustained com-
Therefore, the maximum concentric axial load P0 that can be carried pressive stresses.
by a short column is equal to the summation of the maximum loads of The upper limit is a practical maximum for longitudinal reinforce-
the concrete and the steel (see ACI 22.4.2.2): ment in terms of economy and placement of the bars: For proper con-
crete placement and consolidation, the size and number oflongitudinal
(11.41) bar sizes must be chosen to minimize reinforcement congestion, espe-
cially at beam-column joints. If column bars are lap spliced, the maxi-
Equation (11.33) forms the basis ofthe nominal axial strength, which mum area oflongitudinal reinforcement should not ex!:eed 4 percent of
is discussed next. the gross column area at the location of the splice.
ACI 10.7.3.l contains requirements on the minimum number of
longitudinal bars in columns. These and other requirements are covered
11.1.J Nominal Axial Strength in Chapter 8 of Ref. 2.
In general, the maximum nominal axial strength P11,mu: is equal to Flowchart 6 shown in Fig. 11.27 can be used to determine Pn.mu:·
a constant times the concentric axial load strength P0 • The constant
depends on the type of transverse reinforcement utilized in the section
and accounts for any accidental eccentricities-or, equivalently, any 11,9 TENSION MEMBERS
accidental bending moments-that may exist in a column and were not Reinforced-concrete tension members occur in certain specialty struc-
considered in the analysis. These eccentricities can arise from unbal- tures such as arches and trusses. As has been discussed in Sec. 11.1, the
anced moments in the beams framing into the column, misalignment tensile strength of concrete is relatively small compared with its com-
of columns from floor to floor, or misalignment of the longitudinal pressive strength. As such, the tensile strength of concrete is neglected
reinforcement in the column, to name a few. in the design of tension members, and it is assumed that the tension
ACI Table 22.4.2.1 contains a summary of the maximum nominal axial load is resisted solely by the longitudinal reinforcement. Therefore, the
strengths based on the type of transverse reinforcement in a member. nominal tensile strength T" of a symmetrical reinforced-concrete ten-
For members with spiral reinforcement conforming to ACI 22.4.2.5, sion member subjected to a concentric axial tension load is equal to the
the constant is equal to 0.85. Therefore, area times the yield strength of the longitudinal steel:
(11.42) (11.46)
...; By assuming a value for the strain 2..:1 in Che reinforcement in layer 3,
the depth to the neutral am c can be determined from llmilar trian.glea
A s1 e • • ~
N
(see Fig. 11.29). B~ the rdnforceme.nt In layer 3 .Is farthm from the
extnme comPRnion of the tec;ti.on, ~=f., and
t= 0.003tls (11.47)
.., e,+0.003
• ~
• C=0.85/Jill
In Eq. (11.40}, the depth of the equivalent rum block a= P1 c.
(11.48)
o.ssr:
-
M
Asi
• • ·- l1
..; ![
...
As2
• • ....-- "1::S fs2
.__
AS3
• • • fs3
I. b
.I fsi = E,r,; ~ fy
fttur• 11.29 Stnin me! etnes dl.ulbuU011$ ID a .ed:lon fl!bjeaed to Wl1allal oompmr:io.D.
and flexure.
For elastic-plastlc reinforcement with the stress-main curve defined Similarly, the noml.nal tlexural. strength. M,. for the assumed ctraln
by deaign wumption no. 3 given In S«. 11.S, the ltms In the reinforce- diatriblltlon is determined by summing moments about the centroid of
ment at ea.eh layer !11. ii equal to the strain £,i at diat level dmmllned the column became thi1 is the uis about which momenta are computed.
by Bq. (11.49) times the modulus of claruci.ty of steel B,. Il is important in a conve.11tiD11al structural. analysis (see Fig. 11.30):
to keep ill mind that /s1 must .not exceed the yield stras!, ill temion or
compremon. (11.53)
The magnitude of the force Fd in the mnforcement depend.s on
whedier the steel is in the equivalent compression zone or not
IC d1 18 greater than the depth of the eq,uivalent atrete block a, Flowc:h.art S shown in Fig. 11.31 can be used to determine P,. and
M,. u a function of the net tensile main in the atreme la.yer of
p" =/11A.i (11.50) longitudinal tension steel. lr
For the •ection depicted in Fig. 11.25, this equaiion would apply to
la.yera 2 and 3. 11.11 WALLS
IC d1 18 less than the depth of the equivalent mess block a, 11.11.1 lntnldlldlon
F11 =(/11-0.asf.').A,. (11.Sl) A wall ii deiinecl. in A.CI 2.3 a a member, 111ually vertical, that is
deilgned to reaJn ulal load, lateral load, or both, with a homoatal
• In this aise, which Is applicable to layer l shown ill Fig. 11.29, the length-to-tlili:betS .ratio greater than three, md that is used to enclose
area of remforcement in that layer has been included in the area ab or sepuate spacet in a building or strutture. There are many different
wed to compute the compre.uive fon:e in the concrete c. Thus, o.asf: type.I of walh, but they are typically calegmizecl. as non-load-bearing
muat be subtracted from the steel me. f,, ill Chat layer before comput- and load-bearin.g. A non-load-bearin.g wall primarily auppoiU ltf own
ing the force F.i· weight In contmt, e. load-bearing wall supports dead md live loads
The nominal axial strcnsth Pn fur the assumed strain diatribution is from the floor and roof system• in addition to its own weight me 202
obtained. by summing the axial for«!S on the 1ection (see Fig. 11.30): containl more precise definilions of these wall types.
Because of their relatively large in-plane lateral atJffneae, walls can
(11.52) attract a slgniflcaut portion of the dfeG due to wind or earthquakes.
0.85[/
- M
Ast
• • • l1
..; ![
...
As2
• • ....- "1::S
-
A,3
• • •
I. b
.I
Flgul'lt 11.30 Nomlml maigth.
DESIGN OF REINFORCED-CONCRETE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS 3S7
Given:
b, h,Ast• dt.fc',fy, n, and Et
No
No Yes
0.003dt
c=
Et+ 0.003
They are used alone or in combination with moment framu to resist Basement walls and retaining walla are subjected to lateral earth pres-
thue load effi:cts. Because a wall ill much stiffer in the direction parallel sure perpendicular to the plane of the wall. A cantilever retaining wall
to the plane of the wall than perpendicular to this plane, it ill co=only is designed for flexure in accordance with the strength design method
assumed that only the walla that are oriented parallel to the direc- pruented in Sec. 11.7.5.
tion of the lateral loads resist the lateral load effects in that direction. Properly proportioned walls can reduce lateral displacements of a
Such walla must be designed for combinations of axial loads, bending building frame, which can result in the frame being designated as non-
moments about their strong axis, and shear forces, and they are referred sway. This can have a significant impact on the design of the columns
to as structural walls in ACI 318. Figure 11.32 illustrates a load-bearing in the frame (especially in regard to second-order effects) and on the
reinforced-concrete wall that is subjected to axial loads and in-plane overall performance of the structure.
lateral loads, which cause bending about the strong axis of the wall In This chapter focusu on the analya.is and design of walls that are sub-
other words, the in-plane loads cause an in-plane bending moment as jected to axial loads, combined axial loads and bending, and shear. In
indicated in the figure. general, provisions are presented for the following:
Walls must also be designed for any bending moments about their 1. Sizing the cross-section
minor axis, caused by lateral loads applied perpendicular to the plane 2. Determining the required amount of reinforcement
of the wall (e.g., a wall that ill situated at the perimeter of a building is 3. Detailing the reinforcement
subjected to wind loads perpendicular to its face) or by axial loads act- The requirements for reinforced-concrete walla are given in ACI
ing at an eccentricity from the centroid of the wall (see Fig. 11.32b and c Chapter 11. These requirements are applicable to the design of cast-
for these two load cases). in-place, precast, and precaat on-site (including tilt-up) wall systems.
351 CHAPTER ELEVEN
c = o.ast:ab
i =1
0.0030(c - d;)
Es;=
c
i=i+1
fst = ±fy
:ll
P:n=C+ IFsi
i=1
:ll
Mn = O.SC(h - a) +I ! =1
Fsi (O.Sh - di)
Figure11.J1 (Conlinwd)
11.11.2 Design Methods for Axial Loads out-of-plane slender wall analysis in ACI 11.8 is also permitted pro-
andFlaure vided the requirements of ACI 11.8.l .l are satisfied. This method and
OVl!RVIl!W the moment magnification method axe covered below.
Chapter 11 of the Code gives methods that can be utilized to design
n.11.J Walls Design.et Using the Provisions of
reinforced-concrete walls subjected to axial loads and bending moments ACl22.4
(both in·plane and out·of-plane). For any wall, the nominal axial
strength Pn and the nominal flexural strength M 8 can be determined in Any wall may be designed using the general principles of the strength
accordance with the provisions of ACI 22.4, which are also applicable to design method. The following equations must be satisfied in the
columns (ACI 11.5.2.1). The simplified design method of ACI 11.5.3 is design of any wall subjected to combined axial load and bending
permitted to be used instead of ACI 22.4 for walls subjected to axial load (ACI 11.5.1.1):
and out-of-plane flexure provided the limitations of ACI 11.5.3.1 axe
satisfied. Similar to beams, M,. is to be determined by the requirements (11.54)
of ACI 22.3 for non-load-beaxing walls.
In general, walls are to be designed for factored axial forces Pu and (11.55)
factored bending moments M,, using the appzopriate load combinations
in ACI Table 5.3.1. Just like columns, Mu must be magnified for slen- The factozed axial load Pu and bending moment M. acting on a
derness effects, where appropriate. The moment magnification method reinforced-concrete wall must be equal to or less than the correspond-
(ACI 6.6.4), an elastic second-order analysis (ACI 6.7), or an inelastic ing design values 4j>Pn and 4l>Mn in ozdcr for strength requirements to be
second-order analysis (ACI 6.8) is permitted to be used to account satisfied. A design strength interaction diagram facilitates the design of
for slenderness effects (11.4.1.3). Note that the alternative method for a wall section.
DESIGN OF REINFORQl>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS Ht
In-plane Loads
Axial Loads
Eccentnc1ty
Out-of-plane Loads _ _..,.
Slenderness effects must be considered 1n the design of walls where 11.11.4 Slmpllfttd Design Method
required. In the direction ptmllel to the length of the wall, slenderneu The provisions for the slmplifled design method are gMll in ACl 11.S.3.
effecta can mually be neglected h«ause the radius of gyration of the This method may be used for the dmgn of walla where all of the follow-
wall in that direction ls relatively large; this results in a slenderness ing limitatiom are satisfied:
ratio lw than the llmits given 1n ACI 6.2.5. However, In the dir«- I. The wall hu a solid, rectangular cm111-section.
tion ptmllel to the thickness of a walL the dendemm ratio ls usually
greater than the prescribed slendemm limits. A1 $\ldi, the factored 2. The resultant of all applicable fa.ctored loads falls within Che middle
bending moments about the minor uis of the wall must be magni- third of the wall thickness.
fled to account for slendemeaa effects. The three methods of analyille 3. The thickness of bearing walls Is eq,ual to or greater than the
that are permitted for analyzlng walls where slenderness effects can- unsupported height or length of the wall, whichever la shorter, divided
not be neglected are (1) moment magnification method (ACI 6.6.-4), by 25, lnrt not less than 4 in (100 mm). Furthermore, the wall thicknetS
(2) elutic second-order analysis (ACI 6.7), and (3) inelastic second- ii equal to or gn:mr dim 7.S in (200 mm) for exterior baaement walla
order analya!a (ACI 6.8). More often than not, the frame il1 the direc- and founclalion walh (1ee ACI Table 11.3.1.1).
tion of analysis am be considered nonsway where walls are used to Wustrated in Fig. 11.33 is a wall Jection subjected. to an ui.al load
:mist the lateral load$. acting at an eccenttld.ty from the centroid of the 'ectl.on. In thi' case,
JeO CHAPTER ELEVEN
11.12.1 °",,,... In gaieral, a sp.read footing mlllt be deligned for the bending
moment. that are Induced beca111e of the preaure developed at the hue
Chapter 13 of the ACI 318 Code contains the design requirements fix of the footing from the fu:tored load.. Requ.irmlents for both one- md
ilolUed foot1np. MOit of the provl&iOlll are alto appl.J.able to the design two-way their muat aho be satiafied. Methods to determine the thick-
of mmbined footlnp md mall. ness are provided in the foBoW!ng sections.
DESIGN OF REINFORQD-CONCRETE STRUCTVRAL MEMBERS 361
L
1
D A1 = BL
(a)
p
p
-t- M
e =-=
M
p L/6
M
e = -p > L / 6
3(0.SL - e)B
2P 2P
Qmax =A Qmax = 3(0.SL - e)B
I
(b) (c)
f19unt 1 U5 Soll pmaare dUt:rlbution for footlDfj mbjcctcd to uial load and bnulln.a IDOIJ1ad: (11) • < U6, (b) "= 1J6, and
(e)' >L/6.
AC! 13..3.1.2 1equiiea a minimwn depth of 6 in. (150 mm) mc- 11.12.S D9119n fw Aaunt
1he bottom mnforccment for lootinp. Similady, the OYa'al1 depth of a Cltrr1CAL Sl!cno11
pile ap mu.t be lelected so that the efli:ctm depth of the bottom rein-
A lplad fooling mutt be deligDed fDr the bending momenll that Ill!
fmument ii at lean 12 .ID. (300 mm) (ACI 13.Ul). Accordhtg to A.Cl induced bce&Ule at the~ dewloped It the but of the fuottng from
'lable 20.6.1.3.1, the minimum conaete cover 1D 1he reinforcement i.11 the fictored loads.. Dhutm:d In Pig. 11.36 ls an i9olated spread footing
equal to 3 in. (75 mm) for c.oncmie cut apimt and permanently eir.poted subjemd to a amce:ntric &dmed aDal load P,,. The faGtored preaurc 'lu at
1D earth. TheRfore, for footinp the minimum overall thicbess .15 equal to the hue ofthe foottng I.I equal to PM divided by the area of the footing A,
~ 10 in. (250 mm). Similarly, the mlnimum overall th1cbeaa According to ACI Table D.l.7.1, the aitical ltction for fle:mre li:>r
of pile cap1 ia 16 in. (400 mm). an lto1at.ed footing supporting a c.oncretl: column. pedestal. or wall I•
JQ CHAPTER ELEVEN
c The required strength M., murt be equal to or !en than the clmgn
strength +M,.. An efficient design for foolingl would be one where the
1eciion II temlon-coatrolled. ThUB, the strength-reduction factor•
equal to O.!l ID accordance with ACI Table 21.2.2. Similar equatiOlll
I•
can be dermd for other pressure dimi.butiom.
Acmrding to ACI 13.3.2.I for one-way footings and ACI 13.3.3.1 for
two-way footinp. the m.IJlimum area of flemral reinforcement ~ for
footingl of Wlifmm CIWHection mlllt conform to that preacrlbcd In
AC Chtpter 7 for one-way slaba. For footinp with Gnde 60 (Grade 420)
Critical section reinforcement., the minimum area ofsteel .ia equal to 0.18 percent of the
FlguN , , .JI Crltlcal ffCt!oa for ID bolalled fooliD& lllpportiDg • concrete gross area of the footing, which ii equal to the overall thic:kneu h times
calwnn. pedfttal. or wall footing plan dimension B or L, depending on the direction of analysis.
The maximum spacing of flexural reinforcement ls the lmer of 311 or
18 in. (4.50 mm).
located at the face af the supported member. The .muimum factored
bend.Ing moment M,, at this c.rltlcal 1ection In this direction can be D gTAILJNG OP Rl!INPOll.CllMBNT
dete:nnined by the following equation, which ii llJIPlicable to cantile-
Requirements fur the dlttrfbutlon of flexural reinforcement are gMll
vered memben: in ACI 13.3.2.2 for one-way footinp and in ACI 13.3.3.2 and 13.3.3.3
for l:wl>-wayfootinp. For one-way (wall) and two-way 1quare footinp,
M =
•
IJ.2/ (11.51) relnfon:ement ii to be d!atdbutcd uniformly aaou the entlre width of
th.e footing. ID 1quare footlnp. the .reinf'orcement In both orthogonal
In this eq_uation, c ia the di.mnc:e from the '"tiQI aeaie11 to the edge of layers is the R111e becau« the muimum-mtored bending moments at
the footing (i.e.. c is the length of the cantilevered portion of the footing). the aitical sediOill are the 1ame. Uniform distribution of the reinfwu-
Ifthe footing were tubjected1D a moment or load ac:tiDg at Ill eccenlrlc- ment ii ahown In Fig. 11.38 for a one-way apread footing 111pportlng
~ the reaultillg filc:tored praisurc would be nommlfilrm. ID such cues, the a wall and for an Isolated •quare tpread footing supporting & column.
bending moment at the amc:a1 ecdie11 QD be obtained from statia. Other .reinforument is not shown for clarity.
ACI table 13.2.7.1 also contairul critical section locatiOill for two Flexural mnforcement in two-way rectangular foolingl must be
other cuea. For footinga supporting maaonry wall• and footlnp tup- dlltrlbuted In accordance with ACI 13.3.3.3. Reinforcement in the long
portlng column& with & lted bue plate. The critical 1ectio11 locatlon is direction 11 unlf.ormly distributed across the entire width of the footing.
mown In Flg. 11.37. In the •hort direction, a portion of the total reinforcement y,A, murt
ACI 13.2.7.3 permit.t circular or regular polygon-al111ped columm or be uniformly distributed aver a band width cmrtm"ed on the column or
pecl.t:ttals to be replaced by an equivalent square member with the same pedertal that is equal to the length of the lhort lide of the footing. The
area as the orlglnal shape fur location of c:rlt1cal 1ectiom for moment'$, term y, ls determined by ACI Eq. (13.3.3.3):
.hear, and deldopment of flexural reinforcement.
2
D.nl!IUlllONG TB:ll Rl!QUIRl!D Rl!INroACJIMIHT y,= ~+l (1L59)
Once the .muimum factored moment M. at the critical section has
been determined. the required area of re1nfordng md A. can be calcu- In thia equation. ~ it the ratio of the long t ide to the short side of
lated using the strength design req_uiremenu prexnted in this chapter. the footing.
b b
2 2
m Masonry wall
Steel column and
base pla te
I I
I I
I
+b 4 -t-1- 2
s
AguN 11.J7 Crltlcal 11edlcm locatlona for (11) footlnsl 111pporl1D& masonry walls and {b) foot!Dgl lllppOftlnc
colam111 with a lteel bue plak.
DESIGN OF REINFORQD-CONCRETE STRUCTVRAL MEMBERS 363
~
..
;;;
; I
13 = -8 I
; Ii I
i Ii I
I
1. 8 /2 .I. 8/2 F ~
I
I. l .I I
c
AsL - A, 1
Asz = z Tributary area
Rg11ra 1 1 .n Dimibul:ian af flaunl mnfim:emait ia 1. rectangular footing. f'l9ure 11AO Critical aectlon for one-way ahear ID a foolillg.
H4 CHAPTER ELEVEN
111 llluruated in Fig. 11.41. The following equation muat be Qatiafled at 11.12,7 Fota Transfer at BaM olSUppo"11d
the c:ritlcal section, which in this cue .Is located at a distance d/2 from Mernllera
the lice of the <:olwnn: VBl.TICAL TltA:NSHll
INlfllf StlrKI According to ACI 16.3.3.4, the bearing stzcngth
(11.61) requirmienb of ACI 22.8 must be salisfied for both Che supported and
the iupportJng member. For bearing on the supported member, Che
f'actorul bearing load B., must be equal to or less than the du!gn-bear-
L ing sttength 4>Bn (see ACI Table 22.8.3.2):
(11.63)
In this equation, A.1 ii the area of the column. wall. or pedestal. that i1
iupported by the footing and theatrength-ruluctionflctor•fur bearlllg
Is equal to 0.65 (ACI Table 21.2.1).
The following e<iuatlo.n mll!t be satisfied fur bearing on a footing or
ped.c:lltll:
~Critical aection B,. ~~ =..,.851:..ti~ ~2..,.85J:A.i (11.64)
:D!Ic2 The term A.1 is1he area C'Lthe supported member and A.,, is ddlned as the
area C'Lthe lomrbase of the largestfrustrum of a pyramid. co114 or tap end
-1J:;fl (typical)
wedgecontalne<lwhollywlthinthefootingandhavlngfurbupperbasethe
loWd area A1 and having aide tlopes of I vmic.al to 2 horizonuL
RlllnfonlMMlllt • - 111• lm.h1118 The amount of ttlnforcement
that Is required between the supported and the rupportillg member
depellds on Che type of stress in the bars of the supported member
under all applicable load combinations. Minimum embedment lengths
into both members also depend on this rtreu.
DoweJ. are commonly used u interface reinforcaneat between
columns or walls and footings. The dowel ban are set In the footing
Tr1butary area prior to Galting the footing co.n<:mc and aR subsequently splic;ed to the
column or wall bars.
Figure 11 A1 Cril:ial IM!CtiM for two-way .bur in a foating. Compmslve Stress In the Bars of the Supported Munber Where B., > ~B",
relllfor<:ement must be provided to transfer the ac::as comprenlve
ltresll from the supported member to the footing. The required aRa of
In thil equation, the detign shear st:rmgth of the concrete ty, is the interface reinfon:cment can be determined by the following equation:
least of the value$ defined in AC[ Table 22.6.5.2:
A, =~~A.. (11.65)
~'1
~'J..../J:
A minimum area of Rinfor«m.ent ~ across the interface la
.... = •(2+j)'J..../J: (11.62) required mm where concrete-beaJing strength is not exceeded. Mlnl.-
mum reinforcement requirement. are bued o.n the tppe of member that
is 111pported.
•(2+a:.)~ Haril:an'AI tnnllfar ACI 16.3.3.5 permits the shear-friction method
of ACI 22.9 to be used fur transfer of lateral loads from a supported
member to a footing or pedestal. The reinforcement~provtded across
the inter&ce between the supported and the supporting member must
~.33'J..../J: satisfy the following equation, which is applicable where the ahear-
frictlon reiDfurcement is perpendlcular to the Jnterface (ACI 22.9.4.2):
[JnSI:tv.= ~.11(1+j)AJ:C
(11.66)
~.083(2+ ~")AJ:C In this equation, V., Is the mulmum factored shear force due to the
lateul load effects obtained by the ipplicalile load combination• given
in ACI Table S.3.1 andµ ill the ooefficient of friction that is detmnined
IDustrated in Fig. 11.41 is the perimeter b0 of a fuur-Gded c:ritlc:al by ACI Table 22.9.4.2. The strength-reduction factor t 19 equal to 0.75.
S«tlon.
For footings supporting square column1, 1he 6nt. of these three 11.13.8 DellgnPNmcl...
equations uNally goveint. The tecond equation acccunb for p, which 1. Determine the area of the footing
is equal to the ratio of the long side to Che short side of the column, 2. Determine the thicknett of the footing
concentrated load, or reaction area. AJ JS inc:reuet. the design shear 3. Dete.rm.lne the required tlexural. .relnfor<:ement
st:rmgth deGn:ases. The third equation accounts for the eff'ect of b,,Jtl.. 4. Diatribu~ the flo:ura1 reinforcement
Also included in this equatJC11 h a,. which is equal to 40 for critical sec- S. Develop the flexural re:infim:ement
tions with four sides, 30 fur crl.tJcal sections with three c.ldes, and 20 for 6. Chedt transfer offorGeS at the bueofehe supported member
critical sedio.ns with two sides. This equation yields the smallest design For other types of foundations, similar procedure Is followed. see
stRngth where t1Jc1 s 0.25, which rarely OGGun. Chapter 10 of Ref. 2.
DESIGN OF REINFORQl>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 3M
II
I
I
I
\ I
- - - - --- -- --- -- - ~
v
.<;!
V>
N
,...,
/\I
Column capital
Drop panel
SDC D. E. and F Special reinforced-concrete shear walls are required to permitted to be used in buildings assigned to SDC B with no limitations.
be used in a building frame system (along with the applicable building Such systems are not permitted in buildings assigned to higher SDCs;
height limits) in structures assigned to SDC D and high.er. It is important a dual system would be required in such cases. Other than ACI 18.3,
to note that for these SDCs, the deformational compatibility requirements no special seismic design and detailing requirements are prescribed for
of ACI 18.14 must be satisfied. The beam-column frames must be this system.
designed to resist the effects caused by the lateral deflections due to the
earthquake effects because they are connected to the walls by the dia- 11.14.3 Design and Pet.Hing Requirements
phragm at each level. The frame members, which are not designated as 0VBRVIEW
part of the SFRS, must be capable of supporting their gravity loads when
subjected to the design displacements caused by the seismic forces. Table 11.6 contains the sections in ACI Chapter 18 that must be satisfied
for different structural components in addition to those in ACI Chap-
MOMBNT-Rl!SISTING FRAMB 5YSTBMS ters 1 through 17 and 19 through 26. These requirements are organized
SDC B An ordinary reinforced-concrete moment can be used in with respect to SDC. There are no sections in Chapter 18 that are appli-
buildings assigned to SDC B with no limitations. In addition to the cable to components in structures assigned to SDC A.
requirements of ACI Chapters 1 to 17 and 19 to 26, the requirements of For more details on the seismic provisions and detailing require-
ACI 18.3 for ordinary moment frames must also be satl5fied. ments, the reader is referred to Chapter 11 of Ref. 2.
SDC C Buildings assigned to SDC Care permitted to utilize interme-
diate reinforced-concrete moment frames with no limitations. Such Table 11.tl Sections af ACI Oiapter 18 to Be Satisfied BaHd on
frames are to be designed and detailed in accordance with ACI 18.4. SDC
SDC D, E. or F Special reinforced-concrete moment frames are
SDC
required in buildings assigned to SDC D, E, or F. These frames can be
used without any limitations and must be designed and detailed in B(ACI C(ACI D,E, F (ACI
accordance with ACI 18.2.3 through 18.2.8 and 18.6 through 18.8. Component 18.2.1.3) 18.2.1.4) 18.2.1.5)
BY
SRI SRITHARAN Wilkinson Chair ufInterdiscipUnary Engineering and Professor uf Structural
Engineering, Department of Civit Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa
MARYAM NAZARI Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Geomatics Engineering,
California State University, Premo, California
•Much of the material for this chapter wu taken from T. Y. Lln and Paul Zfa, Chap. 13, Structural Enginuring Handbook, 4th ed.
370 CHAPTER TWELVE
11 =moment of inertia of transformed section primarily dependent on parameters such as humidity, mix design (espe-
k =coefficient for depth of compression cially water content), member thickness, member size, aggregate type,
kb, ki = lrern distances from c.g.c. to bottom (top) temperature, and age. The typical range of shrinkage may be expected
K =wobble coefficient, per ft to be in the range of 0.0002 to 0.0008. Creep, which develops under a
!4 =length of embedment sustained load, depends on initial stress, elastic modulus, humidity, age
L =length of tendon at loading, member thickness, aggregate type, etc. The total amount of
m = load factor or factor of safety creep strain at the end of20 years ranges from one to five times the instan-
M 0 =girder moment taneous elastic deformation under load (averaging about three times),
MT= total external moment produced by the working load the low values occurring for moist storage and for limestone aggregates.
Mu =ultimate resisting moment Of the total amount of creep strain, about one-fourth takes place within
n=E,IE, the first 2 weeks after application of prestress, another one-fourth
p<P = outside perimeter of the concrete cross section within 2 to 3 months, another one-fourth within a year, and the last
Ph = perimeter of the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup one-fourth in the course of many years. Upon removal of the sustained
P' = k at ultimate load stress, roughly 80 to 90 percent of the creep will be recovered during the
Q =statical moment of the cross-sectional area above (or below) same length of time that it has taken to develop.
any given level about the centroidal axis Lightweight concrete has been successfully used in prestressed-concrete
r = radius of gyration of cross section construction. It has a lower modulus of rupture than normal-weight
51 = principal tensile stress in concrete concrete and slightly less favorable shrinkage and creep characteristics.
T = total tension in prestressing steel However, with the better aggregates, these properties are comparable with
T' = ultimate tension in prestressing steel those of normal-weight concrete.
V, = total shear carried by concrete High-strength steel in the form of wires, strands, or bars is commonly
V, = total shear carried by web steel used for prestressing with the specified material strength ranging from
y = distance from centroidal axis 150 to 300 ksi. Typical stress-strain curves for the different prestress-
a= curvature of tendon ing steel are shown in Fig. 12.1. They all have comparable modulus of
o= unit elastic shortening due to transfer of prestress elasticity in the range of 27,000 to 30,000 ksi, but none of them has a
o
1= initial strain in concrete due to elastic shortening well-defined yield point. This is due to the presence of residual stresses
o,
= strain in steel due to shrinkage of concrete resulting from cold drawing used in the manufacturing of these rein-
Si = final strain in concrete including effect of creep but not of forcements. The yield strengths for these prestressing steel are defined
shrinkage using the 1 percent elongation method for wires and strands and the
~.=deformation of anchorage 0.2 percent offset method for high-strength bars. Typical elongation at
A/, = loss of prestress in tendon rupture for these steel ranges from 5 to 6 percent.
t., = elongation of tendon The most commonly used prestressing steel in practice is 0.5-in.-
µ = coefficient of friction between tendon and surrounding material and 0.6-in.-diameter, seven-wire grade 270 strand (i.e., with a mini-
~=total equivalent damping ratio of the system expressed in mum ultimate strength of 270 ksi based on the nominal area of the
percentage strand), which is produced by a combined process oflow-temperature
e =angle between axis of strut, compression diagonal, or com- heat treatment and high tension. Because of this special process, the
pression field and the tension chord of the members yield strength of the strand is raised and its relaxation is substantially
reduced. This prestressing steel is thus called !ow-rdaxation .strand.
12.1 INTRODUCTION The prestress technology is relatively new with the first application
in bridges in the United States dating back to 1949. Since then, it has
12.1.1 0nrv1- been used in several different applications. They include: bridges, build-
Prestress concrete is conceptually similar to reinforced concrete with ings, architectural elements, storage tanks, containments structures of
the exception that the steel reinforcement is tensioned, subjecting the nuclear power plants, towers, stadiums, earthwork, offshore production
surrounding concrete to compression in the direction ofloading. In this platforms, dams, piles, utility poles, pipes, and railroad ties.
process, desirable strains and stresses are introduced to concrete while
counterbalancing undesirable strains and stresses. This approach allows 12.1.l Methods of Prestresslng
a design to maximize the use of concrete and steel reinforcement while Prestressing steel is typically tensioned through mechanical means
delaying the formation of tension cracks. For example, a member could regardless of it is a posttensioning or pretensioning operation. In post-
be designed to be crack free at service loads. Since prestressed members tensioning, hydraulic jacks are used to pull the steel against the hardened
can be designed to be crack free, their deflections can be easily con- concrete; in pretensioning, the steel is tensioned against bulkheads or
trolled. As a result, the benefits of prestressed concrete members include molds using a hydraulic jack. The capacity of these jacks varies from
increased span length, slender more aesthetically pleasing sections, and about 3 tons up to 2000 tons. In all cases, both the jack gage pressure and
better protection against corrosion. Prestressing also promotes prefab- the tendon elongation are measured to ensure development of the right
rication of structural members, which may be accomplished on-site or amount of prestress.
more co=only at precast plants. When structures are fabricated in Pretensioning. Pretensioning in the United States is usually accom-
components, robust connections between them have to be designed and plished in the plant by the long-line process. Tendons are stretched
constructed so that the structures can produce dependable behavior. between two bulkheads held against the ends of a stressing bed several
In comparison to reinforced concrete, higher-strength materials hundred feet long. Concrete is then placed along the bed between steel,
make the prestressed concrete design most effective. Concrete strength timber, or concrete forms. When the concrete has set sufficiently to
in the range of 5000 to 9000 psi is commonly used, although higher carry the prestress, the tendons are detensioned either by releasing the
strength in the 10,000 to 18,000 psi range is also possible today. In pre- hydraulic jack or by flame cutting, and the prestress is transferred to
cast operation, high early strength is desired for a fast turnover. With the members, generally through bond between steel and concrete. Since
steam curing, a transfer strength of 3500 psi is often attained overnight strands anchor themselves much better than wires, they are widely
A transfer strength of over 5000 psi can be attained in 3 or 4 days by used in pretension operation. Devices for gripping the tendons to the
using high-early-strength cement or chemical and mineral a.cl.mixtures bulkheads are usually made on the wedge and friction principle. Reus-
without special curing. able quick-release grips for holding strands are routinely employed. In
Two characteristics of concrete that affects the behavior and effi- order to improve the behavior of prestressed beams, their tendons are
ciency of prestressed concrete are shrinkage and creep. Shrinkage is often bent to desired profiles. In the long-line process, this is achieved
DIESIGN OF PRE$1llE$$El>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 371
250
x
-~ 150
~
v;
Grade 160 alloy bar
100
1% Elongation
by defl«ting the tendons up and down alo111 the length of the bed. This u I.CS psi. After the grout hu d!Kharged &om the fv end. the end is
process i.'I known u harping or draping of tendons. plugged and the pressure is again applied at the injecting end to com-
Posttmsloning. There are hundreds of patenbl and systems for post- pact the grout. It it also good pw:tke to wuh Che cablea with water
WlslonJng. Some are more commollly used than others. A partial list of before grouting .Is ttarted, with. the acea water being .re.mowd with
these system• can be found In eadler editions of this handbook. More ~ed air. When tendOlls are unbonded. they lll'll.t be properly
c:UZTent symms are d.escribed in publiallions of the Post-Tensioning greued and wrapped to pnwent c:onosion.
Institute of Farmington HlI1s, Michigan. Since posttens:loni.llg is typi- A minimum grout temperature of 90°P ii generally recommended.
cally done in the field, a quallfled crew is required fur the jacking opera- The temperature of member& at the time of grouting should be main-
tion who will provide the equipment and tedmica1 Rpervision. Details tUned «hove 3S°F until job-cured 2-in. cubes of grout reach a minimum
ohariou pomemioning systems can be found in the Wt edition of thU ~ sttength of 800 psi Teat c:uba ahould be cured under
handbook. and a1 manufacture's websites. temperature and moisture conditions u dose u pomble to those of the
Gtoutlng. Far banding the tendoM to the concrete after tel'Woning (in grout in the member. Durlng ml.xiDg and pumping, the grout tempera-
Che cue of posttmston!Dg). cement grout ls ~ whldi also senu to ture mould not crceed 90°F. Otherwise, ditncultle~ may be encountered
protect 1he ~ against comlSion.. Emry for 1he grout into the eablewzy is in pumping.
provided by means of aca:ss holes in the andiarage heads and c:ones, OI' Plutic shielded wires and stranch with di.ametaJ up to 0.6 in.,
plpa bwied iD Che CODiCtt.te memben. The grout am be injected at ane e.D.d p.repacked w:llh corrosion Inhibitor, are commercially available for
ofthe member until.it is furted out of Che other end. For IOl'lp members..!t pM-te.D&loned work. Such te.adons are suggested to have a very low
wi be ~ed at both ends un1i1 forced out ofa center wnt. Either ordinary c:oefficient of friction during tensioning.
port1and a:mc:nt or high-early-slmlgth am.em rmy be \Ued for the grout.
Coane sa.adlllpreferredfurbondandmmgth. but ruflldentBnenat l811ec- 12.l PRES111£SS LOSSES
essaryconskler!Dg1hellmited spacedirough which the grout ha& to pasa. To
ensure good bond for small conduts. grouting under~ is demehle; Initial preme~ that Is applied to a c:oncrete member aperiences two
however, care should be takm 1D emuretlllll 1he ~on the walls ofthe types oflOSIC!I: strain IOS!es and friction louea. The strain lol&eill include
cable enclosure can be safely resisted. Machl.aes fur mhing a.ad injecting reduction in preltre$Slng due to immediate elastic lou that takes place
Che grouts are commerdally avallah1e. during fabr:lc:atton and time-<lependent losses. The friction losses oc:c:ur
Where grout Is applied to large void areu, some und may be u.ed ill poattensioned tendon• due to drag apinst the able sheath. Due to
in the grout miL Where the space is limited. neat cement paste should losses. prestre.u force ahould not be treated as a constant force with
be employed. Admilliuret are generally used to increue workability, time. Furthermore, c:oncreu strength and its elastic: modulus lnaeue
.reduce bleedlng and shrinkage, or provide expansion. Water-ceme.nt with time. Therefore, analysis and design ofpratruc concrete members
ratios typically ~dare between 0.47 and 0.53. Grouting pressure should include the effective pres1ress force and appropriate matula'l
generally ranges from 80 to 100 psi with a mu:imum pressure speatied properties for a given stage of loading.
372 CHAPTER TWELVE
Descriptions of Vllrious prestress losses are given below, and guid- when tendons are stretched sequentially, but the loss is expected to be
ance to estimate the amount of loss in pretensioned and posttensioned small compared to the value calculated in the pretensioned case.
members is presented in Table 12.1.
12.2.2 Creep
12.2.1 Elude Shortening of Concrete Creep and shrinkage of concrete are influenced by many factors, and
As prestressing force is transferred to the concrete, shortening of the they are interdependent. However, treating their effects individually is
concrete results in loss of prestress. This mainly affects pretensioned accepted in engineering practice. Creep of concrete will occur over a
members. In posttensioning systems, elastic shortening loss is zero if all long period of time under a sustained load. Creep is assumed to occur
tendons are stretched simultaneously. Some shortening loss is expected with the superimposed permanent dead load added to the member after
CR=K,,.!i(f"'- fai,)
E,
Creep of Concrete (CR) After transfer After transfer K,, should be reduced by 20% for lightwejght concrete.
For unbonded members of normal-might concrete:
CR=K,,.!i f.,_
E,
it has been prcmmed. Part of the initial ~ strain indU«d in and 'W'Obble effects. The loss of pre~ due to curvature effect resu11J
the concrete immedialely ~ transfer ii reduced by the ta!Jile strain from the intmded curvature of the tendons. TbiJ loss ii also dependent
.rerulting from the wpenmposed permanent dead load. With unbonded on the coefficient of friction and the pres.1ure exerted by the tendon on
Wldons, the IOS6es are related to the average member strain rather than the concrete. The coeflklent of frictlon depends on the nature of the
1o the strain at the point of maximum moment. which should be appro- rwfaces In cOI1tact, the amount and nature of hlbrlcants, and sometimes
priatdy ubn into account. the length of wntact. The premire between the tendon and concrete
depends on the stress in the tendon and the change in angle. Since in
12.2.J Shlfnae• practice the duct for a straight tendon will not be perf.ectly straight. some
Calculations for 104S rmihlng from shrinkage of concrete Should reflect frictlon will e:a:ist between the tendon and its sun:oundlng material. Tb.ls
those that are most imporWrt: volume-to""11'face ral:io, relative humid- i• sometimes d.e.aibed u the wobble~ of the duct and iJ dependent
ity. and time from end of mol.rt curing to appllca.ti011 of prelll:res.1 (see on the length of and streas in the tendon, the coefficient of friction, and
Table 12.2). It is expected tbt 80 percent of shrlnbge will occur Jn the the wmtmanahip and the method wed in aligning and forming the duct.
first }'Qt with the remaining 20 percent taking place over several }'Q'S· Table 12.3 may be used to determine 1he Nltible values for curvature
As with creep, there i1 an upper and lower variation from the average and wobble c:oefficienu. Th~ ~ srnn1 method.s to minimize the
shrinkage strain value, which can be taken u 550 X lo-' in.fin. frictional loss in the tendom. 0.11e method is to overtenllion them. Jack-
ing from both. en.de of the member b another. Lubricants can be used to
advantige for unbonded tendons. For bonded tendons, wateMoluble
oils <:a11 be used to reduce friction while tensioning; the lubricant ii
flwihed off with water afterwud.
60
Kar. 0.92 0.85 0.80 0.17 0.73 0.64 0.58 0.45
'hble 12.J C'oefftdlnb for Flktlonllll Loss
Wobble Cumll:we
12.2.4 Relaatlon In Steel c:odlkknt,K (A)e!lident, JI.
Stre~ relantion in sted I• the IOllS of stress when it i. maintained at a Tundont mflexible mebll. llhellthlng:
constant strain for a period of time. Rda:Ulion varies with stub of dif- Wire tend.ons 0.0010-0.0015 0.1S-0.2S
ferent compositions and treatments. but its approximate characterlstlea Hlgb-slmlgth ban 0.0001-0.()006 0.08-0.30
are known for most of the prestrtmng steels. In general, the pe.rce.otage 7-w!re rtrancl O.OOOS-0.002 0.15-0.25
increues with inaeuing stress. and the reluatlon is negligible when Tendoa• ill ri&ld metal du<:t:
steel is subjected to a low stress. Typical CU1'Vell giving the relation 7-w!re rtrancl 0.0002 0.15-0.25
between relaution and initial slre.tl level in three types of steel wiret ~·led tmdon.t:
W= tendons and 7-w:ine 11trand 0.001-0.002 0.05-0.15
are shown In Fig. 12.2.
Pn!gmuied tzndon.r.
Wire tendons and 7·'1rin! 11trand O.Cl003-0.002 O.OS-0.15
For a tendon with uniform ~ considering frictional loss u podtlve and negattve, respectively. This Implies both F and e have
throughout ib length L, the total elongation iJ given by negative signs, but Pe is positive.
Eccentric tendon
"'' t
F Fey My
t
My/I _ f=A+t-T
-F/A
Due to prestress
Direct load effect
Due to eccentric
prestres.s and
ext ernal M
DIESIGN OF PRE$1llE$$El>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 375
+720
-864\
/ 720 +864
F/A Fey/I My/I
F Fey My
f =A- +I - - I-
p p
! !
( =lk
§J4: ~:~
~
(a) External moment= 0, (b) Small external (c) large external
a=O moment, a is small moment, a is large
Note that when there ill no external load, C act.t in line with T (Le., Since T&ru 9 in. from the bottom. Clles 16.2 in. from the bottom, and
a =O). AJ the load lnaeasea, a will inaeue. The c01.TeSpondlng streas t' =16.2 - 15 =1.2 in. Then
distribution in conc:rete depends on the location of C with respect to
kem points (Fig. 12.6), which are section propertie.1. The bottom and -360,000 360,000Xl.2Xl5
top kern polnb are defined u follows: I 600 =F 45,000
A,,
ki, =__!__ k, =A~·
... =-600=t=l44
=- 744 pa for top flber
where c, =di.stance from c.g.c. to top fib er
c,, = dl.!tance from c.g.c. to bottom fiber =-456 pt! for bottom fiber
Following the formation of tlaural c:racl<&, there will not be any
slgniflCtillt changes to "' but the .Internal couple will increue due to the 3. Load B11lattcing Concept. By this concept, premesslng may be
incra.se in T and therefore C. 'riewed u an attempt to balance a portion of the external loads lU:ting
on a member. For example, prntrea:ring in a member may be designed
lllt.UIPIJr. 2 to sufllcle.ntly balance the gravity loads. As a result, the member will
Same data as El.ample 1. Compute 6ber stresses using the l.Ilternal couple not be subjected to 11e:mral stresses and ddl«tions due to gravity
<:On~ loads. which abo ~both the design and the analysis ofthe mem-
Solution M =3 x 242/8 =216 ft.-kip1. The internal <:0uple fumi.shed ber. In its simplert form, a. parabolic tendon ii re<J.uired. in a simply
by the forces C =T =360 ldpa (Fig. 12.7) lw the lever arm supported premeu~ beam to exert a uniform upward force on the
beam and balance an external dcwnward load of equal inten•lty, leav-
a=
216
X12=7.2in. ing the beam with a uniform compre.11ive 11:R11 f =PIA at any c:ro11
360 section provided that P acts at the beam ends with no eccentricity.
37f CHAPTER TWELVE
~
kt kt
kb kb
T T
i i
kt
kb
'
Figlll'll 12.6 Suua dl.tulbutlon {elutic theo.ry).
,, ,.-..~~~~~-1
Prestress 360k
-.__ -- r-:
7.2"
.J__C = 360k
\._9,,
T = 360kl16.2"
_.,.,,,U
-744 psi
~
If the ateinal load ii not <:ompletely balanced by the upward f'on;e. The beam will not csperienc:e any flemral. strenes when subjected to
the moment M of the unbotancul loa.d. produces an a.d.ditional 1tre11 an merna1 loa.d. of2.S kips/ft. Ifthe e:s:temal load is 3 kip4/ft (E:samples I
f=My/I. and 2), the unbalanced load is 0.5 kip/h. and the midrpan moment
The preruess F required to balance a unifurm load w lb/ft Is gMn. by
wL2 O.Sx242
wL 2 M=-=---=36.klps
P=- (12.9) 8 8
8h =My= 36Xl2,000Xl5
f I =F 45,000 =Fl4" pd
where L =span ofbw:n. ft
h =sag of cable, ft.
EXAMPLE3
A 20x30-ln. concrete beam Is p~d with a puabollc c:able located ~
I~ g•r
u shown in Fig. 128. Compute the prmn11 required to balance an Prestress 36Qk Parabolic
external load of 2.5 ldpslft.
Solatlon From Flg. 12.8, h =6 ID. ---- -·- ~~-=-- ----- Tis
r-----~------
l:' . 30"
T
F= wL2 = 2.Sx242 =360klpc I,
Bit Bx0.5
Beam elevation Beam section
Under thiJ prestras, the beam will be uniformly stressed to 360.000/ at midspan
(20 x 30) =600 p.ri. (The horizontal component of the prestreu force
may be uaed JC greater accuracy .IB desired.) Rgure 12.8 Bnmple 3.
DIESIGN OF PRE$1llE$$El>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 377
Ultimate
strength F' G
,.
/
/
Bonded"),,"'
/
/
_,. _,.
.,,.- G1
Initial /
F' ,,,,,"" ................
prestress f0
--- cC' Bonded
{_ E _F:_1
Effective 8
prestressf /0--=-7 ~ =--
E1
; ::-\Unbonded
1
8'
')-. __ I Un bonded
./
11
Vl
A
Girder Working Cracking Ultimate
load load load load
Load on beam
fituN 12.t VariatlOll. of. ~eel IUe# with load.
The atraaee raultiD.g from prestras and the memal load of 3 ldps/ft are At aacklng, strut In the steel at the crack jumpa from P to F due to
concrete not being able to carry any tension force, after whl.ch it contin-
/=-600±144 ues to increase until the ul1lmate load G is reached. Unbonded tendons
=- 744 psi for top fibcr would be ii>~ to slip except f'-or frictional resiltmce. This slippage
would allow any strain in the unbonded tendon to distribute through-
=-456 psi for bottom flber out the e.ntlre member lengdl. Consequently; as load lnc.reasu, the
tendon s1ress will lnc:reue more slowly than that In a bonded tendon.
12.3.2 Sllral In SIMI The line DB1P1F 1G1 shows the streu variation in unbonded tendons.
Since the steel m prestressed members are tensioned prior to the aaaumlng the aame effective preftress before addition of atemal load.
member being subjected to any e:itemal load, it ls important to under- As a ruu1.t, Che ultimate capacity of a beam with. unbonded tendon wlD.
s1and the wriation in sted. strea. which u ill~ in Fig. 12.9. Por be lower than that of an identical beam with bonded tendon.
a pcmtensioned beam, u the tendons are tensioned. the steel mus
increues from A. to B. Simultaneously, the prestress ii lnnlfem:d. to 12.3.3 Ctadd"f Moment
the beam. If the beam is heavy, ltl full dead load will not come .Into play The atemal moment producing first hair cracks 1n a prestressed con-
'lllltil after its falsewo.rk is removed, ca1141ng a slight inaeue in steel crete beam is known u the cracking moment. It u a measure of the ser-
stress from Bto C. Ifthe bw:n inelaUvelylight. itusu.allybegins to <:am- 'riceahility of the beam. It occun when the tensile stress in the extreme
ber before the steel s!R!1 reaches B, and its dead. load comu into play 1lber of concrete reaches lb modulUJ of rupture f, (Fig. 12.10):
immediately. Thus, the steel strelif may vary from an intermediate point,
say. If to C'. Because of the c:amber, the tendons morten s'llghtly so that F F" Mc (12.10)
their mess is slightly lower, u reprewi~ by C. In a preteNioned beam, "A+1-1=f,
the steel stR.n generally varies from B to C' upon 1ramfer of pres!Ru.
Aaaum1ng the Jostes of pres1tt$S tab place before the application of TranspO&!ng. WI: have the value of cracklng moment:
superimposed dead and live loads, the sted. stress Is redw:edfrom C or C'
1l> D. Only minor changes In the range DE are indu~ by wperim~ed PI f,l
M=Fe+--- (12.114)
dead and live loads since no flexural cracling is expected at this stage. Ac c
r2
kt = -
c
fc
11
c
--- ----
Su-ess block
j jfr
M1 = F(e + k,) forM 1 Stress block
St 1-ess block
fr! forM 1 +M2
forM 2 = -
c
Rg111e12.10 Craddngmomenl
37a CHAPTERTWD.VE
where f,. =stress in steel a1 failure and p, = Ap,Jbd, with f,. being deter- k'd=P1c
mined empirlcally.
For flanged sections in which the .neutral a:m falls outside the flange = J:
where P1 0.85 for f: !> 4000 psi For > 4000 psi. the value of fS 1 ls
(11S11ally where the f1ansc thidcness tis le# than 1.4dp,J1$/f;), .reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for eaclJ. 1OOO psi in excess of
4000 pn. but p1 mall not be u:ten less than o.65.
If the equilibrium condition T' =C' is not talisned. a new trial wlue
M., =i\,f,.d(1-~)+0.8S J;(b-h')t(d-·i) (12.15)
of c should be uaumed and the procedure repeated. until T' =C'. The
moment capacity .Is then computed by Eq. (12.13) or (12.14).
where b u the efl'ect:ive w:ldth of the flange. b' ill the width of the web, and
D:Alll'l.1\4
A..=A,.-~
IU!CTANGm.AB. lllCTION
Alf =0.8sf;(b-ll)tlf,.
A beam of rectangular cross seai.on ii 12 in. wide by 24 in. deep. The
Unless the value off,. is determined from detailed ana1yds accounting e.g.•. of the pr~ wiree is 4 in. above the bottom of the beam.
for prestrain from pnl!tmlling and the incn.ue in main during dewm- Area of wires Is 1.5 ln.1.f,.. =240,000 psl,.fo = 150,000 psi,/;= 5000 psi.
pression where the tendon it localed, the following u often used: E, =4,000,000 pa ComPute the uhimate resisting moment.
DIESIGN OF PRE$1llE$$El>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 379
I·
d-c
esp+esd =Strain due esl = 0.003(- )
c
to prestress and concrete
decompression
Beam e levation Strain at decompression Strains due to loading
at the strand location
Figure 12,12 Sttalnt u nipll.lre.
Solution .Assuming that the beam is underreinforced, the atrue Since P1 = 0.80 in this case, c = k'd/P1 = 8.60, which is the originally
.In Che meJ. at ~e ultimate moment Is /po= fP". = .240,000 psi. The depth amimecl value. Therefore.. with fps= 234,000 p«i.
d =24 - 4 =20 m., and from Eqs. (12.12) and (12.13),
M.,=1.SX234,000x20( l-0.6x 0.0062Sx234) =5,809,0SOm.-lb
•
k'= l.5x240,000 =0.3S3 5
0.8SX 5000X20X12 which is about 2 percent le.. than the flnt computed value. S.lnee the
value of e..., u relatively small. this term may be neglected. which would
0.353)
M11 =1.SX240,000X20( 1 - -- =5,930,000ln.-lb have resulted in being 4 percent lower than the fint computed value.
2
T-SBC'l'ION
Using the more conservati'fe formula. Eq. (12.14), the reinforcement
ratio p1 = 1.5/(12 x 20) = 0.00625, and from Bq. (12.16a), A.Mume a T-section 24 in. deep whose flange is 20 x 3 in. and
web is 5-in. thick. The c.g.s. of the pre.1tn111ing win:1 ii 4 in. above
b. After IOllffs have tt&ken place. the effec:ti.ve pmtres. Ftogether with be used cost effectively depe.Dding on the de.dgn parametm (e.g., apan
the weight of the~ will rmi1t in a Wgb.tly lower compmsion in the length). Commonly available standardized products applicable to build-
bottom fibers and some miall temion or compression in the top fibers. ing and foundation• <:a11 be found in the PCI Design Handbook (2017).
The C-T couple w:lll. act with a slightly greater lever arm. The provided details include member dimensions, section properties,
c. Addition of the slab we.lght W produces additional moment and and prestrealn.g. For bridge appl!cationa, there are .national standude
~s u shown. S~s reaulting from differential ~ep and shrink- available. However, the Department of Transportation In each. mte
age between the slab and the Item are neglected. in the United State8 publim« their own standard girde11 for bridge
d. Adding b to c, smaller compres.tlon is found to tldat at the bottom applications.
fl.bera and some compradon at the top fl.bers. The lever arm for the C-T
(".()'11ple inaeases further. Start
e. S!Iesse1 resulting Crom live loa.d. W£ are shown. and the corre-
apondlng moment a ttlllted by the composite eection.
f. Adding d tot, we have the stzess block/: The C-T couple .now acts
with an appreciable lever ann.
ldenttfy
The cracking moment and ultimate moment can be determined
using methods similar to those previoudy described for noncompo1lte Loecl9, material properties
S«tlons. and pre6tress losses
12AJI Splln-4:o-o.th lldDI The depth h for a pmtressed section varies between 50 and 80 per-
For reamns of economy and ullthetics, higher span-to-depth ratio1 are cent of that of an equivalent reinfmud-concrete section and may be
almost always used for pre.ttremd concrete than for reinforced-concrete taken at 70 percent for the 6m trial. Having estimated the force P, the
memben. Higher ratios are potslble b«allff prestraaing fac.llitatea bet- area of Nd 18 computed by
cu control of deflection. On the other hand, when these ratios get too p
high. camber (i.e., upward. deflection multing from pmtressing) and A,.=- (12.18)
deflection become quite sensitive to vuiaiions in loadings, in propertiu J.
of materials, in magnitude and location of prestreas, and Jn temperature. where f, depends on the steel and may be taken a 180 bi for strands.
Furthermore, the effects of vibration become more pronounced. Cue The area of ooncrete required 18 eftimated by
should be taken with cantilever bw:nJ sin<:e they are putic:ularly sensi- p
tive to deflection and vibration. A.=- (12.19)
Span-to-depth ratio llmltitiom mould vary with the nature and f..,
magnitude of the live load, the damping characteristics, the boundary
conditions. the shape and variatio.ns of the •ection, the modulus of elu- where f.,,, the average precompn:uion in the concrete, variea from
700 to 1300 pa! for I- and T-beanu and from 250 to 500 psi for aolid
ticit)s and the span. Ifthe structure is carefully invempud for camber,
slabs.
deflection. and vibratio.n, there is no reason to adhere to any given ratio. The load-balancing method, Concept 3 in Sec. 12.3.1, can also be
The llmlting values In Table 12.5 may be u.ed as a preliminary guide Wied for prdimin.ary d.e1ign with an intension of controlling deflection
for building design. In genml. with span-to-depth ratios of 10 percent
in d.etign (Sec. 12.4.12).
below the tabulated values, problema of camber, deflection, and vibra-
tio.n are not likely to develop unles,, the loadinp are extremely heavy 12.4.5 Elllltlc Dllllgn
and vlbntory Jn .nature. On the other hand, these ratios can be exceeded
by 10 percent or more If careful ttudy ensures acceptable behavior. The
Con<:ept 1 in Se<:. 12.3.1 can be used. for design by the c:lamc theory.
However, it is o.ftm more convenient to use Concept 2. Tb111:
ratio1 are intended for both hard-rock. concrete and lightweight con-
crete, but ahould be reduced by about 5 percent for lightweight concrete Cue l. Girder moment MG= 0. Allowing no ten&.lon In the con-
crete. either at tHnsfer or u maximum load, the permiNlble moment
having B, left Chan 3,000,000 pai For long spans (.ay, In acw of about
iJ (Fig. 12.lSa)
70 ft) md for heavy loads (.ay, ll~ loads over 100 psf), the value. should
be reduc;ed by 5 to 10 percent. For in-place concme in cm:nposite action
Mr= .F(k, + ~) (12.20)
with precut elements, the total depth may be considered in computing
span-to-depth ratios. when~ and ki. are the kem distances defined in Se<:. 12.3.1. If tensile
8tre&t is allowed for the top fiber (f';) at tranafer and bottom :Ober (ft)
during suvlce, an additional moment can be c:arrled:
Table12.5 ~ropftlm! U11111S far Spa ft-to-Depth A1111o:s
~
Prellmlnary design for tlcs:ure can be b~ on the C-T couple. Under
working load. the lever arm 11 varies between 0.30h and 0.85h, where
h =total depth of section, and averages about 0.60h. Hence, the required
effective prelll:resslllg for<:e P can be estimated from the ~uation --- C=F0
F0 T= F
d' After transfer At Mr
F=T= Mr (12.17) (c)
0.60h
Flture 12.15 ElasUcdeelp fwdlllUent.rattos of.lllofM,.; {a) ~=O; {b) small
where MT= total a.temal moment produced by the working load. M<fMf'i (i) large AfdM,-.
Jl2 CHAPTER TWELVE
<Au 2. When M 0 is ama1I, •o that the c.g.a. cannot be located at 24.5.1.1. l'crmiAlble atreNes in 24.5.2 through 24.5.4 shall be permit-
ill lowest poaible poaitian. u determined by the required conaete ml for amc:rete if mown by tut OT analyail that pe:r:formance will
protection d', the diatance d1 from the bottom lean point to the c.g.a. not be Impaired
ii given by 20.3.2.5. Pmnilalble ltretlea in prettresalng tendon•
20.3.2.5.1. TeDlll.e ltress 1n preltresalng tendons shall not esceed the
(12.2.2) following;
(a) Due 1D tendon jacking force (but not greater
than the !eater of0.80f,. and the maximum value
where ft it the allowable tmmon in the tDp 6ber at amm The pm:nil- recommended by the Ripplier of anchorqc device) 0.94/,,
slble moment ii (Plg. 12.150)
(b) Immediately alter prestreu tr&nskr 0.101,..
Mr = F(k, + kt + di ) (12.23)
12.4.AI Ultlmm Dulgn
If tenllle m-/• IJ allowed for the bottom flbers. The ultimate moment capedty of the tection must be not leaa than the
fi'I working load moment multiplled by a load factor m, uaually 1.8 for
Mr •P(k, +At + di ) +_!_ (12.24) bulldinp 111d 2.0 for bridges. For underrelnforced teetion1, the ultimate
~ lenr arm will be around O.!Jd, where d = efkctive depth. The area of
Case 3. When M 0 ii luge so that c.g.1. ii located at the lowest poa- steel required ii
sible position u determined by the required concrete protectlon d'
(Fig. 12.lSc), A = mMr (12.27)
,. O!Jdf,.,
Mr= P(k, +~ -d') (12.15)
Alluml.ng that the concrete on the comprenlve side is atreased to
Iftensile rma/; 1s allowed for the bottom fiben, 0.85/;. the required area under c;ompreuion ii
A, - mMr (12.28)
Mr • F(k, +c. - d')+ ftI
c. (12.26)
o.9cl x 0.851:
After the force Phu been determined, the area ofsteel is computed by When designed by the abcne tormulu, the aec:tion mould be checked
by the equation• In Sec. 12.3.4. In ad.ditlon, compreaaive stressea It
A =.!_ tranner mutt be investigated fur the Wl•ion flange. -1lyby the clutic
I !. the~ and cltecka for aceuive camber, deflection, and aack:ing may
be required.
111d the extreme flber streaaet in the conaete are computed under MG
111d under M,.. Uling the tormulu in Sec. 12..3.l. If the stresses are not 12.4.7 lalan-S.l.Dad Dulgn
satisfactory, the aectlon It reviled. Direct dealgn formulas and ecmpater
Concept 3 in Sec. 12.3.1 wi be c;onvmiently uted for deaign. Balancing of
programs aft al.a avallable for compkting the deaign.
a uniformly cliatributed load by a parabolic cable wu deKribed in that
Allcwabk Strasu. The ACI 318--14 (2014) allowable streAeS are u
1ection. Figure 12.164 Wwtrate.I the balandng of a concentrated load
foll0W1:
24.5 Permiaible ltn11es in amcreU:-flemnl members by bending the tc:ndon at mld1pan, creating an upward component
24.5.3. SU-. in concrete J.mmediately after prestreaa trana!er (before V = 2F aln e. If this V enctly balanca a concentrated load P, the
fiber stresa in the beam at any section (except for local stre11 con-
time-dependent preltrea 101sea) shall not ai:eed the foll.ow.Ing:
(a) Extreme 6ber streaa in toIDpreAion exupt u = =
centratio111) u given by f (P co1 9)/A, Piii., for small values of 9.
Any loading In addition to P will cause bending In an elastic homo-
permitted in (b) 0.60/~
(b) Eztreme flber strea in compre11lon at ends of geneous beam (up to point of cracking), 111d the additional .UC.set
can be computed by f = Mr.II, where M is the moment produced by
almply .upported members 0.70 /:;
(i:) l!nreme 6ber ltreA in temion eD:ept u permitted
the additional load.
in(d) 3./];
(d) Extreme fiber streaa in tenalon at enda of almply P= V
supported members 6..[l:
Where computed tensile ltress« aceed thete wlues, bonded auJ:-
iliuy rdnforcement (no.oprestreaaed or prestreaae<l) mall be provided
in the temile zone to reai.tt the total tensile force in concrete computed
with the uaumptlon of an Ullcracbd eection.
24.5.l through 24.5..4. Streaaet in concrete at aervice loadl (after 0 Transverse 0
component
~i;e for all prestrea. lo1m) mall not exc:eed the following:
(a) l!.:mane fiber ltresl in c;ompraUon due to predma (a) Concentrated load
plm tultalned load Q.45 J;
(b) Ememc 8ber me. in comprealon due to preatress
plu. total load 0.60 f;
(c) Ememc 6ber mesa in tension in precomprested
teDllle ione 7.S.{11 F
(d) Eztreme fiber me. in tenalon in precompreaed
tensile r.one of me.mbera (except two-w.y slab systems), A
where analysis bued on tranaformed aac.bd leCtions
and Oil bilinear moment-deflection relatiombips mows L1
that immediate and long-time ddlcc:tions comply with
(b) Cantilever beam
requirements of 24.2.3.9 111d 24.2.4.2 111d where cover
requirementl romply with 20.6.1.3 ./1:
12 Flgurw 12.1 • Load balanclog for beama.
DIESIGN OF PRE$1llE$$El>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 313
Now <;OD.Sider a. ca.ntile"m" beam (Fig. 12.16b). The «mdition• for Owing to P = 14 kips, the moment Mat mUkpan is
load. balancing become 1lightly more complicated becaWIC any verti-
cal component at the cantilever end, C. w.lll upeet the balance wlleaa PL 14x48
Che.re Is an aternally applied load at that end. To balance a uniformly M = 4 = --=168 ft-.ldpa
4
distributed load w, the tangent U> the c:.g... at C mll!t be horizontal. The
parabola for the cantilever portion is located by computing h =wL2/2P, and the atreme flber stmlses are
and the parabola for the anchor arm by 111 =wLi:f8P.
=Me= 6M 6Xl68Xl2,000
~5 f I W2 12X3a2 =Fl1 20 pd
A double c:antllever beam Is to be designed. so that Its pratress wlD. exac:t1y
balanc:e a. total uniform load of 1.6 kipt/ft on Che beam (Fig. 12.1711). The resulting streues at mid.span are
Design 1he beam using the leut amount of p.rutrea, lWllllling thlrt 1he
c:.g.e. must have a c:oncrete protec:tton of at least 3 in. If a COllc:entrated.
load P = 14 kips Is added at midspan, compute Che .mulmum fiber !.,., =-8811-1120 =-2009 pal compreaaon
streues. /,__ =- 889+1120 = + 231 pd tensloll
Sol11tlon To balance the load in the cantilever, the c.g.s. at the
tip must be located at the c:.g.c. with a hori2:onta1 tugent To use the
least amount of p.reatresa, the ecc:entr:tdty over the support should Note that the actual cable placement may not possetS the sharp bend
be a ma:dmum, that i•, h = 12 In. (or I ft). The pr«treNlng forc:e shown over the mpporta, and the effec:t of any deriaiion from the theo-
required is retical poalt!on must be aatlsfactorlly addressed in design. Alao note that
F =320 kips is the effec:tm pratteM, so that under the initial p.restress
2 there will be a. slight <:amber at mid.pan and either a <:amber or a cldlec:-
P= wL =uxir =320kipa tion a1 the tips which can be computed.
2h 2Xl For better Slre$i conditions under the load P, it would be dwahle
to relocate the e.g... so that it would ha\11: more sag at mid.span. Then a
To balance the load on 1he tenter 1pan, 111ing the same prestressing balanc:ed. condldon would not al.st under the uniform load w.
force, the sag fur the parabola must be
11.A.8 C.bkl l;aJolltl
=w~=l.6x4S
2
L =144ft=l73. Typical cable layouls for pnten1ioned and posttensi.oned. simple spans
"1 8P 8X320 • ' m.
are shown in Flgl. 12.18 and 12.19, rapec:tivdy. Layouts for single and
Hence, the c:.g.s. 18 located at shown In Fig. 12.17b, iD which it le double c:antllevm are mown in Figs. 12.20 and 12.21.
obserwd that Che eccentric:lty is not mntmt:ud in the c:enter span.
However, under the combined a.c:tio.n of die uniform load and the
prestre,u, the beam hu no detleciion anywhere and i.a under a uniform
compmtl.ve mua of
P= 14k
w =1.6 k/ft
12"
(a)
20' 48'
(b)
9.7"
20' i--.---+---r (g)
Ff91n12.17 EumpleS. Flfu19 12.18 l.aJlnltll for p.reteGaloned beams.
384 CHAPTER TWELVE
f·.::.·.::.·.::.·::.·..:1
Cut apna and pmnanently apoaed to earth
&poled to earth or wealher:
Wall panda, slaha, wt joiata I
·~
(d) Othel membcn
f..':::::;-:::::.-t
(e)
Not aposed to~ or ln oontact with the pund:
Slabr. wallt,, jolm
.Btamt. glrden. colomna:
"*
Prlmarynlnfo~ I~
Tica, 11inup., or tpinla I
FlguN 12.1!> Layouts for post!C1181oned beam&
Shdla and fulded-plm memben:
Relllfor«mem No. 5 (*' In.) a.od analler
Reinforcement No. 6 (618 ID.) aud luger
----------- -3 Other rdllfurocmcnt
(a)
-0
.9"' ::i'
~ 150 .......- -t
(d) Nonprestressed ~
100
Yield
strength
Deflection
1ffffiiftf~fifITTrrnf
shrtnbge cll.flmnd.al betmen top and bottom fibers, and variations in
propertia of the concrete. It ii usually nece11ary to have aperience
with the product of a particular plant before accurate pndiction can
be made. Lacking such aperlaice, camber computatl.ona for 1-dsy
strength of 4000 pai may be bued on E, = 4,000,000 psi for hard rock
Free body of concrete and 2,500,000 pai for ligh~ concrete. These valuea may then be
modified. for loa of pnltn:H and cn:ep, which can be apprmimated
FlguNI 12.24 EDmpl.e 6. roughly by the following table:
The end momcnb produce a downward deflection given by 12.5 DESIGN FOR SHEAR. IONO. ANO IEARlNG
2
A= MLl - 140,000X 1.2 XI X32 xul =0.133 ln.
12.5.1 PrtndlMllT- lon
7dayl "500 3000 The ~ prindpd tallile stresl does not necasarily occur at the
centroidal Dia, where the muimum vertical •hearing stress exiats. At
30dayl 5000 3400
aome point, where f. It diminithed, a hlgb.er principal tension may emt
l rear 5500 3800 even though v doesn't corrapond to the maximum value.
DIESIGN OF PRE$1llE$$El>-CONCRETE $TRU(TIJRAL MEMBERS 317
l
(b) Offset
Parabola
1'hil ii Equation (22.S.8.3.2) of ACI 318-14. Instead of the Me given 160 kips
10"
by thi' equation. V.., may be taken as the shear a1 the section for the
mullJple of dead load plua live load that produca a prlndpal tenaile
atress of 4./J: at the centroid or at the junction of the web and flange if
A-A
l 1 r-
the centroid u in the flange.
The crac.king moment, M- is given by
.,,; - - -. -.t..,)
...-C.g.s. 10 ~.;...
l
II
If a fle:EUW c;rack should oc;cur near the end of a pretensioned mem- T =total dl'e<:tlve prestl'eM force. lb
ber. there is a tmdency for the tendom to be pulled out u a reault of f, =allowable ltreas for the 1tirrup11, psi
bond slippage. For eeven-wire atrandt without mechanical anchorage, h =depth of girder, in.
Che foDowlng formula gives the minimum length of embedment, l11, In ~=length of transfer, aaswued to be SO times the strand
inches re<iuired to prevent such slippage: diameter, In.
I-.._:.---
_ __ ;>
___.. >--~
- l
LI
where A,= required totlll cross-sectional area of atJrrupt at the end of (d) Overlapping tendons
girder, to be uniformly distributed over a length equal to
one-filth of the gird.er depth Figure 12.21 Lllyouta for fully co11tlnuoua beama.
HO CHAPTER TWELVE
Tendons stressed
Tendons stressed
before erection
(b) Short tendons stressed over supports
Poured-in-place
Tendons stressed
before erection
Prestressed
elements ~,
I : _ •.~............ ..,.m.
lllll
L.J -"-B-~ L J
D Transverse tendons
Poured-in-place concrete
tendons
prestressed
(e) Couplers over supports
moment diqram will prodll(;C a similar moment diagram. that c:.g.s. UAKPLl!8
line will abo produce no deflection over the 1upporbi; and hence, it will A c:ontinuOUll prestre.ed-c:on~ beam with bonded tendons u mown
induce .no reactiom It supportl, makiJlg Jt a co.ncordant cable. in Pig. 12.30G. The c.g.1. ii eccentric at A, u bent lharply at D and B,
The C ll.ne can be located from the c.g.s. line by a linear transforma- and 1w a parabolic CUlft for the span BC. Locate the line of pressure
tion. IJ.near transfnnnadon ii defined u the location of the C llne from (i.e., C ll.ne) ill the concrete due to pratreu alone. Co.ns.ider a prestresl
the c:.g.1. line Irr clilplacieme.nu at the i.ntmor supports without changing of2501dpt.
Jb l.ntrWlc: thape withi.n each tpm. Since the C ll.ne dmates from the Solatioa The primary moment diagram d1111 to preltn:U is shown
e.g." line on accOU11t of the moments produced by the i.Dduced reaetlons l.n b. The corresponding llhear diagram ii mown in c, from which the
and since mch momenta vary ll.neulywfthln the span, it fullowi that the loading diagram is drawn in d. The find-end moments ue computed fur
Cline can be lineady tnndormed. this loading. At A, there 11 the additional moment 0.2 x 250 = 50 ft-Id.pt
A 1lmple method of detami.Di.Dg the C ll.ne ii llhaw.n iD E.umplet 8 resulting from the preatrea ea:entricity. Moment distribution ia per-
and!l. formed in e.
c.g.s. line c
30' 20'
-~1~ -200k
(b) Primary moment diagram due to prestress - 22 5
k
+15 I ~Ok
vzzzzzzzzzzzz~
iI 39 l20
(d) Loading diagram from (c)
The eccentricity of the line of preuure al B ii 2<l6/250 =Q.98 ft. The At mid.pan of BC. the line of prusure .i. translated upward by the
line of preuure for the beam can be computed by plotting it.I moment a.mount (0.98 - 0.4) 25/50 = 0.29 ft and is now located 0.61 ft belaw
dilgra.m and dividing the onilnata by the value of the pmtm•. the c.g.c. line.
Butthl• u not necessary. Since the line ofpretNR deviateslJneulyfrom
UA.lln.Eg
the c.g.1. line, it ii only ne<:euuy to move the c.g.1. line 10 that it pa.sea
through the points located OYer the supports, u ahown inf. The line of A unlfonn load of 1.2 kipl/ft ii applied 1D the beam ofEumple 8. Com-
pmaure at D ii t.rantlated upward by the a.mount (0.98 - 0.4) 30/50 = pute the streue1 in the concrere at section B, where I= 39,700 ln.4 and
0.35 ft and 11 now located 0.80 - 0.35 = 0.45 ft below the c.g.s. line. A.= 288 in.1 (Fig. 12.31).
w =1.2 k/ft
6"
24"
I
(a) Beam in Fig. 12.30a under uniform load
25'
0.09' 0.13'
Solution The moment diagram fur diJtributed load is plotted in '· The fiber stms under thit baleced-load condition is
Dividing these momenbl by Che presb:e.u of 250 kipt givu the C line
.In d. Add.Ing d to f of E:iample 8, the prearure line for both prutreaa f = !....=- 214,000 =-593 pd
and atemal load Is gimt In e. The resulting moment at S«t!0.11 B Is ~ 360
250 x 0.52 = 130 ft-kip" &om whic:h Owing to the additional load of 1.6 - 1.03 =0.57 kip/ft, the negative
moment at the center support is
f= -250±130Xl2Xl8 0.86?±0.?0?bi
288 39,700 wL1 sa2
M =9=057 Xg=-178ft-kipe
=-160 pal top Ober
=-1574 psi bottamfiber f Mc 6Xl78Xl2,000 ±US7 psl
l 12xW
12.6.2 l.oed-Bllll'lclng Mldlod
The resulting r1rease.t at the center support a.re
This method is convenient for both the analysis and the design of
prestresse<l continuous beams. When the external load I• enctJy f =-593+ 1187=+S94pal temlon top
balanced by the tranm:ne component of the prestress, the beam i1 f =-593-1187=-1780 p&loompremon bottom
wider a uniform atw1 f =PIA. across any section. For any change in
load from that balanced condition, only the dfects of change need be The reaetlon• due to 1.03 kips/ft c.:an be computed &om. the vertical
computed. For example, ifthe additional moment Is M, the additional components of the cable:
mme.1 are given byf =My/I. Thus, after load. balancing, the analysis 214
of prertreued c:o.ut.lnuous beams it reduced to the analy11s of nonpre- Exterior support: RA =l.03x 2S-so=2S.8-4.3 = 21.S kips
stresse<l c:ont.lnuous beams. Since such analysis will be applied to only
the unbalanced portion of the load. apprOldmate methods mt.y often Interior support: Ra = Sl.6 + 2 x 4.3 = 60.2 kipt
prove sufficient.
Design by the load-balancing method givu a different vimali2:a.t.ion Under the action of 0.57 lip/ft load. the reaetlona are, by the elutlc
of the problem. n becomes ftlat.lvely euy to lay out the cable. In an theory,
economkal. manner and to compute the required prestress aid the cor-
responding 6J>er ~in coni:;mc. This iJ ill~ in Example 10. =
Exterior rupport: RA 10.6 kip•
In the load-balancing method. it is often usumed Chat the dead. load Interior support Ra =35.6 ldps
of the structure u balanced by the effective prestras. Therefore. a 8llgb.t
amount of camber me;y ai.st under the Initial prestress. It is not always Hence. the total reatt10111 due to 1.6 kips/ft load and the effect of
necasary to balanc:e all the dead load .mc::e suc.:h balancinJ may req~ F=214 kips a.re
too much prutreu in some situations. and a. limited amount of deflec-
tion may not be obJeetlonahle. On the other hand, when the live load Ezterior support: RA = 21.5+10.6 = 32.1 kips
is luge compared with the dead load, it mt.y be neceuary to balance t1. Interior aupport: R11 =60.2 + 35.6 =95.8 kips
portion of the live load in addition to the dead load.
llAHPU\10 12.6.J UhflMte Stttn!J'lh of CO!n'dnuou• Btlrm
For the continuous beam in Fig. 12.32, determine the prestrea F The ultlm.ate strength ofpmtr($S(!d contlnuoua beam• can be estimated
required to balance a uniform load of l.Q3 kip4/ft, udng the moat eco- by llmlt analysl•. Plastic: hinges form at points of muimwn moment
nomical location of cable. Assume a concrete protection of at least 3 in. in undemi:inforced beams. Complete plastic hinges may not develop
for the c.g.s. Compute the midlpan section stre.ues and 1he reaci:loM for at cross sectiom where shear is large and In overre:inforced beams. in
the effect of pmtms and an e:m.rnal load of 1.6 kips/ft. wbic:b. cue the action will be only partly plutlc.
Solution The most «onomical cable loc:.atl.on 1' one with the ma:li- Cracking in preme.ed continuous beams CtiD be computed by the
mwn aag so that the leut amount ofpl'Cltl'e!ll will be required to balance elutic theory that. cra.ck.ing begins when the tensile ftber streu reaches
the load. A 3-in. proteetlon is given to 1he c.g.s. over the eenter support the modulm of rupture of the concrete.
and at midspan (a theoretJcal parabola bued on the•e clearancu will
ha~ s11gh1ly Im than 3 in. at a point about 20 ft In from the aterior
12.7 DESIGNFORTORSION
support). The c.g.s. at the beam ends should coincide with the c.g.c.:. and
cannot be raised. not only becawie such railing will destroy the load A hollow or solid beam section subjected to torsion ill idealized u a
balancing but also because it will not help to Increase the efllclency of thin-walled tube both before and after cracking. The mlstanc:e to tor-
the cable, since umawrable end moments will be Introduced. sion is usumed to be provided by the outer skin of the c.ross section,
The cable now has a.tag of 18 in., and the pratre" PJ'C<luired to bal- the thic.:lcne" ofwhich iJ roughly c::entered on the dosed nirrups and the
ance the load of 1.03 kips/ft ii core concrete of the solid sect.ion is negl«tlld. Once the beam section is
aacbd In toraion. the toraional reatstance 18 provided by cloaed atirrupt
wL2 1.03x5c.1 and longitudlnal reinforcement It is assumed that concrete makes no
p 8h 8)(1.S 214 kip• contribution to the tonional remtanc::e.
12"
A
6" j .- ·- ·- ·- ·- /·'.}.-; 6"
~.,-..:,:;_
'--l~L--/
L3"
Parabola
- . -·-·-·- · 7· .~,-·-·-·-·~·:--'~-,:..
·-'.':>...:: c..c.
'--~=---- D·w
C Section
so· 50'
12.7.1 Tonl11111.1IShurStnsa H the factored torsional moment T,. is le" than one-fourth of the
In a closed thin-walled tube, tonion produces a shear flow q u shown cracking torque T.,. adju.rted by Che lliength reduction factor • =0.75,
=
In Fig. 12.33a. The shear Dow q Tf2A,, is comtant at all points and 1hat .ls.if
acts along the path that extends around the tube at mid-thickneas of the
walls of the tube, where T is torque md ~ Is the area enclosed by the
shear flow path as shown in Fig. 12.33b, including the ami. of the hole if r. <0.75Jl: ~ (12.40)
the uction ill hollow. The torsional Jhear 1t:ress a1 any point along the P.,
perimeter of the tube .Is 't =q/t =T/('Mj), in which t le the thiclwees of
the wall at the pohlt whe.re 1 is computed. the tonional e1fect can be neglected.
.Ji+ f,.l4Jl:
1' the effect ofpremaa on the prindpal temile st:reas. The term f,.1s the
compres&lve stzess in the concrete after allowance fur all prestre# losses
at the centroid of the cnm sec:tion reNting atemally applied loads
or at the junction of web and flange when the centroid lie11 within the
flange. Thus, u preae.nted Jn Table 22.7.5.l of ACI 318-14, the cracking
torque Is
(12.44) 75"
In the above expressions, A,,= area of two lep of a closed stirrup and
b.,= width of web resisting flaunl shear.
To reduce unsightly craddng and to prevent crushing of the 81ll'W:e
concrete due to inclined compressive m - under combined shear
and torsion, the cro11-1ectional dlmensloll.t of a member mlllt be suf-
fldently large suc:h. that the fuilowlng requirements are &atisfled:
For 11. solid seciiOll,
0.153 in.2 and the IOill ofprestreu ill 18 percent. the eB'ectlve preme.
For a hollow 1ection, ing force Is 6 x 0.153 x (0.82 x 216) =162..6 kips.
The uet. enclosed by the outside perimeter of the concrete cross
section ii
(12.46) .Aq =8x75+8x12 =696 in.l
and the outside perimeter of the concrete cross section I•
In the above two apressto.ns, Y,. =facto.red shear force acting together
with factored torsional moment Tu and ~=nominal shear strength pro- Pcp=2x75+2x16= 182 in.
vided by concrete= vd or v_ whichever ii less u given by Eq1. (12.34) Thwi,
and (12.35). The value of d med in Bqs. (12.45) and (12.46) need not be
taken les Chan 0.8h. f~ = A,J"I~ = 162.6/696 = 0.234 bi
and design of single melting walls (SRWs) and PrcWECs as jointed wall Design seismic force for the PreWEC system (following ASCE 7-16)
systems (Nazari and Sritharan 2019) are presented.
C, = 0.175; V = 419 kips resisted by four PreWECs;
12.8.1 Response Moclific:ation Coefficients far V = 105 kips per wall
Rocking W.11 Systems
According to ITG-5 documents, the design base shear force for rock- End ,olumns: Required area of the post-tensioning tendon (Ap,aJJ) and
ing wall systems can be estimated following the Force-Based Design the initial prestressing (/ p;,..r) to resist the ultimate force of connectors:
(FBD) approach, which uses a response modification (R) factor as 2
with ACI 318-11 and ASCE 7-10. Recent research studies by Nazari A1 = 3 in. ; fp; = 0.8 and fpu = 216 ksi per end column
and Srith.aran (2018) proposed new R-factors to be used for the pre-
cast wall systems as a function of total equivalent damping ratio in the Wall panel: Required area of the posttens~ning tendon (~p) 8:°-d the
system, as expressed in Eqs. (12.48) and (12.49) for far-field (FF) and initial prestressing (fpi_) are found by usmg moment equilibnum of
near-field (NF) records: forces acting at the wall base. This is described in more detail in the SA
method as suggested by Aaleti and Sritharan (2009):
R = 0.46 x !;oq + 0.93; FF records (12.48)
2
R = 0.15 x !;oq + 2.65; NF records (12.49) Ap =9.1in. ;fp1=0.7 and f PM =192 ksi
where !; = total equivalent damping ratio of the system expressed in
percenuge; this could vary from about 6 percent for SRWs (~azari et al. REFERENCES
2016) to larger values for jointed wall systems, depending on the
amount of the supplemental damping provided by the external energy Aaleti, S., and Sritharan, S. 2009. A Simplified Analysis Method for
dissipaters (Nazari and Sritharan 2019). Characterizing Unbonded Post-Tensioned Precast Wall Systems.
Engineering Structures, 31(12), 2966-2975.
12.8.2 S.lsmlc-Rulllent Design of Rocking ACI 318-14. 2014. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete.
Wall Systems ACI Committee 318, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ACI 318.2-14. 2014. Building Code Requirements for Concrete Thin
Unbonded posttensioning tendons, as the primary reinforcement of the
Shells and Commentary. ACI Committee 318, American Concrete Insti-
precast self-centering systems with jointed connections, not only secure
tute, Farmington Hills, MI.
their self-centering capability but also provide lateral resistance of
ACI 318-11. 2011. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete.
the element. To design melting wall systems, such as PreWECs, the
ACI Committee 318, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
required area of PT tendons is determined using moment equilibrium
ACI 374.1-05. 2005. Acceptance Criteria for Moment Frames Based
of forces acting at their base assuming the plastic capacity of the
on Structural Testing and Commentary. ACI Committee 374, American
energy-dissipating elements and 95 percent of the yield strength of PT
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
tendons at the design drift. To maintain self-centering capability of the
ACI 550.lR-Ol. 2001. Emulating Cast-in-Place Detailing in Precast
system up to the design drift, the initial stress for PT tendons is chosen
Concrete Structures. ACI Committee 550, American Concrete Institute,
such that they remain elastic until the chosen target drift; elongation
Farmington Hills, MI.
of the tendons is estimated by calculating the neutral axis depth at the
ACI Innovation Task Group 5.1. 2008. Acceptance Criteria for Special
base of the wall panel. Aaleti and Sritharan (2009) suggested a Simpli-
Unbonded Post-Tensioned Precast Structural Walls Based on Validation
fied Analysis (SA) method, in which the required area of tendons is
Testing and Commentary. American Concrete Institute, Farmington
determined based on moment equilibrium of forces acting at the wall
Hills, MI.
base, using an equivalent stress block and a trilinear approximation
ACI Innovation Task Group 5.2. 2009 Requirements for Design of a
for estimating the neutral axis depth variation as a function of wall
Special Unbonded Post-Tensioned Precast Shear Wall Satisfying ACI
base rotation. A macro-based Excel program has been developed
ITG-5.1 and Commentary (ACI ITG-5.2). American Concrete Institute,
for the analysis and design of the rocking wall systems (Nazari and
Farmington Hills, MI.
Sritharan 2019), and that is available at http:/fsri.cce.iastate.edu/
ASCE 7-10. 2010. Minimum Design Loads far Buildings and Other
NEES-Rocking-Wall/index.htm.
Structures. ASCE/SEI 7-10.
EIAMPLE12 ASCE 7-16. 2016. Minimum Design Loads far Buildings and Other
Structures. ASCE/SEI 7-16.
Design the required area of posttensioning tendons and initial pre-
Cheok, G. S., and Lew, H. S. 1991. Performance of Precast Concrete
stressing in the wall panel and end columns of a PreWEC system,
Beam-to-Column Connections Subject to Cyclic Loading. PC! Jourmil,
with the following geometrical details, as well as the required number
36 (3 ), 56-67.
of 0-connectors to provide an equivalent damping ratio of 13 percent
Henry, R., Sritharan, S., and Ingham, J. 2012. Unbonded Tendon
for the system. Consider four PreWECs as lateral load-resisting
Stresses in Post-Tensioned Concrete Walls at Nominal Flexural Strength.
systems in the transverse direction of a rectangular six-story off'.ice American Concrete Institue Jourmil, 109(2), 171-181.
building in a location with S05 = 0.816 g and S01 =0.418 g followmg
Holden, T. J. 2001. A Comparison of the Seismic Performance
ASCE 7-16. Each wall panel is subjected to a gravity load of935 kips.
of Precast Wall Construction: Emulation and Hybrid Approaches.
The macro-based Excel program has been used for this calculation.
Research Report 2001-04, University of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Geometrical details: Kurama, Y. C. 2002. Hybrid Post-Tensioned Precast Concrete Walls
Wall panel: height = 864 in.; length = 210 in.; thickness = 18 in.;
for Use in Seismic Regions. PCI Journti~ 47(5), 36-59.
length of PT tendons= 936 in. Kurama, Y., Sause, R., Pessiki, S., and Lu, L. W. 1999. Lateral Load
End columns: height = 864 in.; length = 30 in.; thickness = 18 in.;
Behavior and Seismic Design of Unbonded Post-Tensioned Precast
length of PT tendons= 936 in. Concrete Walls. ACI Structural Journa~ 96(4), 622-632.
An R factor of 4.6 is estimated for this PreWEC system with the Kurama, Y. C., Sritharan, S., Fleischman, R. B., and Restrepo, J. I.
expected damping ratio of 13 percent, following Eq. (12.49). 2018. Seismic-Resistant Precast Concrete Structures: State of the Art.
The required amount of damping will be achieved by providing Journal ofStructural Engineering, 144(4). 03118001.
24 0-connectors per vertical joint between the wall panel and the col- Nazari, M., and Sritharan, S. 2018. Dynamic Evaluation of PreWEC
umn with the yielding and ultimate force and deformation properties of Systems with Varying Hysteretic Energy Dissipation.ASCE Journal ofStruc-
(17 kips, 0.25 in.) and (18 kips, 4 in.), respectively. tural Engineering, 144(10) (DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X0002169).
JH CHAPTER TWELVE
Nazari, M., and Sritharan, S. 2019. Seismic Design of Precast Concrete National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper No. 480,
Rocking Wall Systems with Varying Hysteretic Damping. PCI Journal, Boston, MA.
64(5), 58-76. Sritharan, S., Aaleti, S., Henry, R., Llu, K., and Tsai, K. 2015. Prccast
Nazari, M., Sritharan, S., and Aaleti, S. 2016. Single Precast Concrete Concrete Wall with End Columns (PrcWEC) for Earthquake Resis-
Rocking Walls as Earthquake Force-Resisting Elements. Earthquake tant De&gn. Earthquake EngiMering and StTucturrll Dynamics, 44(12),
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 46(5), 753-769 (DOI: 10.1002/ 2075-2092.
eqe.2829). Sritharan, S., Wibowo, H., Rosenthal, M. J., Eull, J. N., and Holombo, J.
PCI Design Handbook: Precast and Prestressed Concrete. 8th ed. 2018. LRFD Minimum Flexural Reinforcement Requirements. National
2017. Prccast/Prcstressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL. Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Washington, DC:
Priestley, M. J. N., Sritharan, S., Conley,]. R., and Pampanin, S. 1999. National Academies Press. https:/ldoLorg/10.17226/25527.
Preliminary Results and Conclusions from the PRESSS Five-Story Stanton, J. F., and Nakaki, S. D. 2002. Design Guidelines for Prccast
Prccast Concrete Test Building. PCI Journal, 44(6), 42-67. Concrete Seismic Structural Systems Unbonded Post-Tensioned Split
Priestley, M., and Tao, J. 1993. Seismic Response of Prccast Prestrcssed Walls. PRESSS Report No. 01/03-09, Department of Civil Engineering,
Concrete Frames with Partially Debonded Tendons. PCI Journa~ 38(1), University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
58-69. Stone, W C., Cheok, G. S., and Stanton, J. F. 1995. Performance of
Sritharan, S. 2002. Performance of Four Jointed Prccast Frame Systems Hybrid Moment-Resisting Precast Beam-Column Concrete Connections
under Simulated Seismic Loading. In Proceedings of the Seventh U. S. Subjected to Cyclic Loading. ACI Structural Journal, 92(2), 229.
Chapter 13
Masonry Construction
BY
RICHARD BENNETT Professor and Director ofEngineering Fundamentals,
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee
SAM RUBENZER, PE. SE Founder and Structural Engineer, FORSE Consulting;
Eau Claire, Wisconsin
31111
400 CHAPTERTHIRTEEN
().::f;,~·
#'"
>":f;,<>-"
~q
\,q#'
1a - Two-cell unit8 1b - Three reduced-height webs8 • c 1c - Double open end or H block
A Not all units are available in all areas.
Consult local manufacturers.
8
Note that 0.75 in. (19 mm) is the mini-
mum web thickness. Thicker webs are
permitted.
c 2.6 in. (66 mm) is the minimum web height
that will meet the C90 normalized web area
requirement for units with three 0.75 in. (19
mm) thick webs and nominal face dimen-
sions of8 in . x 16 in. (203 x 406 mm).
0 The single web could be any combination
for use in below-grade applications. Mortar is only to be used in bed Masonry grout is a fluid concrete that will have strength properties
joints, between bloclcs, and is never to be used as a fill in masonry cells similar to the masonry blocks and is the material to be used within the
with reinforcement. Properties of mortar bond strength and workability cells of the units. Masonry grout can be used to strengthen an unrein-
are more important than compressive strength. TMS 602 clearly defines forced wall When reinforcement is needed to strengthen the masonry
the wall strength to be more than the strength of the mortar. Mortar wall, grout is to be used within the areas of the wall with reinforcement.
strength has been shown to be a relatively unimportant factor in deter- Masonry walls can be partially grouted, perhaps only at reinforced cells,
mining overall wall strength. which is especially useful to keep the wall self-weight to a minimum. As
Once the masonry unit compressive strength is known by testing and required by ASTM C476, the strength of masonry grout must be 2000 psi
the masonry mortar type is defined, the masonry assembly strength, at a minimum but no less than the masonry assembly strength of 1:...
1;.,. can be determined. Masonry walls have both tension and com- Steel reinforcement for masonry is useful to add strength for the
pression properties. Similar to all other concrete materials, masonry wall. As mentioned above, reinforcement can be added to enhance
compressive capacities are far greater than masonry tensile capacities. bending capacity. Reinforcement can also add strength for shear walls,
To achieve the greatest bending capacities, masonry walls are reinforced and shear stirrup reinforcement can be used to add shear strength to
to take advantage of the reinforcement's tensile capabilities coupled masonry lintels. Reinforcement is also added to prevent shrinkage and
with masonry's compression capabilities to create masonry elements temperature craclcs.
capable of resisting bending loads. For the most part, it is only with
1l.1.2 Masonry Elements
unreinforced, non-load-bearing masonry elements where the tensile
capabilities are needed. For determining the compression properties of The most common use of masonry in buildings is with masonry walls.
concrete masonry, either prism testing can be used to determine I:..
or Masonry walls can be interior or exterior walls, load-bearing or non-
the unit strength method by following TMS 602, Table 2. Similarly, for load-bearing walls, partition walls, shear walls, fuundation walls, fire walls,
bride masonry, follow TMS 602, Table 1. and/or shaft walls. Masonry can and should be a significant element
For example, follow the steps below to find1;., using the unit strength in the gravity and lateral load supporting sygtems.
method: Masonry walls have general wall area and have elements within that
1. Define mortar type-use type S-start in the center column of are designed for particular load conditions, such as jambs, vertical strip
Table 2 below. ofwall on each side ofthe opening; lintel!I (beams), areaa of wall directly
2. Research the block strength available to the project; in this example, above the opening; pilasters, thickened wall areas, or in-wall pilasters
assume the CMU strength determined by testing is 3900 psi and find which are the same thickness as the wall but have additional grout and
that value in the center column. reinforcement added; and parapet, the wall area above the roof.
3. Finally, see the corresponding value in the far-left column, where Masonry walls generally apan vertically from foundations to floor
the net area compressive strength of concrete masonry can be used as and roof diaphragms. When masonry pilaaters are used, masonry
the masonry assembly compressive strength, I:..= 2750 psi. can be designed to span horizontally between pilaaters. Figure 13.2
Tables 13.1 and 13.2 show the compressive strength of masonry based shows the other conditi.om created by openings within the wall where
on the compressive strength of clay masonry units and type of mortar ma11onry is spanning both vertically and horizontally.
used in construction. Masonry lintcls/beama are the elements above openings that span the
opening. Masonry lintel!I can be built integrally with the wall and reinforced
with bottom and top reinforcement and possibly rebar stirrups added.
Tlble 13.1 Campreulw Strength ofM•sonry Masonry columm are isolated masonry elementa that must be at least
Bued on the Compresslwl Strength of ClllJ' 8 in. on each side and have reinforcement requirements from TMS 402
M•sonry Units •nd Type of Mortar Used in of a minimum of 4 bars, tie reinforcement, and a vertical reinforcement
Cansll'uctlon {TMS 602-111 Tlble 1)
area ratio to masonry area of 0.25 to 4 percent. There are provisions
Net area compressm strength of within TMS 402 for lightly loaded columns that are less than 12 ft tall
Net area compresam clay masonry, psi (MPa) and axial load of less than 2000 lb. In this case, the only requirement is
strength of
day masonry, psi (MPa) Type M or S mortar Type N mortar a single bar within the lightly loaded column.
Masonry pilasters are similar to columns but have the added advan-
1000 (6.90) 1700 (11.72) 2100 (14.48) tage of being built integrally with masonry walls and therefore have
1500 (10.34) 3350 (23.10) 4150 (28.61) additional vertical axial and bending capacity.
2000 (13.79) 4950 (34.13) 6200 (42.75)
2500 (17.24) 6600 (45.51) 8250 (56.88)
3000 (20.69) 8250 (56.88) 10,300 (71.02) 13.2 MASONRY ANALYSIS
3500 (24.13) 9900 (68.26)
4000 (27.58) 11,500 (79.29) Masonry, like other structural materials, has multiple options for analy-
sis, from simple calculation completed by hand, spreadsheets, or simple
software with basic analysis and design to more complex software that
Tlble 13.2 Compruslve Strength of Mllsonry Bued is based on finite-element analysis. The simple calculation options
on the Compressive Strength of Concrete Mllsonry rely on making assumptions about the masonry components and their
Units and Type of Mortar Used in Canmuction connectivity to one another. Simple analysis can work well for isolated
(TMS 602-111 Tllble 2) columns or wall elements that are simply supported at the top and bot-
Net area compressive strength of clay
tom. For more complex masonry elements such as walls with openings,
Net area compressive muonry, psi (MPa) walls with more complicated support and loading conditions, walls
ltttngthof with integrated pilasters, or wall groups, simple analyses become less
clay maaonry. psi (MPa) Type M or S mortar Type N mortar accurate, and other methods, such as finite-element analysis, should be
1700 (11.72) 1900 (13.10) considered. Table 13.3 shows the cantilever fire wall guide.
1900 (13.10) 1900 (13.10) 2350 (14.82)
2000 (13.79) 2000 (13.79) 2650 (18.27) U.2.1 Finite-Element Softwere
2250 (15.51) 2600 (17.93) 3400 (23.44) There is a full chapter on finite-element analysis in this handbook, so
2500 (17.24) 3250 (22.41) 4350 (28.96) refer to that chapter for a more thorough review of the finite-element
2750 (18.96) 3900 (26.89) methods and analysis. This section will highlight important aspects for
3000 (20.69) 4500 (31.03)
masonry analysis and design.
402 CHAPTERTHIRTEEN
only reinforced ceI1s (partial grouting). Partial grouting affects both Che
Tabll!1J.:S C.mllnet' Rne W.11 Gulde
loading aspe<:t (from the adi-wriSfit contribu1i.on) of the &ite-element
f,.,= 2500 psi, minimum wall laadins modeling as well as the mffnes.'I of the masonry elemenbi.
Care 18 involved when modellng muonry will systems with
Wall helg.bt IS ft 20ft 30ft
finJte-element malysls programs to ensure all the boWldary conditions,
6111.. lflklt 15"8 SG
15fiill6PG stilrnessei of the elemcnu, and weigh.a of the elements are ai:c:uratdy
8111.. lflklt 15!6'40PG
15fiill6PG aa:ounted for in the development of the finite-element model
12 ID. thick 151ii172PG
161iMSPG nw.l4SG
Notea PG=~ grwt. SG =solid grOllt 13.J UNRE.INFORCED MASONRY
Unreinforc:ed masonry hu historically been designed wring allowable
stms design (ASD) procedures, which will be covered in this section.
Strength design (SD) of ume!.nfurced masonry is similar to ASD since
13.2.2. Modellng Mllsonl'J Ell!nM!ntll umclnf'orced masonry I• desip.ed UNDling the masonry remains lin-
Many of the analyses u1ed. today assume thin plate theory for the plate ear elastic and uncrawd.
elements along with linear elastic behavior for the elemenb. The eW- Table 13.4 summarizes the allowable ~es for unreinforced
tidty of material. I• desaibed by a stress-strain CW'Vt., which shows the masonry. Calculated atresses are denoted by lowe.rcue letter• (sw:h
relation betwun internal force per unit area and the relati~ defonna- as/,) and allowable streues by uppera181: letters {such as fJ. Slender-
tion. Linear damcity ii a limpliticalion uruming linear relalionships neu effects are addressed by decreuing the allowable axial ltnl.I!
between the components of mes,, and strain which is valid only for with lnaeulng slend.emes,,. TMS 402-16 Table 8.2.4.2 (reproduc:ed u
stress states Chat do not produce yielding or fracture. Reinfor«d Table 13.5) gtves allowable fiexural tensile stresses In dtl.y and concrete
masonry and other relnfurced-conaete elements ha~ the complication muonry. These allowable tensile stresses are applicable for both out-of-
of not being elut.ic. Therefore., once a c:oncrete element uack.t, mod- plane and in-plane loada..
eled steel reinforcement 19 then engaged in these elemew. Of course. Becawie the allowable flexural tensile stR11 is much smaller than the
masonry Is made up of several dlffi:rent concrete components which allowable flexural compressive stren, 1he allowable flexural tensile strw
closely mimic; 1hlJ beht.vior when it is reinforced. Element modlficalion usutlly controls the design. The design equation is
facton1 must be used to account for the miuc:ed mfrneu ofthe c.oncrete
or masonry element onc:e it has cracked. _.!_+M ~P. (13.1)
Masonry is unique Jn that It can be reinfurc:ed in the vertical and
A,. s,, •
horizontal direction or only reinforced In the vertical direction but where Pu the uial load {compreulon le pO.ttlive}, A,, 18 the net area,
I~ unreinfmud in the horimntal dim:tion. In the cue of checking M Is the moment. S" Is the net section modulus, and F, Is the allow-
an unreinforced element. the element may only span horhontally if it able tlexural tensile messes. The net l«tion properties, A,, and S,.. are
remalm uncracbd in that direction. If the atreeses determined. from determined bued on the minimum cro11-1ec:Uonal area. Most masonry
analy&ls 1Ue within the allowed cracking stre~es. users would not mluce is laid with face shell bedding, or mortar on the face shelb, so the net
the mffnm in that direction. This emphasizes the need for the modifi- section properties are determined from the fac:e sheD. area and any
cation factors to be considered separately in each orthogonal direction. grouted cells. Tabulated wlues of net section properties can be found In
When all the factcn are equal, the wall elemeat behave. u an .lsotrop!c National Concrete Muonry Anociation TBK 14-IB, Section Propertie.1
material, t1. material having the same properties in all directions. When of Concrete Masonry Walla.
the factors are different from each other, the wall elements behave as The shear stress In shear wall• is calculated based on the unaacked
an orthotropic: material, a material having different properties along ib section:
three perpendicular u:ea.
Muonry design also requires c:wtom material types widlin software (13.2)
to a"°unt for attributes that are unique to this material. such as grouting
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION 40J
Axial compression
F.=~/~[1-(~~rJ htrS99 Equation 8-13
F
•
=~J.'(~r
4 '" h!r
hlr>99 Equation 8-14
Table 1J.5 All-•ble Flexur•I Tenslle Slresffs far Clmy mnd Concrete Muonry, psi (kPllJ
{TMS 402-16 T•ble l.2A.2)
Mortar types
Masonry cement and
Portland cement/llme air-entrained
or mortar cement portland cement/lime
Direction of flexw:al tensile stress and masonry type MorS N MorS N
Normal to bed joints
Solid units 53 (366) 40 (276) 32 (221) 20 (138)
Hollowunitat
Ungrouted 33 (228) 25 (172) 20 (138) 12 (83)
Fully grouted 65 (448) 63 (434) 61(420) 58 (400)
Parallel to bed joints In running bond
Solld units 106 (731) 80 (552) 64 (441} 40 (276)
Hollow units
Ungrouted and partially grouted 66 (455) 50 (345) 40 (276) 25(172)
Fully grouted 106 (731) 80 (552) 64 (441) 40 (276)
Parallel to bed joint& in masonry not laid in running bond
Continuoua grout oection parallel to bed joint& 133 (917) 133 (917) 133 (917) 133 (917)
Other 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
'For partially grouted muonry, allowable otuaoeo &hall be dotermlned on the bula ofllneu Jnterpoiallon b - fully grouted
hollow unlb and UllgtOuted hollow Ulllta baoed on amoUllt (percen~) of groutlllg.
where Q, J,., and b are calculated based on the uncrac.ked net cross section Table 13.5 shows the allowable flexural tensile stresses for clay and
of the wall For a rectangular cross section, such as a solidly grouted wall concrete masonry.
or a wall with just face shell bedding, the maximum shear stress is
1JA REINFORCEDMASONRY
(13.3) Reinforced masonry has traditionally been designed using the ASD
method. SD was added in the 2002 TMS 402 code and has gradu-
ally been gaining in popularity. SD of masonry is similar to SD of
Table 13.4 shows the allowable stresses for unreinforced masonry. reinforced concrete and provides advantages over ASD when the
404 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
allowable masonry stress controls or for shear walls with distributed layer of reinforcement is shown in Fig. 13.5. If the allowable steel stress
reinforcement. controls the design, iteration is required, but there is rapid convergence.
13.4.1 Allowable Stress Design
The TMS 402 expressions for ~ and E,,, are both proportional tof ~, kh =
0.312 for concrete masonry and ~ = 0.368 for clay masonry. This design
Table 13.6 summarizes the allowable stresses for reinforced masonry. method provides the exact required area of reinforcement. If the allow-
TMS 402 codes before the 2011 edition permitted a 113 increase in able masonry stress is controlling the design, the reinforcement is not
allowable stresses for loading combinations including wind or earth- being used efficiently. The designer should consider other alternatives,
quake. The allowable stresses were recalibrated in the 2011 TMS 402 such as increasing the member size or increasing/~.
code and the 1/3 stress increase was eliminated. The flowchart shown in Fig. 13.4 can be modified for shear walls with
The analysis of flexural members, such as beams, lintels, and distributed reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 13.5. The design procedure
nonbearing walls using ASD, is shown in Fig. 13.3. The location of the results in the required area of steel per length of wall (e.g., in.2/ft),
neutral axis, Ted, is determined, the stresses in the masonry and reinforce- A;.r<qd. The design procedure assumes uniformly distributed reinforce-
ment are detennined, and the stresses are compared to the allowable ment and tends to overestimate the required area of steel by about 10
stresses. There are several design methods. One common design method to 15 percent. For other cases, an interaction diagram would need to
is to assume a value ofj=0.9, determine a trial value of A1 ,roq11 = Ml(jdF,), be constructed.
and check the design using the flowchart of Fig. 13.3. Nonbearing walls
are usually designed on a per foot of wall length basis, and often only
the cells that have reinforcement are grouted. This partially grouted 13A.2 Strength Design
construction saves on construction costs and decreases the wall weight Table 13.7 summarizes the nominal strengths and design assumptions
and hence the seismic force. for reinforced masonry. A strength-reduction factor of 4j> =0.9 is used for
A more rigorous design procedure which can be used for both flex- combinations of flexural and uial load and 4j> = 0.8 for shear. There is no
ural members and combinations of flexural and axial load with a single transition region for combinations of flexural and axial load, and 41> is a
Am1 compression
P. = (0.25/,;.A,, +0.65 A.,F,) ( ~)' hlr> 99 Equation (8-19)
""
A,, = O wtless the reinforcement in compreasion ia tied in compliance with
TMS 402 Section 5.3. l.4
~[(4.o-rn( :;,))gJ+o25 ~
Equation (8-25)
Shear F-=
Equation (8-23)
[(~r, M/(Vd,.)S0.25
µ(A,,F,+P)
MJ(Vd,.) S. 0.5 Ff Equation (8-28)
A,,.,
0.5 < M/(Vd,.) < 1.0 Linear Interpolation Section 8.3.6
Shear friction 0.65(0.6 A'l>F, + P)
M/(Vd,.)~1.0 Fi- Equation (8-29)
A,..
µ = 1.0 for masonry on concrete with unfinished aurface, or roncreb: with a
surface that hu been intentionally roughened
µ = 0.70 for all other conditions
MASONRY CON$TRUCTION 405
Masonry stress, fb NO
[ 1'.-...3±!.._<"? Redesign
s 'b - jkba• - rb .
YES
YES Steel stress, f , NO
Design is good 2 Redesign
Is{ = - $ F?
s A,fd s
Calculate
kd = 3(2- (~)2 -
d 2 (M + P(d-tsp/2 )) M' = pe~ - ~d)
3Fbb
M-M' 1
As.read = ---p;d (i _k/3)
Is k > kbal ?
(P + As,reqaFs)n
k -
n NO <= Fsb
bal - n + Fs/Fb
(kd) 2 = J< 2 + 2<d - <
YES hcrate. Use (kd)z as new guess
and repeat.
_ Fb(kd)b/2- P (-k-) Allowable steel stress controls
As,reqd - nFb 1- k
Flfure 13.4 Flowchart for~ of fingly rdllforced memben aaibg al!OW11blc atrea dcs:!p.
Calculate
Detcnni ne k from !he quadratic equation:
M + Pd"
k= b [1-d zF.-+P-
3"'n
tsp dv] k z + [M-P-
3
dv] k
6
31 dZF, pdv
v btsp - 3
-[M+P~] = 0
+ NO
I lsk>kbal? : - Once k is detennined, detem1ine A;,reqd
YF.S l •
As,reqd =
1
zkdvFs
1
( l -kk)1
n.tsp- P
1 z(l - k)fsdv
• zkdvFbtsp - P
As.reqa=
z1
~ Allowable steel stress controls
k dvnFb
Allowable masonry stress controls
40f CHAPTERTHIRTEEN
Axial compreM!on
P• = 0.80[0.80/;,(A,,-A,,) + f,.A.J (:, r 'hlr > 99
A,.= 0 llllleu the reinforcmient in comptnllion ill tied in compliance
.Equation (9-16)
~
V,.. [ ( 4.0-1.75( !.t))A,...JJZ: J+0.2SP. Equa!ion (9-20)
Shnr
V. :S
l
v. ~ o.s(~},11.
(<A.gjr,
(3.A,...Jl:)yI
• (j(s-2:;.)A..9!},
M.ICV..d.) :SC>.25
M,,l(V.d,)~1.0
Equa!ion (9·18)
Equalion (9·19)
.Llneu !D.terpolulon
Sect.ion 9.3.4.1.2 (c)
«lllltant 0.9. Thi• i• due to maximum ninfor«ment requirements that axi• depth for balanced «lI!dition• (masonry au.she• simultaneou.aly
limit the amount of .reinforcement in muonry membera. =
with reinforcement yielding) ill 'kl 0.547 d for CMU and c.., =
The desl.gn o.f tl.auraJ. member•, such as beama, lintela, and 0.628 d for day nwoitty. The mulmum. reinforcement .18 bated on a
nonbeuing wdls. can be perfonued using the flowchart shown in strain cOI1ditlon o.f e_ In the masoitty and 1.5£1 In the rdnfor«ment.
Fig. 13.6. F~ 13.6 gives a. genera.I design method that includes an Thi• comsponds to a rcinfon;cment ratio, p, for Gnde 60 steel o.f
uial. load; for ftaural. memben, P,. =0. For Grade 60 steel, the neulial 0.00952 for CMU and 0.0113 for da.y masonry. For beams. there is also
a mlnlmum. reinforcement requirement that the nominal moment. M,..
be greater than 1.3 M., or the n:Worcement be greater than 413 of the
reci.ulred rclnforcement.
The design of bearing wall1 using the SD method requires the
Calculate inclution of second-order, or P-6, eifects. This can be done using
a either a seco.nd-order analysis, a moment magnification procedure,
a= d _ Jd 2 _ 2fPu(d - d /2) + Mu) 0
c=- or what Is known In masomy u the slender wall procedure. Only
4>(0.af,;,tsp) 0.8 the slender wall procedure ill covered here. A ilowclwt is shown
in Fig. 13.7 for the design of bearing walls using the slender wall
J, procedure. The procedure requJres an 111itial. guess at reinforcement
11~ C ~ Cba/?
size and spacing. A reuonable guess can oft.en be obtained based on
Cbat=~d
tmu + ty
I ignoring the u.ial load and tccond-order eff«u or estimating the
reinforcement for a n011bearing wall and wring that as the initial ttial
YES I for a bearing wall.
J, .J., NO
The design of shear walls genmlly re<J.ulres the construction of m
0.8[,;.t,Pa - Pu/4> intenction diagram to chedt «lJllbined flemre and uial loadl. For
O.Sf,;,ts11 a - Pu/4> shear walls with distributed .reinforcement, an approximale amount of
As,reqd = =
tmuE• (d
-C- -c) As,tcqd
fy distrlbute.drelnforcemeat, .A;~ c:anbed.etermlnedlU!ngtheflawchut
Tension controls In Fig. 13.7 by seWng d=OSO. and. estimating .A!""'!c1 =A,Plldl0.6Slf...
Compression controls
The detign of mear
wall• Is often controlled by seismic r~utremenu.
including maximum mnfon:ement and shear capacity design for special
shear walls. These topia are coved in the next section.
MASONRY CONSTRUCTION 407
Cross-sectional properties:
A,., S,., I,.: NCMA TEK14-1B Cracking moment:
YES I,= 2.S(allowable flexural tension stress)
I =n (A + P•!!J!.)cd-c)2+ w3
er
_
• fyld
Aly+P•
M 0 , = (:: + 1,) S,.
Where C- 0.64r..,b
Figure 13.7 Flowchart fur design of reinforced bearing walls using strength deaign.
13.5 SEISMIC DESIGN Finally, reinforced masonry shear walls have maximum reinforcement
requirements so that the reinforcement will yield before the masonry
There are five types of masonry shear walls: ordinary plain, detailed
plain, ordinary reinforced, intermediate reinforced, and special rein-
crusheii. Special reinforced walls designed with ASD having IJ-
~ 1 and
P >0.05f :,.A,, shall have a reinforcement ratio not greater than •
forced. Preacriptive reinforcement requirements for each of the types of
masonry shear walls are given in Table 13.8.
In addition to the requirements listed in Table 13.8, special reinforced = n''
~ ...
P (13.4)
masonry shear walls have shear capacity design requirements. In ASD, ma ( f
the calculated shear streas, f., m\Ult be increased by 1.5. In SD, the 2/1 n+~
design shear strength, cjJV., is required to exceed the shear correspond- ! ...
ing to the development of 1.25 times the nominal flexural strength, M.,
except that the nominal shear strength v. need not exceed 2.5 times The maximum reinforcement requirements for SD are given in terms
the required shear strength, v. (which is equivalent to the design shear of a flowchart in Fig. 13.8. It is noted that either the area of reinforce-
strength, cjJV,,. not exceeding 2.0V.). These requirements are so that ment is limited or the boundary elements need to be provided. There
the wall will fail in a ductile flexural manner and not in a brittle shear has been insufficient research to develop prescriptive requirements for
manner. boundary elements in masonry. Thus, the TMS 402 code only gives per-
TMS 402 has requirement5 and limitations based on the Seismic formance requirements for boundary elements, and the designer would
Design Category (SDC). These requirements are given in Table 13.9. need to determine how to meet those performance requirements, most
The requirements are cumulative. For example, structures in SDC D likely through testing.
m\Ult meet all the requirements of SDC A, B, and C plus the additional Often the easiest way to check the maximum reinforcement require-
requirements of SDC D. ments of TMS 402 Section 9.3.3.2 is to determine the location of the
40I CHAPTER THIRTEEN
neutral axis for the given strain conditions and, using that location
of the neutral axis, calculate the nominal axial force. This calculated
axial force is compared to the axial load combination of TMS 402 Maaonry notes Minimum requiicd strength
Section 9.3.3.2. The ratio of the depth to the neutral axis, c, to the dis- CMU, ASTM C90 f:_ = 4350 pli (net area compre11ive
tance to the tension reinforcement, d. is given in Table 13.10 for various strength)
strain gradients and types of masonry. Mortar, ASTM C270 Type N (above grade)
Type S (bdow grade)
Table 13,10 N.ut..I Axis Location for Grout, ASTM C476 t;>2500~
Various Strain G..dlents Masonry asaentbly f;. =2500 p1i (net area compreulve .trength)
Tensile strain c/d,CMU c/d, Clay
Note: Sample 1 is reco=ended; however, type N mortar could be
1.5Ey 0.446 0.530
used if block strengths are higher, and the assembly will still achieve the
3ty 0.287 0.360 same f ~ as Example 1.
4ty 0.232 0.297
13.6.2 Testing Materials
In TMS 602, Table 2 requires CMU to be tested and reported for
13.6 SPECIFYING MASONRY AND the unit compressive strength. Another method for determining the
TESTING MASONRY masonry assembly strength is by masonry prism testing. With prism
~sting based on ASTM Cl314, Standard Test Method for Compres-
For ec.onomical ~e of materials, knowledge about the actual strength of
materials used will benefit the design by maximizing the known capac- sive Strength of Masonry Prisms, three prisms are constructed using
ity. Therefore, it is not enough to simply indicate a minimum value of blocks. and mortar that will be used for construction. Once the prisms
l;,, on the design documents. are built, the average strength of the three specimens will be the design
strength, f ;,,.
There are two mortar tests. ASTM C270 is a mortar specification
13.6.1 Specifying Materials which outlines procedures for testing mortar prepared in the laboratory.
In TMS 602, Table 2 (section l.4B.2.b) shows the type of mortar and unit The test determines whether a mortar conforms with physical property
strength that can be used to find the assembly compressive strength. It requirements. ASTM C780 is a field test method which defines standard
~rocedures ~or sampling and testing mortars before and during their use
is dependent on the type of mortar-not the mortar strength-as the
requirements for the mortar strength are set once you select the mortar m construction. Test results of masonry mortar are not required to meet
type per ASTM C270 specification. TMS 602 also shows the testing that the minimum masonry compressive strength values, as mortar is tested
was done (Figures SC-1 and SC-2) which support the assembly strength alone and such tests are not analyzing the mortar within the assembly.
shown in the table. Tests for masonry grout are covered in ASTM Cl019. The ASTM
When using the tables from TMS 602, remember it is strictly mortar defines tests for establishing material proportions for compliance with
type-not the mortar strength-that you require. Therefore, the two project specifications. For quality assurance of grout, field tests for grout
components of the specification are CMU block strength and mortar are performed to monitor uniformity of grout during construction for
type. quality assurance.
Also, when specifying masonry components, do not forget about
grout strength. TMS requires grout compressive strength to be equal 13.7 MASONRY FIRE WALLS
to or exceed f;,, but not less than 2000 psi. So if the goal is to have f'
A fire wall is a wall structure with the purpose of preventing a fire
of 250? psi, ~en the grout strength must be at least 2500 psi or greate;.
from spreading to adjacent areas. A noncombustible material like
Some m the mdustry suggest using grout strength comparable to the muonry is often specified for fire walls. They are typically located at
CMU b~o':1t strength. The strength of grout is left to engineering judg-
a lot line or where different occupancies need to be isolated within
ment within the range between:l;,, or 2000 psi (low end value) through a single building. Based on NCMA TEK 5-SB, one of the primary
CMU block strength (high end value).
options for fire walls are freestanding walls that permit the collapse
. Thus, simply indicating "f;,, = 2800 psi" on the design documents of the structure on either side of the wall without collapsing the wall.
is not enough for masonry. We need to indicate the required block An example is a 20-ft-tall single-story wall. It is fixed at the base and
strength, mortar type, and grout strength. On the following pages is not supported anywhere along itll height. This wall can be a 6-in.
are samples of material strength specifications that can be used in block with #5 bars centered at 8 in. If an 8-in. block is used, #5 bars
structural notes. at 16 in. are sufficient. Taking the design a step further to a 30-ft-tall
single-story or multistory design, this wall can be 12-in. block with #7
EXAMPLE 1 (KECOMMENDED);
bars centered at 24 in.
Masonry note• Minilnllln required .trength
13.7.1 Combine Analysis Results far Design
CMU, ASTM C90 t::.... = 3250 psi (net area compressive strength.) The next challenge involves taking the results from the finite-element
Mortar, ASTM C270 Types model and analysis and converting them into information that can
Grout, ASTM C476 f;> 2500 pal be compared to code-defined maximum stresses or forces that deter-
mine the capacity of the masonry wall. Finite-element programs for
Masonry assembly f~ =2500 psi (net area compressive strength.) masonry combine the results of several plate/shell elements within
geometric: areas or strips of the model as defined by the user. Areas
Note: In ~is sample, J;
was indicated to be 2500 psi, but could above openings are rationalized into an area that will be checked
have been higher (up to 5000 psi) if using SD methods. However, the against lintel capacities. Engineers must study software programs and
additional grout strength does not create a higher design strength if' their combination (summation) of finite-element results and malre
is still 2800 psi). "' modifications when necessary.
410 CHAPTERTHIRTEEN
N2 N]I
.,., .,.,
.,., ; .,,
~ '
~ ! ! !
~
.,
...,
~
u
0
~ u
0
ii"' ii.,.,"'
~ .
.I:
....N
@
~
4 ft N
5 ~ 5
i:! ....
N
..
©:
....
N
UH·li4 @
llll
N
£ ···..... ... Cl
·····...:·'
4 ft ··.._
-···
..
·
-
4 ft
~
6.7 ft 6.7 ft 6.6 ft
F1srure 13.9 Muonty Will eleftliom: Image from RISA 30 (top) &lid image from RAM e1emeuu (bouom).
Gene.rally, atructuraJ. engineering software will checlc for In-plane by aharlng nodes with the other surrounding elements of the wall
bending and shear capacity, out-of-plane bending and shear capacity, (Fig. 13.9).
and axial capac.ity of masonry~- Lintel •hear and bending capadti«
will aho be evalualed. Linteb that are analyzed without a finite-dement REFERENCE
model have traditionally been checlced by usumlng a simply sup-
ported "beam"' element. Finib:-eleme.at approzlmatlon and design of 1. National Concrete Masonry AHociatio.n (NCMA) TEK 14-IB,
the area above the openinp is more ~ to the true behavior and Section Propertiu of Concrete M11Son1y WRUs, 2007, http:l/ncma-br
fundamentally diffm:nt. as the platu/ahelb in thil area are interlocked .orgle-tek-nba.up.
Chapter 14
Timber Structures
BY
THOMAS WILLIAMSON, PE Retired Via President of Quality and Technical Services,
APA-The Engineered Wood Association
MUSTAFA MAHAMID, Ph.D., SE, PE. P.Eng. Department of Civil and Materials Engineering,
University ofnlinois at Chicago
14.1 WOOD AS AN ENGINEERING MATERIAL wood exhibit.I directional properties when subjected to various stress
states. The strength properties to consider are associated with normal
Wood is permitted to be used in Types III, rv; and V construction
and shear stresses parallel to the grain, perpendicular to the grain
in accordance with the International Building Code (IBC). Depending
radially, and perpendicular to the grain tangentially. The difference in
on the building occupancy and the type of construction, wood buildinga
strength properties in the radial and tangential directions is seldom of
can have unlimited areas and heights of up to 85 ft, meaning they can
significance in design. Thus, it is necessary only to differentiate between
be used for a broad range of building applications. But wood is unique
directions normal and parallel to the grain.
in many ways compared to steel and concrete, and design professionab
MOR. MOR reflects the maximum load-carrying capacity of a mem-
need to be aware of these unique design characteristics. This chapter
ber in bending and is proportional to maximum moment borne by the
will attempt to define thete characteristics to assist designer• in making
specimen. MOR is an accepted criterion of strength and is typically
intelligent design decisions.
reduced to a design bending stress by the application of factors such as
load duration and a factor of safety.
14.1.1 Orthotroplc N.ture of Wood Temion Parallel to Grain. Wood exhibits its maximum tensile strength
Relationships between load, duration ofload, defonnatlon, and material parallel to the grain. Tension parallel to grain stresses are approximately
strength are usually based on the assumption that the structural mate- 40 percent of the compression parallel to grain values for sawn lumber
rial is homogeneous and isotropic, in both elastic constant.I and strength depending on species and grade.
properties. Wood is neither because of its cellular structure and growth Tension Perpendicular to Grain. Resistance of wood to forces acting
characteristics. Wood may be described as an orthotropic material; that acroas the grain tend to split a member. Wood exhibits relatively low
is, it has unique and independent mechanical properties in the direc- tensile strength perpendicular to the grain, and in the presence of
tions of three mutually perpendicular axes: longitudinal, radial, and defects, such as checks, it is substantially reduced. This strength usually
tangential. The longitudinal axis L is parallel to the fiber (grain), the does not enter into design, and there are no published design values for
radial axis R is normal to the growth rings (perpendicular to the grain this stress. Abrupt changes in cross section may cause stress concentra-
in the radial direction), and the tangential axis T is perpendicular to tions with tension perpendicular to the grain which should be considered
the grain but tangent to the growth rings. The designer is referred to in determining load capacity.
the Wood Handbook for detailed information on all aspects of wood Compression Parallel to Grain. Wood is strongest in compression
addressed in Sections 14.1.1, 14.1.2, 14.1.3, and 14.1.4. parallel to grain and usually fails under uniaxial compressive stresses
by buckling of the fibers. Maximum stress is typically obtained for a
compression parallel-to-grain specimen having a ratio of length to least
14.1.2 Dlrectlon•I Strength Propenles dimension ofless than 11.
Mechanical properties most commonly measured and represented as Compression Perpendicular to Grain. The cells of the wood, being
Mstrength properties" for design include modulus of rupture (MOR) in essentially hollow, exhibit relatively low stiffness and strength when
bending, maximum stress in compression and tension parallel to grain, stressed in compression perpendicular to the grain. Reported as stress
and compressive stress perpendicular to grain and shear strength paral- at proportional limit, there is no clearly defined ultimate stress for this
lel to grain. A1l with most materials, there is inherent variability in the property. Compression perpendicular to grain values are approximately
strength of small clear wood samples under short-time loading, such 1/3 of the compression parallel to grain stresses for sawn lumber
as during structural testing. Added to this variability are the effect.I of depending on the species and grade.
duration of load and strength-reducing factors, such as knots, slope of Compression at Angle to Grain. Since compression values are given
grain, and density variations in structural sizes of wood. In addition, for both parallel and perpendicular to grain, the allowable compression
411
412 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
~ at any angle to the grain may be determined by the Hankin1on Other facton, auch u aloping grain. decay, iNect attaclt. pitch pockets,
Cormul& u given below: makes, wane, campreuion wood, and llJl!itl, can affect the strength
propertiea ofwood Theee are conlidered in the detailed inatructlom {or
Fe• P.J1tl (14.1)
rtrea grading of lumba publkhecl by nrloUJ organizations.
F.llll2&+ Fu~a
E"vironmental Coruliti011S. As the mo.llture content of wood dropt
wh~ Pc= allow.ble compreuive ~ parallel to grain below 30 percent (the apprm:imm t'iber-aaturation point), itl 1trn1gth
=allow.ble compreulve ltrell perpendicular to grain
Pc.1. propertiea lnaeue.
For mm lumber, reference del!gn value1 are published for a mo~
6 =lncllrwion of Fe to grain
SJt.r Stmigth P11rtilltl to Gr!WI. Ability to rem intmlal alipping of comnt of 19 percent or Len. For moilturc c:ontenu above 19 percent,
one part upon another along the grain. Significmt lb.ear ltTeales may the reference delign vai.uel must be multiplied by the applicable wet
be developed parallel to the grain in beaim. Checb, 'Jllill, and ahaka, 1ervice factor, Cu. For glulam timber, prefabricate wood I-joists, and
being fnctwa panllel to the grain, tlgniflcantly reduce the lb.ear SCI., the lftt aervice factor II applied when the in-service moisture
strength in thU clircaion. Thete flaws are typically U110ciated with content excceda 16 percent.
luger 'Jlecimena. If wood ia lcept either continuwsly dry or continuoudy wet, decay
doet not occur. Moimlre and temperature are the prime f'acton a1Ject-
14.1.3 ...,_,.._ D9119ft V.lws lng decay rate. Wood ahould not be in direct contact with mllOlll'f
Reroence dealgn nluet are pIOVlded In a number of ways. For awn or concrete where eKerun mollture will be trmmred to the wood
lumber and glued laminated timber (glulam), refm:nce design nlues Ventil.md air •paces around untre~ members or presaure treatment
are provided in the Supplement to the Natjonal Du:ign Specification with preauvatives retard or prevent decay.
(NDS). For round tilnba poles and plies, refuence de«ign values are Tempmiture Bffects. The strength propertie• of wood at 12 percent
provided in ASTM 03200 and ASTM D25, rupecttvely. For proprietary molsture content, within a range of 100°F to 150°F, may be expected to
produ.m, such u prefabricated wood I-joim and structural composite deereue by 1/3 to 1/2 percent per 1°F. Temperatures abo'f'C 1S0°F leave
lumber (SCL), refm:nce design valuet are provided In manufacturers' permanent detrimental effect.. Under ruoti, temperaturea in wood ele-
code reports. Jleprdlm of the product, reference design values must be ments may reach IOO"F to 140°F ID warm montha of the year {or certain
adjusted by all &ppllctble adjustment factors, Including duration of ~ographlc regions. Table 14.1 provides adjustments for temperature.
load. moimlre effea., tmipenture cl'kcta. and others. Some of these Wet condidona are amuned {or wood mohture content greater than
are dUCUDed u follows. 19 pen;ent:for lumber and 16 peroeut. b adier engineered wood proclum,
1uch u glulam tilnber.
14.1 A FtlcllDn Af'rK*lg Refel'l!nGI! Time-Load Ejftctl. The mength propertlea of wood are affected by
D911tnV.luu the duration ofloading as thown 1n Fig. 14.1, and thU ia acc:ounted for
Growth Climadmstia. The effect of knob is to decrease strength
bec:aUJe their grain and the IW'l'OUDding grain may be at a large angle
to the mu!mum temlle or comprcmvc strc.. The effects In temlon are Delign f.n-tcmce ~
more detrimeutal than in shear or compremon. Thm, for beima it u 'ft!uea amdltlona
adnnUpous to locm the higher-grade section• of the lumber in the
maximum-temil&-ttrea 20na. T SIOO°F IOO<TSUS 12S<TS150
As with many other msteria1a, wood lncreua its strength properties Dry or wet 1.0 0.9 0.9
with an increue In spec.I& gravity. and relatlondllpl have been sug- Dry 1.0 0.8 O.'J
gested for mength and 1peci6c grmty. Density ii usually recognized in Wet 1.0 0.7 o.s
the 1tre11 grading rules {or lumber and other engineered wood product.a.
2
1.9
s 1.8
!~ 1.7
~.a 1.6
9.,i
'i3 1Ji
1.4 -
---~
~ ~ 1.S .
::I.,....
is 1.1
1.2 -- ~
- - - ~~
.9) 1 - --- - -
.0 0.9 - --- - -
0.8 - - -
0.7
l J !- .!• i
t:
.§
::I
c
"'E
~
,...
"Cl
I
N " ....
0 i
~
fl9u,.14.1 LOI.cl clunitlon CUlft for wood.
TIMBl!R STRUCTURES 41J
in design by applying a duration ofload factor, CD. The usual durations values previol18ly discussed. The starting deaign reference values for
ofload comidered in design and their respective duration ofload fac- LRFD and ASD are the same and refer to the mean material strengths
tors are given In Table 14.2 for allowable stress design (ASD). determined by materials testing. ASD is based on a design stress at
the lawcr 5th percentile, 10-year stress. LRFD is based on a reference
T. . . 14.2 Frequently Used loAd Dul'Mioft i:.ctor, C0 strength at the lower 5th percentile, 5-minute streu. To determine the
Load duration Cn Typical design loads design values for LRFD, the ASD values are multiplied by the resistance
factor, ~. from Table 14.4 and the format convenion factor, Kp, from
Permanent 0.9 Dead load
Table 14.5. Similar tables are also provided in Appendix N of the NDS.
Tmyean 1.0 Occupancy live load
Twomontha 1.15 Snow load
Sevendayw 1.25 Conltructio.n load T1ble 14.4 Resistance Factor-.+
Tmminute1
Impact
1.6<1>)
2.0
Wmd/Earthquake load
Impact load
Application
Compression
flexure
,,
Symbol Value
0.90
0.85
For load and resistance factor design (LRFD). a time effect factor is
used to adjust for different duration of loads as shown in Table 14.3.
Shear
Tension
"',,'· 0.75
0.80
Tabla 14.3 Tim• Efhct Factor, A (LRFD only)
Load combination1 Time effect factor (.>.)
MOBmin
Connections ''·· 0.85
0.65
l .4D 0.6
l .2D + l.6L + 0.5(!., or Sor R) 0.7 when Lia from storage Table 14.5 Fonut Conwnlon FKton, K,
0.8 when L la from occupancy
1.25 when L 11 from impact Application Property Kp
l .2D+l.6(L,.orSorR) +(Lor05W) 0.8 Member p. 2.54
l.2D + l.6W + L + 05(1.,. or Sor R) 1.0 P, 2.70
1.W+ l.OB+L+0.2S 1.0 P, 2.88
0.9D+ l.OW 1.0 P,par HO
0.9D + I.OE 1.0 F, perp 1.67
11.oad combination and load futor• oontittcnt with ASCH 7 arc lined !Or eue
Emin 1.76
of Jdorcn<t. All connections 3.32
Looking at the demand aide of the equation, since the laws of ph}'lica Numerous structural wood products are available to the design profes-
haven't changed the moment, shear and deflection equations remain sional allowing them to create virtually any size or shape of structure
the same. The part that diffen ii what design loads are in put into those permitted by the building code. The following is a brief description of
loading equations. Start out by estimating what actual loads are being each with their key attributes highlighted.
applied to the system. Then plug these estimated real-world loads into
14.J.1 SIWll Lumber
the required load combinations. The load combinations for the two
methods is where a distinction between the two methods is provided on While both softwood and hardwood lumber can be used for construc-
the demand side. Designers may tend to overestimate the loads on the tion, the principal use of hardwood lumber is for remanufacture into
system when using the ASD combinations in order to ensure a greater furniture, cabinetwork, and pallets or direct use as flooring, paneling,
aafety margin. LRFD is considered to be a better representation of the molding, and millwork. Softwood lumber has demonstrated the versa-
actual •}'Item loading so overestimation is unnecessary, as the load tility of wood by serving as a primary construction material throughout
facton in LRFD are intended to provide a conaistent level of reliability the decades. In this role, softwood lumber has been produced in a wide
across a range of ratio• of the varioua load types. The load combinations variety of products from many different species.
for both ASD and LRFD are given in the applicable building code and To mlnimi7.e unnecessary differences in the grading rules of soft-
are based on ASCE 7. wood lumber and to improve and simplify these rules, a number of
conferences were organized by the U.S. Department of Commerce from
14.2.2 CapKltJ 1919 to 1925. The result was a relative standardization of sizes, defini-
On the capacity side, with LRFD, as with ASD, the member is assumed tions, and procedures for deriving allowable design properties, formu-
to have a certain strength capacity as given by the design reference lated as a voluntary American Lumber Standard (ALS). This standard
414 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
has b«n modified several tiinet. and the c:unent edition i• Ameri<:an resource by pladng higher grade lumber In zones that have higher
Softwood Lumber Stanclant PS 20-15. streues and lumber with lower muctural quality in lower me.ued
Most eoftwood lumber prodw:.ed as dimension lumber 18 provided zones.
basedonnominal2-to4-ln.-thickd1menslonswithactualdlmenslonsof The laminating process used in glulam timber manufacturing refUl.tt
Bi to 3* in. thkk. Dimension lumber is stre~ graded and uslgned in a random d!apemon of strength-mluclng growth characteristics
allowable properties under the Nalional Grading Rule, a part of of lumber, such M knots and slope af grain. throughout the glulam
the American Softwood Lumber Standard. Per dimension lumbei:, member. Consequently, glulam hu higher mechanical properties with a
a single fft of grade names and desaiptions Is used throughout the lawer vu:labill.ty than sawn lumber products of comparable mes.
United Stues, although the allowable properties vary with spedu. Tim- Many dlB'erent species of lumber can be used. to produce glulam. In
ben are also sttucturally graded under ALSC procedures. addition. a wide range of gw!et af both visually graded and mechani-
Unlike grade descriptiom fur dlmentlon lumber, grade de.ta:lptions cally graded lumber can be used in the manufacture of glulam. This
for structural. timbers are not standardized across species. For mo.rt 'PC- wide variety of available epecie.t and grades raultll in numerous optione
des, timber grades are cludfled according to Intended use. Beams md fur the producers to combine species and gradu to create a wide UTlf
stringers are membere that. are nominal 6 x 10 with actual dimensions of of glulam timber layup combinmons.
5* x 9% in. and larger. Beams and stringers are primarily used to mist Some of the «nnmon species wed include Douglu fir-larch, soulhern
be.nding ntefaef, and Che grade de11crlptJon ofsome timber grade• for the pine, hem-fir, and spruce-pine-fir. Other species used are eastern
middle third of the length of the beam Is more atringent Chm that for the spruce, wute.m woods, A1uk.a yellow c~. and Pert Orford cedar.
outer two-third.a. Posu and timbere are members that are nominal 5 by Several hardwood species. inc:ludlng red oak. ml maple, and yellow
5 with actual dimensions of 4% x 4Ma in. and larger. Port and timbers are poplar, are also U1ed.
primarily l18ed to rulat aldal messe.. Structural timbers ofsoulhem pine Glulam is manufactured wilh ldln-dry lumber having a muimum
are graded without regard to anticipated use, u with dimension lumber. moisture content at the time of gluing of 16 percent. The use ofkiln-
Width ofsoftwood dimension lw:nber variet, commonly from nominal dry laminating lumber means that the moisture conwnt of gMam ls
2 to 16 in. with actual dimenllions oflYa to 15% in. rdatively uniform throughout the member, which give.1 glulam o:.cel-
Buie reference deaign Btra8ef for stttat-graded lum.be.r and struc- lent dimensional stability. A glulam will not undergo the dimensional
tural tlmbe.n are listed In the Suppleme.ot to the National De&gn clwlges normally wociated with larger sQlld-uwn green timbers and
Specl&ation. These are 10-year wlues for lumber used. under continu- wlD. remain strdght mcl true in Cl'OM K<:tion. A •dry"' glulam. ls also Im
ously dry conditions. The basic tabulated reference design lttellsell are S11$cepUble to the died:ing and spliuing which u often asso1:i~ wilh
adjusted for a me factor (C), repetitive member factor (C,.), tlat use •green• timben.
factor (Ci.), and wet service factor (CM)· Other in-service use factors A slgniflcant development In the glulam. timber indl18try waa the
such as duration of load are also applicable and are t1lbulated In Che NDS. .Introduction offully water-resistant phenol-resorcinol adhesive. In 1942.
Thi• allowed g1u1am to be used in exposed a.tmor environments with-
14.3.2. Gh•m Lumbtr out concern of glue line degradation. One of the earliest U.S. manu-
Structural glulam .Is a structural member glued up from cuitably facturing standards for glulam was Comme.rdal Sanclant CS2S3-63,
selected and prepared. pie«s of laminating lumber called '"laminationi' which wu published by the Department of Commerce (DOC) in 1963.
with the grain af all pieces parallel to the longitudinal am af the mein- (no longer in print) The most recent standard is ANSUAPA Standard
ber. Glulam memben are produced by gluing together dry lumber, :Sl6 Al90.l-17.
percmt, typically of 2- or 1-in. nomin.al thic:knw, under controlled ANSI/APA Al90.l, AmerlCIUI NatlMllU Standard for Stnlcturrl1 Glued
condillons of temperature and premire. Laminated limber, is a national consensus mndard for glu1am timber
Membm with a wide variety of sizes, profil«. and lengths can be manufacturing whidi documents detailed. manufacturing requirement.
produced providing ruperior characteristics of strength, serriceability, for glulam timber. This stanclant is recognized in the IRC, me, and
and appearance. Any length and ehape, rubject to the mulmum. mes state coda and all construction apecl&atione fur gMam muet include
permitted by manu1'ac:twing. transportation and handling limitations, .refm:nce to this standard.
are available such u the an:hes shown in Fig. 14.2.
Sizes
While glulam can be manufactured Jn virtually any croaNectional s!u
and length requlml, it is important to undermnd that tlnc:e glu1am
u manufactured uaing dimension lumber, certain widths and depth•
become de facto standar:dii which should be spec.illed whenever pouible.
The depths of glulam. are typically sped1led in multiples of 1V.. in. fur
Western spedes and Hi in. for southern pine. Thus, a 10-laminatlon
member udng We.tern species will have a net depth of 15 In., while a
10-laminalion Southern Pine member will have a net depth of 13% in.
Other Chlclmeues aflaminations may be spedfied, but the.1e will require
a cuttom order. An enmple would be the use of "·in.-thick: lamlna-
tions to produce members with a tight radl111 of CU1'YUW'e such u may
occur in some arch meinbers.
Glulam producb typically range in net widths from 3~ to 14 in.,
although vtm.Wly any member width can be custom produced using
a multiple plece layup to achieve wider widths. Common net flnl.shed
widths in inches of glulam for both Wemm apeaes and southern pine
are shown in 'Ilible 14.6.
nblt 14A fMt FlnltlledWWth of S1rUdUl'll Glulwn 11mWs
Flgul'814.2 'fyp:lc.:I au:-1 glulam an:hea.
Nominal widlh 3 4 6 8 10 12 14
Glulam beams are m~tured with the strong«t laminations Fim.hed width
Wemm tpeciea
2Y,
'* S* 61' 81' ll»t 12~
located where the highut tailion and compm1ion rtreues occur Flnilhed width Stnlthem Pine 2Y. 3 5 6Y," 8Y. l()Ya 11
under 1n...erviu loadJng. Thl8 alloWJ a more efficient !lie of the lumber
TIMBER STRUCTURES 415
REFERENCE STRESSES load (10 years) and dry conditions of use (less than 16 percent moisture
Glulam reference design stresses are detennined from the following content). When used under other conditions, applicable adjustment factors
ASTM Standards. must be used. Adjustment factors shall be applied to modify the allowable
ASTM D 3737 Standard Practice far Establishing Stressesfar Structural properties when one or more of the specific end use or material modifica-
Glued Laminated Timber is the original consensus standard introduced tion conditions fall outside the limits of the refermc:e conditions given
in 1982 for deriving allowable properties for glulam timber manufac- in the tabular sections. Many of these factors, which are similar to those
tured in ac:cordance with ANSI Al90.l. applied to sawn lumber, include the load duration factor, the wet service
ASTM D 7341Standard Practice for Establishing Characteristic fac:tor, the temperature fac:tor, the beam stability factor, and the c:olumn
Values for Flexural Properties of Structural Glued Laminated Timber stability fac:tor. Refer to the NDS for the det£rmination of the appropriat£
by Full-Scale Testing provides a procedure for using full sc:ale testing of adjustment factors. 11 is important to note that beam stability fac:tor CL is not
glulam to detennine characteristic: values that can be used to calc:ulate ac:c:umulative with the volume factor, C,. given in the next section.
flexural design properties. Unique Glubim Adjustment Factors The volume factor (C.) is applied
X-X vs. Y-Y Orlenutlon Glulam c:an be manufactured using a single to glulam since allowable bending stresses of glulam timber are affected
grade or multiple grades of lumber, depending on the intended use. by member size. Generally, larger sizes have a correspondingly lower
When the member is intended to be primarily loaded either axially or allowable bending stress than smaller members. To ac:count for this
in bending with the loads acting parallel to the wide faces ofthe lamina- behavior, a volume factor, c,. which is the product of beam width,
tions (Y-Y axis). a single grade combination is reco=ended. Typic:al depth, and length, shall be applied. A 5%-in. x 12-in. x 21 ft member or
applications would include columns, truss chords, and large panels such smaller is assigned a C,, = 1.0, and the C,, for other larger sizes is com-
as in bridge decks. These are typically noted as combinations 1, 2, 3, etc. puted as follows:
depending on species and grade oflumber and are not shown as stress
classes but are tabulated in ANSI/APA 117. (14.2)
For members stressed primarily in bending about the X-X axis, a
graded layup oflumber is used throughout the depth of the beam with where
the highest-quality laminations used in the outer wnes of the beam b =width ofbending member being checked in inches. For multiple
where the bending stresses are highest with lower-quality laminations piece width layups, b=width of widest piece in the layup. For
being used in wnes subjected to lower bending stresses. practical purposes, bis assumed to be S 10.75 in.,
Glulam may be manufactured as unbalanced or balanced members. d = depth of bending member being checked in inches
The most critic:al zone of a glulam bending member with respect to con- I =length of bending member being checked between points of
trolling strength is the outermost tension zone. In unbalanced beams, zero moment in feet
the quality oflumber used on the tension side of the beam, referred to p = 0.10 for western species, 0.07 for hardwoods, and 0.05 for
as tension laminations, is higher than the lumber used on the corre- southern pine
sponding compression side, allowing a more efficient use of the timber Another adjustment factor applied to glulam is the curvature fiictor (CJ,
resource. These layups are typically intended for simple span bending which is used to adjust the allowable bending stresses of curved glulam
members. Since unbalanced beams have different bending stresses timber members. It takes into ac:count the differenc:e in extreme outer
assigned to the compression and tension wnes, they must be installed fiber stress between a curved member and a straight prismatic member,
accordingly. To ensure proper installation of unbalanced beams, the top as well as any residual stresses that may remain in a lamination that has
of the beam is clearly stamped with the word "TOP." been bent to the stated curvature. However, the curvature factor, c.,.
Balanced layups are typically specified for continuous span beams, shall not be applied to the allowable bending stress in the straight por-
long cantilevered beams, or any other application that will induce high tion of a member, regardless of curvature in other portions. Also, this
tensile stresses on both the top and the bottom of the member. factor is not applicable to cambered glulam timber:
Layup combinations and associated reference design stresses are pro-
vided in a number of publications including ANSI/APA 117 Standard
Specification far Glued Laminated Timber ofSoftwood Species and the NDS. (14.3)
In order to simplify the selection of glulam members intended pri-
marily for loading on the X-X axis, the glulam industry has adopted where
a series of stress classifications ranging from 16F-l.3E to 30F-2.1E as t = thickness of lamination in inches
shown in Table 14.7. This table only shows the design stresses for bend- R = radius of curvature of inside face of lamination in inches
ing about the X-X axis, and the reader is referred to Table 5A of the t/R s 1/100 for hardwoods and southern pine
NDS Supplement for further explanation of these stress classes and for t/R S 1/125 for other species
further layup combinations. Table 5B of the NDS Supplement provides CAMBER
the single grade layup combinations and reference stresses.
One of the major attributes of glulam is it can be cambered, and glulam
is generally the only engineered wood member that c:an be cambered.
Table 14.7 Typlc:11I Glul•m Stress Cbiua
The size and span capabilities of sawn lumber beams are generally lim-
Stress class Fi.r+ p,.,_ F.,. E,'PP PCL ited by the physical characteristics of the timber supply. Consequently,
16F-l.3E 1600 925 195 1.3 x 10'5 315
due to the relatively short spans associated with sawn lumber beams,
deflection under long term dead loads is not typically a design control,
20F-l.5E 2000 1100 210 l.5x 10'5 425
and camber of these members is not required. However, for glulam, it is
24F-l.7E 2400 1450 210 1.7 x 10'5 500 possible to design wood members in large sizes and long lengths.
24F-l.8E 2400 1450 265 1.8 x 10'5 650 Design professionals recognize that for long spans, design is often
26F-l.8E 2600 1950 265 1.9 x 10'5 650 controlled by deflection limits. One way to reduce the adverse aesthetic:
28F-2.1E 2800 2300 300 2.1x10'5 805 effect and structural significance of beam deflection is through the use
30F-2.1E 3000 2AOO 300 2.1x10'5 805
of camber. Camber is an initial curvature built into a glulam which is
opposite in direction to the calc:ulated deflection which will occur under
gravity loads. Calculated beam deflection is used to assess compliance
REFERENCE STRESS ADJUSTMENTS with building code requirements and to specify beam camber.
The published design properties values for glulam shown in Table 14.7 For most roof beam applications, the glulam timber industry recom-
and in industry publications are based on use under normal duration of mends the use of 1~ times the c:alculated dead load deflection to arrive
41f CHAPTER FOURTEEN
at a rc<:ommended c;amber. 1'hil amount of camber is generally suf- 14.S.S Wood Struc:tllnlll Pllnell
6.c.ient to allow the beam to deflect back to near level after many years A wood 1tn.1ctural panc:I, also Rfan:d to u a muctural-use panel, i1 a
under load. For floor beams, the recommended camber ill 1.0 tJmes the panel product composed primarily of wood, which, in ta commodity
calc:ulated dead load ddle<:tion. HOMVer, for .residential construction, end use, u esaentJally dependent upon ce.rtain mechanl.cal. and/or physi-
floor beams ue typically not cambered due to the relatlvdy short spam cal properties for successful performance in service. Such a product Is
and the need to minimize unevenne11 in the floor <:onsttuction. identmed in a manner clearly «mvqing its intended end ~e. Today,
The camber for beams is often specified u "lnche.t of camber!' h may wood. structural panc:ls include all-veneer plywood and mat-formed
also be specified as a radius of curvature. The drcular arc formed by this compressed wood strand panels or oriented strand board (OSB) such
method d04ely appronn:uite. the actual defl«ted. curvature of the beam as ahown In Fig. 14.3.
under load. The beam is thus fabricaled. with a built-in •mm:or image"
of the expected. deflected. curwture..
The following formula may be used to caL:ulate the apprm:lmate
radM of curvatme, given the beam span and. amber desired:
3L2
R=- (14.4)
2A
whe.re
R =approximak radiu.t of curvature, ft
!=span.ft
tJ. =dmred camber, iD..
NONP.IUSMATIC GI.ULAM
One of the major advantage• of glulam ill the capability of cn:ating
unique shapes web. aa alngle- and double-tapered beima, curved bend-
ing members, double-tapered curved bending memben, and arches.
While the design of complex members is beyond the scope of this
handbook, a brief dUcuasion of the vuious shapet pouible ill pnmded
in the fullowing sections. Basic design provisions for these members are
provided In Chapter S of 1he NDS. A more detailed de.c.rlptlon of the
design of thete membm am be found. in the AITC Timber Construction
MonuAI, or the APA Bngin«red Wood Hantlbook.
TAPBIU!o BxAMs
Tapered beams an tt&ke the form of end-tt&pere<l, single-tapered.. and
double-tapered beams. The wre of tapen!d beams ill typically to provide Rguni 14.3 Typical woodatnictural panels.
roof drainage and de1ign aelthetia. Straight-bpered end cub on the
top of a beam. are aometlmes uaed to Jmprove drainage, to provide e:dra
head for dowmpouta and. scuppm, to fadlltue dlachuge of water, and Wood sbuctmal panels are used as sheathing materials for roofs, W1llb,
to reduce the height of the waD. and floon in a broad range of light-frame wood building applications.
Curnd Bums The most common curved glulam has a con.stant Manufacturing mnd.ards for wood structural panels are of two tppes:
crose section and constant curvature. When a curved member Is loaded praaiptive or performance based.
In bending, radial stresses are induced. When the be.11ding moment is in Voluntary Product Standard. PSl, Construction anti IrulwstrialPlywood,
the d.ir«tion that tencls to decrcas<! the c;urvature or inmase the radius. promulgated under the rules of the DOC, wu originated in 1966, and
the radial stre11 ill in radial tension, P,,. On the other hand, when the .Dlll'llleroUS l%eratlons haw ooc:urred 1Ull!ting In the curmi.t .PS1-09S1ructlmil
bending moment 18 in the direction that tenda to increue the curvature Plywood.
or decrease the radius, the radial stress is In radial. comp?e$Slon, F,.. The standard p.ro'Yidet a recipe for panel layup. specifying the spe-
Chapter S of the NDS provides allowable radial tensile md radial com- cies of veneer and the number, thicbess, and orientation of piles that
pnwion stress for glulam. Iftheadju.rted radial tension value i.sem:eded. are required to achieve panels of the desired nominal thickness and
appropriate mechanical re.lnfor«mena can be used to res:tst all applied strensth.
radl.al tensile stmm as discussed in the AITC 'nmber Construellon A more recent development for wood. sttuctural panels is that of
Monual. performance-based mndards. Such standards are blind to actual panel
PK Beam.a Pitched and u.pered curved (PTC) glulam beamt are constructlon but do specify performance levels required fur common
very popular u structural. roof members when a long interior clear span end. UJes. Performance mndards permitted the introduction of OSB
and sloping roof Is desired. The design of PTC beam• Is similar to that into the construction market linc.e mat-Cmmed panels (panda laid up in
of straight prismatic: beama except that the radl.aJ. ttresset shall be con- a mat rather than bystacking veneers) don't lend themselve.t to prescrip-
sidered in the cuned portion and the diltribution of the bending tive layup$.
st:re.tses about the 1S.1umed neutral. uis is different from that in a pm. Voluntary Product Standard PS2, Perf"""'1nce Strmdard far Wood-
matte member. The reader is referred to the AITC nmhtr Constructton &setl Structrll'tu-Use P11neh. was promulgated in 1992 under the rulet of
Monual for full design information 0.11 PTC beams. Che DOC as the fun consen1US-based performance standard. for wood
Anllu Glulam is often used in arch "1'U.ctl11'es with a vuiety of structural panels and hu evolved to PS2-10.
shapes and structural ch.aracteristics. Three-hinged arche.t are generally PS2 Is \!lied extensively for all wood-based structural panel type6
more ec0.11omJcal than two-hinged arches due to the possible elimina- including plywood and OSB. It covm sheathing and structural I
tion of the moment splice required for mort two-hinged arches. Arch.es sheathing and single-floor gradu and includes performance criteria. a
may be Uffd to form m~ ('.(llllpfa «mfigurations sudi as space fw:net qualifica.tlon policy, and test methods. Wood structural panel8 manu-
and ret.iculawi timber dome.t with spans of over 500 ft. f'actured In conformance widi PSI and PS2 are recognized in the IRC
Two-hinged arches are ofthree types: foundation, tied, and buttmsed. and me and local codes throqhout the United Statea.
They have been used for spans of more than 300 ft. Foundation arches Wood rtructural panelt are produced in two bond dauificalioll$-
may have tie rod.a in or under the tloor to remt the horizontal thrust ExpOIUl'e 1 and Exterior. The bond clual&ation relates to the adheaive
TIMBER$TRUCTURE$ 417
bond and thu.s to the nructural integrity o.f the panel. Bond classifica- The span rmng on Single Floor grade panel• appears as a s:inSJe
tion n:lates tD moisture remtance of the glue bond. number. Single Floor panels are duigned specifically for single-ftoor
Exterior panela have a fully waterproof bond and are dealgned for (combined wbtloor-underlayment) application& under carpet and pad
appll<:atlons subject to long-term aposure to the weather or moisture. and are mamifactured with tpan ratings of 16, 20, 24. 32, and 48 oc.
Expoaure 1 panels have a fullywuerproofbond endue designed for The span ruinp for Single Floor panels, lllce those Sheathing grade. are
applica.tion1 when! tmiporary expo1ure to wealher due to construction based on applicalion o.f the panel with the long dimen1ion or strength
delayJ. or high humidity or other condltiom ofsimilar severity may be am o.f the panel across three or more supporu.
apected. Exposure 1 panels are made with the same aterior adheave11
u.ed in Exterior panels. However, beauue o1her compositional ~ l.oAD/SPAN TABLBS
ma:y afl\:ct bond performance. only Enmor panda should be used for Various load/span tables for wood structural panels ue awilable &om
long-term exposure to the weather. Exposure 1 panels may, however, be indllltry organizations such u APA. Loads are ubula.ted based on
iued where aposure to the outdoon is on the UDderslde olily, such as capacities de.tcribed in this chapter and are provided for applicatiom
at roof overhangs. where the panel strength am Is applied perpeo.d!cular to rupports and
PI.TWO OD pardlel to supports. For eac:h combination o.f span and span .rating or
thid:ness, loads are typically given fur deflection1 o.f IJ360, IJ240, and
Manufactured from thin sheets of cross-laminated ven«r and bonded IJ180 and muimum loads controlled by bending and shear capacity.
under heat and premire with adhesives, plywood panels ht1.ve superior The deaigner u referred to APA or o1her panel industry crguihations
dimensional stability and an ex«llent strcnp-to-weisJ!t ratio and are for such load/span t1bles.
highly resistant to impacts, chemicals. and changes in environmentil
temperature and humidity. Plywood 18 available in a wide variety o.f
14.3.4 Pret'lblfatafWoocl l.Jolm
appeannce grade$, ranging from smooth, natural Nrfaces suit11ble for fin-
ish work tD more «onomical grade. used fur sheathing. With more than Prefabricated wood I-joilts are an 'T'-shaped engineered wood struc-
a dozen common thidm.esses and over 20 diffm:nt grades. plywood iJ tural member designed for u.te in residential and commercial building
well auiled to a multitude of demanding appllcatiom. Si2ea for plywood floor and roof constrw:tl.on such as shown in Fig. 14.4.
include 4 x 8, 4 x 9, and 4 x 10 with the 4 x 8 behlg the domlnt1.nt size
supplied.
Sheathing grade panda are dusi6.ed by 1pan ratings, which identify
Che maximum. recommended support spacing for specific end uses.
Structural I meathlng panels meet the requirements of sheathing grade11
as well as having enhanced requirements usocimd with use in high seis-
mic rilk applic:alion.s such as diaphragm.a and shear Wlllls (e.g.. inc:reued
cross-panel strength and stiffness and rac1dng lhear resistance).
OSB
Panda manufactumi of compressed wood wakn or strands have been
mubted. with aw:h names as waferboard. and OSB since the early
1980s. Tuday, v!rtually all mat-formed wood structural panela are
manufactured with oriented strands, and are commonly c&lled OSB.
OS:B is composed o.f compnssed strands arranged in byers (usually
Chree to five) oriented at right angles to one another and bonded under
heat and pmsure with a waterproof adhesive. The orientation oflaym
ac:hleves the same advantages of Cl'OSf-lan:iinated vaieers in plywood.
Since wood is stronger along the grain. the (.IW$ lamination diJtribl!Sel
wood's nalmal strength in both directions of the panel. Whether a panel
.IB compoaed o.f strands or wafera, moat manufacture.n orient Che mate- Rgure 14A 'I'ypical prefabricated wood. l·joill-' U1ed ill reddentlal floor
rial to achlew muimum performance. OSB am be manufactured In C.Omtructioll.
size$ u large u 8 x 24 ft in ao8S section.
SPAN RATINGS SllllATHING Flanges are either sawn lumber or SCI.. typically laminated. veneer
Single floor and tiding grades carry numbers In their trademarks called lumber (LVL). although other SCL prodw:b may be u.ted as flange
$'J*1 rating•. Theiie denote the mulmum recommended cemu-to-center materials. The top tlange ls of the same type and grade of material as
spacing of 1upportJ1, in inches, over which the panda should be placed the boUom flange. The net ftange size depends on the material Uffd and
in construction appllca.Uom. end use conditions.
The span rating OD. meathing grade panels appean U two .numben Due to wrlatiom in flange widlh for 1-joim of the same depth, often
separated by a slash, suc:h as 32/16, 48124, etc. The left-hand number designers and builders wlD. specify that the I-Joist cupplier provide the
denotes the muimum recommended spacing o.f supporu when the joist hangers as well as the 1-jolsU. Most mills supply I-joists to d.lstribu-
panel ls used for roof sheathing with the long dimension or strength ton and dealers in length.a up to 60 ft. These are then cut. to frequently
am of the panel across three or more supports (two span•). The rlght- used lengths such u 16 to 36 ft.
hand .number !ndkab:s the mu:lmum recommended spacing of sup- Webs conaist of wood structural panels, which can be plywood or
ports when the panel is used for subflooring with the lo.ng dimension OSB manufactured In accordt1.nce with PSl or .PS2, but the vast major-
or stRngth axis of the panel acro111 three or more ropporu. A panel ity of the webs arc OS:B. All panels are classified as Exposure 1 or
.n:wked 32/16, fur example, may be used for roof sheathing over sup- Exterior and are typically % in. thid:neu. 1-joiru are anembled. using
ports up to 32 in. on ccim:r or for subfloor:lng over supports up to 16 in. aposure 1 type adheaive• meetlng the requirement8 of ASTM D 2559
oncenter. and ASTM D 7247.
Wall sheathing panelll are performance tested with the secondary 1-joim for residential conmucti.on are typically available in £Our
am (urually the abort dimension ofpanel) spanning across supportl, or depths, 9*, ll~, 14and 16in.,netdeptha. I-joistlcan be manufactured
studs. For this reuon, wall sheathing panels mt1.y be applied with either in depths up to 30 in. for commercial conatruciion ln depth lncmnent.t
die strength am or the secondary am aC1WS supports. of2in.
41' CHAPTER FOURTEEN
STA11DA.B.D$ [tCUI a1so be used u colw:nm and for studs in wall &aming. Figure 14.5
The universally recognized standard for woocl I-joists is ASTM DSOSS, illllltrates vuious depths ofLVL u ma.y be used for beams and headen.
Sflmlltml Specifiamonfor Bstablishing twl Monitoring Strvdllrt:d ~ Individual LVL pieca ruch as shown in Fig. 14.5 are often bonded
ofPreja~ Wood I-foists. This consensus standard provide$ guide- together in a aeparate gluing operation or mechanically fastened
lines for the evaluatlon of mecllanical propertlu, ph.ysl.cal. properties, together In the fleld to create wider-width members that are compatible
and quality of wood 1-jolm md i. the current common tming standard with traditional oriented strand lumber wood framing.
for I-joirt.t. However, lina1 ASTM DSOSS do et not specify required lc:vels
of performance, individual manufllcturers of I-joists have their own
p.roprlewy company mndard• that govern the everyday production
praaice for their prodW:U. Under the ~t building code jurisdiction"
I-joist manufacturen can gain code reaignition through evaluation
repom developed in accordance with ICC BS AC14, Aaeptanu Criteria
for Prtfii'Emcattd Wood 1-JolJu. This provides guidelines on Implement-
ing performance feuures of the IRC and IBC.
Each manufactum'1 Evaluation Senica Report (BSR) code report
standard hu the potential fur having differing imtallalion deWb. allow-
able spane, web penetration requiremeDt!, allowable streeaee, etc. & the
history of other building materials auch as plywood, OSB, and gl\llam has
shown, some degree of standardization of the industry was inevitable.
APA, in conjunction with member I-joi.rtmanufacturers, developed a
standard for performance-rated wood I-join prodw:te 111ed in realden-
tial floor-. deaignated u PRI-~O Performana SumtUirdfor APA-BWS
1-J<rists. This standard. proriclei common dmp value., span ratings.
and installaiion recommendation• for the four common depth. of
I-joim wed In residential construction. Because PRiil can be selected
based on their allowable span for glued 1111iformly loaded re&dentlal
floon, it i. euy to incorporue them Into any design. A• all AJ>A EWS
RguN 14.5 Typical profila of laminated .meu lumber (LVL}.
I-joilta share a common set of installation and futening details, the
generation of dealgn drawings it greatly slmpWied. Il should be noted
that this is a voluntary mndard and that not all I-Joist manufacturers
have ch()S(ll to produce PIU-400 producta. PARALLJIL STllAND LUllOBR (PSI.)
APA h.u also dcm:lopecl a. parallel standard. APA PRI 405, Perfor- PSL is manu1ictured by glue-bonding wood sttands to form a con-
mance Sttwlud for APA BWS Commercial I-Joists, for I-jol.m used in den1ed billet in Reh a way that the wood ftber (grdn) direction of the
commercial building construction. This mndard covers I-Jo!sts .manu- stranda is primarily orientd parallel to the length of the member. The
factw'ed in depths of 11 % in. md 14 to 30 In. in 2-in. depth incre.menta. thic:kneu (least dimension) of the strands Wlually u le.n than 0.25 in.,
PRI 400 and PRI 405 I-joist products are manufactured. under the and the average length of manda b about 150 times the thiclcneft of
rigoroWI quality IW\ll'llllte standardl of APA-The Engineered Wood Che strands. Pmently. PSL If made p.r1marily from Douglas-fir. west-
Assodatlon. Otherproprlebuy I-Joist p:oducill manufactured in accordance ern hemlock. 10Uthern pine and yellow poplar, although there are no
with an BSR report also fu1ftll the same purpose. reltriction1 on species.
In addition to span tables pro'ridecl in PRI-400 ancl PRI-~s. pzopri- The dimensions of veneen (manda) used in PSL are about ~ in.
etary span tables for I-joistJ are also provided by each manufacturer of thic:k by % In. wide by 24 in. long. The strands are coated with a:terior
I-joim. type adheme, ancl the strands arc all oriented parallel to the length of
Che billet. A continuow pressing operation allows a. higher degree of
14.3.5 SUVd.\11'11 Contp0tlc. Lull'lber (SCL) denal&ation to be achieved. Typical lengths of PSL blllet.t are up to 60 ft
SCL is m engineered wood ttructural lumber produc:t hmily that and a.re actually limited by handling rem:tc:tlons. Billets are then remed
includes LVL, parallel strand lumber (PSL). laminated man.cl lumber to clmrcd climcn~on•. If needed. larger cross-sectional climeNions can
(LSI.), oriented stnnd lumber (OSL), and other wood compo1ite be achieved by ff«lildary bonding operaliom. PSL ii often used u beams
lumber products which have similar engineering and configuration and head.en and columns as shown in Fig. 14.6.
features. LVL was ftm produced in the early 1970s and since then has
been «>mmercially awilable in the United s~. PSL WU introduced to LAllllNATBJ> STRAJID LUMBBB. (LSI.) AND
market in the 1980s. SCI. products are wed in the ume structural appli- OIUENTED STllAND LUM&Bll (OSL)
cations u sawn lumber and Umber. A brief deaalpt!on of each followa. LSL and OSL are an extension of the technology U1ecl to manufa.ctun
OSB. Among SCL produru, LSL le perhaps the most efBclent in utilit-
L.umrATED V:llNEn LUMllEll. (LVL) ing wood resources. It has no restrictions on raw materials. SmaD. logs
LVL was the eulim type of SCL product that wu commercially and crooked lop of many species. including aspen. yellow poplar, and
manufactured for the marketplace. It ls now the most widely wed SCL other underu.t.ilizecl, Wt-growing species, c:an be used in manufactur-
product used In Che realdentJal. housing market and Js also often used ing LSL.
In light ccmmerdal building construc:tlon. LVL Is produced by bonding OSL Is another type of LSL product and has similar manufac:turing
layers of wood ven«n in a large billet under pzoper temperature and process u for LSL. The primary dlffi:rence between them is that the
pre11ure llimilar to the manufacturing of plywood. Typically, LVL ii length of ma.nd wed in OSI. is shorter {up to 6 in.) than diat U1ecl in
produced in 4-ft-w!de bWeta in long lengtha, and the billet Js then aawn LSL (apprmimately 12 ill.). OSLlw iOIXl.eWhat lower strength and stilfne&11
to different dimensions to meet the needs of the flna1. applications. The values compared to LSL
thiclcness of the billets is typi<:ally 1?i or 11" in. The moo <:ammon spe-
ciu u.ted for manufacturing LVL ani Douglas-fir, southern pine, and SPF StANl>A.llDI AND CoDE Rl!COGNlT[ON
(sprw:e-pine-fir). ASTM D5456, Sttnlllard Spuification for Bvals.uition of Struchmll
'fyplally LVL is wed as headers and beams. chords fur~ and~ Composite Lumber Produm, prorides guidelines for the evaluation of
beams in mobile homes; tlanp in~~ I-joim; and scaffold planks. mechanical properties, physical properties, and quality ofSCL products.
TIMBER STRUCTURE$ 419
Table14.7 1»ka1Str-
ClimuofLVL•
LVLll:lea El p.
au.e. lO'plll. pr:I
l.sE-22SOP 1.5 2Z50
l.8E-2750P 1.8 2750
2.0E-2900P 2.0 2900
2.1E-3100P 2.1 3100
'The talnWded ...i.... a.re~ vaNu
ilr llozm&I dunlloll of.load. AD. 'ft!ll.a.
ac<pt Band P.f1.' ""'p<rmlllod ID be
adju8ted foe <IC!la' load dllncloD.t ... p.mlllt-
tccl by lhe codc. T!IJ:dcdgn-ll'Cllm-
lted to ~Ill wb>ch !he m.u:lntom
molllllre ommt i.!at tbm lti pcrccm.
'lla>dlila modlllu.t aft!Wdly (B),
Wldi If applk:oble Ill either e~
or flllwile "l'P~ inchi.dm oh.oar
~.
Rguni 14.6 'fyp!Cll. proWct ofpanllelatr&lld 1umbet (PSL).
design properties. The deslgne.r is refmed to mamifacturers" code
reports for other grades of LVL produ.cts ancl for detailed information
Since ASTM D5456 u not a product standard fur the SCL indumy, on Che limibi of lilted design propertie11.
individual manufacturers of SCL have their own proprietary manunc-
14.3.6 Cro:u-Lamlnlltil!dTirnller (CIJ')
turing product standard.a. Under c;unent building code juru<liction1,
SCL manufacturers are required. to gain code :n:c:ognition through an CLT represents the newest generation of glued engineered wood cmn-
evaluation process provided by the ICC-ES, which mues ESR reports po.t.ites. Developed. in Europe in the early 199011, uveral thowsand CLT
fur proprietary products to demonstrate compliance with the IRC and structum have been constructed In Europe ln the put 25 year•. CLT
l:BC. ICC ES AC47, Ar:uptmtce Criteriafor Strudlmll Compos;~ 1-"mber, was .Introduced into North America in 2012 with the publication of
providet guideline.1 on implementing performance feal.Uies of the IRC ANSr PRG320-St4mdmdfor Perfamuinu-R#tetl CTOSS-U!mintltetl nm-
andmc. ber. CLT was acld.ed. to the 2015 NDS u Chapter 10 and it wu adopted
1n the 201s me.
G:llADBS AND G1.AD1NG Snnw CLT Is a pref'abric:ated engineered wood product made of at least
ASTM 05456 and ICBO AC47 provide guidance for developing pro- three orthogonal 1aym of strm-graded sawn lumber or SCL that are
prietary design wlue1, but no standard performance levels or gradet laminated by gluing oflongi:tudinal. and tnn.nene layers with 1tructmal
are defined. While SCL products are all proprietary and no industry adheatve.t to form a aall.d rectangular-maped straight and plane timber
consensus s1andard fur SCL emts. 11. system of grades similar to the u shown in Fig. 14.7.
machine rum-rated (MSR) grading~ used by the lumber indus- CLT is Identified by a grade which is a unique de'1gnation for CLT
try has evolved. and SCI. products are identified a.a:ording to their panels ha.Ying the 1ame layup of different panel thic.kneuet determined
assigned stms class. Streu cluses indicate the allowable deaignated by the type and the grade of laminations in the orthogonal layers.
modulus of elut!dt1J E, and design be.nding stress, Fir The most com- For CLT used In the United States the adhesives shall meet the require-
monly uted LVL grades range from I.SE to 2.IE. In genml. a strm ments of AITC 405 with the oception that Section 2.1.6 of AITC 405
cJus con.aist.s of two partl separated by a hyphen ("-j. The left part (either ASTM 03434 or CSA 0112.9) is not requind. CLT is typi-
of the hyphen ("-") repmeat& the deaignated E value. while the rlght cally manufactured in widtht of 4 to 10 ft and thic.knesses up to 20 in.
part of it represents the design bending stress (F•}. both of which are Thicknesse11 are generally In multiples of I"
Jn. reflecting the iue of
in the units of pounds per square inc:h (psi). For inmnce. a grade of 2 x dimension lumber. Lengths CUI be up 10 40 ft and more. Due 10 itl
l.SE-2250F signifies LVL with modu1W1 of elutici:ty (MOE) of 1.5 X lo' unique clwa.cteristics, CLT ii being wred in mid-rile (6-12 storiet and
pal and P• of 2250 pal. higher) construction. The Brock. Common dormitory at the University
While all LVL products are proprietary Table 14.7 provides •ome of British. Columbia is 18 stories with 17 stories of CLT over a first 4tory
typical stress cl&Mes produced by the LVL industry listing the J!...F6 of concrete u shown in Fig. 14.8.
4 ..
Siren h axis of CLT
F1gure 14.7 Cmu-1ec1iooal ~cw of crOM-laminated timber {CLT).
420 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
T1ble14A ASD RefWwlc. De-tit" Yaluu for CLT l!Nd '" PRGi 320 {for u.. '"die Ulntt.cl Saw)
Major mength din!clion Minor ltmlgdt direction
p s v:
~~~ ~of (~
Bl GA BI..e:uo
CLT (10' lb~.2/ft (10'iWft ~-~ (10' lbf-in.1/ft (lb:t/tof
grade CLT t(lll.) ofwldlh) ofwidth) ofwld1h) 'Width) of width) of width) of width) wldlh)
4:\(i 4S25 115 0.-46 1430 160 3.1 o.61 495
l!l
6-7/8 1(),400 440 0.92 1970 1370 81 1.2 1430
9" 18,375 1089 u 2490 3125 309 1.8 1960
E2 ~ 3825 102 0.53 1910 165 3.6 0.56 660
6~ 8825 389 1.1 2625 1'30 95 1.1 1910
9% 15,600 963 1.6 3325 3275 360 1.7 2625
l!3 41' 2800 81 0.35 1110 110 :u OM 385
6-7/3 6400 311 0.69 1530 S>SS 61 0.87 1110
9% ll,l2S 769 1.0 1940 2180 232 1.3 1520
M 4% 4525 us 0.50 1750 140 3.4 0.62 605
6-7/3 10,SOO 440 1.0 2410 1230 88 1.2 1750
18,400 1089 1.5 3050 2800 335 1.9 2400
Vl '"
4:\(i 2090 108 0.53 1910 165 3.6 0.59 660
6-7/8 4800 415 1.1 2625 1430 95 1.2 1910
3275 u
V2 '"
~
6-7/8
8500
2030
4675
1027
95
363
1.6
0.46
0.91
3325
1430
1970
160
1370
360
3.1
31
0.52
1.0
2625
4-95
1430
u
V3 '"
~
6-7/3
8275
1740
4000
898
95
363
0.'9
0.98
2490
1750
24.20
3125
140
1230
309
u
3A
1.6
O.S2
1.0
1960
605
1750
9'1t 7100 899 1.S 3050 2800 335 1.6 2400
TIMBER STRUCTURES 421
procedun1 are more favorable, u they are mOR general and leas expen-
sive. The Canadian CLT Handbook (Gagnon and Pirvu, 2011) coven
several methods for the analysi1 and design ellCLT members: mechani- J"' 1
cally jointed beams theory (gamma method), compOllte theory-k i"' 2
method, and the shear analogy method, whereaa the U.S. version ell
the CLT Handbook covers only the lb.ear analogy method that wu
developed by Kreuzlnger In 1999 (Kreuzinger, 1999). Among the dif-
z i ;.. 3
>------ot----+-1
,,,, 4
- -
ferent methods used for CLT design, the shear analogy method is the
most n:<:ent and the ma.t ~. Unlike the other methodl, the shear
Bendilg Slle&r
analogy method takes into consideration the ahear deformation ell the
croa layer, and it is not limited to a rettricted number ell layers within
the panel. In thls chapter, the shear analogy is introduced; the reader Figure 14.12 Final irtress di&trlbutlcm obtalned from the 111perpoGl:lo11 oflhe
is referred to the CLT Handbook. the Canadian edition (Gagnon and rau1bl from beum A and B.
Pirvu, 2011) for the other methods mentioned above.
Sel!All ANALOGY METHOD The flexural stiffiie11 of beam A is given in Eq. (14.S):
&cording to Bla.N and FellmOller (2004), the mear analogy method is
the most accurate design method for CLT. In this method. the cli«ere:nt (14.5)
moduli of elasticity and the shear moduli of the single layers are wed,
and it is applicable to almost any system such as number of layers and where
span-to-depth ratio. The characterirtica of a CLT member are separated BA= (Bl)A
into two beams, beam A and beam B (see Fig. 14.9). Beam A II given by b,"' width ell ea.eh individual layez;. usually taken u 1 ft fur CLT
panels
111= thickness of each individual layer
The flemral. atiffness of beam B is given In Eq. (14.6); this is based
on Steiner's theorem:
II l 1 11 1 l I (14.6)
Beam A; (bending stiffness CEfJ,. =a,. and shear stiffness t-1
(GAJ,.=S,.-J
where
Web membe!s wllh lnfintlll! axlal rigidity
.Bs=<m>ii
Beam B: (bending stiffness (B)8 = 88 and shear stiffness Zi =the distance between the center point of each layer and the
(G,,J,=SaJ neutraluis
Beam B corrt:ains the ahear stiffness and the stifl'nen o( the flexible con-
Fig... 143 Beam dllierent1atlon llliag the shear am1ocT method.
nections, ifthey exirt.
The shear stiffiiess ell beam B, ~ii (GA)B and given in Eq. {14.7):
the sum of the flexural strength of the individual layet1 along their neu-
tral llXlll, where beam B is given the •Steinei" pollrts part of the flexural 1 I [....._ 1 hi_ ,._1 1t, 1r,. -
strength. the flmbJe mear stnmgth. and the tlnibility of all conneciiOUI. -=-· I,-+--+I,--+-- (14.7)
The beams are coupled by rigid linb to achieve equal deflection for 5, ri t-ik.- 2·G1·"1 1-;22·G;·b; 2·GR·lin_
beam.a A and B. Bending and ahear streaa distribution in beams A and where
B ue shown In Figs. 14.10 and 14.11, respectively. and the combined
stresses for both beams are lb.own in Fig. 14.12. (14.8)
Bi ·I,
VA~ "' --·VA {14.ID)
BA
z The bending streues aAJ and shear stresses TA.1 of each individual
layer of beam A can be calculated wing the Eq•. (14.11) and (14.12),
RlpCC:tivdy:
BendIre Shear
(14.11)
811811 -
Rgure 14.11 Narmal and lhear-. in beam B uaing the ahear an.a1ogy
method. (14.12)
422 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
For beam B, the axial forces NB.~ normal stresses aB.1of each individual ANSI 05.1. The standard also tabulates pole dimensions for up to 15
layer, and shear stresses at the interface ofthe two layers ofbearn B, "TB.IJ+I• size classes of 11 major pole species.
can be calculated using Eqs. (14.13), (14.14), and (14.15), respectively:
PoLES
_ E;·A;·z; M Most structural applications of poles require timbers that are relatively
N BJ- Bs • B (14.13)
straight and free of large knots. Poles used to support electric utility
distribution and transmission lines range in length from 20 to 125 ft
(14.14) and from 5 to 30 in. in diameter. Round timbers are also used as poles
and beams in building applications in many regions of the United States.
Reference design values for poles used in building construction are
(14.15) given in ASTM D3200.
PILES
The maximum deflection in a CLT slab panel due to a uniformly distrib- Material available for timber piles is more restricted than that for poles.
uted load can be calculated using Eq. (14.16): Most timber piles used in the eastern half ofthe United States are southern
pine, while those used in western United States are coast Douglas-fir.
_ 5 qL4 1 qL2 k Bearing loads on piles are sustained by earth friction along their
(14.16)
"mu - 384. (EI)df +3· (GA)eff surface (skin friction) or by bearing of the tip on a solid stratum. Wood
piles, because of their tapered form, are particularly efficient in sup-
The effective bending stiffness can be obtained using Eq. (14.17): porting loads by skin friction. Bearing values that depend upon friction
n i.3 n are related to the stability of the soil and generally do not approach the
(EI)eff =BA+ Bs =IA ·b112
...'..L + IA·111
·b.. z 2
(14.17) ultimate strength of the pile. Where wood piles sustain foundation loads
by bearing of the tip on a solid stratum, loads may be limited by the
1=1 1=1
compressive strength of the wood parallel to the grain. The most critical
The effective shear stiffness can be obtained using Eq. (14.18): loads on piles often occur during driving.
ASTM D 25 provides tables of pile sizes for either friction piles or
(14.18) end-bearing piles. Friction piles rely on skin friction rather than tip area
for support, whereas end-bearing piles resist compressive force at the tip.
For this reason, a friction pile is specified by butt circumference and may
have a smaller tip than an end-bearing pile. Conversely, end-bearing
SIMPIJPIED DESIGN METHODS FOR piles are specified by tip area and butt circumference is minimized.
CALCULATING BENDING AND SHEAR STRENGTHS The expected life of a pile is also determined by preservative treat-
(OUT-OP-PLANE) ment and use. Wood that remains completely submerged in water
The capacity of a CLT floor element in bending and shear can be calcu- does not decay. When piles that support the foundations of bridges or
lated using the simplified equations. buildings are to be cut off above the permanent water level, they should
The bending strength can be calculated using Eqs. ( 14.19) and ( 14.20): be pressure treated. The service life of poles can be 50 years or longer.
The design equations for most wood structural members are given in the
The maximum stress will occur for y= ~ , so Eq. (14.19) can be NDS, the Wood Handbook, and other reference documents. Some of
expressed as 2 the most commonly used equations are given in the following sections
for prismatic wood members. Nonprisrnatic members such as tapered
a= M ·0.5·~ ·J.§2_ (14.20) beams and others are typically associated with glulam and are discussed
(EI)eff in Section 3.2.5.
The shear strength can be calculated using Eq. (14.21): 14.4.1 Bams
l.5·V The most common application of a wood member is as a bending
't,=--- (14.21)
c·A - member. These range from solid sawn lumber, I-joists, and SCL used
as joists and rafters to heavy timber beams and glulam. The strength of
Where coefficient c is a reduction factor calculated as beams is determined by flexural stresses caused by bending moment,
shear stresses caused by shear load, and compression across the grain at
c= Jeff (14.22) the end bearings and at load points.
II!""'
FLEXURE
The U.S. version of the CLT Handbook (Karacabeyli and Doug- The stress due to bending moment for a simply supported pin-ended
las, 2013), copublished by the USDA Forest Service Forest Products beam is a maximum at the top and bottom edges. The concave edge is
Laboratory and the Binational Softwood Lumber Council, provides compressed, and the convex edge is under tension.
extensive design guidelines for all aspects of CLT construction. Flexural stresses are calculated from the formula
14.l.7 RaundTimbers ~_Mc
Jb-- (14.23)
Standards for poles and piles have been written with the assumption 1
that trees have a round cross section with a circumference that decreases For rectangular members with the neutral axis perpendicular to the
linearly with height. Thus, the shape of a pole or pile is often assumed depth at the center
to be that of the frustum of a cone. Actual measurements of tree shape I= moment of inertia (in.~)= brP/12
indicate that taper is rarely linear and often varies with location along S =section modulus (in.3) = bd2!6
the height of the tree. Guidelines to account for the effect of taper on
the location of the critical section above the ground line are given in where b = width of the member and d = the depth of the member.
TIMBER STRUCTURES 423
L8teral Stllblllty Wood beams are usually rectangular in cross sec- If critical shear stresses result from loads adjacent to a support, some
tion and may be subject to lateral bucking. Beams usually have lateral increase of the shear strength along the grain may be expected by the
support sufficient to allow the full bending stress Pb. When this is not development oflocal radial stress fields; that is, the load is transferred by
the case, the beam stability factor, CL• is used to adjust the reference radial compressive stresses in addition to shear stresses. The following
allowable bending stress, P,,. For the following conditions, CL= 1.0. approximate method for calculating the vertical shear V for rectangular
a. If the compression edge of the beam is laterally supported along its beams accounts for this effect.
length and the ends at point of bearing have lateral support to prevent 1. For uniformly distributed loads, neglect all loads adjacent to sup-
rotation. ports within a distance equal to the beam depth, d.
b. If the depth of the beam does not exceed its width d ~ b. 2. Concentrated loads located within a distance d of the supports
When the depth of the bending member exceeds the width, d > b, lateral shall be permitted to be multiplied by xld, where x is the distance from
support shall be provided at points of bearing to prevent rotation. The the support.
beam stability factor, CL is determined based on the unsupported length 3. For moving concentrated loads, place the largest at a distance from
of the beam: the support equal to the beam depth, keeping other loads in their nor-
mal relation and neglecting any load within a distance from the support
2 equal to the beam depth.
l+ l),B I),B
I),* I),. Notched Beams. The allowable shear for a rectangular beam notched on
(14.25) the lower face at the support is given by
1.9 0.95
where
Ii. = l.20E,;.1n
(14.26) d =depth of unnotched beam, in.
·oB (Re)2
~ = depth of the member remaining at the notch, in.
The beam stability factor is a function of the beam slenderness ratio, Fv = adjusted shear design value parallel to the grain, psi
Re, which shall not exceed 50. Re is determined from Notches are limited to 25 percent of the beam depth for sawn timber
and 10 percent of the beam depth or 3 in., whichever is less for glulam.
The NDS provides additional guidelines for determining the allow-
R
II
fL.d
='fiT (14.27)
able shear for members with notches on the compression face and for
the effect of connections.
where L, is the effective span length and is a function of the unsup-
ported length, I.,.. and is determined from the NDS for various span BEARING
and loading conditions. Compression perpendicular to grain (bearing) measures the capacity
Deflectlans The equation for calculating beam deflection using of a member to carry bearing loads within a given deformation limit.
values of apparent E as given in the allowable stress tables for sawn Deformation limits vary by product. For example, according to ASTM
lumber, timbers, and glulam is given as 05456, a deformation limit of0.04 in. is used for a test specimen of 1.5 in.
4
thick in determining bearing stress of SCL It is unlikely that a member
..i 5wL (1728) fails catastrophically under bearing stress even ifthe load has gone beyond
(14.28)
384EI the design load based on the deformation limit Overloaded bearing stress
will cause more deformation in the bearing area and will be represented
where by a noticeable indentation along the supported areas. It is therefore rea-
11 = calculated deflection (in.) sonable that bearing is governed by a serviceability criterion. For a bearing
w =uniform load (lbf/in.) ofany length at the end ofa beam or for bearings 6 in. or more in length at
l =design span (in.) any location other than the end, the allowable bearing stress is Ftl·
EI= bending stiffness of the member (lbf-in.2) For a bearing length Le less than 6 in. and at least 3 in. from the end
For products that publish a true E value, referred to as a shear-free E, of the beam, the allowable bearing stress shall be permitted to be multi-
the shear defection must be added to the bending moment deflection as plied by the bearing area factor, Cb:
given in Eq. (14.28). Also for prefabricated wood I-joists the shear defec-
tion can be significant For a uniformly distributed load, the deflection __ L,,+3/8
Cb L,, (14.33)
based on a true E or for I-joists is given by the following equation:
4 2 where Lb is the bearing length measured parallel to the grain, in.
li= 5wl + wl (14.29)
384EI K 14.4.2 Columns
where K = coefficient of shear deflection (lbf) and the other terms are Wood columns can have different configurations such as solid columns,
as defined for Eq. (14.28).
spaced columns, and built-up columns. They can also be subjected to dif-
It is also important to note that deflection under long-term loading
ferent load applications including concentric, eccentric loads, and side loads.
may be as much as approximately double that computed by the elastic SOLID COLUMNS WITH CONCENTRIC LoADS
theory, and associated creep factors are given in the NDS to account for
The most common columns design situation is a solid column support-
this long-term deflection.
ing a concentric end load. For this configuration the design is based on
SHEAR p
Shear stress parallel to grain (horizontal shear) in wood beams is given by !. =A" (14.34)
While the determination of the applied stress that the column must The NDS provides design guidelines for the design of spaced col-
support is relatively straightforward, the determination of the allow- umns and built-up columns in Chapter 15, Special Loading Conditions.
able compression parallel to grain stress is more complicated. Until the
promulgation of the 1991 NDS, wood columns were designed based on SIDI! LoADS AND ECCl!NTJUCITll!S
a methodology that required classifying the member as a short, inter- Timber columns are frequently subjected to side loads and eccentric
mediate, or long column. This required a trial-and-error solution when loads. Chapter 15, Special Loading Conditions, of the NDS provides
it was not obvious which classification applied for a specific design situ- design guidelines for these conditions.
ation, and many designers considered it to be a cumbersome procedure.
Based on extensive research conducted at the USDA Forest Products 14.4.3 T•nslon MllmlMlrs
Laboratory and at other research institutions, the 1991 NDS was revised Tension members shall be designed to resist both parallel and perpen-
to reflect the use of a single column design formula regardless of the dicular to grain stresses. For parallel to grain forces,
length to depth (11 d) ratio previously used to classify columns as short,
intermediate, or long. This has been carried forward in all subsequent ~ p '
Jt =-~F, (14.38)
codes and design standards such as the NDS. This is represented by A
applying the column stability factor, CP, as shown in Eq. (14.35):
where
2
P =applied concentric load
l+pdl [l+pdll pdl A =net section area
Fi is the adjusted tension parallel to grain design stress
- ~·
cr~- ~
~· --,-
~· (14.35)
Designs that induce tension perpendicular to grain stresses shall be
avoided whenever possible, and there are no published design stresses
for tension perpendicular to grain in the NDS or the building codes.
where When these stresses cannot be avoided, mechanical reinforcement suf-
F; = tabulated compression parallel to grain design value adjusted ficient to resist all such forces shall be considered.
for all service conditions such as moisture, temperature,
load duration, etc. but not cp 14.4.4 Bum Columns
F dl =critical buckling design value Members subjected to a combination of bending and axial tension shall be
c = 0.8 for sawn lumber, 0.85 for round timber poles and piles, proportioned such that
and 0.9 fur g1ulam timber and structural composite lumber
The critical buckling design value is determined by the Euler column ft + f~ ~1.0 and fb -.f ~1.0 (14.39)
formula: 11t, 11t, 11t,
where
0.822E:m..
pdl (14.36) F& =the rekrence bending design value multiplied by all applicable
(~J adjustment factors except CL
F &° = the n:ferenc.e bending design value multiplied by all applicable
where adjustment factors except C,,
Eu,;,. = E[l-1.645 COVE](l.03)/1.66 minimum allowable modulus Members subjected to a combination of bending about one or both
of elasticity at the 5th percentile adjusted for applicable principal aus and axial compression shall be proportioned in accordance
service conditions with the provisions of the NDS.
COVE= 0.25 for visually graded lumber and round timber poles and
14.4.5 Tru11•
piles, COVE= 0.15 for machine-evaluated lumber (MEL),
and COVE= 0.10 for glulam timber and structural com- While the detailed design of wood trusses is beyond the scope of
posite lumber this handbook, the following sections discuss some general design
d =least unbraced dimension of column considerations.
L, =effective column length based on unbraced length and end
'IYPl!S OF WOOD 'l'J.USSBS
fixity conditions
L,ld shall not exceed 50 except that during construction it shall not The basic types of timber trusses may be loosely classified into two
exceed 75. categories, lightweight lumber trusses and heavy timber trusses. Llght-
Thus, the allowable unit stress¥, is determined as weight lumber trusses are used extensively in residential building
construction with pitched trusses for roofs and parallel chord trusses
(14.37) for floors. Llghtweight lumber trusses using truss plates to connect the
lumber members are typically designed by the manufacture/supplier.
where P:is the tabulated compression parallel to grain design value These trusses fabricated with truss-plate connectors are frequently
multiplied by all applicable adjustment factors. spaced 2 ft on center with structural wood panels spanning between
For columns supported throughout their length to prevent lateral the trusses. However, they can also be used at wider spacing in light
displacement, CP = 1.0. commercial building applications. The Truss Plate Institute and the
The NDS also provides design guidelines for tapered colwnns. Structural Building Components Association provide extensive design
information for these types of trusses.
SPACED COLUMNS AND BurLT-UP Cou.JMNS
Heavy timber trusses are typically used in nonresidential construc-
Spaced columns are formed of two or more timbers separated by spacer tion and can span 200 ft or greater. Glulam is often used since it may
blocks and connected to end blocks by timber connectors. Built-up col- be curved to any shape, varied in cross section, and fabricated to any
umns have lumber nailed or bolted together. The following provisions practical shipping length. Heavy timber trusses are usually designed
apply to nailed or bohed built-up columns with 2 to 5 laminations in which using steel plates with a variety of connectors such as lag screws, bolts,
(a) each lamination baa a rectangular cross section and is at least and timber rivets to interconnect the chords and web members. Recent
1~ in. thick. t <: 1~ in. examples of long span timber trusses are so-called hybrid trusses
(b) all laminations have the same depth (face width), d. using glulam compression chords and steel tension cables. An example
( c) faces of adjacent laminations are in contact. of this is the 100-m-span hybrid truss used for one of the venues at the
( d) all laminations are full column length. 2010 Olympics in Vancouver, Canada, as shown in Fig. 14.13.
TIMBER$TRUCTURE$ 425
+~+~
+ +. . . (Not appllcable)
+ffi.+~
..
.. · +lB+
·. •.
Mod& lllm
+ID
·· +~
...
:.'
.
Mode Ill,
+
+
..
.
Mode IV
(a) (b)
Rgure 14.14 Y-idd moda fur detennining late!al load. daip valun.
426 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
two exceptions. The first, the impact load duration factor ( Cp = 2.0), PENBTRATION DEPTH FACTOR, Cd
is not applicable for connections. The second ~eption is for when the Similar to the geometry factor, the penetration depth factor adjusts the
capacity of a connection is controlled by the strength of a material other design value for fastener penetration less than that required for full
than wood, such as metal, concrete, or masonry; the allowable strength design values but greater than the required minimum. The method
of these materials shall not be adjusted for load duration because they for determining penetration depth factors for the different connection
do not exhibit wood's load duration behavior. types is described in the NDS.
WBT SBRVJCB FACTOR, CM END GP.AIN FACTOR, Ctg
The moisture content in the wood is considered at the time of fabrica- End grain factors simply account for fastener penetration into end grain,
tion of the connection and when in service. Dry is uaed to describe and factors for the different connection types are described in the NDS.
sawn lumber elements with moisture content of 19 percent or less or
Toe-NAIL FACTOR, C1n
16 percent for glulam, SCI., and I-joist. Most covered structures will
remain continuoualy dry for the service life. Nominal design values are The design value for withdrawal loading at a toenail should not exceed
based on wood being dry and kept dry. If these conditions are not met, two-thirds of the side-grain withdrawal value. The design value for a
the wet service factor moat be applied. toenail subjected to a lateral load should not exceed five-sixths of that
permitted for a nail driven in side grain and laterally loaded. All adjust-
TBMPEllATUllE FACTOR, C1 ment factors which apply to lateral and withdrawal values for side grain
The temperature factor can usually be set equal to 1, but for uncommon also apply to toenails, except the wet service factor CM does not apply
applications where connections will experience suatained exposure to for toenails loaded in withdrawal.
elevated temperatures, the nominal design values are to be multiplied by 14.5.3 Types of Mech•nlail i=.steners •nd
the appropriate temperature factors as given in Table 14.1. Connecton
GllOUP ACTION FACTOR, C1 While it is beyond the scope of this handbook to provide definitive
design information for all possible mechanical fasteners used in wood
Tests have shown that when more than two fasteners are placed in a row, construction, the following sections describe some of the more com-
the distribution of force to the fasteners in the row is not uniform. The mon fasteners.
behavior of a group of fasteners in a joint is as given in the NDS.
Therefore, it is necessary in the design of a joint with more than two NAILS
fasteners in a row to include a group action factor c,. This factor is The co=on wire nail is the most frequently used fastener and gener-
applied only to lag screws and bolts with a D S 1 in. and split-ring and ally used when loads are light. Many types of nails, however, have been
shear-plate connectors. The C1 for dowel type fasteners with D < "4 in. developed such as those with deformed shanks and coated surfaces.
is 1.0. The development of pneumatic, electric, and mechanical nail guns has
If the fasteners are of same type and size, the allowable load is deter- greatly increased the speed at which driven fasteners (nails and staples)
mined as can be installed, but generally, these nails are smaller in diameter and
shorter in length than the standard penny nails.
(14.40) ASTMF 1667 Standard Specification for Driven Fasteners: Nails,
Spikes, and Staples is an excellent reference and provides basic informa-
where tion on most nails, spikes, and staples. Due to the wide range of nails
P, =allowable load on row of fasteners available, a proper specification should include the pennyweight, diam-
P, =sum of values for individual fasteners in row eter, and length of the nail. For example, a lOd common nail should be
P = allowable load for single fastener specified as: lOd, 0.148-in. diameter, 3-in. length.
n1= number of fasteners in row The ultimate lateral load capacity of a nail or spike in single shear
C1 =group action factor (two members) will be dependent on several material and dimensional
C1 is selected based on the type of side members, the size of the mem- properties of the connection. These include the thicknesses of the two
bers, and the number of fasteners in a row from applicable tables in joined members, the cruahing strength of the wood, and the diameter
theNDS. and yield strength of the nail or spike.
The following are considered to be a row of fasteners: The yield model theory provides six possible failure modes (see
1. Two or more dowel type fasteners of the same diameter loaded in Fig. 14.14) for a two-member connection in sing!£ shear. The model
single or multiple shear and aligned with the direction of the load assumes that the bearing capacity is reached when either the wood crushes
2. Two or more split-ring or shear-plate units aligned with the direc- under the nail or spike or plastic hinges are formed in the nail or spike.
tion of the load Lateral design values have been determined using the yield model
3. Adjacent staggered rows of fasteners which are spaced apart less than equations and are published in tables in the NDS. These tables provide
one-quarter the spacing between the closest fasteners in adjacent rows values for box nails, common wire nails and sinker steel wire nails and
post frame ring shank nails. If a connection does not qualify under the
GEOMETRY FACTOR, Cii. geometry and material properties given in the NDS tables, then the
Reference design values for the different types of connections require yield model equations may be uaed to obtain a lateral design value Z.
that specific end, edge, and spacing distances be maintained. When The NDS tabular values assume the following conditions:
the distances are less than that required for a Cii. = 1.0 but not less than 1. Nails driven into wood without splitting
the minimum for Cii. = 0.5, the geometry factor must be applied. For 2. Seasoned wood which remains dry in service
dowel-type fasteners with D < "4 in., Cii. = 1.0. When D ~ "4 in. the NDS 3. Normal load duration
provides tables for the following geometry factor limitations: 4. A nail in single shear
(a) End distances 5. Full penetration
(b) Edge distances 6. Nail inserted in side grain
( c) Spacing between fasteners in a row 7. Normal temperature
( d) Spacing between rows 8. Wood or steel side plates
The above limitations are provided for both parallel and perpen- If the conditions assumed in the NDS tables are not satisfied in a
dicular to grain load directions. The smallest factor fur any fastener in a joint under consideration, then adjustments need to be made for each
group is applied to all fasteners in that group. noncompliant condition.
TIMBER STRUCTURES 427
With re3pect to the requirement to avoid splitting, it has often been a hammer. Lead holes are not required for wood with a specific gravity
the practice in the past to let the placement of nails be determined on of s 0.5.
the job. However, in present-day design, this may not be satisfactory. Screws arc designated by a gauge number which represents the
While the NDS does not provide guidance on the placement of nails in diameter of the shank and their overall length. For example, a No. 9
wood, there arc industry recommendations such as those given in the wood screw would have a shank diameter of 0.177 in. and a total length
Wood Handbook as shown below: of 2.00 in. It is adequate for design purposes to assume that two-thirds
=
End distance 15d of the screw length is threaded. Lubricating the surface of a screw with
Edge distance = lOd wu or soap will facilitate insertion and will have little effect on the
Lateral design values Z for nails in double shear (three-member allowable load.
joints) in wood-to-wood connections arc based on four possible failure The NDS provides tables for lateral and withdrawal load values.
modes (see Fig. 14.14). Or the design value for each shear plane can be The design value when more than one wood screw is used is equal to
determined and the lesser of the two values doubled. the sum of the design values permitted for each screw. If possible, the
The withdrawal resistance of nail or spike shanks is greatly affected structural design should avoid using wood screws in withdrawal from
by such factors as the type of nail point, type of shank, surface coat- end grain. Design values for lateral resistance, when the wood screw is
ings, length of time nail remains in the wood, and changes in moisture inserted into the end grain and the screw is laterally loaded, should be
content of the wood. The equation used by the NDS to obtain allowable reduced to two-thirds of the tabular values.
design values for smooth shank nails or spikes is The ultimate lateral load capacity of a wood screw in single shear
(two members) is dependent on several material and dimensional
(14,41) properties of the connection. These include the thickness of the two
where P = allowable design value per inch of penetration in member joined members, the crushing strength of the wood, and the diameter
and yield strength of the wood screw. If the connection does not qualify
holding point of nail
G =specific gravity of wood under the geometry and materials properties given in the NDS tables,
the yield model equations may be used to obtain a lateral design value.
D =diameter of nail, in.
The NDS equation provides allowable values for normal duration of The design value when more than one wood screw is used is equal to the
sum of the design values permitted for each screw.
load which are somewhat less than one-sixth the ultimate value for
short-term loading. Tables for withdrawal values per inch of penetration NDS tabular values tables arc based on the following conditions of use:
1. Seasoned wood which remains dry in service
of the nail are published in the NDS. Common wire nails or spikes are
not to be loaded in withdrawal from the end grain of wood. 2. Normal load duration
3. A screw in single shear
The NDS table values are based on the following conditions of use:
1. Nails driven into wood without splitting 4. Full penetration
5. Screw inserted in side grain
2. Seasoned wood which remains dry or unseasoned wood which
remains wet 6. Normal temperature
For lateral resistance, the penetration of the screw into the main mem-
3. Normal load duration
4. Nails driven into the side grain ber should be 10 times the shank diameter. Ifthe penetration is less than
lOD but not less than 6D, the design value should be reduced in propor-
5. Normal temperature
If the conditions assumed in the NDS tables are not satisfied in a joint tion to its reduced penetration using the equation C0 = pllOD ~ 1.0. The
minimum penetration should not be less than six shank diameters. If
under consideration, then adjustments need to be made accordingly.
the use conditions assumed in the NDS tables are not satisfied in a joint
STAPLBS
under consideration, then appropriate adjustments need to be made.
Withdrawal tests on wood screws have shown that the ultimate
Staples may be used as a substitute for nails. Staples arc usually U-shaped load for a screw inserted into the side grain of seasoned wood may be
wire fasteners with two same-size pointed or pointless legs connected expressed by the equation
by a common crown. They are designed to be driven by manual hand
strike, pneumatic, electric, or spring tools and to hold two or more P=l5,700G2DL (14.42)
pieces together.
If hammer-driven into wood or wood-base materials, these staples where P =maximum withdrawal load, lb
have to be relativd.y stout to prevent buckling during driving. If tool- G =specific gravity of wood
driven, the staples can be relatively slender since they are driven at a D =shank diameter of screw, in.
rapid rate while laterally supported by the tool's guide body. Tool-driven L =length of penetration of threaded part of screw, in.
staples arc usually provided with flats along their legs to facilitate tight The equation used to obtain the allowable design values given in the
collating into strips; they are often coated with polymers in order to NDSis
decrease the staple's driving resistance.
P'=2580G 2D (14.43)
ESR 1539 gives the sizes of collated and cohered heavy-wire steel
staples that arc typically available. While the NDS does not provide where P' is the allowable design value per inch of penetration of
values for staples, allowable loads for staples can be reasonably taken threaded part of screw and G and D arc as previously. The NDS equa-
to be equal to twice the value for a nail with a shank diameter equal to tion provides allowable values for normal duration of load which are
that of one leg of the staple. In addition, ESR 1539 and the IBC provide somewhat less than one-sixth of that given by the base equation which
design tables for staples. is for short-term ultimate loading.
The NDS gives the design values in withdrawal loading for wood
Woon SCIU!WS screws and the table is for the following conditions of use:
Screws arc another commonly used fastener in structural joints of 1. Seasoned wood which remains dry in service
wood. They are more satisfactory than nails under vibratory or with- 2. Normal load duration
drawal loads since they have less tendency to work loose. The general 3. Screw turned into side grain
procedure for the design of joints using wood screws (both cut thread 4. Normal temperature
and rolled thread) is very similar to that used for nails. There are some If the above conditions are not satisfied in a joint under consideration,
notable differences in construction practices. When required, lead then adjustments need to be made.
holes arc to be drilled in accordance with the provisions of the NDS, It is noted that a new generation of fully threaded screws is available
and screws arc to be inserted by turning and are not to be driven with to designers. These fully threaded screws are being used extensively in
42J CHAPTER FOURTEEN
the conneaion of CLT joints but are applicable to many other products
such u SCL and glulam. Rdermce de.rip va1ues for these proprietary
procluru are provided m ESR reporu.
I.AG Scuws
Lag saews (lq bolts) are used when bolu are unde.rirable, when the
member is too thick. or when one face of the .member h not acceulble
for the iDstallation of washers and nuts. Lag screws also can be used m
<:Olljunctlon with 8Jlllt rings and shear plates. They dlo am be etpedally
eft'ective when withdrawal loads of l1111e magnitude are antic:ipWld.
The me of a lag screw is duignated by ib mank diameter D, and ib
nominal length L. Typical data on lag screw sizes and dimension' are
provided In Appendix L of the NDS.
Lag SC.n!WS are turned.into pn:boredholes. The recommended diameter
of 1he hole u dependmt on the demity of the wood and 1he diameter of
the WDlc of the lag screw. 'Ihe total length of the hole drliled ahould be
equal to at least the lellgth of the threaded portion of lag screw. The
NDS gives the recommended values for both diameter and the length of
hole. The threaded portion of the screw ii to be turned into ibi lead hole
and not driven mby a hammer. Soap or other lubricant 18 recommended
to fadlltue insertion and to premrt damage to the lag sc.rew.
Lamal design "f'aluet obtained wing the yield model eq,u.ations are
presented in the NDS for wood-to-wood joint.'I and for wood-to-lteel
plate jolntll. Design Vllluea are given m both table.t for loading applied
parallel to grain (Zn) and perpendicular to grain (Z.J. For other angles
of load.Ing. the allcnftble load Jllllf be compute<l &om Vlllues parallel
and pexpendicular to the grain by wing the Hankinson formula given
in Section 3.1. If the metal side plate.t are thicker than % in., then the
allowable value fur a lag screw mould be reduced in proportion to the
lesser penemitlon of the 1tg •crew. No lnaeue is allowed for side plates
thinner than " in.
Lateral loading design V111ues for lag screm are based on a penetra-
tion of lag 'crew (not Including 1.e.ngth of~ tip) into the llWD.
member of eight times the shank diameter of the lq saew, p =8D. The
minimum lag S<RW penetration for a. reduced de.Ugn Vlllue is four times
the diameter of the lag screw shank; when 4D S p S 8D, the design value
should be multiplied by C.t> where c, =p/8D S 1.0.
When the loads act perpendlcular to the grain and the lag sc.rew is
inserted paralld to the fibers (i.e., in the end grain of the member).
design values for lateral resistance should be multiplied. by the end-grain Rgin14.16 Ten.e!oupllcewdngboltt.
factor Cez =0.67.
If a connection does not qualify under the geometry and materlw Holes ahall be a.ccurately aligned in both main and side members and
properties given in the NDS tables. then the yield model equations may not be fordbly driven.
be med. to obtain a. lateral design "f'alue Z. These equatiom will provide The NDS tabulates reference de~lgn value~ for bolts loaded in both
a dea!gn va1ue of about one-filth the ultimate capacity of 1he lag acrew. single shear and double shear with side members of wood or steel baled
The NDS tables are baaed on the following conditions of use: on the yield model eq,ualiona. The uble1 are baled on 1he thickneu of
1. Seasoned. wood which remains dry in service Che llWD. .member, the thickness of the side member, the diameter of
2. Normal load duration Che bolt. and the apeclfk gravity of the wood. The minimum thiclme44
3. One lag screw, in alngle shear of wood side member is IV.. in. Steel side members are usumed to be
4. Lag acrew latually loaded parallel or perpendicular to grain ~-in.-thick ASTM A36 steel plm. The thicknes.11 of the main memben
If the.e usumed conditions are not satlsfted. in a joint under conslder- is designated as t,.. and 1he side membm are designated as t,,
al:ion, then adjumnents nud to be made accordingly. z 11 is the reference design value fur a single bolt with all wood mem-
For a detailed. discussion of the design of lag saeWJ, Che reader is bm loaded parallel to grain (lb). ztJ. ls the reference design "f'alue for
referred to AWC Dtrign Aid No. l, Appll"'11Wn ofTethnlcaJ :&port 12far a lingle bolt for an all wood connection with the main member loaded
ug Scnw Connecti(1M. parallel. to the grain and side members loaded perpendicular to the
llWD. grain (lb). ~Is the reference design va1ue for a single bolt in an
BOLTS all wood connection with the main member loaded perpendicular to
Bolts are Che moat common fastener used In heavy timber coastruction. the grain and nde members loaded parallel to the grain (lb). Zi1 is the
Example. Include heavy timber trusses and in high load seismic tendon reference de1ign Vlllue for a single boh for a wood/steel connection boll
ties u shown in Figs. 14.15 and 14.16. with Che wood member loaded parallel to grain, and Z.1. is the reference
The shear-load capacity of a boh depends upon the ral:io of the de~lgn vdue for a single bolt for a wood/metal connection with the
length I of bolt In the main member, ib dJameter D, and the sped1lc wood member loaded perpendicular to grain (lb).
gravity of the wood. The NDS tabulate~ refe.ren.ce design values for For greater than three-member conned.ions, each shear plane is con-
bolts with diameters of ?i in., % in., " in., 1' in., and 1 in. Diameters aldered .. an isolated connection and the least value of an shear plane
of > 1 in. are not permitted by 1he NDS since they can initiate high capacities detum.!ned. The total load capadty Is the number of the CO.II·
tendon perpendicular to grain rue11es on the bolt hole that can Induce netted shear planes timel the determined least load <:aJ*ity.
aplitting of the wood. Bolts are !mtalled In prebored holes a minbuum. Due tD the uneven dirtribuilon of the loads on bolu in a row, when
of 1/32 in. to a ma:s:imum of 1/16 in. larp than the bolt diameter. .multiple bo!U are iued, the group action factor dllciwed In the section
TIMBER$TRUCTURE$ 42'
Group Action Factor. c is umi to miuce the loads from the ND! of the
1
individual load capacities.
MlnJmum spacing and edge and end dlatancu are provided In the
NDS. The reader is referred to the aectlon Geometry Factor, CD for a
di.acumen of these requirements end the application of the geometry
factor when thete are not met.
SPi.rr RING$ AND SelWI. Pl.l.T&$
Spilt rings and shear plases can be used in heavily loaded heavy timber
and glulam construction since they are IlWld at higher loads than bolt.t.
Both have a 10.11g history of succusful use but are being used les,, fre-
quently than in the put due to the mach!Dlng required.
Shear plate. are either 2,. In. or 4 in. In diameter and can be uaed for
wood-to-wood connections or to connect wood to dissimilar Jll.Uerial1
such u concrete. Shear plates require that a groove be cut and a hole be
drilled by uaiD.g a special tool u ahown in Fig. 14.17. The sheu plate
does not provide a wedge fit; th114, a shear-plate joint w1D. dlow greater
slip than a split-ring joint and is Im likely to c:auM! a wood member to
iplit a a result of:shrinkage due to seasoning of the wood in senice. The
bolt or lag•crew In a ahear-plate join.t serve• a dual function of clamping
1he joint together and assl.stlng in ttansfuring the load.
the depth of penetration into the main wood member. Split rinp and
shear plates can also be used .In the end gra1n of the wood, and Che NDS
provides det111ls for such appllcattons.
Rows of split rings or shear plates will exhibit smdler load capacity
than the sum of Che single-COI111ector load capacities, and the group
action miuctJon factor (see the section Group Action Factor, C1) for
load ~es of rows as previously disC\Jase<1 i& 'l'Plic@le.
Tuou. RlwTS
Timber rivets have long been uaed in Canada but are relatively new to
U.S. de&gnen. Provisions fur the design of connections using timber
riveU were fim introduced into the 1997 NDS. Timber rivets~ typi-
cally Wied to replace lag Sa\!WS or bolts for glulam connections and are
frequently referred to as glulam riveb. Timber rlvea are hot-dipped
galYlllliud with a filed..Qiank cross section and &ed head dimension
ancl wry only in length with the lengths being 1Y.t in., 2¥.t in., and 3¥.t In.
One ofdie adwntages oftimber rivets versus bahs is that for a connec-
tion with a wood main member and two rteel llde plate.9, the hole.. drilled
through the sb:el plates and the main glulam membe.rs do not need to be
drllled to provide exact dlgnment. The rtms are iNtalled by a hammer
wi1h pneumatic hammel"I often used. The nail must have a minimum
ultimate tem:ile strength of 145,000 psi. The timber rivet is designed to
be driven through a circular hole in the steel &Ide plates until the conical
heads are flmily seated but not clrim1 flush u Shown in Fig. 14.19.
Split rings are either 2Y.. or 4 Jn. Jn diameter and are uaed fur wood-
to-wood joints. Split rings require that a groove be cut by & 1peclal tool
in both fata of the matms piec:a of wood u shown in FiB. 14.18. At
the same time the groove ii cul. a hole is bored for the bolt. M the name
Jmplia, a 1plit ring has a spilt which. dlows it to apand u it i• placed
in the groove, Chua allowing it to fl.t t1ght1y in the groove. The.refore,
very little slip will take place u load is applied.. Because of the extra
effort needed to inmll split rings properly and the potential shrinkage
problems, .most deaignen prefer to uae shear plates.
The bolt in a split-ring joint sel"Yl:S merely to clamp the two ple<:a of
wood together, thereby keeping the split ring in place. The bolt does not
usin in the transfer of load u do the boltt in a shear-plate joint.
Allowable loads for split-ring and shear-plate ccnnec:ton are presented
.In the NDS based on the number of faces of Che members with connec-
tors on the same bolt ancl four species groupings. The tabulated allowable
loads are far one split ring or one shear plate on a bolt in single shear. The
NDS also provide.. minimum edge, end, and lpUing distances, dlstancet
being measurecl from the center of split ring or shear plate.
Split rlnp and shear plab:s wi also be u.ed with lag screws. and the
NDS provides penetral.ion depth facton for the four species groups and Figure 14.1SI Timber rtveu 1ISed In tnMe chord wllllection.
GO CHAPTER FOURTEEN
The maximum penetration pennitt~ for any rivet is 70 percent of the Blllanced Deformrwms It is not comideRd good practice to inter-
thirlneas of the member holding the point of the rivet. except when the mix sius or type• of connecton in a joint because the difference in slip-
rivet .18 driven from oppoalte face• of the wood member, then the polnt page (atifl'nea) of eac:h can ca!lle an overload on the atiffeat connectore
should not ova:lap. The steel side plate must be at least % In. thick and before the less stiff co.11necton receive 8ignlficant load.
le• dian ~ in. thlc;lc and conform to ASTM A36 spedfkations. Timber Tltltknus of Lumber Most structural lumber .Is 1Y.. In. or more in
rivet ODI111ectiom can have capacities u high as 100,000 lb and greater.
diic;lcne~; die.refure, any co.nnector or Castene.r could be used. However,
They are evaluated for both wood capacity and rivet capacity. Minimum. nails, staples, and saews ~I~ C(lllllllonly use<! in lumber greater than
end and edge distances are specl1led, and a fabrication sequence Is also 1~ in. thick. For heavy timber comlruction. lag bolb, bolts, split rings,
specified in the NDS. End and edge dl.s1ances are a fUnction of the mun- ehear plates, and q>eclal-purpoae Umber c.onnectora Nc:h u beam hang-
ber of rivet rows. To n:duce spliUing, it ii ne«11ary to drive the perim-
eter rivets tint and then the iDfie1d timber rivets. In addition, the rivet en and post caps are recommended.
15 to be placed with its major aoss-sectlo!W. dimension aligned parallel l)pe ofLead Vibratory loads or those which cause a m:e. reve.nal
to the wood grain. De&gn values for pardlel. perpendicular, and at an may influence the choice of type of futener or connector. For aample.
angle of load to grain can be obWned from the NDS. lcrewJ have le11 tendency than nails to work loose under vibratory
loadt.
MBrAL PLATB CoMNBCTOll.S
Size And l)pe It is generally better to we the 1ame me and type
One type of gusset plate fur wood trusses is made ofsheet md of20, 18, of futener or connector throughout a etructural sywtem. In order to
or 16 gauge. Plates may be nailed, or, more often. they have teeth pundi~ malD.taln unlfo.rm magnitudes of slippage at all joints per unit of force.
out ofand perpendicular to the sheet. The teeth are pressed into the wood Maintaining a angle size and type will hdp reduce overall cost and
either by roll p~ or by a hydraulic prae. The angle of the grain 15 not reduce the chance of inltallation error.
relevant to the load capacity. These are typkailyproprietaryproduca, and
additional design information is available from die Truss Plate Institute. Shrinhge and Swelling Wood shrinb as it dries and swells when
Tooth~ thin-gauge meet-metal plates are used very extenlively in it gains moisture.. Minimal lhrinbge or swelling tllkes place in wood
the conrtruciion ofllghtweight wood truma u mown in Fig. 14.20. paralld. to grain (generally much less than 1 perce.nt).
However, in the perpendicular to grain dllect.lon, the magnitude
of ahrinkage or swelling will be many times that of parallel to grain.
Therefore, in the daign of joints it is necessary that proper amsider-
atJon be given to movement. caused by ahrlnkage and aweJllng of wood
membm when detailing the connections.
Tennon Perpendicul"1' w Gnzin The ultimate strength of wood In
tmsion perpendicular to grain is atremely low, and no de«ign values
are provided. Thenfon:, if possible. it is desirable to avoid loading wood
.In tendon perpendicular to grain. Conditione that are conducive to
creating tendon perpe.adicular to grain stressea are notching at the e.ad
~ofthe member. hanging loads from the member below the neu-
tral am, and restraint caused by the connector deWI. Ifthe.te cxmditiom
cannot be avoided, then careful consideration must be given to the type
and placement of futene.rs and C01111ector1.
14.fJ l..A1HALl.OAl>RE$1$TAN(E
Build.mg& are subjected to a variety of loads during their lifetime. All
I~ remted by the struc;ture mwt be transfm'ed into the foundation.
Gravitltional loads (rooflive load, mow load. dead. load) react vertically
on the structure and are typically tranaferred to the foundation Chrough
load-bearing walls. Wind and earthquakes cause horizontal for«S on
Figure 14.20 Metal pllW!-cmnected wood. tnm.
die ruuctures. dius leading to latmll low. Latual loads are transferred
to the foundation through lamal force-resisting tyltems. For light-
One or more of the.te types of structural (;O.!Jlponenti are used in up frame construction, the gravitatio!W. furce1 are typically misted by
to 90 perCf:llt of all residential rtructures, depending on geographical .nominal dime.aslon lumber In the form of wall studa, and the lateral
locale. They are allo widely used in nomuldeDt!al commercial and loads are commonly resisted by wood struct\11'a1 panel-Sheathed Sheu
lnst.ltutlonal buildings. walls and diaphragm.a.
Due to their relative light weight and high dqree of duc:Ulity; wood-
PIUUINGINEEJU!D CONNECTORS framed sttucture11 perform weD. when subjected to lateral design forcea
Many type.I ofpreaiglneered Umber connectora are commercially avail- from high wind and •eismlc evenu. Wind forcea act on the ddes of
able. These Include joist and purlln hanger•, beam seat•, column caps. die building and on sloped roo&.. Seismic forces n:sult &om ground
map ties, &uning anc:hor•, seismic and hurricane anchors, mud sills. movement causing the structural mus to move back and forth in the
hold-downs, column hues, and more. They can be wed in the de1ign of horizontal direction.
virtually any wood connection syitem ranging from hangers for lumber Shear walls and diaphragms are designed to transfer in-plane
and I-joists to aped.alty connectora for •olid wood membe.rs of nominal and out-of-plane forces. When using these two usemblie.1 to resist
thit:kness of 4 ln. or more md with glulam membm and SCI. product.. lateral design forces of buildings, the muc:tural synem i1 sometimes
Since these are proprietary, the designer ii referred to the numerous referred to as a "box sywte.m:' The ahear walls provide reactJona
ICC-ESR reports fur de1lgn information for these products. for the roof and floor diaphragms and transmit the forces Into the
foundation.
JomrDsnoN Actually, with o.rdinary good con.rtruction practice, any wood struc-
The design of a connection for a wood-framed ltluGture must take tural. panel-aheathed element in a bull.ding adds conalderahle atre.ngth
into coMldera.tlon several detlgn issue.t u hlghlighted. in the fuJlowing and ttltrne.. to die ruucture.. Thus, if the walls and roon are sheathed
sections. with panel• and~ adequ.atefy tied together and tied to the foundation.
TIMBER STRUCTURES 431
many of the n:quiremenb of a "box" structure are met. This fad llAllftJI
oplaint the ftlcceu of wood muctunl pand-aheathed buildingl n:si.lt- Assume a 20-ft mear wall that It 8 ft in height without openmgs.
illg load.I in hurricane, tornado, and earthquake C011ditions even when Assume a diaphragm lhear force of 6000 lb ii applied to the top of the
they have DOt been engtneued u dlaphngma or shear walla per ae. wall The writ shear to be mined is 6000/20 = 300 plf. /uNme WSP
14.6.1 Sll.
. .w.111 7/16-in. abnthing with 8d nail.I ii used. Using the shear wall capacity
A lheu wall II a wrtica1. cantllm:red dilpluqm that Is collltrUctl:d to
tablet in the SDPWS the capacity for wind loading is 67012 335 plf =
fur 6 in. on carter lpac.ing at the panel edges. For •eilmic the spacing
iubt btmJ 1hear loacb. Tb.it muctural aystem trumr. la1eral furca need.a to be reduced to 4 in. on c:enter with a capacity of 700/2 =350plf.
from the top ofthe wall 1o the bottom of the wall and eventually trans- In addition to the shear nailing requlmnentl, the deaigner must also
fer1 the 1*ral loads to the foundation. A aheu wall segment is ddined determine the hold-down capacity needed. In this cue T= C =YI! = 300
u a portion of the '1teu wall that run1 from the diaphragm above to x 8 = 2400 lb. Ludr· the dedeaion ofthe ehear wall should be c;hed:ed.
the diaphngm/foundalio.n below, al.lo known u "full-height 11egmena.• Shear wall deflec:tio.n ii important for checking drift limitatiom md
Shear wall aegmenu occur between building wan diacontlnuitie.I tuch in dmrmining whether the di.phragm mould be oomiden:d rigid or
u doors, windows, or comers in the shear wall flexible.
SBl!il. WAJ.L 0.BSIOM The SDPWS prondea the following three-part deflection equation:
The detailed dmp of diear walls is beyond the .wpe of this handbook.
but the following 1ectiom provide the overall guidelines for the design sw.s ,,,. Ma
~ =- + - -+- (14.44)
of shear walll. The AWC Spec.iol DW,,. Pnwisiarufar Wind and Seismic lfl BAb 10000. b
(SDPWS) provides the mo1t atenslve Information available fur the
de.tlgn of both shear wan. and diaphragms. The most common shear where
wall comlltt of wood 1tructural panela attached to lumber framing h = shear wall length, ft
members. Bllt other sheathing materials such u plywood dd1ng. par- A,, = total ve:rti.cal elongation of wall anchorage system (including
ticleboard sheathing. and ttructural fibreboard sheathing may be uaed. futener dip, device elongaiion, rod d.ongaiion, etc.) at the
Shear walls can fail due to either racking or sliding. Racking is pre- Induced unit 1hear In the shear wall. in.
B = modulw of eluticlty of end pom, psi
vented by the &..ten.en and hold-downt, and .tiding is prevented by the
anchor bolt. inl'o the fi>undation. The most common design situation A = area of end post aou 1ec:tlon. in.2
is racking. and the SDPWS providea nominal unit shear capacities to G• = appuait shear wall shear atlfi"ness from nail allp and panel
l'e!lbt racking fur wood-&amed wall& for both wlnd and sehmic. The
shear deformation, kips/in.
wind capacltlea are 40 percent hJsher than the aeiamic capacltie.I. The
It = diear wall height. ft
y =induced unit sheu. lblft
tabulated value• are nominal values and must be divided by 2 for ASD
~ = mDimum lhear w:all deBection ddamined by elamcanalym. in.
and multiplied by 0.80 for LRFD. In addition to the bue unit shear
capadtie.I for wood-baaed paneb, the SDPWS alao provides unit shear ~W.lla with Op.nlf191 For lhear walls with openingJ thi:R are
ClpWtiea val\let fur wood etJuctural panels applied over '6- 111d "-in. thn:e options nailable to the deligner, these being the 1egmented. per-
forated, and force trancfer arcund openingl methodl.
8YP"IUll -1lboard. 'lnd1t1oll.al ahear wall& only consider full-height ugmentl of wood
A la!y daign element of lhear walb is the aspect mm of the wall or
full-height wall 1egmenta. Ju ahown in Table 14.9 fur a blocked wood muctural panell as being effective In mllting shear fura:s. Therefore,
ltructW'al panel ahear wall. the upect ralio that defines a full-height teg- my .realistic wall line that containl openings will consl&t of one or
ment ii 3.5:1. For unblDclce.d ahear walla, the upect ratio is llmlWi to 2:1.
more aegmcn1:s of aheu walb. The traditional approach is called the
1egmented 1hear wall. whlc;h usumea the lhear ii c;uried by the full-
heigbl wall 1egmenb u previously defined. A dowmide to thil method
~Ille 14.t Matm11111 Sh.-W.11 AlpKt Rmlt1111 is that each full-helgbt segment must al.lo be detailed to resin overturn-
Shear wall~ type Mulmum hll•, ratio ing forcea, which n:quire1 hold-downs at each end of the full-height
aegmenta.
Wood ltrUc:tul'lll puu:ll, unbloc:klld 2: l
wood ltrUc:tul'lll pm.m, blocttd 3.5: l UAJUl.ll
p~ 'blocUcl 2:1
Jueume In Fig. 14.21 that a1 and" are 3 ft and Ii and a, are 4 ft. Aasume
Dllgoul ~ coimnlioul 2:1 that the wall height is 8 ft and that the total wall length is 26 ft and that
Gyplalll wallboud 2: l the shear force to be resisted II 4000 lb. Sinc;e all four ofthe wall segmentl
Portland cement pwttt 2: i meet the 3..5:1 upect ratio, the unit shear Is 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 = 4000/14 =
Sttuc:tural flbreboud 3.5: l 286 plf. However, a:inc;e segment. ii1 and ii4 are1- than the 2:1 upect.
ratio, the Aspect Ratio Pa.ctor ii applicable, and the nominal mear capac-
ity shall be multiplied by 1.25 - 0.125 hlb, = 0.92. From the shear wall
For wood structural panel ahear wall& with upect ratiol (hlbJ capacity table;, In the SDPWS for a WSP 7/16-in. sheathing with 8d
greater than 2:1, the nominal ahear capaclty shall be multiplied by the common nails at 6 In. on center, the capacity is 670 pi! Dividing by 2
Aspect Ratio F«ctor (WSP) = 1.25 - 0.125 hlb., where h is the shear wall and multiplying by 0.92 glva (980/2)0.92 = 308 plf, whkh Is >286 plf
height and is the minimum shear wall 1egment length.
ShewW.llnwttllaut Opml..1 Where individual full-height wall 1eg-
ment11 are designed u shear wULs wilhout openingl. the aspect rmo
limitatiOill ahall apply to each full-height wall segment. The following
llmitatiom shall apply:
a. Openinp ahall be permitted to occw: beyond the end& of a shear
will. The length ofIUCh openingl &hall not be included in the length of
the shear wall. D
b. Where out-of·plane offsetl occur, portiom ofthe wall on each tide
of the of&et shall be ~ed u 9Cpl1* shear wa& lines.
c;, Colleaon for diear transfer to individual full-height wall seg-
menb mall be provided. Figure 14.21 wood-framed War wall with opcalngl.
432 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Other than the traditional segmented approach, there are two meth- the force transfer around openings method or the traditional segmented
ods for designing a shear wall with openings. One method is to reinforce approach or to redefine the perforated wall to eliminate large openings.
the openings using strapping or framing and is referred to as the "force The force transfer around openings FTAO, (which is similar to the
transfer around openings" method. The other option is to place an empir- "pier method• in masonry design), often referred to as the pier method,
ically developed penalty on the shear wall by reducing the shear wall treats the entire wall as one monolithic unit, hence reducing the number
capacity. The concept of providing an empirically developed penalty is of hold-downs. This method requires the shear forces to be transferred
the basis for the •perforated shear wall" approach. Based on a significant around the openings using the sheathing above and below openings
amount of monotonic and cyclic testing in both the United States and and may require additional metal strapping or blocking to supplement
Japan, an empirically developed penalty was developed that accounts the strength of the sheathing. The SDPWS states that the design for
for maximum wall opening size and percent wall sheathing The perfo- force transfer around openings shall be based on a rational analysis
rated shear wall method was first developed in Japan, and a modified but does not provide specific guidelines for what constitutes a rational
version was adopted into the SDPWS. The shear capacity adjustment analysis.
factor is applied as a •reduction factor" as given in Table 14.10, which is Historically, a number of rational analysis methods have been used, the
Table 4.3.3.5 in SDPWS. most co=on being the Drag Strut, Cantilever Beam, Coupled Beam &
Diekmann methods. The 1997 SEAOC Bluebook credits Ed Diekmann,
S.B., with developing his approach circa 1982. It was first published in the
T•bi. 14.10 ShHr Rullltllnce Adju1tm•nt Futar, c. McGf'aw-Hill Handbook of Wood Design and Construction.
Maximum opening height ratio" and helght In 2011, APA published Report M410, Evaluation of Force Transfer
around Openinp-Experimental and Analytic Studies. This was a joint
Wall height (h) h/3 h12 2h13 Sh16 h
project of APA, the USDA Forest Product Lab, and the University of
1
8 -0" 2'-8"" 4'-011
5'-411 1
6 -8 11
8'-0" British Columbia. The primary focus of this study was to conduct
10'-011 3'-4" 5'-0" 6'-811 31411 10•-o• testing to verify the accuracy of the above noted four rational analysis
methods. The researchers concluded that the Diekmann method most
Percent
accurately predicted the performance of the test walls. In addition to the
full-height
sheathing'> Shear capacity adjustment factor APA report, another excellent reference on FTAO is the Design of Wood
Structures by Breyer et al.
10% l.00 0.69 0.53 0.43 0.36 Regardless of the rational analysis used, the SDPWS applies the fol-
20% 1.00 0.71 0.56 0.45 0.38 lowing limitations:
30% 1.00 0.74 0.59 0.49 0.42 1. The length of each wall pier shall not be less than 2 ft.
40% LOO 0.77 0.63 0.53 D.45 2. A full-height wall segment shall be located at each end of a force-
50% LOO 0.8 0.67 0.57 0.50 transfer shear wall.
60% 1.00 0.83 0.71 0.63 0.56 3. Where out-of-plane offsets occur, portions ofthe wall on each side
70% LOO 0.87 0.77 0.69 0.63 of the offset shall be considered as separate force-transfer shear walls.
80% LOO 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 4. Collectors for shear transfer shall be provided through the full
90% LOO 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 length of the force-transfer shear wall.
100% 1.00 1.00 LOO 1.00 1.00 The SDPWS aspect ratio limitations shall apply to the overall shear
wall including openings and to each wall pier at the sides of openings.
The height of a wall pier with an opening on one side shall be defined
The aspect ratio limitations previously discussed shall apply to perfo- as the clear height of the pier at the side of the opening. The height of a
rated shear wall segments within a perforated shear wall line. Portions wall pier with an opening on each side shall be defined as the larger of
of walls with aspect ratios exceeding 3.5:1 shall not be considered in the the clear heights of the pier at the sides of the openings. The length of a
sum of shear wall segments. In the design of perforated shear walls to wall pier shall be defined as the sheathed length of the pier. Wall piers
resist seismic forces, the nominal shear capacity of the perforated shear with aspect ratios exceeding 3.5:1 shall not be considered as portions of
wall shall be multiplied by 2b/h when the aspect ratio ofthe narrowest force-transfer shear walls.
perforated shear wall segment included in the sum of shear wall seg- In summary, two of the main advantages of the FTAO method are
ment lengths, T.Lv is greater than 2: 1 but does not exceed 3.5: 1. that it will reduce the number of hold-downs required for a wall line and
that it allows the designer to use narrower piers since the aspect ratio
l!IA.MPLE
limitations in the building code apply to the pier as opposed to the full-
Referring back to Fig. 14.21, assume the height of the man door is 6 ft 8 in. height segments. The disadvantage of this method is that it can require a
and the height of the window opening are 2 ft 8 in. Assume the shear large amount of detailed calculations, especially if the wall becomes very
load to be resisted is 4000 lb is due to wind. The unit shear is 4000/14 = complicated. It also requires special field detailing, extra blocking, extra
286 plf. The percentage of full-height sheathing is 14/26 or 54 percent. nailing, and/or additional straps to achieve the field detailing.
The maximum ratio height opening is 5 h/6. Interpolating from
Table 14.10, the shear capacity adjustment factor is 0.60. 14.6.2 Dlllph111gm1
Referring to the wind load shear wall capacity tables in the SDPWS Wood-framed panel diaphragms are used extensively for roofs and
for a WSP 7/16-in. sheathing with 8d common nails at 4 in. on center floors in both new construction and rehabilitation of older buildings.
the capacity is 980 plf. Dividing by 2 and multiplying by 0.60 gives A complete diaphragm analysis includes analyzing chord forces,
(980/2)0.60 = 294 plf, which is >286 plf. connections, and tie-downs. A diaphragm acts in a manner analogous
Therefore, the penalty for using the perforated shear wall method vs. to a deep beam where the panels act as a "web" resisting shear while the
the segmented method is that the nail spacing must be reduced to 4 in. diaphragm edge members perform the function of "flanges• resisting
on center vs. 6 in. on center. However, only 2 hold-downs are required bending stresses such as shown in Fig. 14.22.
vs. 8 for the segmented approach. These edge members are co=only called chords in diaphragm
In summary the main advantage of the perforated shear wall design. Chords in a diaphragm carry all •flange" stresses acting in
approach is that it reduces the number of hold-downs, is simple to simple tension and compression rather than sharing these stresses sig-
apply, and can lead to very minor penalties for small openings. The nificantly with the web. As in any beam, consideration must be given to
disadvantage of this system is that it can lead to very large penalties for bearing stiffeners, continuity of webs and chords, and web buckling that
large opening sizes, which essentially forces the designer to use either is normally resisted by framing members.
TIMBER$TRUCTURE$ 431
The fi:m:« acting on a fle:a:ible cll.aphngm with length, .L, width, B based on an analysis where the diaphragm is modeled as semlr:lgld,
misting a uniform design load such as wind ware u foll0W1: ldeallud aa flafble or idealized u rigid.
Blodced ~s. Unblodced Where diaphragm.s are designated u blocke<l,
Diaphragm n:aclion = Lw (14.45) aD joints in shealhing shall occur over and be furened to common fram-
2 ing membm or common blocking. Blocking cons:tm of lightweight
nailers. UfUally 2 x 48, framed between the Joists or other primary struc-
Diaphragm unit she~ = Lw (14.46) tural S'llpp01'tS for the specific purpose of connecting the edges of the
2B panels. The reason for blocking in diaphragms is to provide for connec;-
2 tion of panda at aD edges for better shear transfer. Where diaphragms
Diaphragm. mome.nt =-L8w (14.47) are dellgnated as unblocked, blocking between supporting structural
members at panel edges shall not be req_uired. Unblocked dlaphNgm
loads may be controllw by budding of the unsupported panel edge.,
wL2
Max. chord f'-orce =- (14.48) which would result in an ultimate capacity of the diaphragm. being unaf-
8B fected by increulng the nail schedule since more nailing will have little
Thefe chord forc.es are often wumed to be carried by the double top- effect on the buckling perfonnance of the panda.
plate ofthe supporting perimeter 'Wlllls. Gtven 1he magnltude ofthe force6 The SDPWS provide.1 unit shear capacity tahle.1 f-or both blocked
involved in most light-framed wood c:onmuctio.n projecu, the double and unblocked diaphragms for both wl.lld and seimll.c loading. SDPWS
top-plate has rufficient capacity to resist the teru:ile and compre.uive abo provide11 a table fur high load diaphragms and a table for lumber
forces aaaumlng adequate detailing at the splice locatJo.nf. diaphragms. As with the tt&bles for shear walls previomly dlscusse<1,
the tabulated values for diaphragms are nominal wlue.1 and must be
MPECT RATIOS divided by 2 for ASD and multiplied by 0.80 for LRFD. It is noted that
Size and shape of diaphragms shall be limited to die upect ratio• in the tabulated diaphragm rutstance depends on the direction of con-
1\lble 14.11. tinuous panel joints with respect to the loading dlm:U0.11 and direction
of framing membera. Six load eu« identified as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are
p:mented. in Che SDPWS.
Tlllll• 14.11 Mulm11111 DllphnlgmAlpect
.._os for Hortrontll or Slol*I 011phrag111s EJ.'..UIPLE
Check a simple diaphragm for wind loading assuming it is unblockecl
and ill rupportw by 2x fnming members with the loading direction and
direction of framing me.mbere unde&ed. .AMume it must remt an ASD
Wood str1ldunl panel.1111bloc:Ud 3:1
wind load of250 lb/ft.
Wood str1ldunl panel. b!O<.'bd 4:1 Using the SDPWS table f'-or "Unblocked Diaphragm" and since the
SUJ.sle-laya: straight lumber theathlng 2:1 loading conditions are unknown, u1e the "Cases 2,3,4,5,6" lince diese
Stzi.sle-lafttdlago.oallambeuheathlllg 3:1 values will be conservative.
Double-laJll? dlagOllal. lumbet shealhiDg 4:1 Check "Sheathing and single floor" since Structural I may not be
reu1lly available in all areu. Similarly, check only l'OW8 with 2-in.
minimum nominal framing width. Prom the table, it is detmnined that
DlAl'HllAGM DESIGN 8d nails with 15/32-in. meathing over 2x framing yields a capacity of
Diaphragm• V1ll'f comidenbly Jn load-carrying capacity, depending 505 lb/ft with a mlnlmal 6- and 12-in. .nail tpaelng. For ASD this results
on whether they are "bloclccd'" or ·unblocked:" Diaphragms are also in a capacity of 252 lb/ft. which is greata" than the requlre<l 250 Ib/ft.
deligned b~ on the distribution ofshear 10 vmicd r«isting elements Therefon!, this selection ii okay.
434 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
EXAMPLE Note that this deflection calculation does not apply to unblocked
Check a simple diaphragm for seismic loading assuming it is blocked diaphragms. Limited testing of diaphragms by APA suggests that the
and is supported by 2x framing members with a case 5&6 panel orienta- deflection of an unblocked diaphragm. at its tabulated allowable shear
tion Assume it must resist an ASD seismic load of 250 lb/ft. capacity will be about 2.5 times the calculated deflection of a blocked
Using the SDPWS table for •Blocked Diaphragm,• check •Sheathing diaphragm of similar construction and dimensions, at the same shear
and single floor" since Structural I may not be readily available in all capacity. If diaphragm framing is spaced more than 24 in. o.c., test-
areas. Similarly, check only rows with 2-in. minimum nominal fram- ing indicates a further increase in deflection of about 20 percent for
ing width. From the table, it is determined that Bd nails with 15/32 unblocked diaphragms (e.g., to 3 times the deflection of a comparable
in. sheathing over 2x framing yields a capacity of 540 lb/ft with a nail blocked diaphragm.). This relationship can be used to develop an esti-
spacing of 6 in. at all panel edges. For ASD this results in a capacity of mate of the deflection of unblocked diaphragms.
270 lb/ft, which is greater than the required 250 lb/ft. Therefore, this
selection is okay. 0THl!JI. DIAPHRAGM TOPICS
Flexible vs. Rigid A flexible diaphragm is when the diaphragm deflection SDPWS also provides design guidelines for torsional irregularity of
is two or more times the average shear wall deflection. When a dia- diaphragms and diaphragms in open front structures. A detailed
phragm is idealized as flexible, the diaphragm shear forces shall be discussion of these and other diaphragm design topics such as the
distributed to the vertical resisting elements based on tributary area. design of subdiaphragm.s and diaphragms with openings is beyond
This assumption implies that the diaphragm behaves similar to simply the scope of this Handbook. The reader is referred to the McGraw-
supported beams spanning from shear wall to shear wall Half of the Hill reference books The APA Engineertld Wood Handbook and The
reaction, thus shear force, is distributed to one shear wall, and the other Analysis of I"egular Shaptld StructuTe, Diaphragms and Shear Walls by
half of the reaction is distributed to the other shear wall. The force Malone and Rice for an in-depth analysis of these and other related
transferred to each shear wall is based on the tributary area of each topics.
wall This assumption makes the distribution of shear forces a fairly
simple calculation, and historicaDywood-framed diaphragms have been
assumed to be flexible. FIRE REsrsTANCB OF Woon FRAMING
When a diaphragm is idealized as rigid, the diaphragm shear forces One of the downsides often usociated with wood construction is
shall be distributed to the shear walls based on the relative lateral stiffness the fact that wood is combustible and subject to degradation when
of the vertical resisting elements of the story below. It shall be permitted exposed to fire. Though building codes are concerned with how fast
to idealize a diaphragm as rigid when the computed maximum in-plane fire can spread on a room's surface, they are even more specific about
deflection of the diaphragm itself under lateral load is less than or equal to fire resistance: the measure of containment of fire within a room or
two times the average deflection of adjoining vertical elements of the building. It is defined as protection against fire penetrating a wall,
lateral force-resisting system of the associated story under equivalent floor, or roof, either directly or through a high rate of heat transfer
tributary lateral load. Although this approach makes engineering that might cause combustible materials to be ignited on the side of
sense, the reality is that determining shear wall stiffness is somewhat the wall or floor away from the actual fire. Thus, it is a property of
problematic. When a diaphragm is not idealized as rigid or flexible, the an assembly of several materials, including fastenings, and of the
diaphragm shear forces shall be distributed to the vertical resisting ele- workmanship.
ments using a semirigid diaphragm analysis based on the relative stiffness Fire-resistive construction provides time to discover a fire, to restrict
of the diaphragm and the vertical resisting elements accounting for both or suppress it before it spreads, and to evacuate the building ifnecessary.
shear and flexural deformations. In lieu of using a semirigid diaphragm The IBC recognizes that wood can be used in 1-hour and higher rated
analysis for distribution of story shear forces, it shall be permitted to use assemblies in Type IIIA and Type VA construction. A 1-hour rating,
an •envetope analysis• whereby distribution of horizontal diaphragm for example, is taken to mean that an assembly similar to that tested will
shear to each vertical resisting element is the larger of the shear forces not collapse or transmit flame or a high temperature while supporting
resulting from analyses where the diaphragm is idealized as flexible and its full load for at least 1 hour after the fire commences.
the diaphragm is idealized as rigid. There are numerous fire-rated assemblies combining wood framing
Calculations of diaphragm deflection shall account for bending and and wood structural panels with fire-resistive gypsum wallboard that
shear deflections, fastener deformation, chord splice slip, and other are especially suitable for nonresidential and multifamily residential
contributing sources of deflection. buildings. They include 1-hour rated and several 2-hour rated protected
SDPWS provides the following three-part equation for calculating the wood-framed floor-ceiling, and roof-ceiling systems.
diaphragm deflection: In these assemblies, materials such as gypsum wallboard, plaster, and
acoustical tile provide primary fire protection. The panel floor or roof
acts to prevent flame passage and temperature rise as well as to reinforce
.t. = 5vJ! + 0.25vL +O.lSSL + r(.t.,X)
(14.49) wood framing members against collapse under load after the effective-
"" BEAW lOOOGa '" 2W ness of the ceiling has been lost.
Because these systems contain wood and possibly other combustible
where materials, they are designated as combustible constructions. At pres-
E =modulus of elasticity of diaphragm chords, psi ent, codes don't permit their use in so-called noncombustible {Type I
A =area of chord cross section, in.2 or II) structures, even though their tested performance meets per-
Ga =apparent diaphragm shear stiffness from nail slip and panel formance requirements that are the same as for assemblies classified
shear deformation, kips/in. as noncombustible. Full-scale tests on assemblies representative of
L =diaphragm length, ft intended floor- or roof-ceiling construction are conducted by fire
v =induced unit shear in diaphragm, lbs/ft testing laboratories that are recognized by building code evaluation
W =diaphragm width, ft services. Many of these laboratories publish a listing directory that
x = distance from chord splice to nearest support ft is updated annually or periodically, describing the materials and
<\. = diaphragm chord splice slip, in., at the induced unit shear in construction of the tested assemblies and the fire endurance rating
diaphragm. obtained in the test. One such directory is the Underwriters Labora-
.t. =maximum mid-span diaphragm deflection determined by tory Inc. {UL) Fire Resistance Directory. Over 40 wood floor-ceiling
elastic analysis, in. {or roof-ceiling) systems using wood structural panels are listed in the
TIMBER STRUCTURES 43S
UL directory. Listed designs in fire directories of recognized fire testing APA PRI 405, Performance Standard for APA-EWS Commercial
laboratories are used by architects and designers for building design and I-Joists, APA-The Engineered Wood Association, Tacoma, WA.
construction and are accepted by building code officials for fire-rated APA PRI-400, Performance Standard for APA-EWS I-Joists, APA-
construction. The Engineered Wood Association, Tacoma, WA.
Other excellent sources for fire rated assemblies are APA Design/ APA Report M410, Evaluation of Force Transfer around Openings-
ConslTuction Guide: Fire-Rated Systems andAWC DCA 3-Fire-Resistance Experimental and Analytic Studies, APA-The Engineered Wood
Rated Wood Floor and Wall Assemblies. The me also permits the use of Association, Tacoma, WA.
the component additive calculation methodology (CAM) as an alternate APA-The Engineered Wood Association, Tacoma, WA.
to prescriptive or tested assemblies for 1-hour fire-rated wood-framed ASCE 16, Standard for LRFD for Engineered Wood Construction,
floors, roofs, and load-bearing and nonbearing walls. The code provides ASCE, Reston, VA.
tables of assigned times for components, which have been developed ASTM Standard 2559, Standard Specification for Adhesives for
empirically from extensive studies of assemblies tested with nominal Bonded Structural Wood Products for Use Under Exterior Exposure
2-in. wood framing in accordance with ASTM Standard E 119 Standard Conditions, ASTM West Conshohocken, PA.
Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. ASTM Standard 7247, Test Method for Evaluating the Shear Strength
End-point criteria in the standard also were considered. A 1-hour of Adhesive Bonds in Laminated Wood Products at Elevated Temperatures,
fire-rated assembly can be determined by combining the individual ASTM West Conshohocken, PA.
component times of the assembly in accordance with the method and ASTM Standard D 25, Standard Specification for Round Timber
limitations in the IBC, thereby providing additional choices for the Piles. ASTM West Conshohocken, PA.
designer. ASTM Standard D 3737, Standard Practice for Establishing
In addition, it has long been recognized that large timber members Stresses for Structural Glued Laminated Timber, ASTM West
have excellent fire-resistive characteristics as recognized by the me Conshohocken, PA.
which classify heavy timber as a specific type of construction (Type IV) ASTM Standard D 7341, Standard Practice for Establishing
and give minimum sizes for roof and floor beams. The requirements Characteristic Values for Flexural Properties of Structural Glued
set out for heavy timber construction in the codes do not constitute Laminated Timber by Full-Scale Testing, ASTM West Conshohocken, PA.
1-hour fire resistance. However, procedures are available to estimate ASTM Standard D3200, Standard Specification and Test Method
the member size required for projects in which a rated fire resistance is for Establishing Recommended Design Stresses for Round Timber
required. Construction Poles, ASTM West Conshohocken, PA.
In the presence of fire, the outer portion of the heavy timber mem- ASTM Standard D5055, Standard Specification for Establishing and
bers becomes charred. This layer of charred wood then functions as Monitoring Structural Capacities of Prefabricated Wood I-Joists, ASTM
an insulator, helping to protect the undamaged interior of the member West Conshohocken, PA.
from the heat. The rate of advancement of this insulating char layer into ASTM Standard D5456, Standard Specification for Evaluation of
the remaining, undamaged portion of the member has been measured Structural Composite Lumber Products. ASTM West Conshohocken, PA.
(approximately 1.5 in. per hour) and forms the theoretical basis of the ASTM Standard E 119. Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Build-
equations used to determine the required size of exposed timber beams ing Construction and Materials, ASTM West Conshohocken, PA
and columns with a minimum nominal dimension of6 in. Chapter 16 of ASTM Standard F 1667 Standard Specification for Driven Fasteners:
the NDS, Fire Design of Wood Members, provides a mechanics-based Nails, Spikes, and Staples, ASTM West Conshohocken, PA.
approach to determine the required required size of wood members to AWC DCA 3-Fire-Resistance Rated Wood Floor and Wall Assem-
achieve a 1-hour, 1¥,,-hour, or 2-hour fire endurance rating. This applies blies, American Wood Council, Leesburg, VA.
to sawn timber, glulam, and SCL. Provisions for determining fire endur- AWC Design Aid No. 1, Application of Technical Report 12 for Lag
ance ratings for CLT were added in the 2015 NDS. Screw Connections, American Wood Council, Leesburg, VA.
The latest innovation in wood construction is called mass timber. AWC Special Design Provisions for Wind and Seismic (SDPWS),
Mass timber is a term describing the use of building construction American Wood Council, Leesburg, VA.
systems incorporating large structural wood components such as Blass, H . J., and Fellmoser, P. (2004). Design ofsolid wood panels with
glulam timber, nail-laminated timber, and cross-laminated timber, cross layers. In Proceedings of the 8th World Conference on Timber
all of which have demonstrated unique fire resistance characteristics. Engineering, June 14-17, Lahti, Finland, 2:543-548.
Due to the acknowledged fire resistance of mass timber, the 2021 IBC Breyer et al., Design of Wood Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
will permit the use of mass timber in buildings of up to 270 ft and ESR 1539, Power Driven Nails and Staples, !SANTA, Chicago, IL.
18 stories by the adoption of Type IV-A, Type IV-B, and Type IV-C Fellmoser, P., and Blass, H. J. (2004). Influence of rolling shear modu-
construction. lus on strength and stiffness of structural bonded timber elements.
In Proceeding of CIB-Wl8 Meeting, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,
paper 37-6-5.
REFERENCES
FPinnovations (Institute) (2011). FPinnovations, SP-528E.
AITC Timber Construction Manua~ 6th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Gagnon, S., and Pirvu, C. (2011). CLT Handbook: Cross-Laminated
Somerset, NJ. Timber.
ANSI 05.l Round Timber Poles for Utility Structures, American ICC ES AC14, Acceptance Criteria for Prefabricated Wood I-Joists,
Wood Protection Association, Birmingham AL. ICC Evaluation Service.
ANSI/APA 117 Standard Specification for Glued Laminated ICC ES AC47, Acceptance Criteria for Structural Composite Lumber,
Timber of Softwood Species, APA-The Engineered Wood Association, ICC Evaluation Service.
Tacoma, WA. Karacabeyli, E., and Douglas, B. (2013). CLT Handbook: Cross-Lami-
ANSI/APA Al90.l, American National Standard for Structural Glued natetl Timber, FPinnovations (Institute), Binational Softwood Lumber
Laminated Timber. Council, FPinnovations, SP-529E.
ANSUAPA PRG320 Standard for Performance-Rated Cross-Laminated Kreuzinger, H. (1995). Mechanically jointed beams and columns. In
Timber, APA-The Engineered Wood Association, Tacoma, WA. Timber Engineering-STEP 1, ed. H.J. Blass et al., Bll/1-8. Almere, The
APA Design/Construction Guide: Fire-Rated Systems, APA-The Netherlands: Centrum Hout.
Engineered Wood Association, Tacoma, WA. Kreuzinger, H. (1999). Platten, Scheiben und Schalen-ein
APA Engineered Wood Handbook. McGraw Hill Handbooks, Berechnungsmodell fiir giingige Statikprogramme. bauen mit holz 1:
New York, NY. 34-39.
436 CHAPTER FOURTEEN
Malone and Rice, The Analysis ofIrregular Shaped Structures Diaphragms Voluntary Product Standard PS 20-15, American Softwood Lumber
and Shear Walls, McGraw Hill, New York, NY. Standard, Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards
McGraw-Hill Handbooks, McGraw-Hill Handbook of Wood Design and Technology, Washington, DC.
and Construction, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Voluntary Product Standard PSl, Structural Plywood, National
National Design Specification for Wood Construction. American Institute of Standards and Technology, Washington, DC.
Wood Council, Leesburg, VA. Voluntary ProductStandardPS2,Perforrnance Standardfor Wood-Based
NDS Supplement, National Design Specification Design Values for Structural Use Panels, National Institute of Standards and Technology,
Wood Construction. American Wood Council, Leesburg, VA. Washington, DC.
Underwriters Laboratory Inc. (UL) Fire Resistance Directory, UL, Wood Handbook, Wood as an Engineering Material, USDA, Forest
Northbrook, II... Service, Forest Products Laboratory, FPL-GTR-190.
Chapter 15
Bridge Engineering
PART A
STEEL AND CONCRETE BRIDGES
8Y
SOLIMAN KHU DEI RA Rlinois Institute of Technology and Chicago DOT
15.1.1 Introductory Rem•rks Appearance can be enhanced by avoiding stereotyped round or square
Bridge de&gn involve1 three interdependent component.: structural columns and flat soffits. A column which may be adequate structurally
adequacy, safety, and aesthetics. All three are equally important, will often be too small to be good looking. Add enough size to make the
although many designers have concerned themaelves only with struc- proportions seem right. Columns which are smaller at the bottom than
tural adequacy without giving concern to the appearance of the the top will help make the structure seem lighter and more dynamic.
structure. Worldwide, there is intere..t in improving the appearance of Make sure the columns are all the same type and size-both for appear-
bridgea, and it behooves bridge designers to give attention to the aeathet- ance and for reusability offorms. Avoid large expanses of plain concrete.
ia of their structures. Break them up with ledges to create shadow lines or use heavily textured
panels. Slope the sides of box girders back under the bridge and give the
bottom edge a large curved fill.et to diminish its apparent depth.
15.1.2 Authtlllcs
Although beauty in anything is somewhat subjective and undefinable, COMPATIBILITY
experience has shown that there are some general guidelines w~ch, .if Make the bridge fit its surroundings. This is known as contut-sensitive
followed, will result in a structure of improved appearance. Bearmg m design, and is also called a context-sensime $Olution. If the bridge looks
mind that a bridge may well serve for 100 years or more, the designer like it belongs there, it will be a pleasing addition to it. environment. If
should become familiar with the aesthetic techniques that may be used it is a misfit, it will be an eye30re forever. Even industrial or utilitarian
to improve the appearance of a bridge so that the bridge will be ~ credit bridges need not be aesthetically pleasing, to a certain level It is worth-
to its designer and to itselffor many decades to come. The follOWl.Ilg are while to make every bridge have an appearance of quality and careful
some special areas of concern. craftsmanship.
Implementation of those features must be balanced with their effects
PROPORTIONS AND LINES
on the structural adequacy of the bridge as a whole.
All the members should bear a pleasing relationship to each other.
Columns should not be spindly, nor should superstruct\lre$ be too heavy.
Span lengths should be chosen carefully. Where there are no. other 15.2 LOADS
constiaints, an odd number is better than an even number, with the 15.2.1 Introduction
longest span in the center. Lines should be mainly horizontal so that the
Bridge structures are designed for the following applicable permanent
structure seems to flow from end to end. Intermediate supports should
loads: force effects due to creep, downdrag force, dead load of struc-
be subdued so that they do not break the dominant horizontal flow. This
tural components and nonstructural attachments, dead load of wearing
means pushing the bent caps up into the superstructure or covering
surfaces and utilities, horizontal earth pressure load, miscellaneous
their ends with skirts to make the longitudinal lines continuous over the
locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process, earth
supports. The bridge should look like it was designed as a whole, not as
surcharge load, vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill, secondary
a lot of individual parts glued together. Bridges using precast concrete
forces from posttensioning, and force effects due to shrinkage. Bridge
or simple steel plate girders require special treatment to conceal the
structures are also designed for the following applicable transient loads:
caps and extend the horizontal lines over the supports. Giving the soffit
blast loading, vehicular braking force, vehicular centrifugal force,
lines a slight arch, more than the normal camber, will often improve the
vehicular collision force, vessel collision force, earthquake load, friction
overall appearance.
load, ice load, vehicular dynamic load allowance, vehicular live load,
live load surcharge, pedestrian live load, force effect due to settlement,
force effect due to temperature gradient, force effect due to uniform
'Original article by Arthuz L Elliott, Bridge Engineer, Sacramento, California, temperature, water load and stream pressure, wind on live load, and
and Richard J. LeBeau, Imbsen Aaloc., Sacramento, California. wind load on structure.
437
4H CHAPTER FIFTEEN
w
DESIGN LAMB loAD
The des:ign lane load shall c::onsist of a load of 0.64 klf' uniformly dls-
trlbut~ Jn the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load
shall be usum~ to be uniformly d.lmfbuted (1(13 a 10.0-ft width. The
fon:e effi:c:ts &cm the design lane load shall not be subject to a dynamic
load. The lane load ls wumed to oc::cupy any position withl.c their
~ Jndivldual design traffic lanes which will produce the mlllmum stre~s.
Figure 15.1• AASHTO dmp truck. Figure 15.2 shows the design lane load and the design truck load.
[
<f 2nd Rear AXie
Group (32 kip) r if 1SI Rear AXie
Group (32 kip)
r<f Steering
Axle (8 kip)
2'-0" , 2'-0" 2'-0" 2'-0" I
Pr tt-{--0----j~-=~:·:~-------------------B-+~fJ---------------+r=<-'·"
~i ~i ----t--------~--.~:-~::~~;:;;;------------------------~--------::,:.:~~:---v--
_., 8·-·1--trC"----·-·-·-·----·-·-·-·-----·-·-·-·----·-·--·----B-·+-B·-·-·-·-·----·-·-·-·--4-
1. ,.~- J .. ~- .I
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 43'
amter. Table 155 gives maximum momenta. shears, and n:ac:Uons for .llXAKPI.E
spans of 7 to 250 ft. Calc:ulatc the moment of wheell l to 15, inchuive, abolrt whed 15. In
UA.KPLB Table 15.4, follow the vertical line through wheel 15 to the stepped
line. then to the left, and &d 5408.0 ft-kip.t to the right af the vertical.
In an eight-panel tnlll of200-ltspan. muimum moment at panel point line through whec:l l. Multiply this value by 8.0 to convert to the E-80
L1, 25 ft.from thelefte:ad.O«Unwith wheel4at that point (Table 15.3). loading. Answer: 43.264 ft-kl_p8 per tuck.
Mulmum moment at L:z occun with wheel 7 at that po!nt, etc.
UA.Ml'LB
Tibia 15.1b-LNd F8ctorll far P.,m1rwnt Loadl.1P Calculate the mome.ata of wheels 17, 16, IS, and 14 about whed 13. In
Table 15.4, follow the vertiw line through whec:l 13 to the stepped line.
Load factor then to the right. and find 427.0 ft-kips to the left of the vertic;al line
'I)pe of load, fuaDdatlon type, and method used to
"1culate downdrq Maximum Minimum through wheel 17. Multiply this Vlllue by 8.0 for E-80 loading• .Allswer:
3416 ft-kips per track.
DC: CIOlllpOllCll.t and attachmenb 1.25 0.90
DC: rtrength IV onJr 1.50 0.90 llXAlll'U\
DD; dO'Wlldng Plies. a Tomlineo.u method u 0.2.5 Given a 200-ft eight-panel rallroad trim, calculate the mmmum.
Piles, h method 1.05 0.30 moment at L1 and the mulmum shear In panel LJ.1 for one track af
Drllled shafts, O'Neill and Reese 1.25 0.35 E-80 loading. From Table 15.3, moment u L1 will be mu.lmum when
(1999)method wheel 4 is at L1• From Table 15.4, the distances from whec:l 4 to wheel 1
DW: wearlbg flll'filc:ea 811.d. Ulilltlea 1.50 0.65
BH: horlzomal earth preaure 14'
• .Acttve 1.50 0.90
• At-rellt
• IJ!P for anehcm:d walls
1.35
1.35
0.90
NIA
r -j- - - - - - - -1- -,
sk r - - , I 32k 72k 32k 1
BL: locla!d-in CC!DltnldiM meua l.OG l.00 __ ~
I
I 1
I1
I C.G.of loods
on span
I
I
BV: vertical earth preawe I,.. I L - -t - - - - """_J
• Overdl lltablllty 1.00 NIA Ii' ; \- - - ~=i 't--:> I )
• ReWniJla walls and abalmcm. 1.35 1.00 - - \ I \ I
• Rlgld burled struct\lle 1.30 0.90
• Rigid &am.ea 1.35 0.90 19' 19'
• Flexible buried 11.ructurH
• Metal box culmU and rtructural plate culvertt 1.5 0.9
with dA:ep comiptioXlll 1.3 0.9 2.33' 2.33'
• ThermC!f'lutic culvcrta 1.95 0.9 Maximum moment ~ Moment is maximum when
• Allothen these distances ore equol
BS: earlh rwdwge 1.50 0.75
Rguni 15.3 Slmpk-sp-.ui. mazlmwn moment UDdetwhed.group.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 441
TllM 1U HS20-44 Un Lollcl. One Lan. Impact Not lndudld (T =Truck Lolldlng.. L=Lane Loading)
1 11 3z- J~ 321t :n • , ..
8
~ I I I ~c e~ I I I f
18' 18' ,,.
j .}6.. ~ /lt ~ !.0.6.. ~ / lt
~
W•0 .64k/ft t;.0.64 k/U
SBM FRM FHM SBM Pl!M FHM SBM PBM SBM FEM SBM Pl!M
Gil.SL Gi>B ec Qll.2L r.ilB QllC @.2L 611B r.ilAL @IB @I .6L eB
D.300 8.0T 4..0 4.0 5.lT 4.1 1.0 5.IT 3.1 7.Tr 5.4 7.Tr 6.1 5.lT 4.6
2 0.300 16.0 8.0 8.0 10.2 8.2 2.0 10.2 6.1 15.4 10.8 15.4 12.3 10.2 9.2
3 0.300 24.0 12.0 12.0 15.4 12.3 3.1 15.4 9.2 23.0 16.l 23.0 18.4 15.4 13.8
4 0.300 32.0 16.0 16.0 20.5 16.4 4.1 20.5 12.3 30.7 21.S 30.'1 24.6 20.5 18.4
5 0.300 40.0 20.0 20.0 25.IS 20.5 5.1 25.6 15.4 38.4 26.9 38.4 30.7 25.IS 23.0
6 0.300 .a.o 24.0 24.0 30.7 24.IS 6.1 30.7 18.4 46.l 32.3 46.1 36.9 30.7 27.6
7 0.300 56.0 28.0 28.0 35.8 28.7 7.2 35.8 21.5 53.8 37.6 53.8 43.0 35.8 32.3
8 0.300 64.0 32.0 32.0 41.0 32.8 8.2 41.0 24.6 61.4 43.0 61.4 49.2 41.0 36.9
9 0.300 72.0 36.0 36.0 46.l 36.9 9.2 46.1 27.7 69.l 48.4 69.l 55.3 46.l 41.5
10 0.300 80.0 40.0 40.0 51.2 41.0 10.2 51.2 30.7 76.8 53.8 76.8 61.4 51.2 46.1
11 D.300 88.0 44.0 44.0 56.3 45.1 11.3 56.3 33.8 114..5 59.l 84.5 67.6 56.3 50.7
12 D.300 96.0 48.0 48.0 61.4 49.2 12.3 61.4 36.9 92.2 64..5 92.2 73.7 61.4 55.3
13 0.300 104.0 52.0 52.0 66.6 53.2 13.3 66.6 39.9 99.8 69.9 99.8 79.!I 66.6 59.9
14 0.300 112.0 56.0 56.0 71.7 57.3 IU 71.7 43.0 107.5 75.3 107.5 86.0 71.7 64.5
15 0.300 120.0 60.0 60.0 76.8 61.4 15.4 76.8 46.l 115.2 80.6 115.2 92.2 76.8 69.1
16 0.300 128.0 64.0 64.0 81.9 65.5 16.4 813 49.2 122.9 86.0 122.9 98.3 81.9 73.7
17 0.300 136.0 68.0 68.0 87.0 69.IS 17.4 87.0 52.2 130.6 91.4 130.6 104.5 87.0 78.3
18 0.300 144.0 72.0 72.0 94.7 74.0 30.7 94.7 67.7 138.2 96.8 138.2 110.6 94.7 89.3
19 0.300 152.0 76.0 76.0 105.0 80.l 53.2 105.0 93.2 145.9 102.l 145.9 116.7 105.0 106.7
20 0.300 160.0 80.0 80.0 115.2 87.7 72.3 115.2 116.2 153.6 107.5 153.6 122.9 115.2 12.3.8
21 0.300 168.0 84.0 84.0 125.4 96.4 88.8 125.4 137.0 161.3 112.9 161.3 129.0 125.4 140.8
22 0.300 176.0 88.0 88.0 135.7 105.9 103.l 135.7 156.l 169.0 118.3 169.0 135.2 135.7 157.4
23 0.300 184.0 92.0 92.0 145.9 116.0 115.6 145.9 173.IS 176.6 123.7 176.6 141.3 145.9 173.8
24 0.300 192.7 116.3 104.4 156.2 126.6 126.7 156.2 l!J0.0 189.4 141.5 189.4 153.9 156.2 189.9
25 0.300 207.4 122.7 120.5 166.4 137.4 136.5 166.4 205.2 204.8 164.5 2CM..8 169.6 166.4 205.7
26 0.300 222.2 129.4 135.9 176.6 148.5 145.3 176.6 219.6 220.2 186.4 220.2 185.3 176.6 221.2
27 D.300 237.0 136.3 150.5 186.9 159.8 153.2 186.9 233.l 235.5 207.2 235.5 200.9 186.9 236.4
28 0.300 252.0 143.5 164.5 197.1 171.1 160.4 197.1 246.0 250.9 227.l 250.9 216.4 197.1 251.3
29 0.300 267.0 150.8 178.0 207.4 182.IS 166.9 207.4 258.2 266.2 246.3 266.2 231.8 207.4 266.0
30 0.300 282.1 158.3 191.0 217.IS 194.0 172.9 217.6 269.9 281.6 264.8 281.6 247.2 217.IS 280.5
32 0.300 312.5 173.6 215.9 238.1 216.9 183.6 238.1 292..1 312..3 300.l 312.3 2'17.6 238.1 308.7
34 0.300 343.5 179.5 236.6 258.IS 239.6 192.9 258.IS 312.7 343.0 333.4 343.0 '3Ul.7 258.IS 336.0
36 0.300 378.9 201.4 261.5 280.3 262.3 W.2 280.3 338.3 3'15.7 366.7 375.7 340.S 280.3 365.9
38 0.300 414.3 223.l 285.6 303.4 285.5 225.3 303.4 368.l 410.2 400.4 410.2 375.9 303.4 398.2
40 0.300 449.8 244.4 309.0 326.4 309.3 241.l 326.4 395.8 44U 433.0 4«.8 410.6 326.4 429.8
42 0.299 435.3 265.5 331.9 349.4 333.3 255.l 349.4 421.7 479.4 464.7 479.4 444.7 349.4 460.8
44 0.296 520.9 286.3 354.2 372.5 357.5 W.5 372.5 446.2 513.9 495.7 513.!I 478.3 372.5 491.2
46 0.292 556.5 306.9 376.2 395.5 381.7 278.7 395.5 469.6 548.5 526.0 5485 511.5 395.5 521.1
48 0.289 592.2 327.3 397.8 418.IS 405.9 289.0 418.6 491.9 583.0 555.7 583.0 544.3 418.IS 550.4
50 0.2116 627.8 347.6 419.1 441.IS 430.0 298.3 441.6 513..3 617..6 584..9 617.6 576..7 441.6 579.1
52 0.282 663.5 367.7 440.2 464.6 454.0 307.0 464.6 534.0 652.2 613.7 652.2 608.8 464.6 607.5
54 0.279 6ll!l.3 387.6 461.0 487.7 477.8 315.2 487.7 554.l 686.7 642.l 686.7 640.6 487.7 635.4
56 0.276 735.0 407.5 481.5 510.7 501.5 322.8 510.7 573.6 721.3 670.3 721.3 672.1 510.7 662.9
58 0.273 7'70.8 427.2 501.9 533.8 525.l 330.0 533.8 592.5 755.8 698.0 755.8 703.4 533.8 690.l
60 0.270 806.5 446.8 522.l 656.8 548.5 336.9 556.8 611.l 790.4 725.6 790.4 734.4 556.8 716.9
62 0.26'1 842.3 466.3 542.2 579.8 571.7 343.4 579.8 629..3 825.0 752.9 825.0 765.3 579.8 743.4
64 0.265 878.l .SS.7 562.1 602.9 594.8 349.7 602.9 647.l 859.S 780.0 859.5 796.0 602.9 769.6
66 0.262 913.9 505.1 581.9 625.9 617.7 355.8 625.9 664.6 894.l 806.9 894.l 826.5 625.9 795.6
68 0.259 949.8 524.4 601.6 649.0 640.4 361.7 649.0 681.9 !1211.6 833.IS 928.6 856.8 649.0 821.3
70 0.256 '85.61' 543.6 621.2 672.0T 663.0 367.4 672.0T 698.9 !163.2T 860.2 963.2T 887.0 672.0T 846.7
72 0.254 1021L 563 641 695T 685 373 695T 716 998T 887 988T 917 695T 872
74 0.251 1057 582 660 718 708 378 718 732 1032 913 1032 947 718 897
76 0.249 1093 601 679 741 730 384 741 749 106'1 939 1067 977 741 922
78 0.246 1129 620 699 764 752 339 764 765 1101 965 1101 1007 764 946
(CcmlWl«l)
442 CHAPTER FIFTUN
Tlble 15.2 H520-44 Un W.d. OrHi lane Impact Nal lndudH (T =Trudi. Lmdlng. L = IMI• L.adml) (~
Potltlve moment. ft-kips
Beam.I fhed both ends Beam.I fhed one end
1 11 32- J?i' 3211: 3?11: 9k
8
j l I
1e•
I f 8
~ I I I f
•&' 1e• 1e•
j }6.0/ll ~
W ~ :.0.64k/ll ~ J--f
W•0.64k/ft
~
W•0.6411:111
SBM FEM SBM FEM FEM SBM FEM SBM FEM SBM FEM
@.SL <.PC @.lL @B @C @.lL @B @.41. @B @.8L @B
80 11.244 1165 639 711 787 774 394 787 781 1136 991 1136 1036 787 971
82 0.241 1201 658 737 810 796 399 810 797 1171 1017 1171 1066 810 995
84 0.239 1237 677 756 833 817 404 833 813 1205 1043 1205 1095 833 1019
16 0.237 1273 695 775 856 839 409 856 829 1240 1068 1240 1125 856 1044
88 0.235 1308 714 794 1179 161 414 879 844 1274 11194 1274 1154 1179 1067
90 0.233 1344 7ll 113 902 882 419 902 860 1309 1120 1309 1183 902 1091
92 0.230 1380 752 132 925 !l03 424 925 875 1343 1145 1343 1212 925 1115
!14 0.228 1416 770 851 !148 924 428 948 890 1378 1171 1378 1242 948 1138
96 0.226 1452 789 870 m 945 433 972 906 1412 1196 1412 1271 m 1162
93 0.224 1418 808 888 "5 966 431 995 921 1447 1221 1447 1300 "5 1185
100 0.222 1524 826 907 1018 987 442 1018 936 1482 1247 1482 1329 1018 1209
105 0.217 1614 873 954 1075 1039 454 1075 974 15611 1310 1568 1401 1075 1266
110 0.213 1704 919 1000 1133 1091 465 1133 1011 1654 1372 1654 1473 1133 1324
115 0.208 1793 965 1047 1190 1142 477 1190 1048 m,1 1435 1741 1544 1190 1381
120 0.204 1883 1011 1093 1248 1193 488 1248 1085 1827 1497 1827 1616 1248 lol37
125 0.200 1973 1057 1139 1306 1243 4" 1306 1121 1914 1560 1914 1687 1306 1493
130 0.196 2063 1103 1185 1363 1294 Sil 1363 1157 2000 1622 2000 1758 1363 1549
135 0.192 2153 1149 1231 1421 1344 522 1421 1194 20116 1684 2086 1829 1421 1605
140 0.189 2243 1195 1277 1478 1393 533 1478 1230 2173 1746 2173 1900 1478 1660
145 0.185 2333 1241 1323 1536 1443 544 1536 1266 2259 1807 2259 1971 1536 1715
150 0.182 2423 1286 1369 15!14 1492 556 15!14 1302 2346 1869 2346 2041 15!14 1770
155 0.179 2513 1332 1415 1651 1541 567 1651 1337 M32T 1931 2432.T 2112 1651 1825
160 0.175 2602.T 1378 1461 1709 1590 578 1709'1' 1373 2657L 2532 26S7L 2601 1709 11179
165 0.172 2921L 1823 1823 1766 1639 539 18691. 2463 2804 2677 2804 2748 1766 1933
170 0.169 3077 192.4 1924 1824 1688 600 1969 2606 2954 2826 2954 2900 1824 1988
175 0.167 3238 2027 2027 1882 1736 611 2072 2752 3108 29751 3108 3055 1882 200
180 0.164 3402 2lll 2133 1939 1714 623 2177 2903 3266 3136 3266 3214 1939 2096
185 0.161 3571 2242 2242 1997 1833 634 2285 3058 3428 3297 3428 3377 1997 2150
190 0.159 3743 2353 2353 2054 1881 645 2396 3216 3593 3463 3593 3545 2054 2203
1!15 0.156 3920 24GJ 24Gl 2112 1929 656 2508 33751 3763 3632 3763 3716 2112 2257
200 0.154 4100 2583 25113 2170 1877 6111 2624 3546 3936 3805 3936 3891 2170 2311
205 0.152 4285 2703 2703 2227 2025 (;]') 2742 3716 4113 3982 4113 4070 2227 2364
210 0.149 4473 2824 2824 2285 20'73 690 2863 3891 4294 4163 4294 4254 2215 2418
215 0.147 4666 2949 2949 2342 2120 701 2916 4070 4479 4348 4479 4441 2342 2471
220 0.145 4162 3076 3076 2400 2168 712 3112 4252 4661 4537 4668 4632 2400T 2524
225 0.143 5063 3206 3206 2451 2216 724 3240 4439 4860 4730 4860 4128 3240L "633
230 0.141 5267 3339 3339 2515 2263 735 3371 4629 5056 4928 5056 5027 3371 '828
235 0.139 5476 3474 3474 2573 2311 746 3504 4824 5256 5129 5256 5230 3504 5027
240 0.137 5688 3612 3612 2630 2358 757 3640 5023 5460 5334 5460 5437 3640 5230
245 0.135 5905 3753 3753 2688 2406 769 3779 5225 51568 5543 5661 5649 3779 5437
250 O.lll 6125 3896 3196 2741/r 2453 780 3920 5432 5880 5756 5880 5864 3920 5641
255 0.132 6350 4042 4042 40641. 4056 3615 4064 5643 6096 5973 6096 6083 4064 5863
260 0.130 6578 4190 4190 4210 4204 3755 4210 5857 6315 6194 6315 6307 4210 6082
265 0.128 6811 4342 4342 4359 4356 3398 4359 6076 6538 6419 6538 6534 4359 6305
270 0.127 7047L 4495 4495 4SIOL 4510 4044 4510L 6299 6765L 6648 67651. 6765 4SIOL 6532
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 443
TllM 1U HS20-44 Un Lollcl. One Lan. Impact Not lndudld (T =Truck Lolldlng.. L=Lane Loading) IConflnwdl
Shear, klpa Negatift moment, ft-ldp1
B..,,.. find both mm
f.i
u• 32• •'
I I
al ft SBM FEM SBM PEM FEM a1 ft SBM FEM FEM
@al @B @..331 @B l!PC 9aL @B @C
32.0T 16.DT 32.0T 4.51 3.5 0.4 7.fi 6.2 4.IL 2.7 u 0.3 7.lT 4.7 2..4
32.0 16.0 32.0 9.1 7.2 0.8 15.6 12.3 8.3 5.S 2.9 0.7 14.2 9.5 4.7 2
32.0 16.0 32.0 13.9 11.1 1.3 23.4 18.5 12.6 8.5 4..5 1.0 21.3 14.2 7.1 3
32.0 16.0 32.0 18.8 15.1 1.7 31.2 U.15 17.1 11.5 6.2 1.3 2.8.4 19.0 !1.5 4
32.0 16.0 32.0 23.9 19.3 2.1 39.l 30.8 21.8 14.7 8.0 1.7 35.6 2.3.7 11.9 s
32.0 16.0 32.0 29.2 23.7 2.5 46.9 37.0 26.6 17.9 9.9 2.0 42.7 28.4 14.2 6
32.0 16.0 32.0 34.6 28.2 3.0 54.7 C.l 31.5 21.3 11.9 2.3 49.8 33.2 16.6 7
32.0 16.0 32.0 40.l 32.8 3.4 62.5 49.3 315.6 24.7 14.1 2.7 56.9 37.9 19.0 8
32.0 16.0 32.0 45.9 37.7 3.8 70.3 55.4 41.8 28.3 16.3 3.0 64.0 42.7 21.3 9
32.0 16.0 32.0 51.7 42.6 4.2 78.1 61.6 47.I 32.0 18.7 3.3 71.1 47.4 23.7 10
32.0 16.0 32.0 57.8 47.8 4.7 85.9 67.7 52.6 35.8 21.1 3.7 78.2 52.2 26.l 11
32.0 16.0 32.0 64.0 53.1 5.1 93.7 73.9 58.2 39.7 23.7 4.0 85.3 56.9 28.4 12
32.0 16.0 32.0 70.3 58.6 5.5 101.5 80.l 64.0 43.7 26..3 4.3 92.4 61.6 30.8 13
32.0 16.0 32.0 76.8 64.2 5.9 109.3 86.2 69.9 47.8 29.1 4.7 99.6 66.4 33.2 14
34.1 16.0 34.8 83.5 70.0 6.3 117.2 92.4 76.0 52.0 32.0 5.0 106.7 71.l 35.6 15
36.0 16.0 37.0 911.3 75.7 6.8 125.0 98.S 82.2 56.3 35.0 5.3 113.8 75.9 37.9 16
37.7 16.0 39.1 97.3 82.0 7.2 132.8 104..7 88.IS 60.7 38.1 5.7 120.9 80.6 40.3 17
39.l 16.0 40.9 104.4 88.3 7.6 140.6 110.9 95.0 65.3 41.3 6.0 1211.0 85.3 42..7 18
40.4 16.0 42.5 111.7 94.7 8.0 148.4 117.0 101.7 69.9 44.6 6.3 135.1 90.1 45.0 19
41.6 16.0 44.0 119.1 101.3 3.8 112.2 123.9 108.4 74.7 48.0 6.7 142.2 94.8 47.4 20
42.7 16.0 45..3 126.7 108.0 4.1 123.7 HD.8 115.4 79.S 51.5 7.0 149.3 99.6 49.8 21
43.6 16.0 46.S 134.5 110 H 135.7 157.4 122.4 80 55.l 5.5 151.8 107.1 96.0 22
44.5 16.0 47.7 142.4 122.0 4.7 148.l 173.8 129.6 89.S 58.9 5.2 156.4 116.4 113.8 23
45.3 16.0 411..7 150.4 129.2 5.0 160.8 1911.0 137.0 94.7 62.7 5.1 162..3 126.7 126.6 24
46.l 16.0 49.6 158.6 136.6 5.4 173.8 206.0 144.4 100.0 66.7 5.2 169.3 137.5 136.8 25
46.8 16.0 50.5 167.0 144.1 5.7 Ul7.0 221.7 152.I 105.4 70.7 5.2 177.1 148.5 145.4 26
47.4 16.0 51.3 175.6 151.9 6.1 200.5 237.2 159.8 110.9 74..9 5.3 185.6 159.8 152.9 27
48.0 16.0 52.0 184.2 159.7 6.4 214,1 252.6 167.8 116..5 79.1 5.5 194.7 171.2 159.7 28
48.8 16.6 52.7 193.1 167.7 6.8 227.9 267.8 175.8 122.2 83.S 5.7 204.3 182.6 165.9 29
49.6 17.1 53..3 202.1 175.9 7.2 2.41.9 282.8 184.0 128.0 88.0 5.9 214.2 194.0 171.7 30
51.0 18.0 50 220.6 192.8 7.9 270.2 312.4 200.8 139.9 97.3 6.3 235.2 216.9 182.4 32
52.2 18.B 55.5 239.7 210.3 8.7 m.o 341.5 218.2 152.3 107.0 6.8 257.4 239.IS 192.3 34
53.3 19.6 56.4 259.4 228.4 9.4 328.l 370.l 2315.2 165.I 117.I 7.1 278.4 262.3 206.8 315
54.3 20.2 57.3 279.7 247.2 8.8 331.5 400.4 254.7 178.3 127.7 7.4 299.1 285.6 224.0 38
55.2 20.1 58.0 300.7 266.6 9.5 3152.8 433..3 273.8 192.0 138.7 7.8 321.4 309.3 23!1.2 40
56.0 21.J 58.7 322.3 28ti.6 10.3 394.6 465.9 293.4 206.1 150.1 8.2 344.8 333.3 253.1 42
56.7 2U 59..3 344.5 307.3 11.0 426.8 498.1 313.7 220.6 161.9 8.7 369.3 357.5 266.0 44
57.4 22..3 SU 367.4 328.6 11.8 459.3 530.0 334.5 235.S 174.2 9.2 394.6 381.7 278.3 46
58.0 22.7 60..3 390.8 350.6 12.6 492.1 561.6 355.8 250.9 186.9 9.7 420.6 405.9 290.0 48
58..6 23.0 60.8 414.9 373.2 13.3 525.l 592.9 377.8 266.7 200.0 10.2 447.3 430.0 301.4 50
SU 23.4 61.2 439.6 3'6.5 14.l 558.4 624.l 400.3 282.9 213.5 10.7 474.4 454.l 312.4 52
59.6 23.7 61.6 465.0 420.3 14.9 591.8 655.0 423.4 299.5 227.S 11.3 502.0 478.1 323.3 54
60.0 24..0 62.DT 491.0 444.9 15.7 625.3 685.7 447.0 316.6 241.9 11.8 530.0 502.0 334.Q 515
60.4 24.4 63.11 517.5 470.0 115.5 659.0 716.2 471.2 334.1 256.7 12.4 558.3 525.8 344.6 SI
60.8 24.8 64.4 544.8 495.8 17.3 692.8 746.6 496.0 352.0 272.0 13.0 586.9 549.5 355.0 60
61.2 25.2 65.7 572.6 522.3 18.l 726.7 776.8 521.4 370..3 287.7 13.6 615.8 573.l 365.4 62
61.5 25.5 67.0 601.l 549.4 18.9 760.8 806.9 547.3 38!U 303.8 14.2 645.0 596.7 375.7 64
61.8 25.8 68.2 630.2 577.1 19.7 794.9 836.8 573.8 40t..3 320..3 14.7 674.3 620.1 386.0 66
62.1 26.l 69.5 659.9 605.5 20.5 829.0 866.7 600.8 427.9 337.3 15.3 703.8 643.5 396.3 68
62.4T 26.4T 70.IL 690.lL 634.5 21.3 863.3T 896.4 628.41 448.0 354.7 15.9 733.ST 666.7 406.5 70
62.7'1' 26.7'1' 72.11 7211 664 22.2 898T 926 15571 468 372 115.6 763T 690 417 72
62.9 263 73.4 753 694 23.0 932 956 685 489 394 17.2 793 713 41.7 74
(Conlfnued)
444 CHAPTER FIFTUN
Tllble 15.2 HS20-44 lJft Loed. OM LIM Impact Net Included (T =Truck Loading. L = Lll'll ~If) (Condnued)
Shear,klpa Negative moment, ft-klpt
Simple If'&"
•••
~ P.
Sl' l 2' ••
l l
SBM PEM aLft SBM FEM aLft SBM FEM FEM
llP.421. @B @I.33L @B @aL @B @C
63.2 27.2 74.t!i 785 725 23.1 966 935 715 511 409 17.8 824 736 437 76
63.4 27.4 75.9 818 757 24.6 1001 1014 745 532 428 18.4 154 75g 447 78
63.6 27.6 77.2 851 789 25.4 1035 1044 775 555 448 19.0 884 782 458 80
63.3 27.8 78.5 885 822 26.3 1070 1073 806 577 468 19.6 915 805 468 82
6'.0 28.0 79.8 920 855 27.l 1104 1102 838 600 488 20.3 945 828 478 84
64.2 28.2 81.0 955 890 27.9 1139 1131 870 624 S09 20.9 976 850 488 86
64..4 28.4 82.3 991 924 28.7 1174 1160 903 648 530 21.5 1006 873 4')8 88
64..5 28.5 83.6 1028 960 29.6 1208 1189 936 fi12 552 22.2 1037 896 509 90
64.7 28.7 84.9 1065 996 30.4 1243 1218 970 6"7 574 22.8 1068 918 519 92
64.9 28.9 86.2 1103 1033 31.2 1278 1247 l(l(M. 722 5'J7 23.4 1099 !Ul 529 94
65.0 29.0 87.4 1142 1070 32.0 1313 1276 1039 748 620 2-U 1130 963 539 96
65.l 29.l 88.7 1181 1108 32.9 1347 1304 1075 774 643 24.7 1161 986 550 98
65.3 29.3 90.0 1220 1146 33.7 1382 1333 1111 800 6Gl 25.3 11'2 1008 560 100
65.6 29.6 93.2 1322 1246 35.8 1469 1405 1204 1168 728 26.9 1269 1064 586 105
65.9 29.9 96.4 1428 1349 37.8 1556 1476 1300 939 792 28.5 1347 1120 611 110
"-2 30.2 99.6 1538 1456 39.9 1643 1548 1400 1012 859 30.2 1426 1175 637 115
66.4 30.4 102.8 1652 1568 42.0 1731 1619 151M 1088 928 31.8 1504 1230 663 120
66.6T 30.6 106.0 1770 1683 44.1 1818T 1690 1611 1167 1000 33.4 1582 1286 689 125
67.6L 30.8 109.2 1891 1802 1722 1248 1075 35.0 1661 1341 715 130
69.2 31.0 112.4 2017 1926 1836 1332 1152 36.6 1740 1396 741 135
70.3 31.2 115.6 2146 2053 19S. 1419 1232 38.3 1819T 1450 767 140
72.4 31.4 118.8 2279 2184 2075 1508 1315 145
74.0 31.5 122.0 2416 2320 2200 1600 1400 150
75.6 31.7 125.2 2557 2459 2328 1695 1488 155
77.2 31.8 128.4 2702 2602 2460 1792 1579 160
78.8 31.9 131.6 2351 2750 2596 1892 1672 165
80..4 32.0 134.8 3004 2901 2735 1995 1768 170
82.0 32.2 138.o 3161 3056 2878 2100 1867 175
83.6 32.3 141.2. 3321 3216 3024 2208 1968 180
85.2 32.4 144.4 34116 3379 3174 2319 2072 185
86.8 32.5 147.6 3654 3546 3327 2432 2179 190
88..4 32.6 150.8 3827 3717 3484. 2548 2288 195
90.0 32.6 154.0 4003 3893 3644 2667 2400 200
!Jl.6 32.7 157.2 4183 41>72 3808 2788 2515 205
93.2. 32.8 160.4 4367 4255 3976 2912 2632 210
9U 32.9 163.6 4555 4443 4147 3039 2752 215
96.4 32.9 166.8 m.1 4634 4322 3168 2875 220
98.0 33.0 170.0 042 4329 4500 3300 3000 225
99.6 33.l 173.2 5142 5029 4682 3435 3128 230
101.2 33.l 176.4 5346 5232 4867 3572 3259 235
102.8 33.2 179.6 5553 5439 5056 3712 33!12 240
104..4 33.3 182.8 5764 5651 5248 3855 3528 245
106.0 33.lT 186.0 5980 5866 5444 4000 3667 250
107.6 33.41. 189.2. 6199 6085 5644 4148 3808 255
109.2. 33.8 192.4 6422 6309 5847 4299 3952 260
110.3 34.2 195.6 6649 6536 6054 4452 4099 265
112.4L 34.6L 191.8L IS880L 6767 6264L 4608 4248 270
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 445
Table 15.3 Position of Wh"ls to Prod11te M.xlmum Moment with Cooper's LNdlng, M.xlmum Moment Wiii Occur under Wh"I Noted In
Table for Ginn Span and Distance from Left End of Span
Distance from left end of span
Span, ft 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
30G-260 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18
25G-200 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18
19G-150 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 9 11 12 12 13 14 15 17 18
140 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 17 18
130 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 17
120 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 13 14 15
110 3 3 3 4 4 s 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 13 14
100 3 3 3 4 s 5 6 14 14 14 13 13 11 12 13 13
90 3 3 4 4 5 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 13
80 3 3 4 4 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12
70 3 3 4 4 13 13 12 12 12 12 11 11 11
65 3 3 4 4 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11
60 3 3 4 4 5 13 12 11 11 11 11
55 12 12 12 4 12 13 12 12 13 11
50 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 12
45 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13
40 3 3 3 12 12 13 13
35 3 3 4 4 13 13
30 3 3 4 4 13
25 3 3 4 4
20 4 3 4
15 3 3
10 3
and to the uniform load are 18 and 91 ft, respectively. Therefore, all l!XAMPU!
wheels are on the bridge, and there will be 175 - 91=84 ft of uniform Determine the envelope of maximum positive moments for the end
load on the span. The left reaction RL is found from span in a continuous beam of three 60-ft spans (Fig. 15.4a). The
342 dead load is 2 klf, the live load 1.5 wheel lines of HS20-44 load with
200R1 =8182 +142X84+1 X - 27 percent impact.
2 1. The dead-load moments at B and C are 720 ft-kips from which
in which the moment, 8182 ft-kips, and the sum ofthe weights of the the reaction at A is found to be 48 kips. The corresponding dead-load
18 wheels, 142 kips, are found in Table 15.4. Therefore, RL = 118.2 kips, moment diagram is shown in Fig. 15.4b. Only the moments at the 0.4 and
and the moment at L1 is 0.8 points are needed in this example: the remaining ordinates are used in
the determination of other maximum-moment envelopes discussed later.
M 1 =118.2 x 25 - 140 = 2715 ft-kips 2. From Table 15.2, with the truck positioned for maximum moment
in which the moment, 240 ft-kips, is found in Table 15.4. For the E-80 at the 0.4 point, the simple-beam moment and fixed-end moment are,
loading, respectively, 790.4 and 725.6 ft-kips. With the truck positioned for
maximum moment at the 0.8 point, the simple-beam moment and
M 1 = 8.0 x 2715 = 21,720 ft-kips per track fixed-end moment are, respectively, 556.8 and 716.9 ft-kips. Converting
these values to 1.5 wheel lines per girder and adding 27 percent impact,
The shear in panel Loli is V = R1 - 240/25 = 118.2 9.6 = 108.6 kips. the following values are obtained:
For the E-80 loading,
0.4 0.8
V = 8.0 x 108.6 = 869 kips per track.
SJIM 753 531
FEM 692 683
15,2.4 Positive Moments In Continuous Spans
Because of the many possible combinations of span, loading, ratio of 3. With the fixed-end moment, 692 ft-kips, known, the live-load
dead to live load, and degree of fixity, no general formulas or curves negative moment at B can be determined. When moving loads are being
can be given for all cases. investigated, it is convenient to do this by distributing a unit moment
acting at B (Fig. 15.5). The resulting distribution factors can be used
POSITIVI! MOMl!NTS IN END SPAN
to distribute the fur.ed-end moment at B in AB for any combination of
The envelope of maximum positive moments in the end span of a loads in any of the three spans. In this case, we get
series of continuous spans on simple supports can be approximated
satisfactorily by parabolas. If the length of the end span is 75 to FEM BA = 0.533 x 692 = 369 for maximum moment at 0.4
100 percent of that of the adjacent span, the maximum positive FEM BA = 0.533 x 683 = 364 for maximum moment at 0.8
moment occurs at or near the 0.4 point nearest the discontinuous end.
The envelope can be approximated by two second-degree parabolas From these values, corrections to the live-load simple-beam moments
with common vertices at the point whose ordinate is the maximum can be found. Finally, then, the DL + LL + I moments are
moment at the 0.4 point. One parabola passes through the (zero)
Mu= 576 + 753- 0.4x369=1182 ft-kips
moment ordinate at the discontinuous end, the other through the
moment ordinate at the 0.8 point. M0.s = 0 + 531- 0.8 x 364 = 240 ft-kips
a
Tibia 15A Mamants In faat-.Mlp11 far C•• E-10 Engllw l.Hdlng {0nm 1"Mk af Twa Rali.)
-
Wheel No. 1 2 l 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A:dcloada
SpaciDg. ft..
5.0
8
e e e e
5 5 5 9
8 8 8 8 8
5 6 5 8 8
eeee
5 5 5 9
8 8
5 6
8 8
5 5
1 kif
'lbtahi fmm
end of train:
Kips.. 142.0 137.0 127.0 117.0 107.0 97.D 90.5 84.0 77.5 71.0 66.0 56.0 46.0 36.0 26.0 19.5 13.0 65 0
7472.0
7637.0
6952.0
6627.D
5992.0
5667.0
5082.1
4757.D
4222.D
3897.D
3412.D
33965
2~0
29211.5
2508.5
2499.5
2112.0
2103.0
1748.0
1838.0
1508.0
1388.0
1108.0
988.0
758.0
638.D
458.D
338.0
208.0
2015
104.2
975
32.5
- 32.5
17 6794.5 6299.5 5389.2 4529.5 37195 29595 2524.0 2121.0 1757.0 1425.5 1210.5 8605 560.5 3105 110.5 39.0 325
16 60205 5555.6 47055 3905.5 3155.6 24555 205!1.D 1695.0 1370.0 1077.5 8!12.5 602.S 362.5 1725 32.5
......___ 39.D 110.5
IS 5408.0 4968.0 4168.D 3418.0 2718.0 2068.0 1704.0 1372.5 1080.0 82<l.O 660.0 420.D 230.0 90.0 3.2.5 104.0 208.0
14 4364.0 3969.0 3259.D 2599.D 1989.D 1429.0 1123.5 850.5 616.5 415.0 300.0 150.0 50.0 58.5 149.5 2795 442.D
13 3834.0 3464.0 2804.0 2194.D 1634.0 1124.0 851.0 610.5 409.0 240.0 lSO.O 50.0 50.0 141.0 264.5 427.0 622.0
12 3354..0 3009.0 2399.0 1839.0 1329.0 869.D 6285 420.5 251.5 115.0 50.0 50.D 150.D 2735 4251.5 624.5 852.0
II
ID
25124.D
2316.0
2604.0
2036.0
2044.0
1556.0
1534.0
1126.D
1074.D
746.0
664.0
416.0
456.D
260.0
280.5
136.5
144.0
52.0
- 40.0
80.0
50.0
210.0
150.D
390.0
300.0
620.0
456.D
828.0
644.S
1068.5
872.0
1348.0
1132.0
1660.0
9 1748.0 1508.0 1108.0 758.0 458.0 208.0 104.0 32.5 40.0 200.0 410.0 670.0 980.0 1240.0 1532.5 1864.D 2228.0
8 14255 1210.5 8605 5605 3105 1105 39.D 3.2.5 97.5 307.S 567.5 877.5 1237.5 1530.0 1855.D 2219.D 2615.5
7 1077.2 8925 6025 3625 1725 32.S 39.D 110.5 205.5 475.5 795.5 1165.S 1585.S 1917.0 2281.0 2684.D 31195
f----
6 820.D 660.0 420.0 230.0 90.0 32.5 l!K..O 208.D 328.D 6411.0 1018.D 1438.D 1908.0 2272.0 26611.5 3104..0 3572.0
5 415.D 300.0 150.D 50.0 58.5 149.5 279.5 442.D 607.0 1017.0 1477.0 1987.0 2547.0 2969.5 3424.5 3918.5 4445.D
4 240.0 150.0 50.0 50.0 141.0 2645 427.0 622.0 812.0 1272.0 1782.0 2342.0 2952.0 ~7.0 3394.5 4421.D 4980.0
3 115.D 50.0 50.0 150.0 2735 4295 6245 852.0 1067.0 1577.0 2137.0 2747.D 3407.0 3894.5 4414.4 49735 5565.D
2 40.0 50.0 150.0 300.0 456.0 6445 872.0 mz.o 1372.0 1932.0 2542.0 3202.0 3912.0 4432.0 4984.5 5576.0 6200.0
I 80.0 210.0 390.0 620.0 828.0 10685 1348.D 1660.0 l!i4Q.O 2580.0 3270.0 4010.D 4800.0 5372.0 5976.5 6620.0 7296.0
'lbtahi fmm
wheel 1:
Klp11••. 5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 51.5 58.0 64.5 71.0 76.0 86.0 96.0 106.0 116.0 122.S 129.0 135.5 142.0 142.0
Feet. •. 0 8 13 18 23 32 37 43 48 56 64 69 74 79 88 93 99 104 109
'nlble 15.5 Mllxlm.... Momentt. S._., and Ructions for Ci.s E-10 Engine i.o.dlng (One Tradr: of Two Rall•}
Mleloada
Spadng.
eeeee e e, e, e eeeeeeeeerim e el
ft. ... 8 I s I 5 I s Ig I 6 I 5 8 I 8 I 5 I 5 5 9 5 6 I 5 s I 171
Equmlent uniform load l!qaivalmt lllliform load
Muftoor-
Mu beam Mu Mu Boor-
moment. Mu '1le.ar. readion. moment, Mu floor-beam beam l'adion.
Span. ft ft-ldp. ldp. kip• Moment Shear Reaaion Span. ft ft-idp• readion. idp• idp• Moment Shear 11.eadion
7 21.9 12.5 15.1 3.57 3.57 2.15 26 162.4 29.l 38.8 l.92 2.24 1.49
7~ 23.S 13.4 16.0 3.33 3.56 2.12 27 172.3 29.6 40.0 l.89 2.20 ua
8 25.0 14.0 16.8 3.12 3.51 2.11 2ll 182.7 30.2 41.2 1.86 2.16 U7
9 21.l 15.3 18.2 2.78 3.39 2.02 29 194..11 30.I 42.2 1.84 2.12 U6
10 31.2 16.2 l!i>.2 2.50 3.25 1.92 30 205.2 31.5 43.1 1.82 2.10 U4
11 34.4 17.0 21.0 2.28 3.0!i> 1.90 31 216.5 32.2 44.3 1.80 2.08 1.43
12 40.0 17.7 23.3 2.22 2.95 1.94 32 227.7 32.9 45.5 1.78 2.05 U2
13 47.5 18.3 24.6 2.25 2.81 1.90 33 23!>.0 33.5 46.7 1.75 2.03 1.41
14 55.0 18.8 26.l 2.25 2.68 1.86 34 250.3 34.l 47.8 1.73 2.00 1.40
15 62.5 20.0 27.3 2.22 2.67 1.82 35 261.5 34.6 48.8 1.71 1.91 1.39
16 70.0 21.3 28.5 2.19 2.66 1.78 36 274..3 35.3 49.8 1.69 1.96 1.31
17 77.5 22.4 29.4 2.15 2.63 1.73 37 287.2 35.9 50.7 1.68 1.94 1.37
18 15.0 23.3 30.3 2.10 2.59 1.69 38 300.0 36.5 51.8 1.66 1.92 1.36
19 93.3 24.2 31.5 2.07 2.55 1.66 39 313.3 37.2 52.9 1.65 1.90 1.36
20 103.1 25.0 32.8 2.06 2.50 1.64 40 327.8 37.7 54.0 1.64 1.88 1.35
21 112.9 25.7 34.0 2.05 2.45 1.62 42 356.7 39.2 SIS.O l.62 l.87 1.34
22 122.8 26.3 35.1 2.03 2.40 1.60 44 385.8 40.3 58.2 1.60 L83 1.32
23 132.7 27.0 36.1 2.01 2.34 1.57 46 414.9 41.4 60.3 1.57 1.80 1.31
24 142.6 27.7 37.0 1.98 2.31 1.54 48 443.8 42.4 62.4 1.54 1.77 1.30
25 152.5 28.4 37.8 1.95 2.Zl 1.51 so 475.5 43.5 64.3 l.52 1.74 1.29
52 507.6 44.6 66.7 1.50 1.72 1.28 82 1128.3 63.5 101.5 1.34 1.55 1.24
54 540.5 45.6 69.0 1.48 1.69 1.28 84 1177.7 64.8 103.5 1.34 1.54 1.23
56 576.l 46.5 71.4 1.47 1.66 1.27 86 1229.7 66.l 105.4 1.33 1.54 1.23
58 611.6 47.7 74.0 1.46 1.65 1.28 88 1282.0 67.4 107.3 1.32 1.53 1.22
60 ~.5 48.8 76.6 1.44 1.63 1.28 90 1334.7 68.6 109.3 1.32 1.53 1.22
62 618.2 50.0 79.l 1.43 1.61 1.27 92 1381.3 69.9 111.2 1.31 1.52 1.21
64 727.7 51.3 81.5 1.42 1.60 1.27 94 1442.7 71.2 113.1 1.31 1.52 1.20
66 769.7 52.5 83.9 UI 1.59 1.27 !16 1497.3 '12.4 115.0 1.30 1.51 1.20
68 811.7 53.9 86.2 1.40 1.59 1.27 93 1552.7 73.7 UIS.8 1.29 1.51 1.19
70 853.7 55.3 88.5 1.39 1.58 1.26 LOO 1609.7 75.0 118.6 1.29 1.50 1.19
72 896.7 56.7 90.7 1.38 1.58 1.26 125 2497.7 89.7 140.5 1.28 1.44 1.12
74 939.0 58.l 93.0 1.37 1.57 1.26 150 3531.0 103.7 162.7 1.25 1.38 1.08
76 986.0 59.5 95.2 1.36 l.57 1.25 175 4676.3 117.3 185.8 1.22 1.34 1.06
78 1032.7 60.9 97.3 1.36 1.56 1.25 200 593!>.0 130.5 209.5 1.19 1.31 1.05
80 1080.0 62.l 99.4 1.35 1.55 1.24 250 8796.3 156.6 257.6 1.13 1.25 1.03
g
448 CHAPTER FIFTUN
~ f ~~k I
1
q 1 ~k I
13
I I I I I I I I An approximate eo:velope fur maximum podtlve moment in the Inte-
rior span is conatru~d by passing a second-degree parabola through
60' .. 1~ 60' .. I~ 60· {a)
the maximum-moment oniin.ms at the 0.2 point and the midpoint.
For maximum moment at the 0.2 point, the truck headl into the span
with the rear wheel al the 0.2 point. Position of the load for muimum
M'-720+60x -x2 midspan moment ii shown in Flg.15.3. Although the muimum moment
Is at the 32-kip ule, It is assumed to be at midspan. Fixed-end momenta
for loam at these positions may be fuund In Table 15.2.
EL\MPLE
A (b)
Construct the approximate envelope for muimum ~moment in
the interior span of the beam of Pig. 15.4a.
The following moments are found in Table 15.2:
Simple-~ moment at 0.2 point 556.8
Fhed-end moment at B 548.5
60' 30' Fhed-end moment at C 336.9
Using the distribution &.cmn determined previously (Flg.15.5), the nega-
tive moments at B and Care
g:·o c The muimum moment at midspan, 670 ft-kips, I.I found similarly,
and the muimum moment eJlvelope Is determined by COD8tnlcting the
parabola shown in Fig. 15.6.
15.15 Neptln Ma-a In CantlnUDUS 5plln1
En:vdopes of muimum negative moment c:an be obtained by determin-
ing the mu:imum negative moments at a •upport and at aevera1 points
in the adjoining spam. Mnimum negative moment at a support OCCW11
when the two adjoining tpant are loaded. In the cue ofequal spam over
41 ft long. the equivalent lane loading controls. Ifthe adjoining spans are
unequal, this separation point must be determined by lrial
4. The approximate muimum-moment envelope i• shown in The poaltion of load to obtain muimum negative moment at an
Fig. 15.6. The ordinates a1 intermediate pointa are euily found from Interior point of a span can be cletermined from an influence line or
properties of the parabola. Thut, from a series oftrial•. However, a satisfactory appromnatlon 18 obtained
by loading the span adjacent to the one under consideration with the
M 05 =1182-(1182-240)(1/4)2 =1123ft-kips heavy wheels of the truck equidistant from the 0.4 point adjacent to
Positi ve
0
,.._
<D
+
<D (I) N t<l
N
~ g ~
+ + + +
0 .2 0 .3 0.4 0.5 0.6
the support common to the two spana. Thus, for muimum negative M • = 0.533 x 746.6x3/4x1.27 =- 379
moments in span I, the loa.d.t are positioned u in Fig. 15.7g, while for Mc =0.133 ><746.6>< 3/4Xl.27=+95
muimwn negative moment.I in ipan 2, they are located u in Pig. IS.7b.
For equal spans, 1ible 15.2 gives the simple-beam moment and the
fiud-end momenta, for both truck and laae loading, with the loads posi- Since the moment diagram in span BC is a straight line, moments at.
tioned for maximum negative moments In the adjoin1Dg. wiloaded span. intermediate point.I are easily found (Fig.15.8). The mults are given in
the following table.
JllLUUllJI
--- LL + I
DL : 2kif
L L ' 1'12 wheel I ines
- 1.099
- 1,162
Figure 15.8 Neptm: moment at lnb:tlor mpport. continUOW1 beam, 1hree 60-ft opana.
450 CHAPTER FIFTUN
----
A samfactory cnvdope for maximum .hear tan be found by determin- ,,..,,,---
Vs
ing the following: (I) mear a1 end support, (2) positive and negative
shears at the 0.4 point nearett the end 1upport, and (3) negative mear x
just to the left of the first interior supporl
l!LUIPLll
Detezmine the apprmlmate envclope of maximum shear• fur the beam PLAN VIEW, TRANSVERSE LOADING
of Pig. 15.4a.
I. Maximum shear at A o~ with the truck in the position shown
in Fig. 15.911. The moment at B Is found by determining the fixed-end
moment and using the distribution of Fig. 15.5. The lied-end moment, x
which is easily computed from the known formula (Fig. 15.9e), is
302 ft-kips. Therefore, MB= 0.533X.302=160 ft-kips, and RA= 58.I kips.
For 1.5 wheel lines and Impact of 27 percent, RA = 55.5 kipa.
2. Mulmum posltlve shear at the 0.4 point occurs with the truck in
the position shown in Fig.15.9b. Proceeding u in step I, the mulmum
shear V =RA Is found to be 24.7 kipa. ELEVATION VIEW, LONGl'nJDINAL LOADING
3. Maximum negatm lhear at the 0.4 point O(;(;\IQ with the truck in Figu.. 15.10 End-tpa11 maDmum shear envelope. oontlnW>UI beam, thzee
the position shown in Fig. 15.9c. Forthi. cue, the muimum shear V = Rll 60-ft lp8DI.
is 21.8 kips.
4. Mulmum negative .hear to the left ofB occurs with the truck.in the
p08ition lb.own in Fig. 15.9d. The muimum ah.ear V =Ra is 61.2 .kips. 15.2.7 Imp.et LoM ~le LoMAll-1
5. The mnln11JD1. U. + I values are plotted Jn Fig. 15.10, and the
HIGHWAY Lo.\DINGS
envdope of maximum shears fuund by CQIDbining them with dead-load
shears shown in the figure. The static effects of the delign truck or tandem, other than centrifugal
and braking forces, shall be increased by the percentage specified In the
SHBAll IN INTEllIOll. SPAN Thble below for dynamk load allowuice. The factor to be applied to the
The mear envelope for an interior span is found in a manner 1imilar ID static load sball be taken as (1 + IM/100). The dynamic load allowa.nce
that of the preceding IWIIllple. In a three-span symmetrical bridge. the shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.
center-span shears need be calculated OJ1ly at the interior supports and
at the midpoint. Component IM
Deck Tollll:l-all llmlt rtates 75%
•- 6 32 32
(cl where
DB =the minim.um depth of earth cover above the structure (ft)
RAlLRoAJ> loADINGi
(d }
Acamling to the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-
p Way Association (AREMA) spedfications, impact on railroad struc-
turet la the following percentages of the live load, applied equally and
M• Pob(L- o)
(e) vutically at the top of each rail:
2 L2
0 b
a. For strlngen. girders. floor beams, posts of dedc-t:russ spana carrying
floor-beam loads only, and floor-beam hangers;
L
L less than 100 ft, 60 - L21500 + lOOIS
Fl. .re15.t l!nft.!opc of mamnum ahcar. L 100 ft or more. 18001(L - 40) + ID+ 100/S
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 451
b. For truss spans, 4000/(L + 25) + 15 + 100/S For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements for
Where the hammer-blow effect is absent, as in the case of diesel seismic effect shall be as specified in the following AASHTO table.
locomotives, the percentage of impact is given by
Multtspan bridgea
L less than 80 ft, 40 - 312/1600 + 100/S
Single- Other bridges Essential bridges Critical bridgea
L 80 ft or more, 600/(L - 30) + 16 + 100/S Seismic span
zone bridges Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
The impact allowance is also governed by the number of tracks on
the structure: • • • • •
a. Where the load is from two tracks: 2 No seismic SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM
analysla
L less than 175 ft, full impact on two tracks 3 required SMIUL MM MM MM MM TH
L from 175 to 225 ft, full impact on one track on the 4 SMIUL MM MM MM TH TI:I
other (450 - 2L) percent of full impact
L over 225 ft, full impact on one track none on the other
in which
b. Where there are more than two tracks, full impact is applied to any • = no seismic analysis required
two tracks for all values of L. UL= uniform load elastic method
The length L in these formulas is the following: SM= single-mode elastic method
a. For stringers, transverse floor beams without stringers, longitudinal MM= multimode elastic method
girders, and main members of trusses, L = length, ft, center to center of TH= time history method
supports. Calculation of earthquake loads based on AASHTO's single-mode
b. For floor beams, floor-beam hangers, subdiagonals of trusses, spectral analysis is as follows:
transverse girders, supports for longitudinal and transverse girders, 1. Calculate the static displacements .-,(x) due to an assumed trans-
and viaduct columns, L = length, ft, of the longer adjacent supported verse and longitudinal uniform loading pa as shown in Fig. 15.lOb.
stringer, longitudinal beam, girder, or truss. 2. Calculate factors a, Ji, and y as follows:
The length S is the distance, ft, between centers oflongitudinal beams,
girders, or trusses or between supports of floor beams or transverse
girders.
J
a= v,(x)dx
Impact for ballasted-deck bridges is 90 percent of the values for Ji= Jx(x).-,(x)dx
open-deck bridges.
y= Jw(x)v:(x)dx
15.2.8 Wind
Wind load is assumed to act horizontally from any direction. Wind where
forces may result in vertical or twisting motions of flexible structures. Pa= a uniform load arbitrarily set equal to 1.0 (kip/ft)
In the design of suspension bridges, it is prudent to verify the stable v,(x) =deformation corresponding to Pa (ft)
aerodynamic characteristics of the stiffening trusses or girders by wind- w(x) = nominal, llilfactored dead load of the bridge superstructure
tunnel tests on models. and tributary substructure (kip/ft)
Care should be taken in determining the path through which The computed factors, a, Ji, and y have units of (ft2), (kip-ft), and
lateral pressures will be transmitted to the ground. Continuous con- (kip-ft2), respectively.
crete structures may well be stiff enough to carry the lateral loads to 3. Calculate the period of the bridge as
the abutments rather than to intermediate piers. Structures having
concrete decks will usually transmit wind loads to the diaphragms or
cross frames at the ends of the span and thence to the bearings. For T'" =211~Paga
y
diaphragm and cross-frame design, the wind load is applied to the top
flange of a plate girder. where
Wind loads for which various bridge structures are to be designed are g = acceleration of gravity (ftlsec2)
prescribed in the AASHTO, AREMA, or other applicable specifications. 4. Calculate C.,,., which is the dimensionless elastic seismic response
coefficient, where
15.2.9 Othar l.Ollds
EARTHQUAKE LOADS
where
No place is immune to earthquakes, so every structure should be
As=Fp,.PGA
designed for some earthquake resistance. The simplest approximation
SDS=FaSs
of earthquake forces on a bridge is obtained by applying a horizon-
PGA =peak ground acceleration coefficient on rock (Site Class B)
tal force equivalent to a calculated percentage of the bridge's weight Ss = horizontal response spectral acceleration coefficient at
through the bridge's center of gravity and calculating the corresponding
0.2-s period on rock (Site Class B)
deformed shape. Where frequent earthquakes are anticipated, more
T., =period of vibration of mth mode (s)
sophisticated design methods should be used.
T0 =reference period used to define spectral shape= 0.2 T5 (s)
Bridges shall be designed to have a low probability of collapse but
Ts = comer period at which spectrum changes from being
may suffer significant damage and disruption to service when subject
independent of period to being inversely proportional to
to earthquake ground motions. Partial or complete replacement may
period= SmlSDS (s)
be required. Higher levels of performance may be used if authorized by
For periods greater than or equal to T0 and less than or equal to TS>
the bridge owner.
the elastic seismic response coefficient shall be taken as C,.. = SDS
Seismic analysis is not required for single-span bridges, regardless of
For periods greater than Ts, the elastic seismic response coefficient
seismic zone. Connections between the bridge superstructure and the
shall be taken as C..,.= Sm IT,,,, in which
abutments shall be designed for the minimum force and minimum sup-
port length requirements per AASHTO requirements. Sm =F,S 1
452 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
where
Climate Steel or aluminum Concrete Wood
S1 = horizontal response spectral acceleration coefficient at 1.0-s
period on rock (Site Class B) Moderate 0° to 120°F 10° to so•p 10° to 75°F
5. Calculate the equivalent static earthquake loading p.(x) as Cold -30° to 120°F o• to so°F o•to 75°F
The longitudinal drag force mall be taken as the product oflongitudi- 2. A longitudinally reinforud «mc:rete dab on ttansvme Boor
nal stnam pres.rore and Che projectd surface exposed thereto. beams supported by girders or trusses is a two-element system.
The lateral uniformly dlatributed preasure on a aubatructute due to 3. A 1l'anllvme dab on longitudinal atrlngen supported by floor
e.
water flowl.ng at an angle, to the longitudlnal ul.s of the pier shall beams framing into the main girders or trusses is a three-element
betalcenu system. The deslp of the slab in the three-element system i• similar to
that of the one~lement system.
p=CLV2/l000 4. A steel-grid deck o.n transvene beams resting on stringers sup-
where ported by floor beams framing into the main girders or trusses is a
p =lateral pmrure (ksf) four-element system.
C1 =Iawral drag coefficient sped.fled in the table below In addition to the above, the orthotropic plate floor, which oons:iltl
of a deck plau acting compositely both longitudinally and transversely
and, In addition. with the main supportJng members, Is uaed.
Su.:ss
The dead load COil.lisU of the weight of the slabplUJ any anticipated wear-
Odegrees 0.0
ing surface. Bituminous surfacing is occasionally placed over oonc.rete
Sdegrees o.s a1ab8 to matdi. the bridge app.roache. or to levd up or seal aacks In an old
10depe$ 0.7 conam deck. Where an addedblanht is a definite possibility. it should be
20depe$ 0.9 prtrrid.ed fm in Che design. Where a blanket ii a.dd.ed after yi:ani ofsenice,
~Odegieea 1.0 the higher me.es nonnally allowed in computing the capacity of emtmg
bridges wiD. usually comp~ for the ema weight of the h1anht.
The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral 15.3.2. ConCNtll Floors
stream prmure and the IUl'face expose<1 thereto.
Tranlver8ely reinforced concrete a1ab.t are commonly wed on steel-
WAVBl.oAD stringer spans, plate girders, and truss bridges, as well u on semal
Wave action on bridge structures •hall be comidered for expOffd types of reinforced-concrete struc:turet. 'fypla.1 examples are shown in
structures where the developme.at of &lgnltlcmt wa\11: forces may occur: Fig. 15.11. A rteel-stringer span, in which the dab iu one-element floor
system, is shown in Fig, 15.1 lA. A truss span, in which the slab ls part of
P=KV2 a Chree-ele.ment floor system. ls shown in Fig. 15.llb.
UA.KPLB
IcB P.ussu.u
Design a 1ransvenely relnfurced conalrte mb continuous over 1hree er
In the absence of more precise iDformatioa, the following values may be more longitudinal steel striDp:s. AASHTO spedficaliom Working Stms
u.ed for eff'ective ice cnuhing mength: Dealgn.Liveloac1!sHS2o-44.Allowable~J.=1600Jl'l,.f.=20,000pd
• 8.0 bf where breakup occurs at melting temperatun:1 and the ice is No allowance will be made for lutun! wearing surfac.c. A typical section
substantially dblntegrated in ill mucture it shown in Fig. 15.12. The aaumed. slab thickness is 7 in., weight 88 ps£
• 16.0 ksf where breakup occurs at melting temperatures and the Ice The design span S for a slab contmuous over two or more supporu .Is
is •omewhat dislntegrated in lt8 struc:ture the distance <:enter to center ofstringers minus half the flange width. in
• 24.0 ksf where breakup or major ice movement occurs at melting this cue, 7 ft (Fig. 15.13). The live-load moment per foot width of slab.
temperatures, but the ke moves in large pleca and is internally solid both positive and negative, is given by 0.8P(S + 2)/32, where P is the
• 32.0 .ksf where breakup or major ice moveme.at occurs with the ice wheel load per AASHTO. Impact for a 7-ft span .Is 30 percent.
tmrperUure. mnged over it8 depth. measuNbly below the mdling point
15.2.10 LRFD Design Mttllocl
The design phllo.ioophy of load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
14'-o"
., I <
l. Roadway
14'-o"
•(o~
t f
take. variability in the behmor of muctura1 element. into account in
an explicit manner. LR.FD relict on extensive u.se of statistical methods
but sets forth the results in a manner readily usable by bridge designen
and analym. It 18 a very deilrable al.temative when deilgnlng long-qan
bridge1 where the dead load Is large compared to the live load. I I
15.l mu. BRIDGES 1._ 4@ 7'-6"
~I
15.J.1 FloorSymrm Cal
Decks for mel hig'hway bridge~ are usually reinforced concrete. The I
we of ether types, such u steel grid, arm.or type, md pi.ate, and timber, t. Truss t. Roadway t. Truss
depends upon dead load, traffic, and the location of the structure. Decks !
should have a transve.ne slope and, If possible, a longltudlnal al.ope to
provide adequate drdnage. Twisvme al.ope should be at leut 1 pe.rce.at
and preferably more. Ad.equate drains should be plued at suitable loca-
tions to prevent Wlller from collecting on the deck.
TrPB.$
Exclusive of the main carrying members, Boor systcml C<III be clusified Floor ~am
u one-, two-, thru-, and four~lement system.I, as folloWJ:
(b)
1. A tranavenely reinforced cone.me slab on .main atrlngere or girden
is a one-element system. Thlllsverse-lamillated. timber floors are in the
same category.
454 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
# 5, 0 . str. it.
b, ......_,.-,.__,
C, str. 1·- 2·
7"
.•. ;:;o
7'-6"
.. 1 c
Section
7~6
11
)I
• 0 . -
~ # 5, b, (Q)11 "
:
-i-+- --+--
:
;
-+--+- (Top steel) -+- .
I
I I
'
-r---r- I --+-
I I I I
--r-
v
I I I
I I l I
I
1
I I I I
I I I I
(Bollom steel )
I
I
I
I
I
I I il
: : I . I I
llLUIPUI
Vories,
14' 10 30' 12Xl2.6
3.22k Pollilive moment in interior span: A. 1.01 in.2
20 x 0.88 x 8.5
,,
\ )
~ M
Wheel line concentrations No. 6 atl4 0.38 4.7
per foot width of slob
based on E:4.0+0.06S No. 7at14 0.51 4.7
\a) No.7at14 0.51 4.7
1.40 in.2 14.1 ft-kip•
,r''' ·1·'''l.J.~.:·~J ~ In the bottom af the dab. transverse distribution steel in the cen-
ter half of the span is determined as the percentage of the main steel
100/../S but 11.ot to exceed 50 percent. Distrlbution steel can be reduced
14' 7.4' 6.6'
one-half in the outer quarters. Tranavem temperature steel In the top
of the slab is usually No. 4 bars at 18 in. Details of the slab are shown
In Flg.15.17.
16'0"
#4(Q)18"
#5 IQ) 16"
Distribution steel• fL Bm. Distribution steel
CTop sieell
v
>-#6@16" #7@ 16"- ~1111@16"
i A
1'-d'+
- '-- #7®16" #7@16"-- v
3'-3"
1'6"
~ ~
l'o"
3'-6"
- 1116@16" '-#6®16'
cement and 3 parts by dry weight of natural sand. Thic:kne.u of the top A durable and satisfaaory surface for smooth iloor plate is com-
courae should be not lea than Y.i Jn. or more than " in. posed of a. coal-tar-modified thermosetting epoxy resin, with a. cover
Design coeftlde.Dts will vv:y somewhat Lightweight concrete has of alumJnum-GDde aggregate added to provide the nonskid surface.
a. larger value of n beaw.se of its lower modulus of elasticity. There is a
deaease in j and an increase in k and p. For balanced reinfon:ement a
higher perce.ntage of steel i8 requlred,. but there Is a reduction ill depth
of Che member became of decreased dead load. Beams will ha~ more
deflection owing to the smaller modulu.s of elasticity.
Someofcheimportantitem1wbichahouldbecoveredinaspec:iftcalion
for llghtweightconaete are (1) minimum. amountofportlan.dcementper
cubic: yard; (2) duired weight per cubic: foot (3) design strength hl flex-
ure; (4) type of lightweight aggregate; (S) grading limits of the aggregite;
(6) percentage ofbumed or unburned lumps in expanded shale (AST.M
Dealgnalion C142.); (7) hardne.u of aggregate to conform to a specified
tut; (8) mlllmum weight of aggregate 1n loose, aurface-dry condition;
(9) limita1ions on the moisture content prior to ml:dng. which indicate
the quantity of aggregaummple to be submitted for test; {10) provision
for substitution ofnatural sand, provided. it does not increase the weight
beyond the desired mulmum; (11) control of use of Internal vibrators
sou to guard agalnrt flotation of the coarse aggregate; md {12} uae of
.
air-entraining agents to improve workability and minimize 1eparation
of aggrega.te.t. t-1-9T- H-i11'-d'
' • .... • ' A_[(. Sent
A
' &
' ' &
•' &
•I
15.13 StHI Roora
L '.
~
' ' - ;
'
~.. ~-~.~.)_j ·-
Battl~edc. floon can be ~ed for spam &om ±lS to ±30 ft. They can be
wied. a.s plimary elements. for example, on pile benu, and in the ftoor - - 1- ' "-
·- ,_ ~-t+-M '~lo " " P· j1.
mo1'1.
system for plate-girder and truss bridges. Light weight 18 their dlatillc:-
tivc feature. Eac:h se<:tton or Wlit Is usually 6 to 9 ft wide, depending 012
the number ofunits required to make up the desiml width. Originally. '- 'll,.·•+boO wllh woshers
.
these uni1JI consisted of a. dedc. plale welded to either I- or wide-flange ord self · lockln9 nul
beame. More recently; the wUtt are built up completely from plates Port pion
(Fig. 15.18}. Tranm:ne stiffeners welded to the floor plate between
beams allow a thinner iloor plate. Rguni 15.18 'fyp!W.battlededtfloo.r, 26-ft spam.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 457
Before application. it is important that the ~e of the steel de<:k be Oongitudinal). to unsupported edges (transverse), and to the delign
thoroughly aandbluted. The time for hardening of this surfacing may span length. Properties of the composite stffl and concrete slab are
.range from 1 to 2 houre at 90°F to 12 or .more holl1'8 at 60°F. determined by Che tranafu.r:med area .
A surface of asphaltic concrete material suitably •ealed and bonded Units of de<:k grating are welded to Che supporting elements in
to the 4teel plate w:i11 work satlmctorily in some !cations. It is recom- accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. A succemw method
mended that WI use be limited to decks that have a longitudinal gradient of a!:taching the Irving decking is to weld the de<:k to the suppmting
not greater than 2 percent and where muimum temperaturea do not elemena wing 3/16- by lYa-ln. welds on one side of every fourth bar
m:eed IOO"E Asphah plank. filed in place with asphaltk cement. hu (Fig. lS.19). Welds are staggered ao Chat each main bat is welded at
been used on some structum. In some lnstallatlon•. hard stone chips every fourth rupport.
have been pressed into the plank to incnase trac:Uon.
To improve traction where traffic rum directly on the floor plate, SnucTUllAL Pu.n F'Loo11IN0
"c:heckered" or "traffic" plates can be used. preferably those in which For redec:king mating bridges, the structural plate floor ii economical
the patterns are rWed above the nomina'l thickness of the plates. When
choosing the type of sumce finish, c:ollliduation should be given to and comparatively euy to erect Wlder traffic. It i8 rolled in variou
weather conditions. Battledec:k. t1oon are sem:itive to weather changes. gage thiclmmes 111 widths of 24 in. Usuaily it Is installed transverse
Because of the free access of a1r to both aides of the floor plate, fret~ to traffic and welded to the stringers. Depending on the gage of the
ing or thawing occurs almost llmultaneou!ly with air-temperature
plate, the stringer spacing can vary from about 2 to 3 h. The effective
vllriation•. span of this iloorlng on steel stringers is de&ed for design purposes
Stul-grill floors are used where light deck syrtcms are du.ired. They as the dear distance betwee.n tlanges plus one-half the stringer flange
have been Wied on many movable structutta, such u vert!cal-llft spans, width. 1..Uenil and longitudinal clistribution• of a wheel load are not
bascule spans, and swing bridgu. In ge.neral. they COll&iat of two types: defined in the AASlITO spec:iftc:ation.s, but the ume distribution as
the I-Beam Lok and the Irving type. Either type can be uted as an open for a laminated timber floor can be uud. A continuity factor of 0.8
grid or &lied with concrete. An open de<:k weigb approximately 15 to can be applied to the i!mple-beam moment for both posWve and
19 pet depending on the type. Reoo.mmended apam for the vvloue negative moments.
A bituminous material, ammting of two coa.b, is placed u a wear-
type4 are given in manufacturen' lilerature.
Both trannem end longitudinal distribution of load is considered ing surfac:e.. The first coum is pla.ced to a level J!ighdy above the top of
in the design of grid flooring. According to AASHTO, a wheel load ii the corrugations. The second course Is placed so that after rolling the
raulting rwface is at leut .2 ill. @eve Che corrugations at centerllne of
distributed. normal to the main ban, over a width equal to I% in. per
ton of ule load plus twice the distance ce.ater to center of main bars. roadway and I in. thia at the edges to provide a crown. A typical instal-
The portion of the load asap.eel to each main bar is applied uniformly lation is mown in Fig. 15.20.
over a length equal to the rear tire width of the design truck (20 in. for
H-20. 15 in. for H-15). TIW distribution ls lhown in Fig. 15.19 for an 15.3.4 Aoor&ums
H-20wheel. Steel floor beams may be standard rolled shapes or may be built up from
In the d«ign of sb:el-grid floors filled with concrete, AASHTO plates. The dlrtrlbution of wheel loads to floor beams in decks without
ca1b f-or load distribution and bending moments determined in the longitudinal ltiingen depends on their spacing and the kind of floor.
same manner u for concrete slabs. TIW abo applies to edge beams Distribution facton are given in .AASHTO. No latenil dimibutio.11 of
wheel loads is assumed.
In floora with. longitudinal rutngm. dead load from the stringers can
be C(II!sidercd as a unifonn load on the floor beam for design purposes
without appn:ciable error. Figure 15.210 ahoWJ a tloor beam for a tnw
'' bridge having 20-ft panela. If the dead load from the atrlngers 18 applied
to thetloor beam as uniform load, the mamuum.moment l.&240 ft-kips;
31,6x 11;2" weld ~ applying the stringer ructions as wncentrated loads gm• a maximum
every 4 th bor moment of230 ft-kip1.
Live loads 011. the floor beam can be conaldered on the baab of wheel
<l Support
lines. The liw-load reaction per line (Fig. IS.lib) .Is 4 x 6/20 + 16 + 16
x 6/20 =22.0 kips.
It is asrumed that ttucb stay within the design lanes. For maximum
live-load moment they are placed as shown in Fig. 1S.2lo. The re•ulting
mome.at.ls
~
~
O'
c ~ 2 x 22 x 14.33 - 2 x 22 x 3 =« x 11.33 =SOO ft-kips
.!!
c 0
0N 2 c The total moment ls
·;0;
"
.0 u
'£ ~
.\!!
0 Ci Working*-
DL 1loor beam =25
DLltringcn =240
LL =500
Distribu tion wid th : ImpM:t 30 per<lent ~•so
5 : spacing of moin bor s, in. For an allowable stras of 20 ksl. the section modulus is
Rgure 15.19 Stftl-gri.d flaming. lhmring AASHTO dimibutian far 16-kip S =915(12) =S49 Jn.s
wiled. 12
45' CHAPTER FIFTEEN
/' '3'·0
End dOm t. Bridge
Bituminous wearing S<Jrfoce
Structural plote f loor
~Symm.
Bituminous surface
Weld to strinQer<ll>
eoch vol ley
2•-0°
Section A-A
Section A-A
(o) (b)
Uae W36 >< 170 allow for rotation of the upper bearing p1*. Other alternatives include
high-load multimtational bearings such aa the pot. 1pherical, and disk-
Load factor M,. = 1.3 [DL + U7{U. +I)] type bearings.
DLflonrbeam =25 SLIDING PLATBS AND SMALL PBDBSTAL8
DLlttlllgm =240 Steel piatel of equal area that are intended to slide on each other usually
u. =835 corrode, freeze, and cause trouble. A better detail can be made by using
hnpad 30 pcKCDt =250 a block or anall pedestal of steel for one of the piatel, thus keeping the
DL+LL+I= 1350>< 1.3 =1755 ft-ldpo=M,. contact area small
Eltutonteric bt.aring pads may be Uffd for all types of bridgn
M,.=FyZ Figure 15.22 shows a fypical elaslmneric bearing detail 1uitable for
Z = plutic 1ect.ion modulwi lhort steel tpans, concrete T-beam1, box girders, and slabs. A durmneter
hardneu of 55±5 I• the molt satilfactory hardness for bridge service.
1755 The thickneaa of the pad should not exceed one-fifth the width, nor
For P,.. = .36 bi. the aection plastic modulw is Z = (12) = 585 in.3 should 1t be 1ess than twice the horizontal movement. The minimum
U&e 36 >< 170 36 thickness should be 1 in. made up of two Y.i-in. layers. Maximum pre1-
The plastic 1ection modulus Z can be used only when compact sec- sure on the pad should not exceed 800 pd. The ln1tlal vmical deflec-
tlon1 are lnvolved. Most rolled beam sections meet the requirements of tion from dead load should not exceed 15 perunt of the uncompreased
a compact section. thicknen of the pad.
For molmum end reaction of the floor beam, one of the trucks The mear force on the pad, which is equal to sh~g modulw ><
mould be placed within 2 ft of the curb. The other truck would be area >< movemenUpad thicknest, should not exceed one-fifth the dead
placed in the Ame position as shown for moment to stay within the load. The modulus of elutldly in shear mould be about 135 p1I at
delignlane. 70"F. Because the pads are seldom set at the mean temperature, I 'h
times the temperature range auitable for the location should be used
HA BEARING AND EXPANSION DETAILS for the design. For th.lcknessea greater th111 1 Ill., increments of 'h in.
are wed. For convenience in f.abrication, pad length and width should
15.4.1 End lulinp be specified in intrements of2 in. To reduce buJsing of die pad, non-
Bearing details are designed to tranlDlit the ioadl to the subllructure elasti.c separators are wed between the layen. If metal plates are wed,
and to provide for apanslon of the superstructure. They may vary the pads must be molded to final size when manufactured. with at least
from thin elutomeru: bearing pads to huge pin and rocker assemblies. 1' in. cover of elutomerk material over the edges and facet of the pad.
Certain buic requlmnents must be satlsfled. First, the bearing must be If fabric separators are used. the pads may be aawed from larger pads,
adequate for the loading, which may occur simultaneously from several using care to make clean cuts. Quality of material ill of crucial impor-
different directions. Second. the bearing murt be able to accommodate tance in elastomeric bearing pads, and a good specification should be
movements of the stru~. The•e movements, which may be in any used and rigicUy followed Table 15.6 gives allowable loads for variow
direction, zault from load. deflection, temperature change, earthquab combinations of length and width at 800 psi and required thic:kneateS
movement, impact, centrifugal fora, etc. The de1ign must restrict for variow spans. Figure 15.23 illustratel an anchor-bolt. detail for an
movements to rebo.Dable llmib. This may be done with keeper plates, eilltomeric bearing pad.
lug8. and anchor bolts in slotted holea. Third, bearinp must be eaay to St/f-lu'brlcating bearings COlllist of two steel plates with a lubricated
maintain or else designed so 11 to require a minimum of maintenance. bronze plate between them. The bronze plate may have trepanned.
Many failures haw resulted from free7.ing of apamion details. In higbly drilled, or bored inserb filled with a nonplastlc lubricant over at leaat
1elmlk zones, it is best to avoid steel rocker bearings and tall pin and 25 percent of Its area, or 1t may be an oil-Impregnated, sintered, pow-
rocker usembliea beallle of their instability. dered-metal bronze plate with a compressive llrength of not less than
Eli:pansion details must allow for a thermal movement of I 'A in. for 15,000 pP. The coefficient offriction between the steel and bronze platea
each 100 ft of structure. Provision muat alio be made to accommodate mould not exceed 0.1. Unlvbricated bronze bearings iued on bridges
changes in length clue to live load. Span• over .300 ft long mould abo con- will U5ually be llllS8liafactory becaue they t=d to gall and freeze.
tain provision for independent expansion and contraction ofthe deck. Roller and rodra bewings may be uaed to advantage for spans of
Spans having leas than 2 in. of anticipated movement are beat sup- moderate length (50 to 150 ft). Rollen and rockers mould be of u Iarge a
ported on eilltomeric bearing pads. Span1 with more than 2 in. of diameter u iipracticable. with a mlnlmum of6 in. Small rol1ers and roller
movement and spans over 50 ft not using e1astomeric pads may be nests tend to c:ollect dirt and become rusted, c1ogp. and inoperative. In
provided with rollers, rockers. or lubricated alldlng plates and must have all apandon details provision should be mMle for drainage and thorough
a type of bearing employing a ~. curved b~g plates, or a pin to cleaning.
~s~ retainer
Steel
lL _____..--\-'-
shim
Rguni 15.22 Typical elallomcric bearing pad ddail fur 1hort-.m bridgco.
460 CHAPTER FIFTUN
Tb~F.~ Spon
:J
J
Muimum load, DL + LL + I, ldpe. for allowable rittea = 800 pli
L. ID
W,in. 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
6 48 51 67 76 86 96 105 us 125
8 64 76 8!1 102 115 128 141 153 166 17!1
10 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 203 224 240 256
12 134 153 172 1!11 210 230 24!1 268 287 306
Segmental roclcers. in which the &CCI of the roclcer are cut to a radius The webs should be rigidly connected transvenely. ifpo1S1Dle. The mini-
greater than halfthe roclter height. require1- space than do tylindrical mum thiclmess of metal in QI.St-steel pedemh should be I in.
rollers ofsufficient radius to ha.ve the same a.llowable streu (Pig. 15.24). The duign ofbearings is largelyamatm ofpRfermcz and aperienc:e.
They are 1lllilfactory where the movement is not too gJ12t and 1ei.nnic Ease of fabrication should always be kept in mind. Pins should be made
activity is low. Large movements introduce a component of force which as large as is practicable; small pins have a tendency to :freeze up. Drain
lifll the bridge. Large single rollers offer a simple. effec:tive aolution. Test hole.a should be provicled both in and around the bearing detail ao that
raults seem to Indicate that a.llowable &tressa higher than those per- water will not be trapped. Ifpockets oumot be avoided they should be
mitted by the AASHTO specification furmula may be justified for such filled with a mastic. Figures 15.25 and 15.26 show typical pedestal and
rollers. In a.ll cases, it is Important tha.t plates a.nd rollers or rockers be &hoe de1aib.
geared together with IUFI and restrained fuim moving laterally. In areas
of high 1eisl:nic activity, a wcher block should be provided. 1o prevent 15.4.2 bpmmlan H•ngen
luge vertical displacements in cue the bearings topple. In continUOUI girder llJlans with intermediate 1111J1ended. spans, support
Ptdatals and shoa may be cut or made up of wel~d strw:turaJ. ele- d.eta& mmt permit movement Por short spans, a small pedeltal may be
ments. The AASHTO spedfu:atiom require that 1he dif£erence in width set on a step fabricated on the end of the supporting girder. For longer
between the top and bottom bearing ll1lfaces not aceed twice the spans, where there la appreciable movement, piDll and hanger llnka, such
distance betlften them.. This la to ensure unlform bearing and minimize as are shown Ill Fig. 15.27, are quite satisfiLctory. For long span• and
beJidlng In 1he pedestal or shoe. The web plates and angles which con- heavy l.oada it is u.sually necessary to uae pin plates on each side of the
nect built-up units to the bue pla1I: should be not less than ,. In. thick. web to nib It and provide adequate bearing area fur the pin. Link
apansion hangers of the type shown in Pig. 15.27 should be regarded
u working pie<=ea of machinery. However, imperaptible u this may be.
they undergo almost constant movement. They should. be frequently
checked to make sure they are free to move and not corroded and that
a.11 the retaining nuts are In place. Failure to provide adequate inspec-
L:~~::ft.-3"~ x '12'wosher ·ec tion and maintenance can lead to catutrophk failures. Figure 15.28
.,.-,.....,...,.-,.,-1 1518' x 3" s lotted hole -a>
Sole plate
Grout
Figuni 15.23 Anchor-bolt detailfor elastomerlc bearing pad. FiguN 15.24 'I'ypical rocm detail.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 4&1
'!Ni''-i+O't+-'--'-+11<""1
~---t
4'12' std. pin wit h
recessed pin nuts.4 17/1i' 4'
holes in web and side plates
~ Section A-A
Section 8-8
Rg .... 15.27 Typtcal. llnk e:q.analoll. hinge for wdded plate girder.
462 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
'a:>
-- Fabrication is usually simple, and such bridges have been designed so
that fabrication ((lllSlsted only of cutting the beams to length. No falff-
I work is required. and erection .la simple. The appearance is clean. Rolled
-N
beams are e<:anomical for spans up to about 60 ft. In «llllJ'etition with
"N other mater:iab and with wdded-stec:l construction, the rolled-beam
--
I
-N
bridge often coma out second beat. Thi8 1' be<:au8e the rolled beam 18
of uniform cross section so that there is an uneconomic:al distribution
of steel in relation to the stress requ.iremenu.
15.S.2 Pia.Glrd.-Brlclf9'
Plate girders have the advantage that they can be tailored to flt shear and
moment requirements more d08dy than the rolled beam. They become
adVU1tageo111 at about 60 ft and are <:ammonly 111ed for spam to 300 ft
or more. Welded girders made up of three plate$ compete with rolled
combined are also m:ommendecl. Figures 15.29 and 15.30 mow
some beams in aD. but the shortut spans.
a:amples of ded: expansion joints which, iC properly f.abricmd and The deck bridge is u.ed most often. It is simple in its detail• and easy
imtalled, mould give good eervice. to fabricate. The floor slab may be supported direaly on the gird.en, so
(0 )
2"<6> 68°F
1\ri'x%"x1 '-5"@> 12
staggered with bars
below
( bl
80 110
I ""
140
Spon, h
requirements of field splicing. erection falsework, and equipment often
outweigh savtnp 1n cost. A seri« of almple spans is uwally better fur Figura 15..31 Corredioll. factor fur computing ddlectlon.
bridges whose overall length is less than about 100 ft. However, many
vuiables are ~din the decision. so each location mould be .tudied
in the light of conditions at the site.
DHPTH RATIOS
15.S.S S,.dng The depth-to-span ratio of plate girders and rolled beam1 wed as
Ordinarily, the number of beams or girders Ill a deck highway bridge girders should be not less than 1:25. For contlnuOUI spans, the span Ui
ahould be such u to optimize the coat of the bridge. Thil Involves a taken as the distanu b~ dead-load points of contrafl.exure. lfthis
cmnpartson of the cost of the beams or glrden with that of die deck. limitation cannot be met, the section should be intrea.1ed so that the
H lmuffi.cient clearance is aw.ilable, it may be necessary to use more deflection is no greater than would result fur the ratio 1:25.
than the number of beams or girders corresponding to the optimum
15.S.I W.lded Plllte Glrden
cmnbination.
For spans up to about 100 ft, either three or four girders will 111ually Typical details of the welded plate girder are shown Ill Fig. 15.32. The
be economical for a two-lane highway bridge. & the span lllcrease1, the American Weldlng Society Spedfkations fur Welded Hlghway and
depth of girder and its weight rise rapidly, so for longer spam two gird- Railway Bridges! recommend single-plate flanges, butt-welded where
ers with a floor system will be economical a change of section is desired. Flange splices should be staggered
414 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Flonge plote
6" 6" 6"
Seol weld {compression
flongel
t" CoPe
Web splice
Web plote
Stiffener
I" CoPe
at least 1 ft. The effect of flange thickness on the size of Bnet requlre<1 upon the quality of welding that the designer should make wre that proper
to weld the flange to die web should be kept in mind since the mini- steps are tab.n to obtain Che wdd st:reng1h antldpated in the design.
mum permissible 1i2:e of weld increases with thic:kne.u of the flange. A
UAlll'l.E-DBllGN 01' W.llI.DBD .PLATl\ GIJlDl!.JI.
5116-in. fillet Is usually the largest that can be placed in one pass without
special e<1uipment Luger wda. require multiple passu, cleaning. and A two-lane, continuous, two-gird.er bridge of spam 110, 154, and 110 ft.
chipping, and the coat of placing rim much futer than strength as weld (Fig. 15.33a) will be designed for the HS20-44 loadlng, AASHTO sped.-
si2:e inm:ues. fiQitions. The .roadway width is 28 ft. Steel is A36.
Intermediate tramverae stiffener• may be .mJlled or ground to flt The dead load is 2.83 kif per girder (Fig. 1533b). Dead-load moment
or cut short l iD. at each end to allow «eess for painting. Stiffeners and shear diagrams are shOWI1 in Fig. 15.3w and b. When load factor
not cut diort should be coped at the inside corners to clear the dei!gn methods are 111ed,. thefe values muat be factored in accordance
flange welds. Bearing 1tiffenerJ are milled or ground to bear on both with Table 15.la and combined u follows:
flangea. Fillet welde to the web may be intermittent or co.ntiDuous F1 =YID+ p(L+l)J
and as small as plate thlc.k:neue.'I permit. Bec:auae of the difficulty of
starting and stopping automatic welding macllines, fabricator• often y= 1.3 and p= 1.67 will be used iD this example.
prefer the continuous weld. Stiffener• may be welded to the compre1-
aion flange but to the tension flange o.nly where the flange meu Is 22' 110'
less than 75 percent of the allowable. AASHTO permit& Intermedi-
ate stiffener• on only one aide of the web. with a consequent aaving A al"I• G
in weight and cost of fabrication and improvement in appearance.
Sliffenen on one side only are required to be welded to the compres-
sion flange.
0
154' 110· 1
•
Longitudinal stiffeners permit the 114eofthinnerwebs md mt.yprove (o)
economical for deep gird.era. They may be cut at their inteuections with
trantvene stiffenen. 14'- o"
At field splices, the web-to-flange fillet welds should be omitted for
at leut 1 ft on each side of the splice md welded dter the flmge splice
ii made. Thia mulls in be1m' di.ttribulion of ahrinbge rtrelSe.I and
permits lateral displacement of the web if flange Jhrinkage causu the
ends of the webs to jam.
PA'l1GU.B
AASHTO and AREMA proviliom for fatigue are buecl. on the type of DL•2 .83 kif/girder
member or detail the kind ofstms to which it u rubJected. the range of
aervlce-load stzess, and the apected number of cycles of stms.
In welded work. probably more than in &!If other smictural fabrica-
tion proa:u. worlananship must be of the highest quality. This requires (b)
adequate and competent .lnlpec:tlon. Although the deaigD.e.r iB not usually
mponsfble for Inspection, the succe. of the de«ign depends so heavily Figure 15.» Welded plate girder.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 4&5
M • - 4109 + 218x-1 .415a2 influence llne for the moment at B ls shown in Fig. 15.36a. To find the
A
B C 0 maximum moment, we try both the lane loading and the tntck. load-
ing. the latter with the truck in the suspended span with the trailer
ule at hinge C. The trudc-load moment Is the larger. and M.rc= 1.47 x
1450 =2130 ft-kips.
~~~~~~~~,,_0
rf-"--~~D,____,.
E~
11 0' 2Z 110' 22'
0 .2
LIVB·LOA.D SBllAllS
The maximum shear at A ls U7 x 65.9 = 97 kips (Table 15.2). For
maximum shear at midspan of AB, the truck is po.titioned with the
=
trailer ule at midspan. This givet V 1.47 x 29.9 44 kips. =
To find the shear to the left of B, the lane loading .Is used in conjunc-
tion with the influence llne of Fig. 15.36b. With the 26-kip load. at B
1
V&t =IX 26+0.64X-(110Xl+132X0,2)=1.47 X 69.6=103kips/lane
2
From the iniluence line for shear to the right of B (Fig. 15.36c),
(d) LL +I shear
VBC= 1.47 (l X 26+0.64X77)=111 kips/lane
Curb
line Load factor moments and shears are summar:lzed In the following table:
Assuming the envelope of mazimum moments for simple tpan• to be D, =2!.._=Sl.Ci< 15,400
a parabola (Sec. 15.2.3). the envelope• of mu:imum moment shown in t,.. 0.625 ~
Fig. lS.37 are determined from the Vllluu In Fig. lS.3~. Thae ahould
be drawn to Si:ale. A scale of 1 ID. = 20 ft and 1 in.. = 2000 ft-kips is L,, =spacing at la.teral. bracing= 162 in.
"1Ufactory. M,. atD= 11,013 kft
In demmining the number of variatiom in c:ross section, the cost
of spll.c:lng must be balanced against the cost of the steel. h will uve.
Such considuatlons usually .ktep the number of spllce11 to a .minimum. Girder Girder
A constant dep1h and thlcknen of web hcilltue fabrication. All)(), it is
deairahle to hold the flange wichh conmnt and vary the thickneu as
required.
For continuous beams and girders, L may be taken u the d!nance
&om interior support to the dead-load point of contraftexure if this
distance is lea than that. defined above. Furthennoni, continuous beams
and cantilever beams may be proportioned for negative moment at inte-
rior suppcrt8 at an allowable nms 20 percent higher than that given by
\/
the formule but not to aceed 20,000 psi.
To determine L, it is neceasary to decide on the pattern and spacing
of the diagonal bracing and crou frames. The latter should be located
80 that bracing .Is at about 45 degrees to the girden and spaced evelily
throughout the span. For the bracing layout ahown ID Fig. lS.38, L =11 22'
ft and Ub =11(12/18) =7.3. Therefore. with the 20 percent increae, the
allowable llreas is 20 b:i, and the allo'Wllhle moment a1 support B is the
aame u that at D, 6930 ft-ldpa.
ODU>D. IECTION I
The crou sect.ion ii proportioned for the mu:imum pmitive moment
(at D). If no longitudinal st.11fener ls used, the web must be not thinner
than D/170 (Dltw =192, LFD). where Dis the WlSupported depth. Try
a 100 x *web, for which 100/0.625 = 160, with 18-in. flanges.
Assume braced noncompact section of web= 100 x %; flange= 18 x 2
Check:
19'
b' 8.69 • ... 2200
- = - = .....-.<--rij"
t 2 "p' Rgure 15.311 Lmnl bracingmr girder of Pig. lS.33.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 467
P=36b:i
S=4694in.5
Resisting moment= F,S = 14,08.2 > 11,013 B c E F
Sec:tton is okay.
GUIDllR. IBCTlON D
22' 110 '
The compressive atreu in the bottom flange must be lnvestipted for the
muimum negative moment.
H we comply with the minimum spac;ing of L• = 196 in., the section
can be s:iud as foiloWJ:
! (Cant ilever deflection
r=- ~
Maidmum neg. mom.. =M,. =9966 kit -°"--
0
-- 0
o-
->A
Auume web= 100 x %
Flange= 18 x lY.t - - - - - ~: .: :ed span deflection
P. =36bi
?=3775in.3
Gl.RDllR HCTIOH m
··--'6
M ....i....... = 36(3775) =II 325 >~
12 • for determlniDg Impact is 50 ft. Therefore, I =28.6 percent. Wlth. R =
65.9 lap. (Table lS.2).
basic value governs. The minimum fillet weld for a. 1*-in. flange plate
ii " in. Thmifore,
q=P..,A 100 plf
on live load
.F.,=65 kai
P1 =0.45 P,, =29 kai
A =ana of web wddl = 0.707 (0.375)2 = 0.53 in.l
=
P1 29(0.53)-15.4k/in.
VQ 524(18X2)52
s=horizontal .hear= 4.lk/in.<15.4
1 239,394
BllAJUNG &J'lllllElnlll8
Loa.di= p = 1.3(411 + 1.67 x 182) = 929"
For P1 =36 bi (abort column)
Area=Pl.F..,=Uin.2
Use four 8 x %-in. stltrenen. Exposed /oreo
in •'evotM)n •
Wind load : t2.t ft2/ft
On structure • 50 psi
~[ H~Y j
On live lood : 100 plf
•,- C+
Muspadng=ID=300in. or o(~~ J =.264in. Wind-load reac:tl.on at pier B =411 x 0.6112.83 =88 kips. This load
is ca.rri.ed to the end CIWS &ames by the ded. so 44 kips acts a.t each of
.F,=36bl. Che upper comers of the frame {Fig. 15.42).
7 Loada in CB= 44 ldpt C:
C 4.SX10 k
.AC=44kip1T
(Dlt,,,f P1
CF =56.I kip. T =44X(14S/114)
D=lOOin.
d.,=132in. Member .AE, try WT6 x 15, A= 4.40 in.a, r,.= 1.75 in.
t,,. =0.62Sln. ..!:.= 228 =130<140
s '" 1.75
1=5+ (d.ID)z =7.87 P., =16,000-0.3X13@1=10,930
C=0.384
=!..= S6,lOO
!.•A 4.40
=12.750 _.
r•
For ea.e of construc:tl.on, use 132-in. spacing.
Member BC, CP, tryWT6x15,.A =4.40in.2, r1 1.52 in.=
Stiffmer size, I =d,t!T = 132(0.625)'(0.S)= 16.11
..!:.=1.45 =95
~
J=2.S( J-2=-0.56:. UleO.S
r1 1.52
Pc= 16.000-0.3x952.=13,290 pal
p 56,100 .
A=[0.15BDt,,.(l-C)](f,-18t!) y=
P,
F,,... =1.0
P,..- f."=-=--=12,750
A 4.40
p11.
1M TRUSS BRIDGES
Trusses are used In high.way bridges only for very long spans. However,
tnusel ma.y be economic;ally Wied for shorter spans where ustheti«
and (in the case of through bridges) safety with high-fPeed traffic are 1.18
not critical. Deck-truss b.ridget are preferable.
15.6.1 Praportlom Figure 15.44 Influence llntt fut parallel.·chord tnw.
The Wamm tru11 ill more economical dian die Pratt for parallel-chord
tnwet. For apans gruter than about 320 ft, the K-truss ls advisable to
.reduce floor weight and the !nclmation of the diagonals. Depth-to-span similar bridge11 orby estlmate. Primary messes may be computed by the
ratios wry consldmibly, usually between 1:5 and 1:10. Por best mulls. methods of joints or of ffctions. A tabular solution, bued. on moment
die depth should be such that the angle of the diagonal &lla in the range inacmenta, ill useful for dead-load stresses in pa.rallel-chord trullses
of 50 to 55 degrees with the hori2:ontal. Long panels require a heavier (Pig. 15.43). IDtluence lines are useful for live 108.lb, pa.rticularly ule
deck. while short panels ilu:reue Che cost of the truss, •o a compromise loads, and are ea.slly constructed (Fig. 15.44).
must be made, usually In the Nllgc of 16 to 32 ft fur the panc:la of a
Sl!CONDAAY STIUISSl!S
highway bridge tnw.
Gravity ues of truss members should coincide with their working Trwaet having &ed. jo.inb generate bending in the members. The
llne.t. However, a small eecentr:ld.ty may be ueed to compensate for the resulting bending ~ are c:alled secooda.ry atftteea. Such at.reeses
dead load of a member. Trusae6 should be erected with enough. camber may also result from eccentric connect.Ions frozen pins or from trant-
to offset at leut the dead-load. ddleaion. venc loading on the members. Sewnda.ry me.ses can be minimiwcf
by avoiding stiff members. Members whote widlh ill not more than
15.6.2 loads and SllRsMt one-tenth their length will IUllally not have eecondary meaae.t larger
Various formulas for estimating the weight of bridge trusses have been than 25 per«nt of Che primary messes. Both AASHTO and AREMA
developed, but designs wry so widely that formulas a.re not uru.aDy require that secondary lll'ellsel in ace.u of 4000 psi in tmlion members
dependable. The dead load. ma.y be approximatd by comparison with and 3000 psi in compression members be treated u primary mes,,e.,,
470 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
15.6.3 nu11 Members trananltte<l by the deck. The Intermediate iwayframes are then designed
To the c::mnt possible, all membexs of a tnllll mould have the same depth to resist only 1he overtumingfmu in each panel Stmlles in lalmll. trusses
so that they can be co11necteda1 thejo.lnb withamlnimum.offillerplates. will usually be 10 small that mlnlmum slendeme.u ratio.t will determine
For the shorter apan.t, W secttons mah suitable, clean-looking members. Che mes of the memben. Selalulc forces must also be com1derecL
For longer spans. welded built-up I's or ba.uections with perforated covtr
plates are u.ml. 15.1 CONCRf.TE BRIDGES
'Ihm memben ahould be designed 10 that all surfaces can be reached
and painted and with adequate clearance• fur riveting or bolting. 15.7.1 ln'troclUldlon
Pockets wbic:'h. may trap water or debris should be avoided. Components and connect.Ions of a conczete bridge •hall be designed to
resist load «lJllbinatio.ns, as specified in AASHTO, at all ttages durinB
CoM81NATIONS OP STEBL6 the life of the ll:ructure, including those during c:omtruction. Load fac-
Several grades of rtee1 can be used to advantage in large bridge l:rusles tors ahaD. be u apedfied Jn AASHTO Section 3. Equilibrium and atraln
to meet varying stte&S conditions, with the me• grade for each member compatlbWty shall be mailltalned ill the an.al.ym.
based on maiDtain1D.g. in genml. a m.ID.imum thickness of plate. Thus,
lower-stressed members will be made of structural-grade steel. with 15.7.2 C.mbtlr, Pllllltlc Raw, .nd Shlfnute
the nat higher s!R11 grade being wed for members with larger stress. The detenninalion of the camber to provide in the dedt of a bridge is
and so 011. For enmple, three grades of ateel were used ill the Be.nld.a- an important comideratlon. The geometriea of some struc:tures, suc:'h. as
Martlnez Bridge (Fig. 15.45). Chose with tk.elWd bents and those 011 horizontal curves, or a combina-
The efficiency ofbo~ tru.u membm can be in~ by butt-welding tion of both. cm make this a complex problem.
a iteetion of higher~ steel on ea.eh end. This offsets Che loss in area Initial deflection is a function of dead load. It is also affected by the
from holea, •o that the gi011S area of Che member can be fully effective. In =
1equence of construction. The Jecant modulw E lOOOfc can be wed
other caac:s, Che aame result c:an be acliieved by wddlng 011 a thichr sectton to determine the deflection wbic:'h. occ:urs immediately upon striking
of steel ofthe same grade as the member. This deYic.e can also help mluc.e the fal!ewruk. S1rllrnues Q/Jllbered only fur lni1ia'l deflection will ride
the me of the joint. These ideas are illuJtrated. in Pig. IS.46. Note in thia 1111oothly at lint. but und.ula.tions develop with time. This is due to
detail 1hat the W\'.ld is I ft out from the first transverse line of bolt» In 1he plutic flow or c.reep and, to Jome extent. shrinkage.
joint When: sm:ralgradea ofstedare txought together In a Joint. Che gusset Deflection due to pluttc flow illc:reases rapidly at first. but the rate of
platu al\! made of1he hlg'hest sne. grade of steel rep.raented In 1he joint. Increase decreaset with time, ao most of It occun In a period of about 4
or 5 yean following C008tYUCtion. Sufficient umber ahoukl be provided
15.6.4 Ll'ttrll FGl'ClaS to allow for the ultimate dc:llection. which may amount to dine or four
The dutgn of truas bridges Is usuaDy based 011 the assumption that wind time.t theinlt!al.deflectlon. For calculating thla camber, valuea ofB of250
load on the structw'e Is canied to the suppom by the upper and lcnm to 350f.me;y be used. depending upon the charac:terlstla of the concme..
lateral systems, where they are transmittl!d to 1he bearinp by 1he end The AASHTO 'Pecificaliom RqUire that ahrinkage be comidercd.
sway frame.t or portal b.racln.g. Wind on the live load is wumed to be in the design of concrete muctunis. The effectivene.a of shrinkage in
L ~ ~ ~ ~
.,, ~ •1< Cont inuous spon
iISuspended span Canti lever
I-
j 1
JaNl2NZNV ~VNk1N0Kk
~ I i
33
·
..,
- - - Structural grade steel, YP • 33,000 psi
-- Medium strenqth steel, YP • 42,000 psi
- Heat - treated high - strength alloy
steel, YP•100,000 psi
Butt welds
High - strength Medium-strength
steel steel
Gusset plotes to
motch highest strengt h
stee l entering joint
..
+-
Q
"O
10
15.8 SLAI BRIDGES
1s.e.1 SlmpltSpens 0
..
~
>
8
_ HS20-44 live lood __
6
A longltudlndly reinforced slab is the simplest form of (Oil~ bridge E: 4+0.06S
4 fs' 20,000 ps;
supemrw;ture. It is economical {or limply supported spans up to 20 ft
f~ · 4000psi
or more in length and may show economy in continuous spam up to n =7. 5
2
40 ft. It call be supported on piles, calumn bents, or plm. Typial ae~
tlons of conaete ~-in-place slab stzuctures are shown in Fig. lS.47. 0
Pile. generally provide the most economical intnme<liatc support 0 10 20 30 40 50
for conlinuoWI slab bridges. They are particularly suili!d to locations Spon, ft
where drift le not a problem. Co.nc.rete-colum.n be.nte and aolld plen
Flfu1915A8 Approzimare depths of WI> brtdp.
are the nat most economical substructure types. On colltlnuous spans
of ±26 ft and lonp, pile caps can be eliminated ein<:e for suc;h spans
Che pile spacing is cJ~e enough to allow the slab mdf to act u a c;ap
within the requhemeD.b of the AASlITO apeclficatlom. Thl8 raulta in
a mlDimum of formwork and provides a pleasing and simple structure. The spec;lflcalions require that one-third of the main steel mend
beyo.11d the W:e of the support at least 6 in. The .remaining bars must
DISl'llIBtl'TlON OF LIVll. loAI> be mended IS d.iameten but not Im than one-twentieth of the span
For de.tign of the slab, the AASHTO epecl&ations assume a wheel load beyond the point at which c:omputatiom show they are no longer
to be d!stt:lbuted transve.rsely over the effei:tive width B =4 + 0.06S, n«ded to ttlllt Sl:ttls. For No. 8 ban in a 20-ft span, this givea 15 Jn.
where S iJ the cff'cctive span in feet and main reinlon:cment i• parallel These emnslons are shown in Fig. lS.50.
to traffic. Distribution steel in the bottom of the slab, transverse to the main
reinforcement. is deteimined u the percentage 1001../S = 100/../ii =
El'.A.IO'IJ!. 22.4 percent of the .main reinforcement. The area required u 0.224 x
Dmgn a simple-span slab bridge for the HS20-44 load.ing. Span= 20 ft 1.58 = 0.3S in.2/ft of dab, which is furnished by No. 6 bus at IS in.
(the span length ill defined as the d.istanc;e c::enter ta c:entcr of rupport.t These bars are placed in the c:enter half of the slab. Dimibuiion steel
but not to exceed the clear span phu thlckne&s of alab), f. = 1600 pal. can be reduced by SO per«nt in the outer quarten u ahown in
f.= :U.000 pQ. n =7.5. Impact allowance for a 20-ft span is 30 percent. Fig. 15.50. Tumperature reinfo.rcement shown in the top of the al.ab is
From Fig. 15.48, which~ slab depths that can be used for prelimi- the required minimum, No. 4 ban u 18 In.
nary design, the probable depth of the slab iJ 12* in., for which the dead Top and bottom reinforcing bars c;an be uniformly spaced and held
= =
load is 160 ptf. The effective width B 4 + 0.06 X 20 5.2 ft. Therefore, securely by the use of bar chairs. These are made from No. 4 bars, bent
u shown in the detail In Fig. 15.53. They should be placed about 4 ft on
M,,, = 1.3(D + l.67(L +I))= 1.3(8000+1.67(20,000)) = 53,820 ft-lb centera meuured along the span and 3 ft on centers tnDsversely.
A,= M• =1.52 ID.2
"'= 0.9 (flame)
,.
15.a.2. Contln110111 Sp.ms
.,,(d-i) /,=60bi Where good foundation material le encountered and differeatial settle-
ment is not a problem, continuous slab bridges are ec;onomkal. In some
locatiom. they may be economicd up to spans of @out 40 ft. Above
,_ A,f, d=12.!.-2=10.S 40 t\. reinforced-concrete T-beam.s, cored slabs, or box girden should
!.,-O.SS(b)(a) 1680<40000K 2 be considered.
a= pc= 0.85 x 6.25 = 5.3 For aesthetic and economic reasons, the continuous slab bridge
should have a uniform thickness. If the spans ue equal. this thickness
For No. 8 bars at 6 in., .A,= 1.58 tn.l Lengths of these ban are deter- can be held to a minimum by uling compr1!11ive steel at pointl of large
mined from Che mu:lmum-mome.nt envelope in Fig. lS.49. Figure 15.50 moment. For example, in a four-span slab of uniform depth, the maxi-
shows typical sections and steel layout. mum moment occurs at Che Bnt interior bent. To hold Che volume of
~ ~
10'- o"
-
I
·~
~
'
DI'}
"'
·-?"20
{"
d 0 epth =
' I 2.5" =
D
A,.
10'- 4" #8
l"
,. II'
(a) (h)
conm:te to a minimum, the alab depth for balanced reinfon:ement can Continuous slab bridges on the pile benbl can be buih up to about
be baaed on the polil:l.ve moment in the end~. and the larger nega- 150 ft in length without expanalon jolnta, with. the e.nd bent con-
tive moment at be.at 2 am be provided for with. compression steel in the stnu:ted monolithically with the slab. For this length, the passive mls·
bottom of the alab. The positive steel whidl must be extended through tance of the tpproadl material to pressure caused by a temperature
the support can be 111ed for this pwpou. increue in the deck does not produce ac:eaive compre11ive me111e1
in the c:oncrete.
LIVJl-LoAD POSITIONI
10'-o"
For continuOUI alabs ofspans up to about 40 ft. the HS20-44 trucl:govmis
it Span--=! for both p09:itlve and negative moment. Above 44 ft. the lane loading
#4/ij) 18 , both ways govems for negative mome.nt. Effective width of slab for distribution
( I
- 18 "c" ® 18", 14'-4" lg. Where drift is not a problem and stream flow is small, the pile bent am
~,8 ·:~"<a>, 18':: 19'-o" 1g.
be used to advantage in continuous slab b.rldges. Figure 15.51 wlD be
- #8 a -
(cl) 18, 20 8 I~. used to il1111ttate the design proced~.
The rear wh«I. of the truck will act u a conceatrated load on the 15.t T·BEAM llUDGES
bent. The front wheels (ule 3) and rear wheds {axle 1) will act as
unifOn:n low (Fig. 15.52.R). The latter two produce a bent ruction of 15.9.1 Emnornlc:I
24 kips per lane, which can be dirtribuled over the 10-ft width of lane. ln simple splll$ l0J1ger than about 2S ft and in continuous spam longer
The mulm.um positive moment In the cap .Is dete.rmined from than 30 to 35 ft, the economy of reinforced-concrete T-beams becomes
an ln1lue.nce line for a thm:~ continuous beam of uniform cross apparent. Depending upon span length uid labor and material prices
section: at varioWI geographical locations, T-beams cmnparc in economy with
reinforced-concrete slabs, steel ltrlngen {rolled beams). welded plate
d=21.S girder& (both composite and noncompoalte), reinforced-concrete boz
M,, =160ft-kips
a=l2 girder•, and premessed glrden. In spam around 25 ft, T-beams are
an:nparable in economy with longitudinally renforced slab., while in
A - M,. 229· 2 longer irpa.111, they should be compared with the other types.
' - 2.25(2"-a) m.
DliP'l'll-TO-SPAN RAnoa
Use four No. 7 ban. J!conomica1 depth-to-span ratios for simple spans vary from about
Muimum shear in Che cap l.& produced with the truck positioned 0.01 to 0.09 and for continuous irpa.111 from 0.065 to 0.085. These ratios
as shown in Fig. 15.52' and i• detennined from an influence line for a are fur girder• having unifOl'm. depth. 1n continuoue spans, ma:dmum.
three-span c:ontinuom beam of uniform c:rcm section: eco.nomy usually raults when the depeh-to-span ratio l.& 0.065 to 0.070.
gr
14 ' 14 ° 5' 1'
f,
I"'
£
t ·1
f3
4 spans@24'
x,
Xt Xt
REINFORCEMENT-BOTTOM OF SLAB
@or @bors
The.e ratios ruiuire a small amount of compreaive reinforcement over U> one-third the girder spacing In Older to eliminate drldcening the
the support.I, which can usually be supplied by the positive Rinforce- slab over the merior girder as a con1eq,uence of increued negalive
ment which is required to be extended beyond the face of the support. moments. In struc:turet with three or more gird.en, the spacing mould
In some cases, economical depth cannot be determined by con- be cuch as to make the girders as nearly alike as possible.
sidering the economy of the rtructure itself. Situallom arise where Girder mm width I• determined by the number, spacing. ed
the girder depth hu to be established for overall economy through a arrangement of mnforcing bars at the center of the span. The leut
consideration of approach fill costt or the necessity for meeting exist- width which can be used to enclose the positive-moment bars usually
ing street grades. provide. muimum economy. When .requlnld fur shear or for com-
pression ~ the bent8 in continuous spans, the stem can be tlared as
GlllDBJl. SPACING shown in Fig. 1S.S8. The increased width of the stem at the support is
Spacing of girders in T-beam bridges ii dictated by economy. The most usually governed by moment, while the length of flare is governed by
commonly uied qaclng• are between 6 and 10 ft, allhougb. ill long !!hear (See. 15.8.4). On co!Xtlnuous atructuree with apani of 60 ft or lees,
apans, It may be as much as 13 or 14 ft. Spacing depend& upo.11 the over- sufiid.ent compreaive .rehlforcement can be added for negative mome.at
all width of.uucture and the ne«ssity for maintaininB a slab overhang at the piers to keep the stem width uniform. This adds to the economy
beyond the atmor girder, which. according tD the AA.SHTO apecifica- Chrough mnplifica1ion of fonnwork. When compre.uive reinforcement
tiom, ahould not exceed half the spacing of girden. Whe.n widening .IB U8ed, the amount mould not ex«ed 50 perceat of the tension rein-
of a struc:ture .Is anticipated, lt I& preferable to keep the slab <Mrhang forcement required at Che same section.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 475
~
PART PLAN - ABUTMENT
(No skew ) 2-' 10 (0) top edge ot deck.ext end
rF'\.. ful I length of wingwol I
':;' /
1-............~...i;~;;~r:-;
*'4 U(Q)12
#10t·#4()
r-t1'-0"
~i1QA00:'
#4
#4
@r Section C- C
This wingwal l
#4 outside
is designed for a
foce only
WINGWALL EL EVATION
maximum ler1qth ISee wingwol I
i( .. •
at 12'- o"
(Curb and ro iling not shown) eleva t ion
Sect ion F- F
E
Port pion - bent Port pion- bent
CJ
Por t elevat ion - bent
u I· u
Port elevation -bent
u
/ q_ Bent
p + 2h
( Main slob Main slob
reinforcement g bars reinforcement
6
5 LJ, place
parallel to (. roadway Pile bars
Section 8 - 8 Section E- E
(a l (bl
= = = =
Given M 750 ft-klpt, d 40 ID.., d' 2 in., b 18 in,. f. = 20,000 psi, BXAKPLB
and f.= 1600 psi. deter.mine the reinforcement. Given M =690 ft-kips. d= 40 In.,(/ =2 ln.,A', =two No. 11=3.12 in.2,
Solution From Table 15.7,M=420ft-~furb= 1ft.Forb=18iD., f.=20,000psi,f.=1600ps:i. determine band Ar
M =l.S x 420 =630 ft-kips,, 10 c:ompreamre reinlon:ement mlllt provide =
Solution From 'Illhle 15.7, M, 63.33 ft-kips/in.1 of compression
=
750 - 630 120 ft-kips. relnfi>rcement. For A',= 3.12 !n.2, M, = 63.33 x 3.12 = 198 ft-kip&.
47f CHAPTER FIFTEEN
A
Port pion
No skew
1" 9 bolts ot bottom anchor
bors. Bock off nu t one
full t urn ond jom t hreods 11116'• 3"slotted hole in t 's and
after concrete hos set. sheet packing. Slot porol lel with
'l roodwoy
SECTION A- A
Fabr icate in 14 ' mox. lengths. Place joints where
transverse deck slope changes and ot edge of lone.
Golvoni ze otter fabr ication.
A
Port pion
With skew
1tz"elostic
bearing pod
.JJi=~~~i=:!...1" chamfer
f" x10'-o" depressed
key place ot t.
bridge
g bors
3"chomfer
Flfure 15.511 Typi.cal girdtt-ltl!m flare. When! the incn!Ue in lll!m width it
Flgur915.57 E:spamion ddail al bent. not mote than 2~ in. 011 a aide, lltirrup.t mar be deWled to uniform. width.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 477
(Contlnmd)
471 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Moment to be provided = 690 - 198 = 492 ft-kips. For b = 1 ft, M = 70' 70' 53'
420 ft-kips. Therefore, b = 12 x 492/420 = 14.0 in. and A,= 7.2 x 7.20 x
690/420 = 11.83 ln.2
Bar size A B
#4 3 1/4 4
5 3112 41/4
6 33/4 41/2 2" 2"
.T1!
7 4 4 3/4 2"
B 4 1/4 5
9 41/2 51/4
A.:.· B •I I• B
10
11
43/4
5
5112
6 L- A_D_ D j-12"
.......____ t
14 51/2 7
{a)
(b)
Figunt 15.59 Bundled bar telnfutcemeot
480 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Tryo.=h,=7in.
Figure 15.61 Typi.al 1ectian ofT-beam bridge alab. p. = bb [(0.8Siif:)( 87~;,oo: 1 J+ pI] /
p.=0.010 b.,=13
1 1~-fl
A-A 8-B c-c
B -, I
I A -,
.. I
I
I
_}
"'#8,cont. I I - I I
-
'" >
I I 11..#4,cont. I I I
I 6'flore 5 @> 12.. _J 5@> 12" 6°flore
8 ..,J
-, 7@>911'2. ( I A 18" I \ I 7@>91/l #5 LI stirrup spocing
I I I
,._,..
- "=itBet.girder-s-:tf-
1 1
_ _ _: I L-
~- -
I:-------
1
___ .J _, -- ___ __ J L(.~-~i~:_r_____-1 --=-----
--- --00 i_T ______ :
I -
- _____.... l -
-
1 1
J{"<l Bet. girders
,, -
I I
- -----1
,,~5
7 19
19 7
- - - - +- . -
/<lGirder
19 7
7 19
It 15
15 11
- -
'- #5, bars, lop with #11 ~;t. girders
t op girder bars # 1 1 bars, numbers denote
Layout of top girder steel distance in feet from
<lbent
I t Span I
.... ,, \
,, .... , ' ,, ....
I 21 22 - 22 27 I
.i....filr:~~ - 14 - - 14
- k k
- -
I 27
2214
\ ,, .... ,
"'
14
22 27
r
I '\ ' ,
/ ......
-
I I I
'- # 8
oc Denot es
bu nd Ied bo r s # 11, nm
u be r s denote distance 1n
feet from <t span
Layout at bottom girder st eel
10'-o"
15 5
• '-0" e m 1 s t loyer
,, 2n<l loyer
5conl,
otal 4
~--'-~--...r-'--'---+----'---~=--.J'>--'- 2nd layer
Top reinforcement w;J 1SI layer
Section A- A
3~6"
r'"I
«>[fFm" #11 , total 20
c:. ~#4[tJ@J12
Section 8-8
io'-o" 5'-o"
ELEVATION
earthquake. AASHTO specifies the allowable unit stresses which may d=20.5
be used with various combinations of these loads. The bent is designed A= M"
as a rigid frame with the columns hinged at the base. ' 2.25(2d - a) a=l2
Design of the cap for moment is determined by D + L + I. The cap
A, = 8.04 in.2
can be considered as a T-beam with an effective width equal to the
width of stem plus twelve times the slab thickness. Girder dead loads
Use 14 No. 7 bars.
are applied as concentrations, with the weight of the cap itself a uni-
The AASHTO specifications allow this steel to be distributed over
form load.
an effective width equal to the width of the column (in this case, the
Live-load positive moment is determined by placing two trucks
la:y) plus twice the effective depth of the footing, plus half the remain-
adjacent to and symmetrical about the centerline of bridge, with the
ing width of footing, in this case 7 ft 10% in. Spacing ofreinforcement
rear axles over the centerline of bent. Continuity of superstructure
outside this width may be double the spacing within the effective width.
should be taken into account in determining the reaction on the
However, it is desirable to maintain uniform bar size and spacing.
bent of the truck's front axle and the trailer axle. This reaction can
Therefore, 16 No. 8 unifonnly spaced bars are used, which gives the area
be applied to the bent uniformly over the 10-ft width of lane. For the
required within the effective width.
spacing of the columns in this bent, and considering the AASHTO
Shear must be investigated at two sections: (1) for one-way action on
limitations on load positions in the design lanes, live-load negative
a section across the full width of the footing at a distance d from the face
moments are determined for the same load position as for positive
of the reaction area and (2) fur two-way action on a concentric ~al
moment. In bents with wider column spacings, the loads should be
positioned separately for maximum positive moment and maximum
section d/2 from the races
of the reaction area. The respective valu£3 of
negative moment. v, are0.95/J: and 1.8 JJ:,
which give 52 and 99 psi, respectively, for
Double stirrups (Fig. 15.64, section A-A) are usually in caps of this JJ: = 3000 psi. The reaction area is the 1 ft 9 in. x 2 ft 4 in. k£y (Fig. 15.64).
type to provide spacing large enough for easy placing of concrete. For For one-way action,
the determination of maximum shearing stresses, live load can be posi-
tioned in the same manner as for moment. VM =148k
V =V +V =~=175kips
The main steel in the cap should be located so as not to interfere with
the column steel or the deck steel. In structures skewed more than 20 or " ' ' 0.85
25 degrees, some designers place the deck steel normal to the centerline
of bridge. This necessitates placing all the top bars in the cap below the
v, =2.0JTc'b.,d= 318k > 175
steel in the slab. No stirrups needed.
For two-way action,
DESIGN OF COLUMNS
The columns for this structure are cast integrally with the cap and super- V"=528k
structure to form a rigid frame both longitudinally and transversely. A
pin is provided at the top of the footing. Their design involves an
v, =404k <621
analysis for direct stress and bending in two directions. All the loading Stirrup needed.
groups should be investigated to determine maximum column stresses. In zones of seismic concern, a nominal mat of top steel should be
When investigating bending in two directions, it is important to placed and tied to the bottom mat with ties on 12-in. centers in both
remember that live-load stresses that are combined must be compatible; directions.
that is, if the column is being investigated for a particular position of
the live load, this position should be used in determining all the stresses ABUTMENTS
that are to be combined. Figure 15.65 shows a typical section and elevation for each of two
In a continuous structure without intermediate hinges, the deck types of abutments which can be used for T-beam bridges. The abut-
is extremely stiff laterally, so wind loads are transmitted to the abut- ment in (a) is cast integrally with the deck and rests directly on the
ments rather than to the bents. Special attention must be given to pile substructure. Expansion in the deck must overcome the passive
the design and detailing of columns because earthquake forces can resistance of the earth adjacent to the abutment wall. Therefore, to avoid
create severe displacements and shaking. Longitudinal steel should be eiu:essive compression in the deck, this type of abutment should be used
continuous wherever possible and should be fully developed through only when the total length of bridge does not exceed 150 ft. However,
fixed connections. No splices should be permitted in areas of high it can be used for longer bridges if a sufficient number of expansion
moments. Column ties, preferably spirals, should be closely spaced hing£ll are provided. Wmg walls can be placed normal to the structure
(±3 in.) and securely tied to the main column reinforcement to pre- or, as in this case, parallel to it.
vent buckling of that steel and to confine and contain the concrete, The abutment in (b) provides for expansion and is a type which can
even when brola:n. be used for bridges of any length. The back wall may rest directly on the
footing or, as shown in the figure, on a wall (which may be 35 ft or more
DESIGN OF FOOTINGS in height). Active earth pressure is taken by the wall. The abutment can
The footing for the bent in Fig. 15.64 is designed for a column reaction be founded on either a spread footing or a footing on piles, depending
of 380 kips. Weight of the footing itself is 30 kips. Maximum allowable upon conditions.
soil pressure is 2 tons/ft2.
The AASHTO specifications require that the critical section for 15.!ll.4 Typle11I Detalls
bending be taken at the face of the column. For this footing the actual Typical details for construction joints and intermediate expansion hinges
bearing area is provided by the 1 ft 9 in. x 2 ft 4 in. la:y. Taking moments for T-beam bridges are shown in Figs. 15.66 and 15.67, respectively.
at the 2 ft 4 in. edge, Fixed and expansion bearing assemblies are shown in Fig. 15.68 and
concrete placing diagrams in Fig. 15.69.
MM= 1.3(242+1.67(138)) = 614 ft-kips
I
I
...
,:• ·~ . 1.......- - - - - l
.. ..
.
.
. • . . ~r----,r.toi:<O~-:.....
.. ·o
'
{a) ( b)
advantage where, as is often the <;Me in cities, headroom is limi~. The minimum practicable width of web it 8 in. to provide for double-
In addition, they provide ideal space for utilitin. The unooth soffi:t leg stirrups and easy pla.cement of concrete. Web! have been built 7 in.
is pleasing. Becauae of their torsional atiffnets, they can be built on Chick. and, in rare instance1, a.s thin a.s 6 in. The 8-in. web can be wed
rather sharp horizontal curves; thl.& .Is a desirable character.lstlc where for depths to about 8 ft, above which 9 or 10 ln. is recommended. Web&
curved alignment has a bearing on the overall c08t of a highw&y can be flared to meet shear requirements.
interchange. Typical S«tions are 1hown in Fig. 15.70. The ~ for
(o) com:isb of single columns 6 ft in diameter. In (b).solid piers 2 ft.
1s.10.1 Economlct 6 in. x 42 ft are used. Three-column bents, each column diameter being
Box-girder bridge. are seldom j1Utifled for short tpans on the basis of 3 ft 6 ln., are used in (c).
cost alone and are rarely wed on spans of less than SO ft; if diey are. it Drainage holes mould be provided in the bottom slab for release of
ii usually for Che 1ab of uniformity in a continuoua structure of vary- curing Wllla', leakage through the top deck, and condensation. Oc:ca.-
ing span,, In the 50- to 100-ft range. boot girder' cost about one-third llonally there .18 leakage from utilltiea. Serious overload can ruult from
more dian T-beaml. However, the apertence of the comractor ls a big accumulation of water because of Inadequate drainage. There mould.
factor, and contra.ctors in some areu claim that. they can build box gird- be a 4-in. hole in each cell adjac:ent to piers and abutmenu, and w:.h
eo about as economic:ally a.s T-beium. One reuon ii in the method of transverse diaphragm Jhould have a 6-in. opening.
forming the webs, where, lnttead of 1lnishlng the topa of the fonm to n is comparatively simple to provide for utilltle$ such u gas and Wllter
aact grade. as In T·beam coD.St:Nction. they ue atended ~grade llnu, powu and telephone ducts, and storm draina and sewers in the
and the webs are poured to finishing strips. Another saving ruulu from cells of the box-girder bridge. Spuing of girder webs e&n be adjusted
reduced. costs of finishing •in~ only exterior girder faces and the bot- to meet. spec:iDc localions of these utilities, if necessary. Examples of
tom slab aoffl.t require a high-quality &lab. reinforcement at utility openln!J in abutments, be.au, and diaphragms
are mown In Figs. 15.71 and 15.72. Ifutilitle11 pua through an abutment
15.10-l. PropOltlonl where there ls provision for expansion in the super4tl'Ucture, It ls usually
Depth·to"'P&n ratios of 0.06 can be used for llimple span1, but 0.07 ii the advisable to provide a p:wage betw~ the end diaphragm. and the back.
generally accepted mmimum. for economy. The recognited minim.um. wall for acce11 to the cells for inspection and maintenance (Flg. lS.73).
for continuous spans of uniform depdi is 0.05. Ratios of 0.06 to 0.07 are When such access cannot be provided, the sldewalk accemqy is an
common for continuou. spans. but the bm appearance is achieved in alternative. Accemw.ys e&n be place<l in the roadwv.y deck if no other
the range 0.05 to 0.06. AASHTO and the PRcastJPrestressed Concrete location ii f-eaa:ible, but this is a potential for ucidenta to maintenance
Institute (Ref. 4) provide criteria for span-to-depth ratiOll for simple penonnel. ~ betwee.11 adjacent c:e1b can be through openings in the
spans and continuous tpana, for various type of bridges. web&. They should be located near the center of the span, where ahear
ls not slgnifu:ant.
WEBS
In spam of less than 100 ft where mlnlmum depth-to-span ratios are used. 15.10.J Desltft
webs can be spaced 7 to 8 ft on centers. The optimum spacing Ja likdyto be Some engineers prefer to design Che cross section as a W1l.t. As a gen-
between 7 and 9 ft fur spans to 150 ft. In spq.ns longer dian 150 ft. spuing eral rule. this e&n be done when die ratio of span to width e:zc«cU 2.
up to 12 h may be found economial Since the optimum spacing depend. The unit. girder (cell) method is n:commended for smaller ratios. In
on depth-to-span ratio, comparalive studies are advisable fur each cue. fact, unless and until further research proves otherwise, the latter is
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 4M
*'8cont.
Stop horizontal
~span length to <t bent
bars 2" from Re inforcement
diagona l bars continuous L-~===~:;z::::::i=..=t::::::j
thru joint
TRANSVERSE GIRDER CONSTRUCTION JOINTS Stop key 3"from
exposed sur foces
Bent cop
LONGITUDINAL CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
2-#5, cont.
(as required) It Brg--
L2
.. 1
Midway
between girders
Const. jt.
Reinforcement continuous
area through joint
4-#8x5'-o"total 8 for
18"± diaphragm ot midheight
of diaphragm. No additiona l
1 11
re inf. reQ d. for 8 diophrogm
Diaphragms
Detai l 1
LONGITUDINAL CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
Diaphragm vertical or
norma l t o deck grade
max.
8r .-.$ • 9 ttrtJt. or
,,,_
Btrl l z V. • f-<1"
•':Y},.
TYPE A T Y PE 8
DETAIL WITH BAR ANCHORS
In·· f -o"
~
....... -.
~:/"'.::'Jt ""1f bi~ for ,,. fflltl
Fltlft 15.67 Brldp apandoD details. AbattlDg .arfaces o£ stffi and cxmacte sboold be ~with ap11DJ1on llller to prcmd.e frtt mcmmcnU.
tape joint.I betwom m.l anglu and all remaining opmin&8 prevent Hepate af groat or amam betwom abatting aurfiimi
Caalk and
of hinge.
4U CHAPTER FIFTEEN
°"''''" '°'' 01
:- f H.,..
,,,. c,.,,_.nc ...,,,., -
,,_ !!!:'"'""" ':! ~-
~\;;;-•ot 4
_ ,,,...,
i·r . - , · =::~.'::[;?;-
·-·°' - ~ ~ ~
~,-•tv"'91h 1J lflc•nrn ,
F ·1 (~
J~
1
.z.:1L I _J 1 .i· 1L
s.. ~'°!!) fot _ • " ,.;.,~ 6 ,.
_..J
··:·-·-1 r
I -
L __ .!:'.. L ..
_, * <.. • 6 A- I - l 1~ - -'-f'!f.!.....-
"ti'~"•u __ --- . .,. '61' ~-'--
m111
J{CTION A- A
.S(C.!.(Q!tl .8·8_ TYPICAL BEARING DETAIL
l<ELJ1..~
__,...__...:::,,....:j.!
.... ~·,., •Wl,_'.:..........
suggemd for all box gilders 1ince with present allowable live-loa.d d..iJ... DllTIUBUTION Olf LOADS
tributions It is con1ervalive. The &action af a wheel loa.d carried by each interior girder is S/7,
Moments of .Inertia of the concrch: gron co11 section for one Interior provided S < 16 ft. where S it the 1paclng of girden (AASHTO). Por
cdl are gtvm In Table 15.8. Thele n!llCI include the effi:ct of 4-ln. fil. the exterior girder, S it replaced by W,. the width af the uteri.or girder,
leta (Fig. 15.76), but linc.e they a.umne 8-in. Items, they do not account whkb. l.s the dl.mnce from the midpoint between girden to the outaide
10t web flare In regions of large lhear. Stralgbt-llne intnpolation can be edge of the alab. In the cue of a bridge with sidewalb, tb.ia d.Utribution
1Ued for JDtf:rmecliate values. If the mameut of Inertia of an entire super- of vehicular load emura 111 exterior box adequate for future widening.
st:ru.cture it requiml, the moment of .Inertia of the emri.or girder CUI be Furthermore, dckwallt live load can be diaregarded. If nlling. curb,
appnmmated at 72 to 78 pert:CDt of dw of an interior girder. Valua in and sidewallt are to be placed after the alab .II cured suffkl.ently, their
tb.ia table can be mecl to compute dd1ectiom of ipallS of UDifmm depth weight c:m be UNmed to be dbtn"lnmd eq,ually among all the girdas
and to ddmnlDe Bud-end m.omentl, dl.ltrlbution and ~ £acton, oftheapan.
etc. for variable~ girders where the w.riation in momait of inertia Width of web at the aupportt LI governed by lht.ar. The web can be
appro:mnata that Ul\ll!led in the prcparmon of various charts and tablet. tapered from this width to the minimum pncticable width, die length
for mmple, thote of the Portland Cement J.wociatjon', "Continuoua of flare being determined by the allowable ahear for the minimum
Concrete Brldga.• We:lgbts of thae aou eectlom are given in Table 15.9.
Top slab design Is 11.m11u to that b the atcd.-stttngcr bridge (Sec. 15.3.1)
width. An aample is mown
in .Pig. 15.74, where the eJfective gg,th
45 in. With the AASHTO a11owah1e ahear sttta v = v, + 0.4 /C,
where
"=
and the T-beam bridge (~. 15.9.1 ), the e~tivupan being determined v,= 0.95 ..fC, the 8-in. web LI Just rufilcielltat 16ftfrom the support, u
u for the lalta. mown in the fuD.owing table.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 41t
Bearing pad
Plan
Ped et Centertine of Girder
et Abutment
-----, I
Detail
Spldng of No. 5 U Stlrn.1p11(FltJ.15.1'4) «ntered in the slab. Bar tpUing mu.rt not eueed 13 in. The~e require-
DI.mince. ft Web, in. V.ldps v,pal Y-V, SpacinJ. in.
menlt can be met by distributing the girder tensile reinforcement
throughout the slab or by adding steel if the girder reinforcement is
0 12 HO 260 208 8.5 concentrated near the web. Minimum traDs\'erse reinforcement In the
m 261 209 9 bottom slab Is 0.5 percent of flange area. distrlbllk<l over both surhcet.
'
8
12
11
10
9
117
106
260
262
208
210
10
11
The bars must be bent up into the exterior girder stems and anchored.
by a mndard. hook.
16 8 97 269 217 12
l>IAPHRAGM9
20 8 89 247 195 13.S
:u 8 8G 222 170 15.S The box-girder bridge is leu dependent on diaphragms for lran.m!rle
rigidity than it the T-beam bridge. However, diaphragms do improve
torlional ra:tstance of curved bo:a:es. D.laphragm• need only nominal
If the increase 1n width of stem doei not m:eed. 2¥.& l.n. on eac:h side, reinforcement at the top md the bottom for support of stirrups. as the
stlmlps ll1llY be of uniform width. ttantvem steel in top and bottom mb!I provide11 for their colltinuity
at the girders. Nominal shear reinforcement, that U, No. 4 at 12 in., is
BOTTOM SI.All
ample except where utility opening\! are required. Both intumediate
The AASHTO spedflcatl.ons requlre a bottom flange thlcknes not lea and end cllaphragms having such openings should be proportioned for
than SY.I in. or onMixteenth the dear distance b~ mbs, whichever load, usually a tJUck wheel midway between girders.
is larger. However, in the regions of negative moment in shallow, con-
tinuous girden, t1ange thicknes,, will be governed. by stres9. HOJUZON'l'ALLY CmlVBD GI.IU>BR$
ReWorcement not less than 0.4 percent of flange area is req~ In The am-qe length of span can be used for determining the &ame
the longitudinal direc:tion in the bottom flange. A single layer may be constant.t for continuous, horizontally curved box girdmi. In designing
4!10 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Dia.
Abut. No.1 No.1 Bent No.2 No.2 Abut.No.3 (o)
i@~*~&~
t t t
Abut t t Bent Bent Bent Bent Abut
..L---- - - -...1...,
'rr--- -- - - ......
tl ,,
I •
7@7~1'' : 49'.7" >
1·
the girders, two girders in a given JPllll. (e.g., the longest and the short- Cc)
est Interior girders) can be designed and the others proportioned from
them by interpolation. Rgure 15.70 Box-girder bridge, typi.al Mdia.na.
Dead. load and live load both produce torsion in horizontally curved
girders. Where the width of the bo:r. a.ceedt the height. u is usually the
case Jn br:l<l&\ls. torsion can be neglected In continuous spans Ifthe cen·
trtl.1 angle betmen ben1J Is Im than 30 degreu. Vario\18 papen on the The continuoua No. 8 ban in the Item& just under the top-alab flll.etl in
subject are avUlable where tom.on mu.rt be <:e>nsidmd in the analym. Fig. 15.76 are p.rlmarily for negative moments from possible falsework
settlement before placement of the top slab.
DDLBCTION Consttuc:tion joints and nmcdlaneoW1 details are Shown in Fig. 15.78
Dead-load. deflection must be deter:mlned so that forms am be and acx:es,, openings in Fig. 15.79. End-bearing assemblies for T-beam.
cambcn:d. Because of Greep. ultimate deflec:tion uu.ally develop• in 4 or bridges Gall also be used for box-girder bridges (Fig. 15.68).
5 yean (Sec. 15.6.4). The moment of inertia of the gro111 concrete m:m
eection may be used in computing deflection; the tramformed aectl.on is 15.10.4 Submudure
an Wlllecessary refinement in view of the many uncertainties. Methods The same typet of substructure can be used for box-girder bridget u
of wmputinf deflection are di.Kumd in the Portland Cement ANoc:ia- for T-beam bri~ll. Bodi. top and bottom of the column must be fmd
tion'1 ST Chart 70. A c:amber diagram for a three-!pm GODtinuoW1 box in dngle-column ben1J for contlnuo\18 ttructures. In multicolumn
girder 18 llhown in Fig. 15.75. Immediately after removal of flllsework. bents, either end, or both. may be fixed, depending upon requirement.I
deflectio.us will be about one-fourth the give.n values. for sei.lmic resi.!tanc:e, stability, 1tiffne111, and proviliom for changeil in
Suggmed concrete placing sequen~ are Shown in Fif. 15.69. temperature. Structura of three or four spans can be plalllled ao that all
Midspan portiom of the girders are c.ut tint to avoid po11ible c:racl:ing apui&!on Is taken at the abutments. with longitudJnal mhllityprovided
at the bentl, which could occur if these portions we.re placed last. Alter- by the benu. Columm in bem:. farthest from the <:enter of movement
native procedure. are suggested In the notes accompauylng the figure. may be hinged in the longitudinal direction at the top of the footing to
A typical layout of a box-girder bridge supemructure Is Shown in .minimize temperature and live-load moments.
Pig. 15.75. A typical, partial GIOH section is shown in Fig. 15.76, where Ctps in &!ngle- or mult.lcohmm bents can be flush with the box-girder
only distribution and temperature reinforcement and those girder bars soffit. This simplifies forming and promotes economy. Opinions differ
whic::b. are continuous are shown. The rema!ning girder main bars in u to the aeathetiGI of thit procedure, and 1ome engineen ~er deeper
both top and bottom daN ue shown in a girder-reinforcement layout, capa. In any case, cape in alngle-column bents for wide bridgea ofte.n
sw:h at the one for a two-span continuous muc:ture in Fig. 15.77. must be deeper than the supe.rstructure to satisfy Stle$S ftiiulrements.
4-"11x9·- 0·:
totol 8
Typical Neor colum n
SENT CAP
2-"a.
totol 4
4 - " 11x9·-o·;
totol 8
Typicol
2-...
2-~~~
~,~4 ~.-6: :' _~0!.'~!::!!":_-1.,__"'": _,,. s' o'
~
2- ' 5•6'-0"
totol 4 t otol 4 tota l 2 tota l 2
Rigid frame Cantil ever type End Intermediate
ABUTMENT BACKWAL L DIAPHRAGMS
2- 1 6,
totol4
Min.
At column
BENT CAP
~3-"B.
~ totol6
491
492 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
nible 15.1 Moment of lnertl• of Interior Box Girders, •In, Stem, 4-ln, Flll.ts
Top slab, in. 6 6 6 6% 614 614 614 6% 6'1.i 6% 614 7
Bottom slab, in. SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, Sl4 s~
Girder center to 5-9 6-0 6-3 6-6 6-9 7-0 7-3 7-6 7-9 8-0 8-3 8-6
CClrter, ft-in.
nible 15.9 Weight of Interior Box Girders, •In, Stem, 4-ln, Flllm
Top slab, in. 6 6 6 6% 614 614 614 6% 6'1.i 6% 614 7
Bottom slab, in. SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, SY, S!il s~
Ginler center tn 5-9 6-0 6-3 6-6 6-9 7-0 7-3 7-6 7-9 8-0 8-3 8-6
center ft-in.
Depth, ft-in. Weight, kips per ft
3-6 1.11 1.15 1.19 1.23 1.28 1.31 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.49 1.S7 1.64
3-9 1.14 1.17 1.21 1.26 1.30 1.34 1.38 l.42 1.47 l.52 1.59 1.67
4-0 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.28 1.33 1.36 1.40 l.48 l.SO l.S4 1.62 1.69
4-3 1.19 1.22 1.26 1.31 l.3S l.39 1.43 1.47 1.52 l.S7 1.64 1.72
4-6 1.21 1.25 1.29 l.33 1.38 1.41 1.45 I.SO 1.55 1.59 l.67 1.74
4-9 l.24 1.27 1.31 l.36 1.40 1.44 1.48 1.52 1.57 1.62 l.69 1.77
5-0 1.26 1.30 1.34 1.38 1.43 1.46 1.50 l.55 1.60 1.64 l.72 1.79
S-3 1.29 1.32 l.36 1.41 l.4S 1.49 I.S3 1.57 1.62 1.67 1.74 1.82
5-6 1.31 1.35 1.39 1.43 1.48 l.Sl 1.55 1.60 1.6S 1.69 1.77 1.84
5-9 1.34 1.37 1.41 1.46 1.50 1.54 l.58 1.62 1.67 1.72 1.79 1.87
6-0 1.36 1.40 1.44 1.48 1.S3 l.S6 1.60 1.65 1.70 l.74 1.82 1.89
6-3 1.39 1.42 1.46 l.Sl l.SS 1.59 1.63 1.67 1.72 l.77 1.84 1.92
6-6 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.53 1.58 1.61 1.65 1.70 1.75 l.79 1.87 1.94
6-9 l.44 1.47 1.Sl 1.56 1.60 1.64 1.68 1.72 1.77 1.82 l.89 1.97
7-0 1.46 1.50 1.S4 1.58 1.63 1.66 1.70 l.75 1.80 1.84 l.92 1.99
7-3 1.49 l.S2 1.S6 1.61 l.6S 1.69 1.73 1.77 1.82 1.87 l.94 2.02
7-6 1.51 l.S5 1.S9 1.63 l.68 1.71 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.89 l.97 2.04
7-9 1.54 l.58 1.61 1.66 1.70 1.74 l.78 1.82 1.87 1.92 1.99 2.07
8-0 l.S6 1.60 1.64 1.68 1.73 1.76 1.80 1.8S 1.90 1.94 2.02 2.09
8-3 l.S9 1.63 1.66 1.71 1.75 1.79 1.83 1.87 1.92 1.97 2.04 2.12
8-6 1.61 1.6S 1.69 1.73 1.78 1.81 1.85 1.90 1.95 l.99 2.07 2.14
8-9 1.64 1.68 1.71 1.76 1.80 1.84 1.88 1.92 1.97 2.02 2.09 2.17
9-0 1.66 1.70 1.74 1.78 1.83 1.86 1.90 l.9S 2.00 2.04 2.12 2.19
9-3 1.69 1.73 1.76 1.81 1.85 1.89 1.93 1.97 2.02 2.07 2.14 2.22
9-6 1.71 1.75 1.79 1.83 1.88 1.91 1.95 2.00 2.05 2.09 2.17 2.24
IRIDGE ENGINEERING 4'3
For a rectangular section, wlth.f. = 20,000 psi and.f. = 1600 pcl. and Load. kip!
with ~nslon reinforcement 6 in. below the top of the slab. the area of 3tS 300-600
mel required ii
4.11 .500-1000
-~ 12X3790 47.SiD..2 60 700-1400
A. f,jd 20X0.88X54 72 900-1800
Uae 12 No. 18 ban, A. = 48 in.2 Bar curof& an be determined from a.
moment diagram. The various load combinations (AASHTO) to be investlgUed for the
The allowable moment for the rectangular crou section with no rein-
dmgn of the column of Fig. 15.81 are ahown in Fig. 15.82. Load (;ODJ.-
bi.nationa IV. V. 1111d VI are not tabulated because thia column is at the
forcement fo.r compradon is
cenler bent of a four-span ltrUcture for which temperature momenta are
M =~ • 1.6 x 0.375 x 0.875 x 72 x 542 =4593 ft-kips practically zero. Group mloa.dlng. at 125 percent ba.sl.c allowable me..
2Xl2 2Xl2 govuna. Anuming a tied column, analysis thows that 44 No. 11 bars are
required at the lower end. Since the column is abo fixed at the upper
Since the resitting moment of the concrete exceeds the DL + LL + I end, the difference in required relnfi>rcemart ill small, 10 all 44 bars
moment, no compmaon lteel la required O\V the column.. are carried to the top. The bat'$ an be cut off below ground u moment
Since the lane-loading concentrUed load la 8 kipli more for &hear dim decreues. In this enmple, 22 bars an: carried to the boUom of the pile.
for m.om.ent, the muimum aheu ii
Try No. 6 stirrupt, A, = 2(0.44) = 0.88 in. 2
1.1.11 PRHTlllSSED<ONCREft IRIDGES
v.=6051 v.=112.A: ts-.... <hlp.12of1h15hmd1-k)
v. = 2.JT.'b,,tl = 62t 15.11.1 Slllndard Sectlam
SW1dardization oC pnltrelled-concrete bridge members has been
v, = 112 - 492 = 22ot establlahed by 1imral joint committta of the AmeriCUI Assoc:lation
Ute No. 6 stlrrupl at 12 ln. of Statl: Hlghwsy and Thantportltlo.n OfBcialli md the Prest:rCS8ed
lI
t Br9s.
obut.1...., t Spon' t diophro9m t Spon' t diaphragm
6'-o"
f lore
Flore diogrom
Scoie : none
Comber diogrom
Score :none
Totol girder deflection due to deod loads
I!
Figu111115.75 l'yplcal. layoot. box-glrdu bridge.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 4N
''~·
Abut I Sponl
.. u
Spon 2
Top reinforcement
#7 Cont inuous
....
20
lO
'°l 2
.
/ ..
Abut 1 ~n 1 Abut. 3
Bottom re inforcement
Note :A ll reinforcement " 11 unless otherw ise noted. Numbers ot ends of bors indicate distance
i n feet from l bent for top rein1orcement or f rom t soon fo r bottom reinforcement
#Scoot
See Detail 1,
F;g. 71
Sect ion D- D
il Girder
~+++~~. Section E -E ot ope<'long
Note : Where manhole is ~
locotecl oajocent t oo - .,
diophroqm or abut . 6 '--
substitute half section 1- 0" min
Port pion E'-E'onone side of E-E
DECK ACCESS OPENING Holt section E'-E'
Elevation F -F
2- #6"""•8'-0" J
total 4 (fr
14'- ll
·-o" ,,
":\ 39'-4"
:i. -·
,. - -J
\
\
Spirallo extend at leasllhree ., . r,;.. ..
turns into superstructure 5 sp.ro 1,...., 3
bI A
·o:r bI
N
(D
Section A - A
~~lm~tlJ!!!!!!~-- Ground
End seirol 1'-o· line
with 1~2 turns
3·x:•b1:~~~y1l1l'
6'-o"
Section A-A
1
-'---- ~o
8
total 22
bars
#5 spiral
@)3"
:::J! :~I
~
o bars # 11,
total 22
Section 8-B
'ol
RgllN 15.80 Cap for a lillgle-column bent. Flfure 15.81 Single pile-<alumn bml
4'IJ CHAPTER FIFTEEN
at each diaphragm. If adjacent units of the 39- and 42-in. sec:tioD.S are Tention:
tied In pain, one tie, centered betweai. the bottom of the beam and the Precompressed tenalle zone: no temporary mess spedi!ed.
bottom of the key. i. permitted. The sheu keys are filled with high- Tendon areas with no bonded relnfurcement 200 pd or 3./1:
ltmlgth. nonshrinking mortar dW the ties are tightened. 2. Str«9es at ~crvice load after IONes have OCC\11'1'Cd..
Compreaion 0.40f.
COMBINING MllTHOI>S 01' P.IUISTIU!SS Tension (in prec.ompressed temile zone):
Pretenslonlng md posttensionlng can be used to advantage in combina- (a) For members with bonded reinfurceme.at 6.m_
tion in some cases. For example, a beam may be pmemioned. for dead For sevue corro&lon condltiont-eou1al areas 3./l:
load only and lifted from the bed and subsequently postten.sioned. to (b) For members without bonded reinforcement 0
complete the operation. Thl8 procedure allOW11 a more oonttnuous use 3. Cracking stres.1:
ofpratte"1ng bed!, which may result in economy. For normal-weight concrete 7.S./J:
For sand-llghtwe.lgb.t concrete 6.3./J:
15,11.2 so..a For all other lightweight concrete s.s./J:
Conaete fur~ bridges should be prdmbly not le. thm 5000 psi. 4. Anchorqc bearing stmlles
The AASHTO spmcations permit strengthJ up to 6000 psi, which, in Posttmsioned anchorage at service load (but not to a«ed 0.90fJ
aceptional c:ues, may be increased. While economy may be realized. 3000psi
with higher-atrength concrete., limitations imposed by availablllty of Lose of prestraa from all caus~ except friction may be assumed
suitable materials must be con&ldered. The dlowable stm8e6 of the at 25,000 and 35,000 pli for posttensioned and p.retensloned mem-
AASHTO sp«ifi<:ations are the following: ben. respectively. These losses conmt approlimately of the following
Notation. (friction loasu are discu.ued in Sec. 15.11.4):
f.= compressive strength of concrete at 28 dayl
fa= compressive atrength of concrete at time of initial prestres& Item l'Oltten&loll Pretenalon
f.= ultimate M!ngth ofpmtrasing steel
~~int slRll ofprestrea.mig rted Concme lhrinkage
ConcmeaffP
4000
11,000
6000
11,000
steel:
1. Temporary streu before loss due to creep and shrinkage 0.70f, Steel cn!ep 5000 6000
Elulic: ahortcning 12,000
2. StreM at service load after losses o.so.t; Scq,IM:llce •1l'alina 5000
Oversmming to 0.80f. for short periods of time ma.y be pen:nitted
provided. the stre.u, after transfer to concrete in prete.atloning or uattng Total. pci :25,000 35,000
of anchorage in posttenaoning, does not exceed 0.70f,.
Concrete: While thete specificmons allow prelltrelsing steel strema of 0.70f.
1. Temporary ltre8se.I bef'OR! losses due to cnc:p and shrinbge: or 0.80J;.. whichever 18 amaller, preatl'e&t louea will not alw&y11 permit
Compression the~e values to be attained. For aample. for wire with an ultimate
Pretensl.oned. members 0.60fa nrength f. = 250,000 psi and yield strength fq = 200,000 psi, the
Posttensloned. membert o.ssra allowable stress ii 160,000 psi. Deducting the prescribed prestress loss
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 4'9
S I-36 S I-48
10" 14" t4" 10"
s Il-36
~] S II-48
1
15° 101,t."
Shear keys
SN-36 S N-48
Slob sections
a"
1Js"mi,.I l~iril
I I
7" for t ype ond m
slabs nz
t~~--+------+-----------1
Approximately 5" for type I and Il slobs; 2" diameter hole
[~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
l1L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ J
l1r---·- - - -,
Jl o ' - - - - -
- _ _,
r - - - - - - --, 1 1·
- -------1
L -- -
r -- -
- --
- - - •h
-- J:: llL.-------.J
,:lr-------.
L_ - - - - __ Jl l J I'----- - --'
c===== ==-J:
,.... - - - - --
L-------J
- - ,:i:
Skews in excess of 20° Skews up to 20° Normal bridges
Typical pion
T1ble15.10 Properdel 11111 AASllTO-KI Slllb Sectl1111.1 (Fig. 15.U) 48" for BI , U, m, lli'-48
IXl IXl
IXl
Rangeof'Pan. ft 36" to• BI, u. m,Ill'-36 IXl
"'<Ji,.., <Ji" "~ "'
~I
Momaitof Section of
Section Arell, tn.2 IDc.r!ia, In.. moduluf,tn.S HS20-44 H20-4t
r% . .. .•. 3/ej iii "'"' IXl8
.
a:i
Sl-36 432 5180 864 20-28 20-29
4 ••
Sll-36 439 9720 1296 27-35 28-38 :":
sm-36
srv-36
491
530
16~10
2S,7SO
1835
2452
34-il
4149
37-46
4'S-S4
314 b3 1
51/z
St-48
SD:-48
S76
569
6910
12.900
1152
1720
20-28
27-3S
20-29
28-38
.
:
3•
5
sl/2
5
'r-
N
',..,
"' "'"'
~.,.
.....
...:
sm-48 623 21,850 2423 34-42 37-46
srv~ 703 M.$20 3281 41-SO 45-55 . : ...·.. Alternate
sheor key
2" holes in 8" diophro9m
20"
r- -i
12"
~~
~
Type I Type II Type m
Skews vp 10 10° Skews in excess of t0°
'~ Port pion
Q
't
\
(excluding lo*' &om &ict!on) of35,000 psi from the allowable lni1ia1
strea of0.7X250,000=175,000 psi leaves only 140,000 psi.
32'-o"
BXA..NPLB
De'1gn the preruessed composite (Onaete girder for the structure
shown in Fig. 15.86. Live load HS20-44. deaign span 70 ft. Use a. Type m
1s'-o" '6'-o" :1
AASHTO PCI beam (Fig. lS.84). Dimensions of the composite girder
are mown in Fig. lS.87.
75
ll per girder= • = 1..36 wheel line.
5.5 2'-0"
50 so
I= L +125 195 25'6 peramt
= =
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 501
Yt =45-35.4=9.6in.
'co
I{) '.... __!_= 374,720 =39,030in.s
a\ __ ':::? LC.G. comPosire section ,, 9.6
~ __!_=
374 720
• =10,S85in.3
~ ,.. 35.4
q .... C.G. I secrion
I
<r 'N
v
-'
tti STRESSES JN I-SECTION
t<l
e' 16.77"
Assume<l e.g. of
PS force Top fibcr Bottom fibe:r
---~--~-~---~--~~?>'Ii.' GlrderDL
I. ,._,o... I
SlabDl
12 )( 360,000 = 850
5070
12 )( 360,000 = 700
6185
A=5601n.1 y. =20.27 In. y1 =24.73 AREA OF STEEL. Assume barf.= 145,000 psi
I=12S,390in.z
,..
__!_=6185.in.3 __!_ = 5070 ID.'
Yt
Allowable de$ign-load streu= 0.6x145,000 = 87,000 psi
Allowable initial stress= 0.7 x 145,000 = 101.SOO psi
,z =224 ID. 2
;: =0.0905t ~ =0.1104e
, Les.1 IOSH.t ~ =
Allowable stress= 76.SOO
A = 556,700 =7.28iD.:i
Propertie. of composite T (Fig. 15.87): • 76,500
15..11.S Pd! of ........... ~ Determine the jacking force rcquin:d for the girder of Sec. lS.11.2.
A..ume that jacldngwill be done from one end. A~qe values of Kand
In timple-span girders it is d.ealrable fur the tendon• to follow a para-
R fi>r high-ltrength bar1 in bright-mml aheatbing are 0.0003 and 0.20,
bolic path. Minimum ~ irteel ruulb when it Ui placed as near
re1pectlvely (Table 15.13). With the tendon 3~ in. from the bottom at
u poulble to the bottom of the member. The effective depths that can
.m.ldapan and pusillg through the centu of gravity of the I at each end,
be achieved with various preatre"1ng systeml vary. If a system is not
the rile ii 20.27 - 3.50 = 16.77 In. (F.lg. 15.87). The angle a betM:en
1Pedfled. the prettressing force required for~ different eccentrici-
tmgentl at each end is
ties an be mown on the plam-umally, 3, 4, and 5 in. above the bottom
of the girder will cover all system•. At the enda of the span the tendom
16 71
should be at or near the center of gravity of the beam or, at least, within a=2xl=2x · - o.osrad
the kcm to ellmlnate tensile mettes at the beam ends. x 35 Xl2
µa+ KL= 0.20 x 0.08 + 0.0003 x 70 = 0.0370
1S.11A Fltdl1111~
Friction loam In posttelllloned memben occur with angle changea In .i"+n =l.038
draped cable$ and from wobble of the d11cta. According to AASHTO
thae lostes can be accounted for by the formllia The allowable initial temion Ui 7i = 101.S IW (Sec. 15.11.1)
T0 =T~+~ T0 =101.5x1.054 • 107 bi
or, if Kl.+ µa:!> 0.3, the following may be med: Allowable Jacking tension= 0.75 x 145 = 109 bi
T0 = TxCl +Ja.+ µa)
T. =101.SX O.OS4 •103.7 bi
where µ = friction C\ll'VWre coefficient .. 0.053
a= angle between T0 and T1, rad Barelongation T.,.L 103.7X70Xl2 _ . 1n.
36
B 24,000
4.4" IJne 3 In Fig. 15.89 ahOWI the nomognphic determination of T0 and T.,...
The bar 1ecgth wu uswned to be 70 ft In calculaling elongation.. The
Total tension in this
draped length can be approximated by L[l + ~(2"/L)l], where d la rile
oreo to be token by
mild steel @)
f of the tendon.
20,000psi
15.11.S l*llMtl!LoMI
The AASIITO specillcationa require that prutraaed beama on simple
mpan• of moderate length have an ultimate load Clp&Clty not lea than
1.3((DL + U7(ll +I]. .1)]. The llitimate remting moment.M,. of under-
reinfcmed beams can be doaely approximmd by Mu = 0.9 A, f ,d.
Forthe beam ofSec. 15.11.1,
49.25
Mu =0.9X7.28X l4Sx - - • 3900ft-k:lpt
12
+2,5051)SI The ~quiRd ultimate moment is
Flgun 15.11 ~ teDaion at time of~ 1.3(760 + 1.67 x 845) = 2822 < 3900 ft-kipl
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 503
200
e1µa+Ku_ 1
Tov=T, µa+ KL
190 Exomple :
Coble os shown: T0 = 180 ksi
K =0.00tO/f!
I'= 0.25
180 a=46°=0.8rodion
E =28,000 ksi
Portion BC: pc>tKL =0.25X0.8+0.00t0X20=0.22
Line 1 in nomogroph gives= T, =144 ksi ( Tx(Q) Cl
170
T0 v= 160 ksi
200 Portionco: KL =0.0010x60=0.06
Line 2 in nomogroph gives: T, : 136 ksi ( T,@> Dl
t60 T0 v=140 ksi
190
. Tov L t60x20x12 .._
Coble elon9ot1on : t:, =-E- = , ,
28 000
180
;t50 200 140•60•12 , 497·
28,000 . in
..§ 170 190
"~140 '\
160
180
"'c
'..i ·;;. 170
"
.2. "':. 150
> ·;;, t60
b130 i2,
c .;,& \
0
·;;. ~ 140 .;1so
c 0
u
{!!.
120 ·~ 130 "~ t40
:.i"' 130
.Q
"'c 0
~ 120 0
110 ·~120
0
c
t 110
100
0
90
90
90 80
80
70
80 70 60
60 50
70
15.11.6 Web Relnfol'Cl!ftll!llt span. Throughout the end thirds of the span the upwvd force due to the
The 1983 AASHTO tpecifications revUed die tmdment of shear in pn:lltn:Uing is approximately equal to P1x alope of CGS line:
prett:ressed beam.I. The new shear formulas recognize 1hat presb.'es.1ed.
members must mist shear from twl> diB'erent sources: the lncl!ned 1laure V. =P/Xe/12 557Xl6.77/12
shear multlng &om the Im and dad loW and the high'web shear gener- I L/3 70/3 33.4 lcl._p8
ated by the large p~g load. They abo recognize diat die shear may
be critical near 1he end. of the beam. The new formulu result in some SHEAR
very complex camputatkw, which should be made for larger structura.
AAS.H.TO also permits 1he use of Che Mlpler me!hod for design of web DL weight of girder, slab, curb, and rail= 1.34 kips/ft
mnforoonmt ~ in the 1979 Interim Specmc.atioru. so for this
rather short-rpan I-beam example. die olclcr specification will be used. V m. =1.34 x 35 =46.9 kips at. support
=0 al midJpan
lllLUO'U\
For the beam. of S«. lS.11.1: Where the pratremng steel Is harped at Impact= !~25 = 0.26 Wheel lines (one lane) per girder=~~
the *poinu, there will be no reduction in v,. over the cenwr third. ofthe 70
504 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Otoose atlrrup spacings of 10, 15, and 20 In. and solve for the shear
Yu.+r=32x ( 70+56+ -42) x -1.26 x-=S3.6klpsatsupport
7.5
aitoff pointl:
4 70 11
7) x-x-=22.7klptatmldlpan
1.26 7.5
= 32x ( 35+11+- s. ID. V. - V,, ldps
4 70 11
10 121
15 11
V11 = l.J[DL+~(U.+
• 3
I)]•l.3(46.9+~X53.6)=196.lqaatlUppOrt
0.51 3
:zo 61
Actual recommended :
~s· " 4®s" ...4®12" "'4®t5" #4(a) 20 "
250
Stirrup ""4<~ 10 " ...,41Cil 15" #4(ci) 20"
SP<>Cinq J.-- - -- +f----+f- - -- - - --
54 .7
0 '----....1.....----L----''-----_,__--+-_.__ ___,~---t--
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 ~ t
Span, ft Span
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 505
70'spon
35' - 0"
(Grilloge, #3 @>2"
both woys Sym.obout t)ll'
~ ... I
4-0 I ~--9"
c ·- 6..
I I
~·-6 .. 4-o':J
I
3' - 9"\'
~
I #4 V(Q> 20"
I
~ #4\{@>6" Elevotion
!1'41fl(V 15"
#. II #. II
6 U(Q} 6 4 V (Q}12
-.--tt-#4 cont.
The detlection due to the dead load of the girder is 15.11.. UH·Load o.ftectlon
A SML2 S x 360,000x702 x12' For the purpose of computing live-load detlecticne, the AASHTO q>ec!-
0.6Sin. fl.catlons allow the live load to be d!mibuted equally among the girders
48El 48X3,800,000X127,000
if the 'Pall hu adeci.uate diaphragms to ensure lateral diruibution.
=
Net uplift at time of prestmsing is 1.87 - 0.65 1.22 in. Pre.tent informailon indicatc:1 that if the ratio of tpan to width is 2 or
Anume that the preltnn flm:e hu reduced from 739,000 to 600,000 lb more, this asaumption u •afe. There is usually no difficulty in satisfying
at Che time ofplacing the flab.Assume the coefficient ofcreep= 1.5. Then allowable lift-load ddlection .requirements with composite prestressed
girder• wh0$e dep1h-to-span Ndo is 0.05 or more.
4 =1.5(1.87 )( 600/739- 0.65) =1.31 in.
Upon placing of the dab, the gird.er will detlect BXAKPLB
Compute the LL +I deflection fur the girder of Sec. 15.11.1. A&Nmlng
4=0.65 x 655/585 =0.73 in. the li~ load Is distributed equally to all girders. the number oflane. per
Net deflection of the girder is 1.31- 0.73 =0.58111.. girder ii 2/S =0.4. Then, per girder,
When a large number of Umilar beams are to be u.sed in a project. LL +I= 0.40 x 1.26 x 986 =496 ft-lap.
periodic detlection meuw:ement<I should be made on the first girden
to check the wumed moduha. Computing the deflection as outlined In Sec. 15.5.6, the correction
factor for this moment is 1.14.
M =1.14 x 496 =565 ft-kips
Equivalent concentrated load P =4 x 565/70 =32.3 kips.
p'JJ 32.3X(12X70)'
I!. 0.281n.
48El 48 x 3800 x 374.720
G 15.13 ADMINISTMTIONOFABRIDGESYSTEM
1s.u.1 M1~1ndlr111ptdionof
E:lddfng BrldgeJi
When the bridge ii finally completed. the designer's work is done.
but the life of the bridge iJ just bqiinning. Unf~ly, it is gener-
ally thought that a bridge 18 built to ttand. forever wlleaa aomething
comes along to cause It phylical. damage. Thi& is not Che cue. Ewry
Figure 15..IS Tnffic railing. bridge need$ «mtinual <mention. The agency owning the bridse has an
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 507
economic as well as a public obligation to see that it is maintained in a Undercutting of the foundations by stream flow can expose piles to
safe and serviceable condition. damage and cause settlement or failure. Piers in deeper water whose
The first step in the proper administration of a system of bridges is to bottoms are never exposed to the air should be examined by an expe-
create and maintain an active inventory of the physical dimensions and rienced diver at about 10-year intervals or more often if damage is
condition of the bridges the agency is responsible for. The modern trend suspected. Knowledgeable engineers are continually checking the align-
is to put all this information into a computer. Great strides are being ment of bridge rails because a sag in the rail is often the first warning of
made in combining the inventory and inspection information into an trouble below. A good pair of eyes operated by a trained brain are the
ongoing management system for programming repairs and eventual best inspection device yet discovered. Binoculars are helpful if one can-
replacement. However, excellent results have been had for many years not get close up under a bridge.
with loose-leaf books and card files, which have the advantage of having It is helpful if the inspecting engineer will also devise and, if necessary,
the data physically available for ready reference. An inspection program draw up such plans as may be needed to repair the defects discovered.
should be set up so that every bridge is carefully inspected at least every The engineer should have a good sense of the degree of urgency the
2 years. Older or deficient structures should be inspected more often. repairs may require, and the agency should be organi7.ed to perform
The inspections should be made by experienced engineers qualified in urgent work at once. It is most discouraging to read reports which
design and construction. Some states require that these engineers be recommend the same repair year after year and yet nothing is done.
registered professional engineers. The importance of these records and
inspections cannot be overstated. The FHWA has been able to bring
15.13.2 Brldg• Admlnlstrlltlon
about some uniformity of inspections among the states. However, there
are many public bridges owned by other public agencies which are not No one has yet devised a system which will balance all the many
properly inspected or even well recorded. A neglected bridge is a poten- factors bearing on the maintenance or replacement of a bridge. Some
tial source of disaster. of the computerized systems come close to prioritizing the projects in
On the first inspection a bridge should be completely enmined and, terms of need and money available, but there are always personal and
ifno plans are available, measured and the measurements recorded. This political factors which come into play to cripple the effectiveness of the
includes measuring the important members; the clearances above, below, programs.
and across the roadway; evidences of being struck; visible high-water Effective administrative programs may be developed by assigning
marks (for waterways); and any other factors which might affect the life values to safety and delay factors so that it becomes possible to bal-
or safety of the bridge. If a set of as-built plans is available, they should ance the needs of a number of bridges against the always insufficient
be kept with the file on the bridge. At least two photographs of the bridge available funds. Then there is usually a conflict between the need for
(one along the centerline and the other a side view) should be filed with new highways as contrasted to the need for new bridges. This too can
the physical and historical data. The bridge should be accurately located be evaluated and given a priority rating. Thus it is possible to develop
by route and mileage, and there should be sufficient data on the sizes and a master priority list which will effectively show where the available
condition of members so that calculations of the bridge's capacity may be dollars could most advantageously be spent. However, at this point
made in connection with overload permit requests. The records should political and personal influences usually come into play and upset the
contain a complete history of the bridge: maintenance work done (with finely tuned priority list. >J long as these factors are allowed to override
cost), accidents, changes made, and plans for replacement. the carefully determined priorities, it will not be possible to devise a
The inspecting engineer should carefully check all the likely spots completely effective administration program.
where deterioration may have set in. Timber bridges are vulnerable Even the most substantial bridges will not last forever without
at the ground line, on top of the caps between the stringers at abut- considerable attention and careful inspection. The original designs
ments, at joints of trusses, and between piles and caps-anywhere dirt may be overshadowed in some cases by the ingenuity required to keep
can collect and retain moisture. Concrete bridges may be damaged by them safe and structurally sound. The original investment can be lost
freezing and thawing cycles, cracking which permits water to get to the through neglect and lack of maintenance. It should be evident that
reinforcing steel, or cracking which may indicate either overloading or good maintenance is good economic policy. The largest percentage of
deficient design. Expansion joints frequently lock up because of rust, bridges is owned by public agencies, who must be made aware of their
water, or dirt and may need cleaning or repair. If not corrected, faulty responsibility to ensure that their bridges have a long and carefully
expansion joints can cause serious damage to a concrete structure. Steel supervised life.
bridges suffer from corrosion and may be severely damaged by expan-
sion detail failures. Drainage systems may plug up, allowing water and
REFERENCES
dirt to run into expansion bearings and down over the steel members,
which accelerates the breakdown of the paint film. Retainer caps 1. Design Specifications, AASHTO LRFD Bridge, American
may come loose and fall off of pins, allowing eyebar systems to come Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2012.
loose or hanger details to come apart. Pinned expansion bearings may 2. Manual for Railway Engineering, AREMA, American Railway
become locked with rust, causing damage or the failure of some other Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association, 2011.
part of the structure. Where there is movement of the eyebars on the 3. Structural Welding Code-Steel, Specifications for Welded Highway
pins, on older bridges the pins may be dangerously worn away. Welded and Railway Bridges, AWS, American National Standard, 2015.
structures may develop unexpected cracks which if caught in time can 4. Bridge Design Manual, PCI, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
be repaired but which if neglected may lead to catastrophic failure. Institute, 2014.
sot CHAPTER FIFTEEN
PARTB
STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES
IJY
TONY SHKURTI, E.RIC STONE,, JAMES CARTER Ill Consvlling Bngillun, Chiugo, Illmois
Steel bas: girders ofi'er one of the most effldent longitudinal structural bridge may be completed Jn lea11 lime than that of an I-girder cowxter-
elements for spanning long dlatancet &om one point of suppo.rt ro the put beauae there are kwer pieces to erect. fewer external diaphragms
other. A single m:el box gird.er can be compan:d to a pair of plate gird- to be plac:ecl in the field. md aubseq_uently kwer field connection• to be
er• which have a ccmmon bottom tlange. In the past, steel box gird.en made. See Fig. 15.96.i and b.
conallted malllly ofbax glrden with vertical webs. In recent limes, boll
girders with sloped. webs, also <:alled steel tub girders, ha\11: become
more common. This newer configurmon helps optimize behmor of
the box and support of the concrete deck. See Fig. 15.95.
(a)
15.14 BENEFITS Rgure 15.96.ir Lazge pim!a can be tnm1ported and~ in a modular form.
Steel boll g!rden offer many a.dvantagea when compared to 1-ahaped
plate g!rden. A• a result, they are becoming more commonplace, eape-
dally in wban multilevel interchanges invoMng flyover ramps. They
offer a plea.ting aetthetic appearance with an uninti:nupted flowing
outside 1urface. u they cover many of the muc:tural appurtenanc:es such
u sttm:nen, connection plates, cross-frames, upper lateral diagonals,
and 8ttl.y-ln-place form.s inside the tub.
One can argue they are ltJucturaJly more efficient than plate girders
when tpanning along a highly curved bridge alignment, u they offer
stgn!Acant torsional st!B'ness compared to plate girder syitem.s. While
steel plate girders resist tonlon DWnly through wvping tordond ttlff-
n-. thin-walled. closed section met box girders reai.rt tonion primu-
ily through St. Venant torsional. ttiffneu, with the warping offering a
negligible contribution. In a straight alignment structure, a two-steel
box-girder structure with four top flanges, fuur webs, and two large
bottom flanse- ofrer. comparable remtance to a four-plate girder sys-
tem with four top flanges four web1 md four bottom flanges. However,
in a curved alignment the steel bax g!rden offer significant advamagea
mainly due to their inherent St Venant'• tonlonal stiffnesf. This feature
reduces significmtly the need for additional inten:nediate cross-frames
md diaphragme, which for curved steel plate girden framing in curved
alignments func:Uon u direct load-carrying mem.be.n help.Ing to trans- (b)
fer loads from 0.11e girder to anodier to make the whole framing system Rgure 15.961> Shipping. handling. and erection ii made euier.
able to resist tomon.
The tonional stiffness of mcl box girders cem1 better load distri-
bution between the bax girders in the framing system. n allows each Mainte.nanc:e of neel tub g!rde.n II also euter and more c.ott efi'ective,
girder not to have to rely on the other girders or system diaphragms as moet inspectlom am be performed &om inside the steel tubs with-
and C1'0# frames between girders to milt and tn.n«kr loads In curved out the need. of expensive e<1uipment, indu.d.ing moopen. The intunal
alignmenta. This alto makes the overall framing system ltifter l'OUting components of the bax gird.en murt be designed to allow a.c.c:eu by
together and thu.t minlmMng deflection of the ruperttruc:ture. .lmpecton &om one end of the girder to the other. Acc:eas hatches are
Steel bo1: girders are easier to handle, transport, and erect than con- typically provided through the bottom flange near thee.ads ofthe girder.
ventional l~aped lteel p:Iate girders due to the inherent internal stabil- There :misJit be some OSHA requirements that need to be met. like in
il.y of ea.eh unit. Larger piea:a can be erected without the need for many Fig. 15.97, where Che minimum height wu maintained at 5'-0"' internally
stabilizing framet and formwork. Therefore, erection of a. bax-girder Jn the boll to allow eaay access for .lmpeeton and equipment
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 509
15.15 IN'TlllNALEu:.MENTS
A• ~d. stcd box girden are structural member• that are quite
adequate for covering mid·length to long. To achieve that goal and given
that they employ large plate elements to provide their global resistance,
they must Incorporate Internal elements that ensure the gird.er main-
~ it5 Intended structural shape when loaded The careful dmgn of
these internal element.! is as critical u the dmgn of the lize of the girder
plates. The.11e elemenb include the following:
• Internal Intermediate C1'0M frames and/or diaphragms (Fig. 15.98)
• Upper diagonal 1*ral bracinp (Fig. 15.99}
• Connection plates and tramvene ltiffener:s (Pig. 15.98)
• Longitudinal bottom tlange stiffenen (Pig. 15.98) (when needed
for wide bottom flanges)
• Longitudinal web plate stiff.e.ner& as needed
• Bearing and/or end diaphragms (Fig. 15.100)
• Bmmal. intennediale diaphragm.tor a:oas frames (Fig:s. 15.99, 15.101)
External d!aphragme are also utilized during erection to maintain
the Independent bm:-gird.er sect.Ions aligned with the Intended deck
orientation.
15.16 LIMIT ST"'6ANl>COMBINIO'IONS
Loads are to be computed and ccmblned based on the American
Assodatlon of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
philo90phy for dmgn. Table 3.4.1-1 llsU all the Load Combination&
and Load Factors applicable to all four AASHTO required Llmit States:
1. Strength Load Combinationll-V
2. Extftme Events Load Combinations I & Il
3. Service Load Combhlations I-IV
4. Pmgue Load Combinations I & H
Per AASHI'O Article 1.3.2.1, •All limit 1tate1 ahall be con1idered of
equal importance:" The.refute, all four of them .must be met for each
design.
Loading •hould follow AASHTO LRFD Bridge Delign Specific:atio111.
8th Edition, 2017, or the moat current venion tpecifi.ed in the project.
Sect.Ion 3, "Loadt and Load Factors," p~ in deWJ. the loadt to
be used for different layouts of the bridge structure11. The load factors
for various load.I comprising a design load combination ahall be tU:en
as tpec.i6ed in Table 3.4.1-1. All nlmmt subet.t of the load combina-
tiom shall be lnveltlgated. Fer each load combination, every load that
ls Indicated and that ls germane to the compone.nt being designed shall
be mul11plled by the appropriate load factor. The producu shall be
swnmed as ipecifted in Eq. 1.3.2.1-1 and multiplied by the load modi-
RguN 15.97 Euy aa:eu lllllde with enough apace for lnapedon. tlers specified in Article 1.3.2.
Rg... 15.N Intemal aoa. fnune, illtemal di.aphngm. and longitudiml bouom flange aiffcner.
510 CHAPll:R FIFTEEN
15.16.1 Dudl..Hcb
De.d load. are straightforward 10 apply in different cues of analyxs.
Table 3.5.1-1 of AASHTO diom the densities to be assumed fur most
structural elements and appurtenances on the bridge in the absen~ of
more correct data. The bridge struaures are built in a urtain sequence,
and the structu.ral stiffness evolves &om initial erection to final
usembly. The 9equence of erection. or '1aging. defines the distribution
of stresses in every element of the stnKtures. Therdore, it is of utmost
importance that the weight of the diffuent structura1 elemew com-
prised in the structure are applied in the structural model in the cor-
responding sequente that they ~ assembled in the phyiical structure.
The typical construction sequence fur steel box girdeu is similar to that
wed for I-shaped steel plate girders and is u follows:
• Self-weight of the steel girders and internal elements are applied to
the steel section. Figure 15.101 .Bmmal intermediate dlaphragms.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING S11
• Self-weight of the concrete deck slab in its initial, unhardened (wet) loads that affect the superstructure such as Wind Loads (3.8) which are
state is applied to the steel box-girder section. However, it is common applied directly to the structure and indirectly to the structure through
that the deck slab is poured in multiple stages, in which case the weight live load.
of the slab is resisted in some areas by the bare steel section and in other
areas by the composite steel-concrete section.
15.17 ANALYSIS OF BOX GIRDERS
• Any other dead loads that are installed in the structure after the
concrete has hardened such as roadway barriers or traffic signs will be The methods of analysis and design discutsed in this part apply to
applied to the composite section made up ofthe steel box beam and con- all types of steel box-girder bridges with concrete decks regardless
crete deck. However, the composite section resisting any permanent load of span, except for horizontally curved structures. Formulas for the
applied to the section after the concrete has hardened (called ·super- design of composite box-girder bridges are given in Ref. 1 for both
imposed dead loads"") should take into account the long-term effects straight bridges and for horizontally curved bridges. A general over-
of creep in calculating the composite section properties. This has the view of the design of straight steel box girder bridges may be found
practical effect of softening the section, and mathematically AASHTO in the Commentary section of Ref. 7. Box-girder design examples are
recommends that only ~ of the effective concrete flange width is used shown on Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) website, respec-
for the composite section to carry superimposed dead loads. tively, at: https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridgelsteel/pubs/hifl6002/designex-
The most vulnerable time for these types of structures is during ample05.pdf and https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/steel/pubs/hifl.6002/
shipping, handling, and initial erection, especially the deck pour. Since designexample06.pdf.
the webs and flanges of box girders are slender elements susceptible Steel box-girder bridges represent complex three-dimensional struc-
to buckling, their erection requires care. Successive erection-stress tures that are not easy to model and a analyze using simplified methods.
conditions must be established with due consideration of such factors While from the outside they give the impression of stiff trapezoidal
as the weight of the erection equipment, deck slab pouring machines members, they in fact comprise many appurtenances inside and outside
and material stored on the girder, effects of temperature, and wind. the box, such as upper lateral bracings, cross frames, stiffeners, and
Factors of safety for erection conditions should be sufficient to cover connection plates. Also, even for straight bridges, positioning of the live
the effects of unintended eccentricities at splices, residual stresses, load can be quite complex and can introduce loading that affects the
and other contingencies that may affect the elastic stability, hence the various structural elements in this three-dimensional system.
importance ofinternal bracing for the steel tub girders. The longitudinal
diagonal upper lateral bracing is included primarily to make the section 1s.11.1 Una Girder Analysls
a •closed• box during the concrete deck pour until the deck concrete
However, for the purpose of obtaining approximate loading for pre-
has hardened as well as transport and erection. After that, the upper
liminary sizing of structural elements in straight alignments, simplified
lateral braces are considered •dormane until the need for the next deck
analysis methods can be employed. This entails analysing a line girder
replacement. They do contribute in the overall resistance of the section,
model of a straight continuous span girder and using the approximate
aiding the top flange in resisting loads, but often their contribution is distribution factors for the live loads tabulated in Article 4.6.2.2.
neglected, especially in simplified analyses.
AASHTO specifies in 4.6.1.2.4c that concentric closed box and tub
girders with unslrewed bearing supports and straight or slightly curved
1S.16.2 Live I.Giids
alignments as defined in the article may be a analyzed as an individual
Live load is the one load that differs significantly from the approach straight girder with span lengths equal to the arc length. In this case, a
used in non-transportation-related structures and buildings. The live line girder analysis could be adequate for final design.
load used in designing bridges is defined in Article 3.6 of the AASHTO For the design involving single line girder analysis, live load distri-
LRFD. This article goes in detail describing the geometry of the lanes bution pertaining to each girder needs to be assessed. This amount
and the geometry and weights of the notional live loads, such as of loading would be the live load affecting the typical girder being a
the Design Truck (3.6.1.2.2). the Fatigue Truck (3.6.1.4), the Design analyzed and could be visualized as some kind of •tributary live load•
Tandem (3.6.1.2.3), and the Design Lane Load (3.6.1.2.4). The appli- for each beam. It can be obtained as a portion of an applicable lane
cation of Design Vehicular Live Loads is described in 3.6.1.3 for the loading for the girder multiplied by a distribution factor that would
different applications in the structural models. Pedestrian live load is help calculate such "tributary live load:' For each of the common
described in 3.6.1.6. Probabilistic approach for taking into account the deck superstructure types, shown in Table 4.6.2.2.1-1, including type
effects of multiple units of live loading is handled by using multiple (c) Open Steel Boxes in the table, these distribution factors are
presence of live load factor «m• shown in Article 3.6.1.1.2. Dynamic evaluated using approximate formulas shown in Table 4.6.2.2.2b-l
load allowance to account for the dynamic effects of truck loading in for momenu in interior beams and similar tables following in the
motion over a nonperfect surface are handled using a magnification same chapter for moments in exterior beams and shear distribution
factor "IM' as prescribed in 3.6.2. for interior and exterior beams. This calculated •tributary live load•
Transient loads, including live loads, applied during the in-service would be combined with other basic loads such as permanent and
life of the structure should be applied to the full composite section at other transient loads following combination rules described previ-
each location. AASHTO in Article 4.5.2.2 states, •The stiffness proper- ously. Note that AASHTO imposes certain restrictions on the use oflive
ties of concrete and composite members shall be based upon cracked load distribution factors for multiple box sections u per Article 6.11.2.3,
and/or uncracked sections consistent with the anticipated behaviour. especially for straight multiple steel box sections.
Stiffness characteristics of beam-slab-type bridges may be based on full For other box girders that do not meet the conditions above, they
participation of concrete decks:' In the commentary of the same article may be sized preliminarily using approximate methods such as MIR
AASHTO allowt the engineer to consider full composite action of steel (Ref. 4). The MIR method is most useful for analysis of single tub or
and concrete even in the regiont where concrete is deemed to be in ten- box girders and therefore appropriate for erection analysis of single
sion, thereby simplifying analysis. girders, complete analysis of a narrow bridge with only one tub girder
in its cross section, or a single girder u part of a phased-construction
1S.16.3 Other I.Giids plan. In addition, as the MIR method also calculates tub girder rota-
All other basic transient loads are described in detail in subsequent tions, theoretically it is possible to use it to solve for loads in multiple
articles of Chapter 3 of AASHTO LRFD. M05t transient loads on super- adjacent girders. However, for practical considerations, the calculations
structure are related to live load, such as Centrifugal Force (3.6.3) and for multiple girder systems are too time consuming unless computer
Braking Force (3.6.4). But there are also natural and environmental applications are used.
512 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
could reach a c.rltic:al length and then suddenly propagate Chroughout frequently in interchange projecta around the nation, thus capturing the
Che whole S«tlon. This wu deemed even more critical give.II the fact market mare that they deserve within the industry.
diat most ainsfe- and two-lane ramp bridges usually involve only a pair
of ateel tub girders. REFERENCES
While such a scenario might seem lib a stretch, a similar event had
happened during the failure of end-span ateel 1-maped plate girders on 1. .AAS.HTO-LRFD Bridge DeGgD. Spedtlcatlon• (2017). American
die Hoan Bridge in Milwaukee, W.IKollsln. In that event in the early ANociatlon ofState Hip.way and 'l'ramportation Officials, W&Shingtx:ln.
morning of December 13, 2000, all thnie nonoompoeite girders of an DC.
end span of the bridge fractured suddenly. Two out of thnie gi.rden 2. AASHTOINSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration, 2014. "GU.1
fractured thoroughly through. bottom tlange, web, and top tlange, while Guidelines for Steel Girder Bridge Analygis, 2nd Edl.tlon" ( https:IJwww.
the third girder fractured only the bottom flange and web. The bridge ailc.org/glob<useu/nsb./aad!to-ruibe.-coDal>-dor:t1/g-13.1-guideline.-
managed to stand up and nobody wu hurt. although it only included for-mel-girder-bridge-analym.pdf)
Chree longitudinal gird.en. Structural redundancy including continuity 3. .AASKI'O/NSRA. Steel Bridge Collaboration, 2014. "Gl3.l
ovu: the plen and upper longitudinal b.rac:ing combined with the side Guidelines fur Steel Girder Bridge Analysis, 2nd Edition" ( http;-J/WWw.
concrete barriers acting as struts are bell.eve<l to have save<l the 8t1'Ucture ailc.org/glob<useu/nsb./aad!to-nsb&-coDal>-doa/g-13.1-guideline.-
from falling. for-ated-girder-bridge-analysi.s.pdf)
Since then, the WlllCOil.lin Department of Transportation, working aide 4. Tung. D. H. H., and R. S. Fountain. 1970. "Approximate Tonional
by aide with FHWA when reOD!WUc:tiDg the whole Marquette Interchange Analyals of Curved Bax Girders bytheMJR-Med!od;" En.glneerlng Jour-
in down.town Mil~ & ftft-levd. lntl:rdwlge between 1-94. I-43, and nal American ImtiNte ofSteel Construction, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 65-74.
I-794, agrml to allow thd:r c.on.suhant to we m:el tub girders for their sys- S. Huang. D. Z. 2008. "Full-Scale Teat and Analysil of Curved Steel.-
tmi ramps with 1he condition dlll1 the comuhant would. prove analytically Box Girder Bridges:' .ASCB Totml.IJl ofBridge Bnginuring, Vol. 13, No. 5,
through re&ed anal.yiea 1hat the brl.dge would be able to stand to ruc:h pp. 492-500.
a through teetlon fracture of a a!ngle Sled tub girder without Che bridge 6. Fan,Z.,andT.A.Helwlg.1999. "BehmorofStedBo:a:Glrdenwlth
filling down in a sudden fuhion. The con.suhants proved j'Ult that for 1he Top Flange Bricing." Jovmal ofStn~tlmu Engimering. American Society
eight system ramp.1 involving twin tub girders ofdiffemrt span layouts and ofCml Engineers, Reston, VA, Vol. 125, No. 8, Augurt. pp. 829-837.
geometry (Pig. 15.103). 7. Wold!uk. R., and R. M. Mayrbtaurl: Proposed De.tlgD Sped1lc:a-
FHWA accepted the report p.repared by the Milwaukee Transporta- tiom for Steel.Box Girder Bridges. Report no. FHWA-TS-80-205. Federal
tion Partners, and the symm ramps were pzoduced and erecte<1 and Hi&Jlway Admlnlatrat!on. Wuhlngton, DC.• Januuy 1980. (N<m!: Also
ha.ve been in Hn'ice for about 15 years now. contains memi.ve commentary and bibliography.)
Since then, many mearchers led by NSRA. and other stabholden 8. Milwaukee Tnwportatlon Partnert. "REDUNDANCY OF BOX
have sponsored or performed d!B'trent type• of.research, both analytic:al GIRDER STEEL .BRIDGES A Study for the Marquette Inte.rchange ff PS
and experimentt&l. A• a result. ateel tub girders &re being employe<l more Twin Box Girder Structum Project l.D. 1060-05-1222:'
514 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
PARTC
CURVED STEEL I-GIRDER BRIDGES
BY
JAMS HID MOHAMMAD! Illinois Institute of Technology
BORA JANG Sharma and Associates, Inc.
15.21 GENERAL• straight interior girders and isolated curved fascia girders. Yet in some
15.21. 1 Introductory Re11111rks other applications, states have used straight girders, kinked at the inflec-
tion points, to include the significance of the curved geometry in the
Curved bridges require special attention in design because of their structure.
unique geometry. The current design requirements for horizontally As expected, irregular girder geometry complicates not only the
curved highway bridges are embodied by guidelines published by the structural analysis but also the application of live load, especially in
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials cases where the analysis is based on the distribution factor concept as
(AASHT0).1 This document and its predecessors include most of the stipulated in the design code. In cases where flaring roadways and flared
researdt conducted after 1980 as well as the results of full-scale tests girders are involved, and especially where the splay in the girders is uni-
conducted through the Curved Steel Bridge Research Project (CSBRP) form, some designers calculate the live-load distribution using an aver-
initiated by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA).2 The CSBRP age width or girder spacing. However, if the flare is nonuniform and as
study and similar others were intended to offer a better insight into a conservative approach, many designers base the live-load distribution
(1) the behavior of curved bridges, which involves a significant level of on the maximum width. It is noted that the term •flared girders" (also
out-of-plane effects, and (2) special requirements that need to be con- called splayed girders) refers to a situation where the girder spacing or
sidered in their design. This section is intended to provide an overview deck overhang varies along the length of the superstructure. The curved
of curved bridges made up ofl-girders and key requirements in their structure also complicates the design-an issue that will need to be
design. For additional information, the readers are referred to the listed coordinated properly between the designer, fabricator, and contractor.
references cited at the end of this section. Skews are probably the most common irregularity in curved bridge
15.21 .2 OW!rvl- of Curved Brtdge Differences
framing. Curved bridges are often built with skewed supports as dic-
tated by the geometry and roadway conditions. Skews require special
Although most features of a curved bridge are similar to straight attention and modeling when performing structural analyses. This is
bridges, there are certain differences that will need special attention in especially true where sharp skews on the direction of rotation of the
design. An overview of these differences is provided herein and detailed girders at the bearings are present. While many designers have assumed
design considerations to address these features are provided in the rotation about an axis radial to the curve, others have considered rota-
following subsections. Most notable of these differences is the bridge tion about an axis perpendicular to the chord running to an adjacent
geometry that requires special attention in regard to structural analy- fixed bearing. In any case, proper modeling using finite-element analy-
sis and design, as well as in detailing and construction. Other special ses is helpful to compute the magnitudes and directions of twists and
features are the significance of such effects as temperature variations, rotations, as well as the corresponding internal forces. and to obtain a
torsional moments, and conditions at the supports. graphical representation of how the bridge structure deforms. It is noted
that skewed structures will result in a differential deflection between
15.22 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS adjacent girders. And as such, it is also important to note that a three-
dimensional modeling of the system will be necessary, with cross frames
15.22. 1 Bridge G•melry
properly included, since they act as secondary load paths in the system.
The bridge geometry plays an important role in design and construc- Uplift is also likely to occur in sharply skewed curved bridges (see
tion of curved bridges. A1l expected, a favorable geometry for a curved Fig. 15.104). This is because the girders toward the inside of the bridge
bridge, for the ease of design and construction, is one that includes are shorter; as such, they carry subrtantially less load such that their
concentric girders with circular curvatures and radial support lines. reactions resulting from the •grid" effect are less than the negative reac-
However, many constraints related to the roadway layout, surrounding tions resulting from the •curvature" effect It is noted that the possibility
terrains, and crossroads will necessitate designs that are unique and to uplift and to improper seating of bearings is reduced if the diaphragm
do not necessarily follow the desired perfect geometry. And as such, or cross-frame fasteners are left untightened in slotted holes until the
many curved bridge designs include nonconcentric and noncircular concrete deck has been poured. Since there are uncertainties in predict-
girders, reversed-curve framing. mixed straight and curved framing, ing the movements at bearings in skewed curved bridges, some design-
and skewed supports. The efforts by bridge designers have been made ers prefer to consider using elastomeric bearings as at support locations.
in minimizing these effects wherever possible with considerations for
the requirements for the roadway alignment As the level of complexity 15.22.2 Ther11111I Effects
in the geometry increases, the bridge structural analysis will then need The effect of temperature change on a curved bridge may become
to rely on more sophisticated methods that would properly portray the significant resulting in movements at the support bearings. The mag-
structural behavior through three-dimensional modeling and computer nitudes and directions of these movements are dependent on how
applications. However, at times, the use of more traditional methods many and which bearings are fixed. In situations where temperature
may be necessary as a way of approximations. For example, in certain movements are permitted to occur at the bearings, internal forces due
cases, bridges that have been built with nonconcentric, noncircular, or to thermal effects do not have to be accounted for in the design. To
discontinuous curvatures have been analyzed and designed by approxi- accomplish this, thermal movements must be allowed to take place in
mating the actual girder alignments with •average" or •equivalent" directions radiating from the fixed supports, and the bearing devices
curves. On large-radius curves, some bridges have been built with must be designed so as to provide these directions of movement1 Most
designers considered similar assumptions even befure the publica-
tion of the Guide Specifications by AASHTO. In fact, translation has
'Original article by William N. Poellot Jr., HDR Engineering, Inc. generally been considered to take place in the direction of the chord
BRIDGEENGINEERING 515
t Girders
extending from the expansion bearing to the adjacent fixed bearing, departments of transportation5) to use the 25-ft (7.6-m) limit specified
and rotation has been assumed to occur about an axis radial to the in previous edition of AASHTO. Considering this, the spacing limits
curve (Fig. 15.105). specified in the following table may be useful
The Pennsylvania Department of Transportation Design Manual3
indicates that a refined analysis of curved girder bridges will need to be
considered in evaluating the performance of the superstructure due to O!nurline radius of bridge, ft (m) Suitable maximum spacing. ft (m)
thermal force effects. This is necessary to ensure that thermal movements <200 (61) 15 (4.6)
are adequately addressed and that the bearing constraints and the effects
200 to 500 (61 to 152.4) 17 (5.2)
of pier stiffness are properly modeled and incorporated in the analysis.
500 to 1000 (152.4 to 304.8) 20 (6.1)
15.22.3 Fnimlng An.ngements •nd Dllhllllng
>1000 (304.8) 25 (7.6)
Because of a significant out-of-plane and torsional effects, the lateral
flange bending stress may become critical. The magnitude of this stress
is proportional with the square of the unbraced length of girder flange, It is noted that regardless of spacing, the designer will need to evaluate
Le., the diaphragm spacing. Thus, by properly selecting the diaphragm the need for diaphragms at all stages of bridge construction including
spacing, the lateral bending stress in the girder flanges can be reduced. at the final condition. In two-girder curved bridges with floor beams,
Some designers also use other criteria not directly associated with the floor-beam spacing may be determined not only by lateral flange-
lateral bending. Implicitly, virtually any rules for diaphragm spacing bending considerations but also by the slab design requirements.
are adopted to control the load and stress distribution and therefore Depending on the floor beam spacing, a one-way or two-way slab may
involve, at least indirectly, lateral flange bending, diaphragm forces, and be formed, each with a different design requirement in terms of rein-
diaphragm size. forcing steel for bending and slab thickness for shear. It is noted that
The current AASHTO Guide Specification' does not limit the dia- one-way slab is formed when the slab aspect ratio (ratio of longer to
phragm spacing; however, it is generally recommended (by some state shorter dimension) is larger than 2, while a two-way slab has an aspect
ratio between 1 and 2.
Diaphragm layout ls also an important consideration in framing
arrangement. Intermediate diaphragms or cross frames should nor-
mally be placed radial and in a single line the full width of the bridge
as shown in Fig. 15.106a. If the bridge ls on a slight skew, the support
diaphragms are usually skewed, but the intermediate diaphragms can be
kept radial as in Fig. 15.106b, or the intermediate diaphragms may be
arranged on the skew as well, as demonstrated in Fig. 15.106c.
The ability of skewed diaphragms to develop end moments decreases
markedly with skew angles of over about 15 degrees. Thus, bridges
with large skew angles should only be considered where alternative
geometries are not feasible. Skewed diaphragms are somewhat more
Fix. Exp. complicated and costly to fabricate and construct than are radial dia-
phragms. This ls because the geometry varies for each diaphragm. In
some cases with skewed bridges, the diaphragms are staggered to keep
them radial as shown in Fig. 15.106d. However, designers generally
avoid this practice because of the poor ability of staggered diaphragms
to distribute torsional forces across the structure. At interior skewed
supports of continuous curved bridges, it ls not always necessary to
set the support diaphragms along the skew. Depending on the framing
geometry, such diaphragms can be set radial as demonstrated in Fig.
15.106e. It is important that each girder be arranged to have diaphragms
exactly at its supports avoid twisting of the girder on its bearing, unless
..,.,,.... Exp. Exp. ............ design provisions have been made to accommodate the twisting effect.
A substantial number of curved bridges have been designed with
Flguni 15.105 Expansion of cllIVN-girder spans. bottom lateral bracing in at least some of the bays. Some curved bridges
516 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 15,106 (a) RadW diapluagms, (b) radial intezmediate diaphragms with skewed end diaphragms,
(c) skewed intermediate and end diaphragms. (d) ataggered diaphragms, and (e) radial diaphragms at support.
have been designed with top lateral bracing, although most designers on the relative girder distances from the centerline. Ac:cordingly, the
seem to rely on the floor slab to serve as bracing at the top flange level outermost girder takes the largest load because of the curvature effect,
As in the c:ase of straight bridges, a lateral bracing system is generally while the innermost girder undergoes the least load in the girder group.
needed in a curved I-girder bridge mainly to c:ontrol lateral bottom In terms of bending moment, this effect is further amplified in radially
flange stresses resulting from wind loads. 1he use of lateral bracing in the supported structures by differenc:es in the arc lengths of girders. In
exterior bays is especially recommended, ifthe combined stresses result- fact, since the larger-radius outer girders have longer arc lengths, they
ing from wind and other loads become critical. 1his is the only legitimate possess longer span lengths than do the shorter-radius inner girders.
reason for lateral bracing in most curved bridges, and such bracing 1his may not apply to skewed bridges. These factors indicate that, in
should especially be c:onsidered when widening the flanges or reducing general, all girders in the cross section of a curved girder bridge have
diaphragm spacing as way of c:ontrolling stresses are not possible. substantially different bending moments and therefore different section
In some cases, lateral bracing has been intentionally provided to requirements. The question arises as to whether each girder should be
make adjacent plate girders behave llh! box girders for better torsional individually designed for an optimum weight or whether one design
rigidity and transverse stress distribution. In these situations, a detailed might serve for more than one girder. Of course, engineering judgment
level of structural modeling will need to be used for properly computing and experience will be required to evaluate the structure in question,
the torsional stresses in the combined sections. However, it is noted that considering the number of girders in the cross section and the sharp-
this type of detailing will add to the fabrication and construction cost ness of curvature. A two- or three-girder structure with a relatively large
Another advantage of lateral bracing, as noted by some designers, degree of curvature will most ~y be designed with girders that are
is its stabilizing effect during erection. Laterally braced girders with individually proportioned. On the other hand, in bridges with four or
proper diaphragms can be shipped and erected in pairs and held to close more girders, the design most ~y involves identical sections, which
geometric tolerances until the slab has been placed. Depending on their will eventually reduce the construction cost through duplication. It is
geometry and design, lateral bracing will affect the type of modeling noted that sharpness of curvature is really defined by the central angle
selected for structural analysis. The difference between a structure with that is a function of both radius and span length, not radius alone.
and without lateral bracing is essentially the difference between closed
and open framing, or the difference between box girders and I-girders. 15.22.5 Connection Detaill1
A refined structural analysis using three-dimensional finite-element Major connections involved in curved girder bridges are the cross
modeling that properly considers the significance of diaphragms, cross frames or diaphragms and lateral bracing. 1hese components, par-
frames, and bracing will certainly be helpful in getting a full picture of ticularly the diaphragms, are considered primary members necessary
stress distribution in all structural members. to distribute the torsional forces in the structure. Thus, internal forces
must be transmitted through the connections of cross frames, dia-
15.22A Number of Design Girders phragms, and lateral bracing to the main girders. This is in contrast to
In general, the effect of curvature is in (1) increasing the load- straight girders, for which the forces in the diaphragms are generally
ing on girders outside the longitudinal centerline of the bridge and assumed to be nonc:ritical as such, their design resorts to empirical
(2) decreasing the loading on girders inside the centerline depending procedures.
BRIDGEENGINEERING 517
Since the diaphragms in a curved bridge develop end moments 15.22.6 camber
and shear forces, a practical type of connection of the diaphragm to Accurate computation of the dead-load deflection is important to prop-
the girder would, more appropriately, be a moment connection to the erly camber curved bridges. Using approximate methods have resulted
girder flanges and a shear connection to the girder web. The shear in improper cambers in many curved bridges. Although current meth-
connection is made by attaching the diagonal of the cross frame or ods of computing the dead-load deflection using computer analysis
the web of a solid diaphragm to the stiffener or connection plate. The afford more accurate results, a common method that has been wed in
moment connection can be made several different ways. For example, the analysis of many curved bridges is based on computing dead-load
an attachment can be made directly to the flange either by weld- deflections using the developed length of the girder and including sec-
ing or bolting (Fig. 15.107). These moment-connection details have ondary loads resulting from curvature. This approach, however, may
certain disadvantages. The connections in Fig. 15.107a and b with underestimate the deflections because it does not take into account the
attachments to the main material running in the direction of stress effect of girder twist that produces additional deflection beyond that
classify as AASHTO Category E or E fatigue details and are therefore produced by bending. A three-dimensional finite-element analysis will
limited to a low stress range. In fact, such details are not considered to determine the deflections more accurately provided the proper torsional
be good practice even if stress ranges are within allowable values. The properties are used in the model.
bolted connection in Fig. 15.107c is more advantageoua from a fatigue Another factor affecting the accuracy of dead-load deflection cal-
standpoint but involves taking holes out of the girder flange. The culations is the sequence of pouring the deck concrete. If the positive-
fatigue characteristics of the connection in Fig. 15.107a can be greatly moment region in one span is placed first, overdeflection may result
improved (though more expensive to make) by using a radius at the in that span. Since this span Is then acting compositely, the excessive
corners as shown in Fig. 15.107d. deflection does not "come out" when subsequent spans are poured.
To eliminate the numeroW1 disadvantages in making the diaphragm Such pouring sequence effects apply to straight bridges as well but may
moment connection directly to the girder flanges, many designers do be amplified in curved bridges because of the torsional component of
not favor direct attachment to the flange as il1W1trated in Fig. 15.107. the deflection.
An alternative detail is shown in Fig. 15.108a. A moment connection Other reasons for excessive deflection are residual stresses resulting
without attachment to the flange is achieved by relying on the stiffener from curving, welding, and other fabrication operations. As the girder
to deliver the horizontal force from the strut to the girder flange. ThWI, takes on the load, yielding occurs with accompanying permanent defor-
if the strut is set a small distance from the flange, the stiffener, acting in mation in the girder. Most designers compensate for residual stresses
conjunction with a strip of the girder web, mWlt be capable of transmit- resulting from heat curving by using the AASHTO rules for increasing
ting this force in bending to the girder flange through the stiffener-to- the calculated camber. Engineers have increased the computed deflec-
flange weld. Most designers W1e this approach for cross-frame moment tions by as much as 30 percent for setting grades to compensate for
connections. However, many also have used connections made directly pouring sequence effects and overdeflection resulting from residual
to the flange. stresses.
When lateral bracing is Wied, there is an added complication resulting
from the connection plates required by the bracing. A common detail
is shown in Fig. 15.lOBb. The connection plate is located a sufficient 15.23 CURVED GIRDER MECHANICS'
distance above the flange to allow painting underneath it. The plate 15.23. 1 Mathods of Analylls
is slotted to allow the stiffener to pass through it and is welded to the
The methods of analysis for curved bridges range from simple approxi-
girder web. This detail also has poor fatigue characteristics since it is
mate modeling of girders to more rigoroua three-dimensional finite-
an attachment parallel to the stress field in the girder web. Alterna-
element methods. Selection of one method over another depends on
tive details to improve the fatigue behavior would include adding a
the level of details needed for the analysis, the severity of curvature and
radiW1 at the ends of the connection plate or bolting the plate directly
skewness, and the applied load including dynamic loads. Among various
to the flange. A structural tee section is often Wied in such a bolted
arrangement The difficulty in making these connections illuatrates the
desirability of avoiding lateral bracing where possible. 'Material preaenU:d la taken from Re&. 6, 7, and 8.
51 I CHAPTER FIFTEEN
(a) (b)
Figure 15.108 (<1) Croso-frame connection without direct attachment ta girder flanges, (b) Lateral bracing connection plate in
conjunction with cross frame.
methods applicable to static loads include the slope-deflection, plane-grid, allowing St Venant torsion to take over. Therefore, torsional resistance
space-frame, V-load, finite-strip, finite-difference, and finite-element in an I-girder bridge is some combination of St. Venant and warp-
methods. For dynamic analyses, more rigorous methods, based on finite- ing torsion at any cross section. St. Venant tonion produces shearing
element analysis or solution to differential equations for free vibration stresses. Warping torsion produces primarily direct tensile and com-
and motion of the system are recommended (Refs. 6, 7, and 8). In the pressive stresses.
following subsections, after a brief disc\1$Slon on torsion and warping, the
V-load method is explained, as it has been a popular approximate method. 15.23.J IWli•I Component of Flmnge Force
There is a simple model to help understand the torsional action
15.23.2 Torsion-W•rping Stresses in a curved I-girder bridge. If a short segment of a curved flange
Horizontally curved flexural members must resist torsion as well (Fig. 15.109a) is considered, it is seen that the axial forces or stresses
as vertical bending moments and shears. They resist this torque by on the segment are not colinear because of curvature. This results in a
St. Venant torsion if the cross section is free to warp. However, radial component that, over some length of flange, manifests itself as a
St. Venant torsion provi~ very little tonional stiffness in an I-shaped radially distributed force on the flange as shown in Fig. 15.109b. The
section, and torsional stability in a curved bridge with girders must be magnitude of this radial force is given by
achieved by interaction of girden and diaphragms.
Diaphragms cause concentrated torques to apply on the girders at M
q=- (15.1)
each diaphragm location. A plot of the internal-torque diagram in a Rh
girder shows that an abrupt reversal in torque occurs at these locations,
precisely the condition to produce warping mitraint (because the nearly where q = radial force
equal and opposite internal torques at these sections attempt to warp M = vertical bending moment in girder
the cross section in opposite directions, with a net warping near zero). R = radius of girder
Warping restraint diminishes at locations away from the diaphragms, h = depth of girder, center to center of flanges
/'
tr Radial
component
(a) (b)
Figure 15.109 (a) Radial flange fora: component and (b) radially distributed flange furus.
r:t 1
GI"'°' 1 t 21
GI"'°'
H2
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 519
---+
4-- 4--
----=+-
h
lv v1 lv v1
..
H1
~ ---+ 4--
H2
D
1. .I
Figure 15.110 Girder-waphragm interaction furces.
2. From the primary moments, compute V-loads at intervals in the superelevation of the deck is capable ofbalancing a certain amount of
span using Eq. (15.6). centrifugal force by equalizing the outside and inside wheel-load reac-
3. Compute the secondary moments. ~ons of the vehicle: When these wheel reactions are equal for a por-
4. Select diaphragm spacing. tion of the CF loading, there should be no overturning moment from
5. Compute lateral bending moments Mia! using the following equation: that portion. It can be assumed that only the CF over and above the
amount balanceable by superelevation produces overturning moment
Md 2 on the structure. The amount of CF balanceable by superelevation is
M1ai= 12Rh (15.7)
equal to the superelevation rate. That is, if the superelevation rate is
where M =primary moment plus secondary moment at any diaphragm 0.05 ftJft, or 5 percent, that percent of the live load can be subtracted
location. from the percent C.
6. Determine cross sections required to provide for vertical and lat- 15.23.7 EXllmple"
eral forces computed under items 1 to 5, inclusive.
Fi~re 15.1_11 show~ the framing plan for a two-span curved bridge
15.23.6 Centrlfug•I Forai Effad Wlih: four ~ers. Figure 15.112 shows the cross section. The superel-
evation rate 1s 0.08 ft/ft, or 8 percent. The girders are assumed to act
The AASHTO specifications require that centrifugal force (CF) be
compositely with the concrete deck, with unshored construction. The
treated as a primary load for curved bridges. They define the mag-
bending-moment diagrams for the outermost girder G are shown in
nitude of the CF as a percentage ( C) of the live load, applied through
Fig. 15.113. Four sets of moments are given: those resultlng from initial
the center of gravity of the vehicle, 6 ft ( 1.8 m) above the deck. The
dead load DL 1 (the self-weight of the steel girder plus the weight of
per~entage C depends on speed of the moving vehicle (V) in ftJs,
the w~t concrete slab) acting on the steel section, those resulting from
radius of the curve (R) in feet, and gravity accelerations (g) in ftJs 2•
superunposed dead load DL 2 (parapets and wearing surface) acting on
~ factor (j) designating load combinations for those involving nonfa-
the long-term composite section, and the maximum positive and the
tigue if= 4/3) versus those involving fatigue if= 1) is also included in
~um negative moments resulting from live load plus impact (L +I)
C. The dependence of C on these factors is through the relationship
acting on the short-term composite section.
C =fV2!gR. For a case of R = 700 ft (213.4 m), V = 35 mph or 51.3
For a vehicle speed of 30 mph or 44.0 ftJs (48 km/h) and a radius
ft/s (56 km/h),f =4/3 (for nonfatigue loading), andg =32.2 ftJs 2, C =
of286.76 ft (87.4 m), from the aforementioned equation, C = 0.21 (or
0.155, or 15.5 percent.' In addition to its overturning effect, the radial
21 %) for a factor off= 1. Note that in this example the factor for the
component of the centrifugal force needs to be transmitted from the
trl'e of load combination (fatigue versus nonfatigue) is not considered
deck through the end cross frames or diaphragms and the bearings
Slnce the references from which the example is tala:n used earlier ver-
to the substructure. However, in general, designers must make their
sions of the code. Applying f = 4/3, C would result in 0.28. However,
own assumptions as to how the CF is distributed through the struc-
to keep the values reported in the references, the problem is continued
ture. One procedure is as follows: The load may be considered to be
with C = 0.21. The superelevation balances 8 percent of the 21 percent.
transmitted to the bridge as a shear and an overturning moment at
The resulting lateral CF in terms of traffic lanes is therefore (0.21 -
the deck level. The shear is delivered directly to the bridge bearings
0.08) x 2 = 0.26 lanes.
by way of the deck slab and the cross frames at the supports, with no
Pile-group distribution is used to determine the vertical loads on the
measurable effect on the bridge other than a contribution to the forces
girders resulting from the overturning moment of the CF. With girders
in the diagonals of the support cross frames. The overturning moment
may_ be i:easonably assumed to increase the vertical loading on the
outSlde girders and decrease the vertical loading on the inside girders.
However, it is noted that not all the force CF is doing this. A given "Prom original article by William N. Poellot Jr., HDR Engineering, Inc.
P.C.C.
40.00'
l~_.!......--;--1-1~ G, R = 600.00'
_J~_....;..-+--;-~ G2 R = 591.17'
_l-~"-~--+-~G 3 R = 582.33'
L_.!......~-~--'--~ G, R = 573.50'
CF
31"
21anes
CF
- ....
SE = 0.08 ft/ft
G,
R =286.76'
3@ 8.83'
26.5'
600 t----+--+---+
--+---.LI
='
t
6
G>
-600
::z:
-2068
-24000 100110120 140
20 40 60 80 160 180 200 210
Distance from end bearing, ft
Span 1 Span2
I• •I • •I
Figure 15.113 Centrifugal force.
522 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
spaced 8.83 ft (2.7 m) apart and the CF moment arm 6.352 ft (1.9 m), Lateral bending
as seen in Fig. 15.112,
22.1x12 ,__ , ( )
ForDL1: f,w=---xl.30 =10.5~ 72.4MPa
I= 2[(0.5 x 8.83)2 + (1.5 x 8.83)2 ] = 389.8 ft2 32.7
There are no lateral top flange bending stresses from D~. L +I, and CF
CF load on Gl 0·260 x 6 ·352 xlSx 8 ·83 0.056 lanes because the flange is supported by the slab under those loads.
389.8 Bottom of steel (tension)
Vertical bending
CF load on G 2 = 0.260x6.352x0.5x8.83 _ 0 _019 lanes
389.8 For DL1 : f& = l 49 lxl 2 Xl.30 = 15.l ksi (104.l MPa)
1543
The CF vertical loads on G3 and G4 are asswned to be zero since such
loads would act upward and be subtractive from the other vertical loads. 561Xl2
For D~: fb = - - x 1.30 = 4.7 ksi (32.4 MPa)
This is a valid loading case, and it corresponds to the situation in which 1871
live load is on the structure but not moving. 1616Xl2
For L+I: fb =---Xl.67Xl.30 =20.8 ks1. (143.4 MPa)
INVESTIGATION OF GIRDER Gl, SPAN 1. The maximwn posi- 2022
tive bending moments are at the section 44 ft from the end support
2
(Fig. 15.113). They are For CF: f& = 8 0xl xl.30 =0.6 ksi (4.1 MPa)
2022
MnLi = 1481 ft·kips (1999 m·kN)
Total= 41.1 ksi (284.0 MPa)
Mnu = 561 ft·kips (757 m·kN)
Lateral bending
ML+I= 1616 ft·kips (2182 m·kN)
22.1Xl2
For DL1: f,w = ---Xl.30 = 4.3 ks'I ( 29.6 MPa)
Mcp= 80 ft·kips (108 m-kN) 81.0
The CF moment is obtained from the CF load of 0.056 lanes. The cor- 8.4Xl2 ,__, ( )
For D~: f,w =--xl.30 =1.6 ~ 11.0 MPa
responding lateral bending moments are computed from Eq. (15.7): 81.0
2 2 24.lx12
M _Md _ MX15.71 For L+I: f w = - - - x 1.67x1.30 = 7 .8 ksi (53.8 MPa)
i..t - 12Rh - 12 x 300 x 55.25/12 = O.Ol 49M 81.0
1.2x12
= 0.0149 x 1481=22.1 ft·kips (29.8 m·kN) for DL1 For CF: f., =--xl.30 = 0.2 ksi (1.4 MPa)
81.0
= 0.0149 x 561 =8.4 ft·kips (11.3 m·kN) for DL2
Total =13.9 ksi (95.8 MPa}
= 0.0149 x 1616 = 24.1 ft·kips (32.5 m·kN) for L+I
= 0.0149 x 80 = 1.2 ft·kips (1.6 m·kN} for CF ALLOWABLE STRESS. The allowable stress Finl is1
·~ '~
Therefore, the flange is compact and
+v tv
Pb 1+(15.71)(1+~)(15.71
14/12
A.=~X 15.71 ~
6Xl4/12 300
_o.01)2
50 =0.17798
0.92729
V V 4V 4V V V
lo.5)[o.3 _ 0.1 15.71x15.71]
( 30.8 300 14
2
p,.
15 71
=0.95+18(0.1- · ) +
300
( 50 )
0.92729 - -
12
=l.06719 Itc:::::J+ Ifc=j+ Itc:::::J+ I
45.248 (b)
Pi.I>.. = o.92729x1.06719 = o.98959 < 1
-rrib~~~·~(~~
~= 45.248 x 0.98959 = 44.8 ksi. > 30.8
For the bottom flange
+~)(15.71
2 0.95092
Pi. 1+(15.71 )(1 -0.01)
13.9)[ . _ . 15.71x15.11]
( 41.l 0 3 0 1 300 18 (c)
2
15.71) 12 Flguni 15.114 (a) Girder loads from diagrams, (b) diaphragm end ah.ears, and
Pw =0.95+18( 0.1--- + ( 50 ) 1.07803 (c) diaphragm end moments.
300 0.95092 -
50
I I I I
.35,7k .11.9 k
(a)
t 11.9 k t35.7 k
(tl
35.7 k
ll)(tl
35.7 k 47.6 k
ll)(tl
47.6 k 35.7 k
ll)
35_7k
(b)
~JS~· ~k~+35.4-52.6 ~ k
91.6 k +91.6 +3.6 3.6 k
~~
PARTD
CURVED STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES
BY
JAMSHID MOHAMMADI Dlinois Institute of Technology
BORA JANG Sharma and Associates, Inc.
Bridge width
Roadway
Shoulder Lane Lane Shoulder
Cantilever
l-~J
Box-girder width
Box-girder spacing
Bottom flange
Figure 15.116 Cross aection of typical box-girder bridge, superelevated for curvature.
526 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Figure 15.117 Superdevated aoas section with level 1offil. 15.25 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
15.25.1 Fr•mlng
relating to the flanges. In situations where the superelevation vmies Generally, a typical two-lane feeder ramp system will have two box
under these conditions, the plan dimensions of the roadway will vary girders supporting the truck load, although occasionally a single box
slightly. However, these vmiations are small and negligible in any practi- girder may be used, especially if the ramp is of a single lane. Of course,
cal sense. In preparation of structure plans, the overall plan geometry bridges with three or more lanes of traffic may require more than two
shown should be that for the cross section in its flat position. box girders. The spacing and width of girders is commonly decoded
The webs play a critical role in the fabrication of trapezoidal steel box based on the distance, center to center, of adjacent top flanges and is
girders. In cases where the inclined web in a curved steel box girder is within the range of 80 to 120 percent of the width of the box girders,
on a level grade, a relatively simple geometrical solution can be worked with a deck cantilever that does not exceed 6 ft ( 1.8 m) or 60 percent of
out for fabrication. The web in such cases is in fact a sector of a right the distance, center to center, of adjacent top flanges.
circular cone with constant inclination as demonstrated in Fig. 15.118a. Box girder bridges have been built for crossings with limited skews.
A cone is an easily calculated developable surface, which offers a geo- It is generally recommended to avoid actual skewing of ends of box
metrical closed-form solution for fabrication purposes. girders. This is because with skewed ends, there is a fundamental
In situations where the bridge is on a grade, the problem is more incompatibility of the web deflection at radial cross sections that results
complex. For a uniform grade, the erected web plate may be modeled as in localized stresses. These stresses are generally difficult to model
a sector of a convolute-that is, the surface generated by a line tangent and to design for, unless some type of localized finite-element analysis
to a helix circumscribed on a cylinder as shown in Fig. 15.llSb. The scheme is adopted. Sometimes an overall bridge skew can be achieved
helix climbs the cylinder at a uniform rate, representing the uniform by providing a wide bridge seat to allow each box girder to be squared
grade of the bridge. Again, this model has a geometrical closed-form off. In light of issues with compatibility and complexity in design,
solution that can be used for fabrication purposes. I-girder bridges are often preferred for skewed bridges.
This leads to the prevailing general case of an inclined web plate In addition to the main components of box girders explained earlier,
that is curved both horizontally and vertically. Mathematically, such a curved box-girder bridges have also a number ofother components that
web is a warped or nondevelopable surface that theoretically cannot be are important to recognize and designed for. These are the following:4- 8
Eracted plate
Reference line
(a) (b)
Figure 1S.118 Conical and coovolute development of inclined w.!b.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 527
1. Solid web diaphragms within the box at points of support to expansion joint under a free edge of deck slab, as may be the case at
transmit the girder torque and reaction to the support bearings. an end bearing.
2. Open or cross-frame-type diaphragms within the girder, placed
at intervals along the span, to hold the shape of the box and brace 15.25.:Z o.talls
the narrow top flanges when the slab concrete is still fresh prior to its Steel box girders are detail intensive. Details of their welds, joints, and
hardening. secondary elements are governed by such factors as the level of effort
3. Solid web diaphragms between boxes at points of support to needed in fabrication and cost. Furthermore, because of the types of
transmit the torque reactions to the entire cross section and, at the end details, fatigue may become another important factor in details. Most
bearings, to support the expansion joint. of the detail considerations discussed for steel I-girder bridges are also
4. A system of lateral bracing within the girders near the top flange applicable to steel box-girder bridges. These include, for example, using
to close the three-sided box sections and to make them act as stiff curved edges instead of sharp ones to have a more favorable fatigue-
torsion tubes prior to and during placement of the deck slab. After the resistant detail, when possible. Typical solid web and cross-frame-type
deck is in place and concrete is hardened, the slab itself serves as the internal diaphragms are shown in Fig. 15. l 19a and b.
closing element of the boxes, rendering the lateral bracing redundant Curved steel box girders require installation of a lateral bracing
for subsequent loading. system at the top. Note that this system is often not needed in curved
Because of their closed cross sections, box girders are very effi- I-girder bridges. The top bracing system requires some attention to
cient in carrying the torsion in a curved bridge. Thus, they need not detail at its connection points to the girders. Because of interference
rely on interaction between girders through a system of external with the deck formwork, the bracing system often cannot be positioned
diaphragms. This means usually there is no need for intermediate to provide the most efficient path for transfer of forces, that is, through
external diaphragms, and they can be avoided. Moreover, with a pair direct attachment to the girder flanges. As such, a location several
of bearings that can develop a torque-resisting couple under each box inches lower is selected requiring the bracing attachment to the web
at support points, it may be possible to eliminate diaphragms between instead. This creates a complexity in detailing since the connection must
boxes at these locations as well, unless they are needed to support the be fit around the cross frame and its connection plate. Internal cross
Typ.:>-----i....-~----t.- ........~
Fig. PL.
(a)
L5x5xi
(b)
Figure 15.119 (a) Support diaphragm and (b) intermediate diaphragm.
521 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
frames are usually placed at the lateral bracing panel points, or at least ST
at alternate panel points. Welded and bolted arrangements for internal
cross frames are shown in Fig. 15.12011 and b.
The wdded detail is a long attachment in the direction of stress and
is therefore an AASHTO Category E fatigue detail This connection is
technically acceptable and can be designed for. However, it is generally
not recommended. Structures made up of one or two box girders are Bottom flange
nonredundant since a crack perpendicular to the stress field can propa-
gate through the entire section. The resultant low available stre3s range
for the Category E or E' detail in a nonredundant member renders a
welded attachment an inefficient connection that many designers would (a)
consider not worthy of the fatigue risk involved.
A similar problem exists at the termination point of longitudinal
tees that stiffen the bottom flange in negative bending regions (bottom
flange compression zones). These elements are logically carried into ST
tension zones to ensure that the entire bottom flange compression zones
are stiffened. A square termination, as depicted in Fig. 15.12111, is a
Category E or E' detail and should be avoided. A more favorable fatigue-
resistant derail may be achieved by introducing a curve in the stiffener
stem and grinding the stiffener-to-flange wdd to a smooth transition,
as illustrated in Fig. 15.12 lb. Bottom flange
(b)
Figure 15.121 (a) Square stiffener and (b) cl1rVN cope terminations.
and shears based on the developed span lengths of the curved structure. Case A:
To compute the torques, a distributed loading is applied to a simple- E ab
span, straight, conjugate beam which represents the actual simple or t* =
continuous, curved span. The distributed loading is equal to MIR, the G d3 a3 ( 1
moment induced by the real applied loading in the actual simple or -+- -+-1 )
Acl 3 Ao Au
continuous span considered straight, divided by the radius of curvature
of the girder.
The resulting shear forces in the conjugate beam are then numerically Case B:
equal to those from the internal torques in the actual span. Upon these
calculations, all the internal moments, shear forces, and torques needed t* =-E - - - - ab
- -3 - - - -
to design the sections of the curved box girders are then determined G-,;;;-+
2d3 4Ay
3
b +12a (1Ao+ Au1)
using the conventional theories of beam analysis.
Torque, T
n
Shear stress, 't
----=:.... ----=:.... _____:::....
For the bottom flange, following the Load Factor Design section The maximum allowable compression stress F& for bottom flanges
of the AASHTO Guide Specifications, the maximum normal tension depends on the magnitude of the torsional shear stress f. across the
stress, F& ksi, including warping normal stress, is limited to flange. Jf f, is less than 0.75F1 / .,/3, there are several expressions for F&
depending on the ratio wit or width to thickness of the flange between
F,. =F1 J1-3(f,!F1 )2 longitudinal stiffeners:
where F1 = yield strength, ksi (MPa) Jf ~ JP, does not exceed R 1,
f. = St. Venant torsional shear stress, ksi {MPa)
The allowable compression stress for bottom flanges involves several F,.=F,.6.
parameters, which are defined as follows:
Note that, in this case, F& is the same as the allowable tension stress for
Ri_ = 97 .08./k a flange.
210.3./k
~=-;=;==;:-=~===:===========::=:;
_!_[.6.-0.4 +J(.6.-0.4)2 + 4(f/F1 }2 (klk,)2
1.2
J
2
where .6. =Ji - 3(f,fF1 )
k = buckling coefficient for instability under normal stress alone If ~ JP,exceeds Rz,
= 4 when n = 0 or an assumed value less than 4 but generally 2
2
or greater when n > 0
n = number of equally spaced longitudinal flange stiffeners
F,.=26,210K(.!_)- f, K
w 26,210K;(t/w}2
k, = budding coefficient for instability under shear stress alone
- 5 34 h -O 5 ·34 + 2 .S4{I,/br}113 but not to exceed lff, is between 0.75(F,f./3) and F1 ../3,~JP,. it is not permitted to
- . w en n- or {n+l)2
exceed R 1 nor is wit allowed to exceed 60, except in regions oflow com-
5.34 when 11 > 0 pression stress near points of dead-load contraflexure. The maximum
I, = moment of inertia, in.4 (mm4}, of a longitudinal flange allowable compression stress is given by
stiffener about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base
of stiffener F,. =F,.6.
which is the same as the allowable tension stress for a flange.
It is recommended that the longitudinal bottom flange stiffeners be
equally spaced between the girder webs. These stiffeners must be pro-
portioned properly such that the moment of inertia about the base of
the stiffener is at least equal to
I, =ellfw
where ell= 0.07K'n 4 for(n > 1)
ell= 0.125K3 for II= 1
n =number oflongitudinal stiffeners
K =buckling coefficient ~ 4
Bottom
Flange
Ys Stiff.
fb
Girder Bending Stresses Partial Girder Cross-Section
Flgunt 15.125 Bending stresses in longitudinal stiffener.
the cross-frame spacing. Bracing of curved bottom flange longitudinal at any section by the St. Venant torsion theory. With this shear flow, a
stiffeners is required because they behave very much like curved I-girder shear force across the top of the box can be determined, which can be
flanges. Referring to Fig. 15.125, such stiffeneni act as part of the box- considered to be the shear in a panel of lateral bracing, much like the
girder bottom flange and therefore carry a longitudinal stress, somewhat vertical shear in a conventional tnml. This shear is carried as the lateral
lower than the stress at the extreme bottom flange fiber, given by component of the force in the bracing diagonal, which is designed
accordingly as an axially loaded member.
f, = Yb -y, fb
15.26.6 Addltianal Reading
Yb
The reader is referred to additional materials on box-girder (tub-girder)
wheref,, =maximum bending strels, ksi. (MPa) in the girder bottom flange
Yb = distance, in., from neutral axis to bottom of girder curved bridges and example problem provided in Refs. 4, 5, 6, and 10.
y, = distance, in., from neutral axis to top of stiffener flange
Since the stiffener is curved, its flange is subjected to a lateral bending REFERENCES
moment, M1.a1 given by
1. Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway
M f,btd2 Bridges, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
1at= 12R Officials, Washington, DC, 2003.
2. Zureick, A., Naqib, R., and Yadlosky, J. M., Curved Steel Bridge
where d = unbraced length of stiffener flange, in. Research Project, Publication No. FHWARD-93-129, Federal Highway
t =thickness of stiffener flange, in. Administration, McLean, VA, 1994.
b = width of stiffener flange, in. 3. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th ed., American
R = radius of curvature of stiffener, in.
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
The corresponding lateral bending stress is DC,2002.
_f,d2 4. Coletti, D., and Puckett, J., uStructural Analysis," in Steel Bridge
f1Jit- 2Rb Design Handbook, Pub. No. FHWA-HIF-16-002-Vol. 8, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC, December 2015.
With the direct stress and the lateral bending stress in the stiffener 5. Helwig, T., and Yura, J.. "Bracing Design," in Steel Bridge Design
flange known, f, may be checked against the allowable stresses for Handbook, Pub. No. FHWA-HIF-16-002-Vol. 13, Federal Highway
noncomposite I-girder flanges. Administration, Washington, DC, December 2015.
_ A working stress approach may ~e used in which an allowable stress, 6. Chavel, B., and Rivera, J., ·Design Example 5: Three-Span
Fb, for the stiffener takes the form Fb =pFb> where p is a reduction fac- Continuous Horizontally Curved Composite Steel Tub-Girder Bridge,"
tor and Fb is the nominal allowable stress of 0.55F1. The factor can be in Steel Bridge Design Handbook, Pub. No. FHWA-HIF-16-002-
derived to ensure that the stiffener flange tip stress does not exceed this Vol. 25, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC,
value. For a structural tee stiffener with flange width b, unbraced length December 2015.
I, and radius R, this reduction is 7. Kollbrunner, C. F., and Basler, K., uTorsion in SITUcturll$-An
Engineering Approach," Springer-Verlag, New York, 1969.
p= 1+312 /(5bR) 8. United States Steel Corporation, Steel/Concrete Composite Box
Girder Bridgll$, A Construction Manual, ADUSS 88-7483-01, December,
If the direct stress (not including lateral bending stress) in the stiffener 1978.
flange is limited to Pb = pFb, the tip stress will not exceed Fb. 9. Tung, D. H. H., and Fountain, R. S. •Approximate Torsional
Analysis of Curved Box Girders by the MIR Method," Eng., AISC, vol. 7,
15.26.5 Lateral Bracing No. 3, July, 1970.
Lateral bracing is used in lieu of a solid top plate to make the box-girder 10. White, D. W., Coletti, D., Chavel, B., et al, Guidelinll$for Analyti-
function as a closed torsion tube under wet concrete loading. For ana- cal Methods and Construction Engineering of Curved and Skewed Steel
lytical purposes the lateral bracing is transformed to a solid plate by the Girder Bridges, NCHRP Report 725, Transportation Research Board,
formulas in Fig. 15.122 to enable a transverse shear flow to be calculated National Research Council, Washington, DC, 2012.
532 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
PARTE
CURVED CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES
BY
JAMS HID MOHAMMAD! Illinois Institute of Technology
BORA JANG Sharma and Associates, Inc.
15.27 GENERAi.ii type and the angle of curvature, a structural analyB.is method suitable
1S.27.1 lntrodudory Rem11rks is selected
This section covers curved bridges made up of concrete box girders. 15.21.1 Methods of An•lysls
Most co=on types of these bridges, uud to cover long spans, are
According to the AASHTO LRFD specifications,2 three categories for
made up of prestressed (especially posttension) girders. The bridge
the analysis of horizontally curved bridges are the following:
deck cross section may be made up of single-cell and multicell girders
(1) Central angle S 12 degrees: Bridges with a central angle not greater
or spread beams (as shown in Fig. 15.126).1 Because of their geometry,
than 12 degrees in their longest span (i.e., L/R S 0.2, where L is the span
and depending on the severity of the radius of curvature, these bridges
length and R is the radius of the curve) may be designed as straight. In
exhibit a significant lateral effect from the curved prestressing duct.
these cases, no consideration for bridge curvature is necessary for the
The use of proper analysis methods and treatment of the live loads
longitudinal design of the concrete box-girder superstructure.
is therefore an important consideration in this type of bridge system.
(2) Central angle >12 but S 34 degrees: In cases where a bridge in its
Other significant issues include deflection computation and treatment
longest span has a central angle larger than 12 degrees (i.e., L/R > 0.2)
of such nonlinear effects as creep. Because in most cases such bridges
but smaller than 34 degrees (i.e., L/R S 0.6), the structural analysis and
require long spans and curved geometry, the method of construction
design must include the effect of the horizontal curvature of the bridge.
plays yet another important role in their design, which requires proper
The atructural analysis method may include idealized beam-column
coordination between the designer and the contractor, preferably, at
elements defined between nodes at the center of gravity of the cross
early stages of planning and design.
sections as it follows the horizontal curve. A two-dimensional grillage
analysis will be suitable, where the girders are idealized as line elements
c :J
]/
between nodes with 6 degrees of freedom (three translational and three
rotational) considered at each node. It ill noted that the maximum
length of the atraight girder elements between nodes shall be such that
the central angle between adjacent nodes will not exceed 3.5 degrees
(i.e., 1-ci..IR S 0.06). The assemblage of these elements is sometimes
referred to as a spine beam.3
(a) Single-cell concrete box girders (3) Central angle > 34 degrees: In cases where a bridge has a central
angle greater than 34 degrees (i.e., L/R S 0.6) in its longest span, the
recommended structural analysis method is a three-dimensional ideal-
ization of the structure using such techniquea as grillages, folded plates,
finite strips, or finite elements using bending plate and shell elements.
\\\b===::::!....!::H=::::!...bH=:::!..!:::II=====:LJIT In the following subsections, where references to different construc-
tion types for concrete box-girder bridges are made, specific atructural
(b) Multicell concrete box girders analysis methods that are suitable for each type are discussed.
v
(c) Spread concrete box-section beams
curvature and piers that are positioned radial with respect to the curve.
The geometry results in little or no 1elf-weight torsion; as such, the
bridge can be treated as a straight girder bridge fur analysis and design
purposes. However, it is noted that certain variations in shear and
moment from one girder to another is expected because of the eccen-
Flgu111 15.126 Types of croaa sections made up of box girden. (Adopt•d from trically applied live loads. Unless a more rigorous type of analysis may
Ref. 1.) be needed becawie oflarge variations in internal forces among girders,
generally a grillage analysis will provide an accurate solution in this type
of bridge atructures.4
In general, it is not practical to precast curved I-girders or curved
15.21 CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGE TYPES
U-beams. Handling and transportation will usually restrict the use of
In addition to the girder arrangement in cross section, as depicted in large, precast, full-span-length, curved girders.
Fig. 15.126, the type of concrete box-girder bridges can also be deter-
mined based on (1) the overall geometry and the way the deck and 15.21.J C.st-ln-Pi.ce on Forrnwork System
girders are built and (2) the method of construction. Depending on the In this type of construction, the superstructure section ill fully sup-
ported by the formwork system until the concrete has been cast,
gained strength, and the posttensioning installed to make the girders
~Original article by Alan J. Moreton, Juan J. Gonl, Amy R. Kohls, and Daniel G. self-supporting. At this stage, the formwork system is then removed.
Davis of Figg Englneen, Tallahauee, Florida. Superstructures made up of any cross-sectional shape can be built in
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 533
this manner. However, the efficiency of the process and practicality, significance of torsion, the influence of a curved alignment should be
as well as the cost, will limit the application to projects with rather considered when the ratio of the •torque span" to radius of curvature
shorter span lengths and sites that offer a reasonable height for easy is greater than about 15 percent {see the definition of torque span
deck access. Typical sections in this type of application include solid flat later). For example, for a free cantilever with a constant section, when
slabs hollow slabs and trapezoidal section boxes. the ratio of the free cantilever length to radius reaches 15 percent,
Solid and voided slabs are usually made continuous over several short the magnitude of the dead-load torsion resulting from curvature is
spans of up to about 50 to 65 ft ( 15 to 20 m) with consideration for approximately 5 percent of the longitudinal cantilever dead-load bend-
cost and efficiency. They can readily accommodate sharp plane curves ing moment. In a completed structure, torsion resulting from eccentric
and are suitable for applications in some highway interchanges and live load, wind, seismic, or centrifugal force will of course need to be
low-level or short-span bridges where structural depth is limited. The computed and combined with the dead-load torsion (that is resulting
distribution of load and determination of longitudinal and transverse from curvature) and used to verify the adequacy of design. In an LRFD
bending effects can readily be done using a two-dimensional grillage approach, 2 specific load factors are prescribed by the code when com-
analysis.1.4.5 More elaborate three-dimensional finite-clement analysis bining various load effects.
may be necessary when there are severe cases of sharp curves and sud- The torque span is defined as the distance between supports at which
den cross-sectional changes. torsion can be transmitted from the superstructure to the subttructure.
In general, these torsionally fixed supports are located where there are
15,U.4 5egm911bll Constnictlon Method two or more bearings side by side or where the superstructure is mono-
In this method of construction, segments of the full superstructure lithic with a pier. In some cases it is necessary or desired for aesthetic
section, including the deck slab, are constructed in short lengths and reasons to place a single, central bearing under a box girder. Although
posttensioned together. Both cast-in-place or precast segments may be mch a support can transmit reactions and can be considered as a sup-
used in this type of construction using some type of temporary erection port for bending moments, it cannot transmit torsion to a pier. As such
equipment. The precast segments are most frequently made in a special and for torsional effects, this kind of support is conaidered ineffective
casting cdl by match-casting one against another in order to ensure a per- in structural analysis. Even in cases where two bearings are used, tall
fect fit The geometric alignment of the bridge is created in the casting cdl slender piers may be too flexible to carry all the superstructure tor-
by adjusting the position of the previous match-cast segment rdative to sion. If a tall flexible pier is adjacent to a much stiffer abutment, the
the cell bulkhead fur the new segment. Any varying geometric alignment, abutment will take most of the torque, resulting in very high torsional
superelevation, and transition is readily accommodated by this precasting moments and possible uplift at one of the abutment's bearings. In such
technique. Precast segments may be erected in span-by-span, balanced cases, a three-dimensional finite-element method of structural analysis
cantilever, progressive cantilever, or combinations, as appropriate. They is appropriate to determine the proportion of superstructure torsion
have frequently been used with cable-stayed construction. Depending on carried by the pier and the abutment.
the curvature angle, the analysis method may be a two-dimentional gril-
15.l!l.2 Superstnicture Section .ad Detalls
lage or a three-dimensional finite-element method.
For most precast segmental bridge applications, the superttructure
15.U.5 lnc111m1111bll Lllundilng Method ofConstnictlon cross section is trapezoidal with two webs and cantilevered deck slab
wings {Fig. 15.127a). Occasionally three or more webs may be used
This method wat first used in 1964. Uting this method, the ttructure is within one cross section. However, for the construction of wide bridge
cast in sectiona of about 50 to 100 ft {15 to 30 m) in length in a apecial decks, it is normally more efficient to use multiple boxes rather than one
form behind an abutment and then launched forward. A lightweight box with multiple webs (see also Fig. 15.126 and Ref. 3).
temporary launching nose is attached to enable the deck to reach the For a typical trapezoidal-section segmental concrete box girder and
next pier and as a way of minimizing longitudinal bending momenta. for spans up to about 200 feet (60 m). the overall depth is usually con-
Intermediate temporary towers are sometimes placed in the spans fur
the same purpose. During launching, permanent and temporary post-
=
stant and in the range of L/20 to L/30, where L span length. For longer,
cantilever spans, a variable depth is usually more economical with an
tensioning is disposed so as to minimize stress reversals as each section approximate depth at the pier of L/20 and at midspan of L/40 to L/60.
advances. Incremental launching is only suitable in continuous struc- Denoting the overall width of the top slab by W, the width between the
tures of straight alignment or constant curvature and superelevation webs at the top is about W/2, making the overhanging cantilever slab
because it cannot accommodate variable geometry. Again, the angle of wings in the range of 0.2 W to 0.25W. The overall width of the bottom
curvature would determine the type of structural analysis suitable to slab is between 0.3W and 0.5W {see Fig. 15.127a).
model the bridge structure. The thickness t of the top slab at the edges of the wings should be
sufficient to accommodate anchorages and bursting reinforcement
15.lll SIGNIFICANCE OF STRUCTURAL CONFIGURATION AND DETAILS details for top slab transverse posttensioning tendons of up to four
0.6 in. {15 mm) ttrands per tendon. Typically, a minimum edge depth
15.211.1 Influence ofCurnture on Structural Contlgur.tlon of 8 to 9 in. (200 to 225 mm) is required depending on cover. The mini-
For very large radii, a bridge may be built from a series of straight, mum top slab depth between the webs is usually 8 in. (200 mm) with
chorded spans with a slight angular break in the main longitudi- haunches down to the webs. As a guide, the top slab depth at the webs
nal box-girder line at each pier. The deck slab and parapets follow should be approximately the minimum edge depth plus 0.05 times the
the curved alignment, and the variation from the straight chord is overhanging wing depth.
accommodated in the width of the deck slab cantilevered beyond the The bottom slab is typically a minimum of 8 in. (200 mm) thick but
web. However, for aesthetic purposes, it is important for the main may need to be 9 in. (225 mm) or more to accommodate the larger sizes
box girder to follow the curve when the angular break between spans of longitudinal posttensioning ducts, transverse reinforcement, and the
is greater than 2 or 3 degrees. This also applies to spans made from internal and external concrete covers. A haunch in the bottom slab at
straight, precast girders. the webs is not essential but may be needed to accommodate postten-
Depending on the bridge type (whether highway or railway), the sioning ducts or reduce stresses. In cantilever conatruction using a con-
horizontal alignment, vertical profile and superelevation are achieved stant depth box, it is sometimes necessary to increase the bottom slab
by operational requirements. In using less sophisticated structural thickness internally for a short distance near the supports in the longer
analysis methods and also in design, it is convenient to idealize the spans {usually over 160 ft, or 50 m). This lowers the neutral axis and
alignment to a curve of constant radius or a series of compound curves makes the top cantilever tendons more effective, increases the available
and tangents, depending upon the bridge span length. Because of the section area, and reduces the local bottom slab compression.
534 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
(b)
Figure 15,127 (.i) Typical section of a single-cell concrete box girder and (b) section with a <J.ev;ator blocks.
Web widtht may be conttant or may taper from top to bottom with a single central pier shaft that can fit into the available ground space
an average thicknest usually not lets than about 12 in. {300 mm) for should be considered.
the shorter tpan ranges. The web thicknesa is governed by global
shear, torsion, and local transvene bending requirements. If longi- 15.29.4 &p.nslan Joints •nd Burlngs
tudinal tendons are to be accommodated in the webs, an increased Permanent creep and shrinkage contraction muat be conaidered when
web width may be needed (at least three times the largest postten- sizing bearings and expansion joints or deciding upon how many
sioning duct diameter for a single duct, more if multiple ducts lie spans to include in a structurally continuous unit between expansion
side by side). jointa. For a continuous span superstructure supported on bearings,
In cantilever construction, it is quite common practice to anchor some bearings will usually be fixed in order to transmit longitudinal
longitudinal top slab tendons at the top of the webs. Therefore, the forces (traction/braking) to the piers. Others may be constrained to
width of the top of the web and depth of slab should be sufficient move in one direction by guides. On a curved structure, the alignment
to accommodate the anchorage hardware for the largest tendons. of the fixed and guided bearings must be considered in relation to the
In span-by-span construction, the tendons are normally external to curve and point of zero movement. The fixed and guided bearings
the concrete and inside the box (but protected in sealed, grouted, may be arranged so as to align movement through the point of zero
thick-walled polyethylene ducts) and are usually anchored in dia- movement, or they may be aligned longitudinally and radially at each
phragms at the piers. Between piers, the tendons drape inside the pier in order to control movements. In either case, the net longitudinal
box through deviator blocks at the junction of the web and bottom and transverse forces from the superstructure must be considered in
slab {Fig. 15.127b).6 the substructure design. Laminated neoprene bearings permit more
In bridges with tight curves and when tendons are within the web, equalization of longitudinal and transverse horizontal forces between
the radial force on the web must be considered and the web thickness the superstructure and each pier by virtue of their horizontal shearing
increased or reinforced to prevent the tendons from laterally pulling out stiffness.
of the web or causing a longitudinal crack. The radial force on the web is
equal to P.JR per unit length, where PT is the maximum posttensioning 15.29.5 Influence of Construction Methods
force and R the radius.7 an 5tnidunil Conflgur.tlan
Sequential construction methods use part of the already completed
15.29.J 5"-d Supports structure to support and construct the next part. In addition, tem-
Although it is possible to place skewed supports under a concrete box porary supports and erection equipment loads may be applied in
girder, the details in the superstructure become complicated espe- one structural configuration and then removed or relocated at a later
cially foT construction. Placing the bearings square to the centerline stage. Likewise, posttensioning may be introduced in one stage and
greatly simplifies the superstructure diaphragm and details. Likewise, more added at later stages. As a result, the internal forces change
it is preferable to provide square rather than skewed end abutments throughout construction, and residual forces are built into the struc-
whenever practical. At intermediate piers, if there is an insufficient ture. The internal forces resulting from the construction sequence,
lateral clearance for a bearing arrangement and pier is set square to erection loads, temporary supports, and stage posttensioning are quite
the superstructure alignment, a bearing or monolithic connection to different from those obtained by supporting the structure entirely by
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 535
falsework until all the construction is finished and the falsework only the match-cast segment relative to the casting cell bulkhead for each
then removed. It is noted that the latter is sometimes referred to as an new segment. The match-cast segment is also adjusted in position to
"instantaneous" construction phase. In concrete bridge construction, compensate for any minor geometric casting errors incurred when it
perhaps the most common example of sequential construction is the was the newly cast segment.
segmental balanced cantilever where, by commencing at the top of a The geometry control comists of tracking the vertical profiles over
pier, the superstructure is constructed by adding a segment to each each web and the horizontal alignment, graphically or computationally,
side of the pier in tum using posttensioning tendons to secure each by precise measurements of the newly cast and match-cast segments
new segment to those already built. Once a balanced cantilever is com- in the cell. However, when the curve is sharp, the vertical profile and
pleted, it is connected to a previously erected cantilever or side span superelevation influence the horizontal alignment in the casting cell
through a short, posttensioned, cast-in-place closure. This changes the and vice versa. In such cases, the tracking is best handled by a three-
statical scheme of the structure for all subsequent construction and dimensional coordinate geometry transformation system between the
applied loads. Temporary props near the piers may be used to carry global structure and the local casting cell.
the out-of-balance loads as a new segment is added first to one end
of a cantilever and then to the other. All the erection equipment loads 15.30 REVIEW OF THEORY"
must then be accounted for in the design.
In an indeterminate, sequentially constructed structure, creep of 15.30. 1 lntrodudory Rem11rks
the concrete causes a redistribution of internal forces and stresses. The Even though currently the use of commercially available software
trend is from the accumulated internal forces at the end of the con- affords nearly everyday routine analysis in the design office, it is
struction sequence toward those that would have arisen had the entire important to also know the underlying theory of curved structures and
structure been created and loaded in its final configuration. The mag- to review practical methods available for analysis. Knowing practical
nitude of the long-term creep redistribution depends upon the age of methods is especially important in (1) having an insight into the overall
the concrete at the time of loading that is, the younger the concrete, behavior of the structure and understanding the way internal forces are
the more the redistribution. Cast-in-place construction undergoes distributed and (2) providing a means to verify the results from com-
more creep redistribution (and shrinkage deformation) than precast puter programs for quality assurance purposes. Thus, in this section, an
concrete, which is more mature when loaded. Thus, the age of the overview of the theory of curved structures and methods of analysis for
concrete and the time at which each construction step is performed them is provided.
must be known in order to confidently calculate and accumulate the Most curved concrete box-girder bridges can be considered to behave
structural response. Furthermore, both creep and shrinkage influence as curved beams with rigid cross sections because they have relatively
the loss of the prestress. Thus, the global structural movements will thick webs and slabs for constructabillty and strength requirements.
need to be accommodated by bearings and expansion joints. & such, Only in rare cases is the transverse cross section such that the effect of
the material characteristics of the concrete (Le., strength, modulus of torsional warping or distortion must be considered. This would be the
elasticity, and coefficients of creep and shrinkage) and their behavior case, for example, when very thin and tall webs are used or there are
with time must be known or estimated. no adequate rigid internal diaphragms at the supports. Nevertheless,
In summary, the design of a sequentially constructed structure whenever the geometry or construction methods necessities a more
depends very much upon the construction sequence, erection load- detailed process in computing torsional and other effects that are inher-
ings, temporary supports, posttensioning, changes in the statical ent with curved structures, there are practical methods that can be used
scheme, the material characteristics of the concrete, and the timing by analyzing the bridge as a continuous beam.11- 1•
of each individual construction step in relation to the maturity of
each portion of the concrete structure throughout the construction 15.30.2 Bt!hllVior of• Curved Bum
period and into long-term service. Because of the detail and com- The equilibrium of a curved beam subjected to distributed loads p and
plexity of this process, the analysis and design of a major concrete torsional moments l1lr (Fig. 15.128) is represented by the following
bridge is usually accomplished by means of computer programs system of equations:
that automatically account for and accumulate all the structural and
time-dependent changes. For further information on this subject, dT M
the reader is referred to Refs. 8-10. A simplified approach and an -;.z;-="R+111r (15.8)
example of steps necessary to perform calculations are presented in
subsequent subsections. dT =!_-V (15.9)
ds R
15.29.6 Constructlon--Cambtlr .ad dV
GeomelrJ Control -;.z;-=P (15.10)
For all segmental and sequentially constructed bridges, the final where T =torsional moment
alignment of the superstructure is made up of the required geometric M =longitudinal bending moment
horizontal alignment and vertical profile adjusted by camber to com- V = shear force
pensate for all elastic, creep, and shrinkage deflections resulting from R =radius
all sustained loads, posttensioning, and intermediate construction The torsional and bending moments are coupled in a curved beam;
stages from casting to erection to long-term service. Most concrete box as such, they cannot be independently solved through Eqs. (15.8)
girders are torsionally and horizontally rigid; as such, the torsional and and (15.9). Because of the beam curvature, the bending moment
horizontal displacements are negligible. Thus, it is normally only neces- M also generates a torsional moment that is added to the external
sary to compensate for vertical displacements, even for sharply curved distributed torque (tnr). Similarly, the torsional moment generates a
bridges, but it is advisable to make sure about this issue by computing bending moment. Furthermore, the rotations induced by the torques
deflections from other effects. also generate vertical displacements resulting from the curvature
For precasting of segments, the geometric vertical profile, adjusted of the beam. For a simple-span curved beam, which is torsionally
for camber, is determined over each web and the horizontal align- fixed and vertically simply supported at the ends (see Fig. 15.129),
ment established at the centerline at each joint between segments.
The two vertical profiles and horizontal alignment comprise "casting
curves"-the geometric data to which the segments are cast in the hMainly from the original article by Alan J. Moreton, Juan J. Goni, Amy R.
casting cell. The curve of the entire structure is established by setting Kohls. and Daniel G. Davis of Figg Engineers, Tallah:usee, Florida.
536 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
p
V(e) + dV(O) ds
ds
V(0)
the internal forces under a uniformly distributed vertical load P For a curved cantilever of constant cross section, the moments at the
along its centerline are root of the cantilever are
M
p=Ii+mr (15.17)
This result shows that for the torque span (i.e., length between points
at which the curved beam supports are torsionally fixed), the bending
and torsional moments can be obtained as follows:
1. Straighten the curved beam with its corresponding supports and
determine the bending moments by any method for indeterminate
structures.
2. Taking each torque span in turn, apply the distributed load p
[Eq. (15.7)] on a simply supported beam oflength equal to that torque
span and compute the distribution of shear. The result is the distribu-
tion of torsional moment in the curved beam for that torque span.
3. The algebraic difference between the two end torsional moments
The end supports are rotationa y fixed but free to rotate in bending
for each torque span adjacent to a torsional support is the torsional
Figure 15.129 Forces on a aimple-apan curved beam. moment reaction at that support.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 537
If a support in the curved bridge is not torsionally fixed (i.e., single analysis by equivalent distributed vertical forces along the length of the
bearing under a box). the torque span (length of the simply supported tendons and equivalent concentrated forces and bending moments at
beam in Step 2) should be the distance between the next adjacent tor- the location of the anchorages. In curved bridges, internal tendons also
sionally fixed supports. apply a horizontal distributed force u on the concrete (Fig. 15.131) at the
A continuous curved beam can also be represented by a series of location of the tendon equal to
chorded straight beams and analyzed using, for example, the grillage
analysis method with the aid of computer software. p
u=- (15.20)
R
15.30.3 Loading Effects on CurVlld Concnite
Bax-Girder Bridges
The resultant of these forces per unit length ds is equal to
A concrete box-girder bridge is subject to self-weight, posttensioning,
superimposed dead and live load, wind, seismic forces, temperature, p
creep and shrinkage effects, and so forth. All can be represented by R,. =uds = -ds (15.21)
R
equivalent forces applied to a model of the structure. The equivalent
forces representing gravity, traffic, and posttensioning forces differ
and is directed toward the interior of the curve. In each part of the
between straight and curved bridges. In straight bridges the weight
of the structure is represented by distributed vertical loads p applied differential element shown in Fig. 15.131, the adjacent slices transmit
compression stresses a c with a resultant P equal to
to the centroid of the beam. In curved bridges, there is an additional
distributed torque <mr= pe) resulting from the difference in distributed
weight represented in plane area between the axis of the beam and the (15.22)
interior edge and the plane area between the axis of the beam and the
exterior edge (Fig. 15.130). Consequently, the self-weight of a curved
bridge must be represented by a vertical distributed load p located at a The resultant Ra of the forces P applied to the faces of the element is
distance e from the axis toward the exterior of the cross section, where
Shear center
Center of
(a)
Segment length = ds
where r = distance from the centroid of the section to the shear center 2. Determine the bending moments assuming the structure is built in
andf = distance from the tendon location to the centroid of the section. a single •instantaneous" phase (i.e., all on falsework).
The result shows that the equivalent distributed torque per unit length 3. Calculate the difference between the bending moments of Step 2
generated by the posttensioning is independent of the location of the and Step 1.
shear center and is equal to 4. Multiply the bending moment diagram obtained in Step 1 by the
p factor (1 - e_.l to obtain the ~creep moments." The parameter cjJ is called
(15.25) the creep factor.10 Reference 3 also covers materials on how to compute
m.r=""i/
creep moments based on the AASHTO procedures.
If this value is placed in the torsion equation, then 5. Add the bending moment diagram of Step 4 to that of Step 1 to
dT MP obtain the bending moment diagram after all creep has occurred.
ds =""R+mr (15.26) Currently, the use of commercial nonlinear three-dimensional
finite-element analysis software such as ABAQUS17 is becoming rou-
where MP is the bending moment generated by the posttensioning that tine in practice. Such programs allow modeling concrete box curved
in turn can be separated into the primary bending moment (Pf) and bridges for time-dependent nonlinear analysis for an accurate estima-
secondary bending moment M 1f!h tion of the creep effects. However, it is also important to know practical
approximate methods of estimating creep effects as a means of
dT =M+mr=MHP-Pf +!:...f=MHP (15.27) (1) quick analysis in preliminary design and (2) verifying computer
ds R R R R analysis results for quality assurance purposes. The following presents
a practical approach in computing the redistribution of torsional
This indicates that the torsional moments are exclusively generated by moments caused by creep:
the secondary posttensioning bending moments. Consequently, if the 1. Compute the bending moment diagram accounting for the time-
structure is isostatic or the tendon layout is concordant, there are no dependent effects using a computer program or the procedure presented
torsional moments resulting from the posttensioning. above as for a straight continuous beam.
15.30.4 Radlstrlbution of Bending and Torsional 2. Compute the external torques applied by the loads m.r.
Moments Resultlng from Creep 3. Compute the distributed load
The redistribution of longitudinal bending moment resulting from
creep in a curved concrete bridge can be calculated with a high degree (15.28)
of accuracy by the same procedure as for straight bridges when the
properties of the structure are such that the torsional moments have a
small influence on the bending moments (K close to 1, Le., rigid cross 4. Taking each torque span in turn, apply the distributed load p on
section). Several commercially available software packages for straight a simply supported beam of length equal to that torque span and com-
bridges incorporate time-dependent effects (i.e., creep and shrinkage pute the distribution of shear. The result is the distribution of torsional
of concrete and posttensioning steel relaxation) and the time effects of moment in the curved beam for that torque span.
the sequential construction stages. In the case of a bridge built in stages, 5. The algebraic difference of the two end torsional moments for each
the effects of creep can be computed approximately by the following torque span adjacent to a torsional support is the torsional moment
procedure:10 reaction at that support.
1. Determine the bending moments in the structure accounting for In the case of posttensioning, the distributed load in Step 3 is equal to
the construction phases. the secondary bending moments divided by the radius.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING 539
15.31 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS using any convenient method for continuowi beams so long as it is
15.J1.1 Stllte of Stress
broken into the major construction steps and the results of each step
accumulated. Time-dependent creep redistribution is incorporated
A given section in the bridge is subjected to the following resultant by applying a creep factor to the final conditions. The procedure is as
forces from combination of all loads: follows:
P = resultant axial force 1. Determine the geometry of the bridge (Fig.15.132).
V = resultant shear force 2. Establish the span arrangements, articulation, construction sequence
M = resultant bending moment from applied loads including post- and methods (Fig. 15.133), and posttensioning layout (Fig. 15.134).
tensioning and secondary effects 3. Determine the concrete material properties. Determine the
T = resultant torsion required concrete strength. For a normal weight concrete, determine the
The section properties to consider in design include the following: modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage characteristics, and thermal
=
A cross-sectional area coefficient according to the design specifications.
I= moment of inertia 4. Establish the superstructure cross section (Fig. 15.135) and execute
b = web width at plane of interest (i.e., neutral axis, top or bottom of transverse design for local loads. Determine the local bending moments
web) taken perpendicular to the web in the top and bottom slabs and webs. Determine the reinforcement
Z = section modulus at plane of interest and/or transverse prestressing for these local effects.
Q =first moment of area of section above plane of interest 5. Determine the self-weight, superimposed dead load and all appro-
t, =minimum thickness of top or bottom slab or web of interest priate live loads, including centrifugal force, wind, temperature, and so
A' = total area enclosed by the median line of the webs and top and forth. For the superstructure consider at least self-weight, superimposed
bottom slabs dead load, live loads (including centrifugal force), wind (on structure
The resultant stresses at the plane of interest are the following: 18 and live load), temperature, creep and shrinkage, and construction
longitudinal stress: loads.
6. Determine the eccentricities of the applied loads and the distrib-
(15.29) uted applied torque loading ~ for each.
7. Straighten the bridge and execute a longitudinal construction-
stage analysis (i.e., determine and accumulate the longitudinal bend-
web shear stress: ing moments, shear forces, reactions, and internal stresses at each
step of the construction sequence, taking into account all changes in
(15.30) the statical structural scheme, the application and removal of erection
loads, temporary supports and falsework, and the introduction of
posttensioning including the effects of redistribution resulting from
slab shear stress: creep and shrinkage, from the beginning of construction to long-
T term service).
't=-- (15.31) If a construction-stage analysis computer program is unavailable, a
' 2A't, reasonable solution for creep redistribution can be obtained by apply-
principal tension in web: ing a global creep factor to the difference between structural condi-
tions resulting from the accumulated construction steps and those
arising as if the structure had been instantaneously created in its final
(15.32) configuration.
For the following steps it is assumed that the analysis is to be per-
formed without the benefit of a computer program that accounts for the
At the service level, the longitudinal fiber stresses should not exceed
time-dependent effects of the steel and concrete.
those of the applicable design code. For a concrete compressive strength
8. Tabulate the accumulated bending moments for self-weight,
offc psi (MPa), as a general guideline, if the principal tensile stress in
posttensioning, and construction sequence loads from Step 7 for the
the web under the worst combination of loadings is less than about
conditions at the end of the construction sequence at intervals of at least
4.SJJ: psi (or 0.375Jf1 MPa), then serviceability conditions (i.e., no
one-eighth of a span for each span. For the bridge being analyzed in
cracking) should be satisfied provided that web reinforcement is placed
this example, the bending moment diagrams for each of the erection
in accordance with standard code procedures for the resultant combina-
phases are shown in Figs. 15.136 and 15.137 for self-weight and the
tions of axial forces, torques, shears, and moments.
post-tensioning, respectively.
9. Repeat this procedure for the conditions had the structure been
15,31 .2 Example of Design P - . ' created instantaneously in its final configuration. The results of the
The method for the analysis and design of a curved concrete box-girder analysis for the self-weight and the posttensioning are presented in
bridge presented in the previous sections is applied here to a practical Figs. 15.138 and 15.139, respectively.
example. The structure is a section of a ramp in an urban interchange 10. Compute creep moments.3 or apply the creep redistribution factor
of five continuous spans with a radius of298.6 ft (91 m). For simplicity, ' reco=ended in Ref 10 to the difference between the tabulations for
it is assumed that the piers are so stiff that they act as torsionally fixed Steps 8 and 9 and determine the final redistributed bending moments
supports in the transverse direction. In the longitudinal direction, the resulting from self-weight and posttensioning (Figs. 15.138 and 15.139).
superstructure is pin-connected to the piers so that no longitudinal In this example, ell= 1.16 is used.
bending moment is transmitted to them. The structure is segmentally 11. Tabulate the longitudinal bending moments for live load and any
erected in balanced cantilever by ground-based cranes. Temporary ver- other applied load. For this example, one lane of live load equal to
tical props are used to stabilize the cantilevers during erection. 800 lb/ft (11 .676 kN/m) is considered located on spans 1, 3, and 5. The
Although this example was analyzed by a plane-frame computer load is assumed to be placed toward the outside curve at 15 ft ( 4.575 m)
program that automatically takes into account the multiple phases of from the centroid of the girders. The equivalent external torque is then
the erection, including posttensioning, the analysis can be performed 12.008 ft·kips/ft (53.418 kN·m/m).
12. At each interval along each span, divide the accumulated longi-
tudinal bending moments M by the radius of curvature R and add the
;Mainly from the original article by Alan J. Moreton, Juan J. Gonl, Amy R. distributed torque load ~ from Step 6. In the case of posttensioning,
Kohls, and Daniel G. Davia of Figg Engineers, Th.llahassee, Florida. include only the secondary bending moments in the analysis.
540 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
SECTION
Figure 15.132 Plan and section of bridge.
STAGE 1 IITDI I 11 I I 11 B I 11 I 11 I
- Enid eanai..ar lm!!IBI
- Enid End Span SetJnantii an FALSEWORK PROP
~
-c..tClooura
-- Cantlnully P.T.
- RomDV9 FalHWOrl< and Prop
STAGE2
-EnldCanai..ar
~ 11II1111111B1111111111111111B11111111111
-c..tc1oou.. PROP
-- Cantlnully P.T.
- Remove Prop
STAGE3
-EnldCanai..ar
~ I I II I I I I I I I BI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I BI I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I IJ BI I I I I I I I
-c..tCloou'8 PRO
-- Cantlnully P.T.
- Remove Prop
STAGE4 ~11111111111B1111111111111111B1111111111•11111111B111111111111111Bl1111111
-E-Cantii..ar
-c..tClooura PROP
-- Cantinuily P.T.
- Remove Prop
STAGES ~lllllllllll~llllllllllllllll~lllllllllllllllllll~lllllllllllllll~lllllllll&
-AddTwo Mora ~m
c..-
- Enid Abutment Se!Jnont
-c..tc1oou..
-- Cantlnully P.T.
COMPLETED ~lllllllllll~llllllllllllllll~lllllllllllllllllll~lllllllllllllll~lllllllll&
STRUCTURE
Pier 1 Pier 2 Pier 3 Pier 4 Pier 5 Pier 6
13. Establish the effective torque span or spans for the overall
;:;:;:::;::~=:;::;::§~~~~§~C~a~ntilever P.T. (Typ.) structural configuration. Each torque span comprises that length of
~I II !I El I I 111 superstructure between those piers at which torsion can be transmitted
to the substructure.
Pier1 Pier2 Cantilever P.T. (Typ.) 14. Using the values from Step 12, construct a distributed torque
loading diagram and apply this loading to the defined torque span or
CANTILEVER 1 spans. Construct the shear force diagram for this loading as if for a
simple beam oflength equal to each torque span. The ordinates of this
diagram represent the final torsional moments at any given section.
The torsional moments in the example for the self-weight and the post-
tensioning are presented in Figs. 15.140a and 15.140&, respectively. The
computation of the torsional moments using the method in Steps 12 and
1111111111Ef11111111111 13 for the combination of self-weight, posttensioning, and the live load
assumed in Step 11 is for span 3 swnmarized in Table 15.16 for every 'i4
Pler3 of the span length between Pier 3 and Pier 4.
15. Determine the torsional shear-flow forces and stresses at the
CANTILEVER 2 desired sections along the span and algebraically add them to those
resulting from longitudinal shear (and bending) to determine the maxi-
mum shear stresses, principal stresses, and vertical shear plus torsional
shear forces in each web and the torsional shear forces in each slab.
16. Determine transverse reinforcement in the slabs and webs and
I II I 11
'E1 I-I -I I I
Pler4
algebraically add to that required for local effects from Step 4.
17. Return to the individual construction stages and repeat this pro-
cedure to check critical sections and stages during construction. Revise
the reinforcement as necessary. For cantilever construction of continu-
CANTILEVER 3 ous bridges, the self-weight torque is generally mamnum during con-
struction of a cantilever.
18. Check the critical sections for the conditions immediately after
the completion of construction but before all final long-term losses and
creep redistribution.
I I 111
Piers
'!h
Pler6
If a plane-frame construction-stage computer program is available,
extract the longitudinal bending moments for the final long-term ser-
vice conditions after all losses resulting from creep and shrinkage. Skip
Steps 8 and 9.
CANTILEVER 4 For the loads considered at span 3, the results show that the torsional
Each P.T. line represents moments after creep redistribution are approximately 5.5 percent of
2 - 19x15.2 mm strand tendons. the longitudinal bending moments. These effectively contnbute an
additional 7.2 percent of shear force in the worst loaded web. While
Figure 15.134 Posttcnsioning achematic layout. other live-load, centrifugal, and wind forces may increase these forces,
the overall condition is not significantly different from that of a straight
structure. This may not always be the case for all structures, but it indi-
cates that curved concrete box girders are very efficient.
I CANTILEVER PT
14.180
3.490 1.799 1.615
0
ij
CONTINUITY PT I
5.200
I
HALF SECTION IN SPAN HALF SECTION AT PIER
Dimension unit is in meter (1 m = 3.3 feet)
Figull! 15.135 Superlll:ructure cto11 1ectlon.
542 CHAPTER FIFTEEN
50
I STAGE 1 I
E'' (I) 0
~'O
~ c:
I-
zwo:IIll
::E .c
o1- --50
::E
-100
Pier 1 Pier2
50
I STAGE2 I
E'' (I) 0
~'O
~ c:
I- Ill
zWO:I
::E .c
o1- --50
::E
-100
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3
50
I STAGE a I
E'
z-8 0
;. c:
I- Ill
z~
wo
:::!: .c
o1- --50
:::!:
-100
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4
50
STAGE4AND5
E'' (I) 0
ii 'Oc:
~
I- Ill
zWO:I
::E .c
o1- --50
::E
-100
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4 Pier5 Pier6
100
ISTAGE 1 I
'E 50
' 0
~'C
~c
zwo!ll::I
I-
:::i! .c
o1- 0
:::i!
-50
Pier 1 Pier2
100
ISTAGE2 I
'E 50
z~
~c
I- al
z~
WO
::!
0
i= 0
:::i!
-50
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3
100
ISTAGE3 I
'E
z~ 50
~a
I-
zWO::I0
:::i! .c
o1- 0
::!!:
-50
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4
100
STAGE 4AND 5
'E 50
' 0
~'C
~c
zwoill::I
I-
:::i! .c
o1- 0
::!
-50
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier 3 Pier4 Pier5 Pier6
(a) so
lsTAGE 4 AND sl
e 0
:Z~
cc
zWO!E::I
I-
:!!! .I::
o1- -50
:!!!
-10~
ier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4 Piers Piere
(b) so
IINSTANTANEOUS STRUCTURE I
eI (II 0
z 1:1
cc
I- as
z§
WO
:!!! ~
0 -50
:!!!
-100
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4 Piers Piere
50
(c)
ISTRUCTURE AFTER LONG TERM CREEP REDISTRIBUTION I
eI 0 0
ii
.._. 1:1c
I- !ll
z ::I
we
~~ -50
:!!!
-100
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4 Piers Piere
(c) =(a) + (1 - e~)[(b) - (a)]
(a) 100
lsTAGE 4 AND sl
e ea
I 50
z "'C
cc:
I- al
z~
WO
::::!! ..c:
at- 0
::::!!
-50
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4 Piers Pier6
(b) 100
IINSTANTANEOUS STRUCTURE I
e ea
I 50
~
~ c:
"'C
zWO::Im
i-
:ii ..c:
at- 0
::::!!
-50
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4 Piers Pier6
100
(c)
ISTRUCTURE AFTER LONG TERM CREEP REDISTRIBUTION I
ez -ig 50
cc:
z ::Im
I-
we
::!: ..c:
at- 0
::!:
-5
-10'--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
15
ISTRUCTURE AFTER LONG TERM CREEP DISTRIBUTION I
10
'E
~~c
......
5
z al
0o
- !l
WL:
a: t- 0
~
-5
-10
Pier 1 Pier2 Pier3 Pier4 Piers Pier6
(b)
Table 15.16 Computation of the Torslonal Moment for the Combination of Self.Weight. Posttellllonlng (PT), and the Live Load
Longitudinal bending moment (KN·m) Applied Torque T (KN·ln/m)
15.31.l AddlttoMI Rudlng 8. Podolny, W., and Muller, J. M., Constnlction and Design of Pre-
The reader is referred to additional materials and examples on concrete stressed Concrete Segmentiil Bridges, Wiley Interscience, New York, 1982.
box-girder curved bridges provided in Ren. 1, 3, and 14. 9. Mathivat, J., The Cantilever Constnlction of Prestressed Concrete
Bridges, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1983.
10. Post-Tensioning Institute, PrtclJSt Segmental Box Girder Manual,
Rl!FUl!NC!S Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, A'L. 1988.
11. Dabrowski, R., Curw.d Thin-Walled Girders. Theory and Analysis,
1. NCHRP, Development ofDtsign Specifa:aiions iind Commentary for C & CA Library Translation (Translator, C. V. Amerongen), Cement and
Horiz<mtally Curw.d Conmte Box-Girder Bridgts, NCHRP Report 620, Concrete Association, London 1972.
National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine, National 12. Kirstck W., Theory of Box Girders, Wiley Interscience, New York,
Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008. 1970.
2. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association 13. Maisel, B. I., and Roll, F., Methods of Ana!>'si.s and Design of
of State Highway and Tr&n$portatlon Officials, Washington, DC, 2012. Concrete Box Beams with Side Cantilevers, Technical Report No. 42.494,
3. Corven, John, Poat-Tensioned Box Girder Design Manual, Cement and Concrete AJsociation, London, 1974.
Report No. FHWA-HIF-15-016, Office of Infrastructure-Bridges and 14. Sennah, K. M., and Kennedy, J. B., •Literature Review in Analy-
Structures, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC, 2016. sis of Box-Girder Bridges; Journal of Bridge Engineering, ASCE, 7(2),
4. Hambly, E. C., Bridge Deck Behavior, Second Edition, E & FN 134-143, 2002.
Spon, London, 1991. 15. Tung, D. H. H., •Approximate Torsional Analysis of Curved Box
5. Bakht, B. and L. G. Jaeger, Bridge Aniilym Simplified, McGraw- Girders by the MIR-Method; AISC Engineering Journal, 7(3), 65- 74,
Hill, New Yorlc, 1985. July 1970.
6. Powell, L. C., and Breen, J. E., State of the Art Externally Post- 16. Witecki, A A, "Simplified Method for the Analysis of Torsional
Tensioned Bridges with Deviators, Center for Transportation Research, Moment as an Effect of a Horizontally Curved Multispan ContinuOWI
The University of Texas at Austin, Report No. FHWA/TX-89+365-1, Bridge,• CcmcrdeBridgeDesign, ACI Publication SP-23, pp. 193-204, 1969.
1988. 17. ABAQUS/CAE User's Manual, 6.12, Dassault ~mes Simulia
7. Podolny, W., •The Cause of Cracking in Post-Tensioned Con- Corp., Providence, RI, 2012.
crete Box Girder Bridge& and Retrofit Procedure.;' PC! Journal, 30(2). 18. Timlllhenlco, S., and Young. D. H., EkmmtJ ofStrength ofMaterials,
March- April 1985. Fourth Edition, D. Van Nostrand, New York, 1962.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 16
Railroad Bridge Design
BY
MOHSEN ISSA, Ph.Dq PE. SE ProftlSSor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering,
University of nlinois at Chicago
AHMAD HAMMAD, Ph.D., PE. SE Assistant Vice President and Senior Engineering Managt!T,
WSPUSA
16.1 INTRODUCTION the engineer. They shall be combined in such a manner as to produce
uniformity of color and texture in the surface of any atructuxe or group
The principles of designing railroad structures are similar to those for
of atructuxes in which they are to be used. No change shall be made in
structures carrying highways. However, structures carrying railways
the brand, type, source, or characteristics of cementitious materials, the
have much heavier loadings than those subject to highway loadings
character and aource of aggregate or water, or the class of concrete and
due to increased dead load, live load, and impact required for railways.
method of transporting, placing, finishing or curing without approval
Railroad bridge design, construction, maintenance, operation,
of the engineer.
and inspection are governed by the American Railway Engineering
Hardwood structuxal timbers shall comply with the requirement. of
Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA) Manual (hereafter referred to
the Northeastem Lumber Manufacturers Association, Inc. (NELMA),
as AREMA Manual). The AREMA Manual contains four volumes, each of
Chapter 6: Timber, Beams and Stringers, Posts and Timbers for the spe-
which contains chapters that cover various topics. Volume 1 covers Rail,
cies and grades listed in Part 2 of this Manual.
Volume 2 c.overs Structures (Chapter 7: Timber Structures, Chapter 8:
Concrete Structures and Foundations, Chapter 9: Seismic Design for 16.2.2 Dllflectlons
Railway Structures, Chapter 15: Steel Structures), Volume 3 covers Infra- limits on deflections are set to ensure the safety of rail traffic, to control
structure and Passenger, and Volume 4 covers System Management track forces, and to ensure track geometry remains within specified
Much of the material covered in this chapter will reference specific limits. AREMA Manual Chapter 15: Steel Structures limits the deflec-
articles of the AREMA Manual. tion due to live load plus impact loading to 1/640 of the span length.
For concrete structure, minimum superstructure depths are provided
16.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS to have adequate stiffness for the control of deflectiona. In addition to
vertical deflections, lateral/horizontal deflection as well as longitudinal
111.2.1 M.terillls
deflection should be considered.
The choice of material is dependent on the available construction
depth and span. Some of the main typical materials that are found on a 16.2.3 CIHranc:n
railroad bridge are steel, concrete, stone, and timber. Concrete is com- Clearance between trains and the bridge structure or any fixture attached
monly used for many bridge superstructure members such as decks, shall be sufficient These envelopes depend on the speed and geometry
prestressed concrete beams. It is used extensively in new construc- of the track. As per AREMA Manual, the minimum railway bridge clear-
tion for the entire abutment and piers. Steel is commonly used in the ance for tangent track is 18'-0" wide by 23'-0" high above top of rail The
bridge superstructure for beams, bearings. floor beams, girders, and requirements for lateral clearance each side of the track centerline for
reinforcing bars in concrete. Stone was commonly used for building the curved geometry are increased by 1~ in. per degree of curvature. The
abutment. and piers in the 1940s and earlier. Iron was used typically in vertical clearance may have to be increased for electrified lines.
beams and trusses that were built before 1900. Timber is used for several
dec:ks, piles, and track ties. Composite material have been also used to 16.3 LOADING
a lesser extent.
111.3.1 Dead l..Hd
The design requirements of these recommended practices, contained
in this part, are based on the use of materials conforming to the current Dead load consiats of the weight of the structure itself, the track rails
requirements of the following ASTM specifications. and fastenings, ballast and ties, weight of waterproofing, and any other
The concrete materials shall be selected for strength, durability, and attachments that are permanently applied. Unit weights of various
chemical relistance, and ability to attain specified properties as required, material can be estimated as follows: Concrete: 150 pcf, Steel: 490 pcf,
in accordance with this recommended practice and as approved by Timber: 60 pcf, and Ballast: 120 pcf. As per AREMA Manual, the track
550 CHAPTER SIXTEEN
rails, inside guard rails, and their rail fastenings shall be assumed to base of the rail at any point across the span. For timber structures, the
weigh 200 lb per linear foot. nosing load is 20 kips applied at the top of the rail in either horizontal
direction and at a point along the span.
16.3.2 Lin
The AREMA Manual recommends that design be based on Cooper 16.3.8 Stllblllty Check
E-80 Live Loading. While the Cooper E loading is not a real train, it is For spans and towers, stability should be investigated with live load
a simplified model intended to produce load effects equivalent to those on only one track, the leeward track with respect to wind direction for
of a real train. Heavier Cooper E loadings will result in directly propor- structures with more than one track. The live load should be 1200 lb/ft,
tional increases in the concentrated and uniform live loadings. Some without impact.
new designs are utili7.ing E90 or ElOO. In addition to Cooper load-
ing. the Alternative Live Load on 4 Axle (100 kips each axle) shall be 16.3.9 Longltudln•I
considered. Generally, the Alternate loading controls for shorter spans. Longitudinal forces shall be applied to structures in any direction that
AREMA Manual Chapter 15, Section 1.15, has tables for Live Load generates the critical design load Trains shall be considered to travel in
Moments, Shears, and Reactions. These tables reflect Cooper E80 or both directions on all tracks. As per AREMA Manual, the longitudinal
Alternate Loading Live Loading. All the moment, shear, and reaction force is taken as the larger of the force due to braking applied at 8 ft above
values are for one rail (one-half track load) only, and all the values can top of rail or the force due to traction applied at 3 ft above the top of rail.
be prorated (directly proportional) for smaller or larger Cooper's E live The longitudinal force is a function of the structure length, and for longer
loadings. bridges, tower bents are usually provided to resist the longitudinal force.
16.3.l Distribution of Uve lo•d 16.3.1 o Ftrtlgue
The live load is distributed to the superstructure (beams or girders) for Bridges must also be designed for the repeated application of loading
open-deck structures as a series of concentrated load, provided that ties (fatigue loading) throughout the design life. For railroad bridges, fatigue
are within a length of 4 ft but not more than three ties. When two or loading is very important, consideration and may well govern many
more longitudinal beams per rail with diaphragms in accordance with aspects of the detail and size of major members for new steel bridges.
AREMA Manual Chapter 15 and symmetrically spaced under the rail, The major factors governing fatigue strength are material strength, the
they shall be considered as equally loaded number of stress cycles per train passage, the magnitude of the stress
For ballasted-deck structures, the live load distribution for the deck, range, and the type and location of the detail.
transverse beams, and longitudinal beams or girders is a function of
16.3.11 Combined Stniu111
deck thickness, ballast thickness, tie width, tie spacing, beam spacing,
beam stiffness, axle load, and ule spacing. The allowable stress design method (working design) for railroad struc-
tures is used for steel and timber. While AREMA Chapter 8: Concrete
16.3.4 lmpKt Structures utilizes both allowable stress design and load factor design
methods, except that load factor design (LFD) is not applicable to foun-
To allow for dynamic, vibratory, and impact effects, the live load is
amplified by the impact factor, I. The impact factor is a percent of the dation and structural stability checks. For steel structures, the allowable
stress is commonly 0.55 of the minimum yield strength of the material.
live load due to vertical effects, which is a function of type oflocomotive
AREMA Manual Chapter 15: Steel Structures, Table 15-1-11, shows the
and span length and is applied to each rail and due to rocking effects
allowable stresses for structural steel, rivets, bolts, and pins. AREMA
that are 20 percent of the wheel load and applied as a force couple.
AREMA Manual Chapters 8 and 15 specify the impact forces to be Manual Chapter 7, Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8, gives allowable values for
Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber. Table 7-2-9 shows
used and how they are to be applied. For ballasted-deck structures the
percentage to be used shall be 90 percent of that specified for open-deck Allowable Unit Stresses for Stress Graded Lumber. Table 7-2-10 depicts
Unit Compression (Column) Stresses for Standard Stress Grades.
structures.
16.3.12 Emrthqu.lm
16.3.S C.ntrHug•I
Seismic design of railroad structures is covered under AREMA Manual
Structures on curved alignment shall be designed for a horizontal radial Chapter 9. AREMA specifies two procedures for analyzing bridges
force equal to a percent of the ule load without impact. The horizontal subject to seismic loads: the Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure and the
force is applied at 6 ft above the top of rail and is a function of speed and Modal Analysis Procedure. The selection of the analysis procedure is
degree of curve and can produce an overturning moment that tends to dependent on the configuration of the bridge considered as classified in
increase the live force in members on outside of the curve and reduce Table 9-1-7. AREMA Manual provides a detailed descriptive account of
live load in members on the inside of the curve. Preferably, the section the aforementioned analysis procedures in Chapter 9.
for the member on the outside of the curve should be used also for the
member on the inside. The centrifugal force should also be considered 16.3.13 Load Cambln•tlan1
in the design of anchor bolts, bearings, and substructure. The structure may be subjected to various combinations of loads and
forces. Each component of the structure, including the foundation,
16.3.6 Wind
shall be proportioned to resist safely all group combinations of these
Structures shall be designed for wind load on the moving train as well forces that are applicable. Group loading combinations for various
as wind load on unloaded bridge. The wind load shall be consid- material are provided in AREMA Manual. In general, member sizes
ered as a moving load acting in any horizontal direction (lateral and based on stresses resulting from dead load, live load, impact load, and
longitudinal). Regardless of material type, on the train the wind load centrifugal force control.
shall be taken at 300 lb/ft on the one track, applied 8 ft above the top
of rail. On the structure it depends on material type and is covered in 16A TIMBER
Chapters 7, 8, and 9 for Timber, Concrete, and Steel, respectively.
16A.1 Brldgelypu
16.3.7 Lateral Equipment Forces Timber's strength, light weight, and energy-absorbing properties are
A lateral load (often referred to as nosing) from the passing of the train positive features that are desirable for bridge construction. Timber is
on the tracks (curved or tangent) shall be applied in either horizontal capable of supporting short-term overloads without adverse effects.
direction. For steel structure, the magnitude of the concentrated force is Generally, timber is used for spans between 12 and 16 ft in the form of
one-fourth of the heaviest axle without impact and is to be applied at the open-deck trestle or ballasted-deck trestle. There are two primary type
RAILROAD BRIDGE DESIGN 551
of timber trestles: pile trestles and framed trestles. Pile trestles have unit stresses for different deck types (open, ballasted) for Cooper E-80
maximum height of 30 ft, while framed trestles can be designed for loading. The table depicts various spans lengths, number of stringers,
much taller bents. glue laminated sections, stress laminated decks, graded lumber, size of
cap, number of piles, and so on.
16A.2 Mmterlal Specifications
Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products,
Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties, and Recommendations for 16.5 STEEL
Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood are covered under Part 1 16.5.1 Bridge Types
of AREMA Manual Chapter 7. In general, the quality of timber bridge As per AREMA Chapter 15: Steel Structures, the preferred types of
elements shall conform to the appropriate grading rules and shall be
railroad structures are as follows: rolled or welded girders for spans of
sound and free of defects that may impair strength or durability such 50 ft or less, bolted or welded plate girders for spans over 50 to 150 ft,
as decay, splits, shake, excessive slope of grain, or numerous holes or
and bolted or welded trusses for spans over 150 ft. The rolled beams or
knots, bark, and wane.
girders in a one-way system can have either steel plate deck or reinforced-
concrete deck (composite or noncomposite). Generally, there are a mini-
16A.3 Design Can1lderetlon1 mum offour or five girders per track. For a two-way system, the through
For glulam timber, design values must be derived from ASTM 3737 or deck girders or trusses has floor beams connected to the main girders
and ASTM 02555 Standard Specifications. These values are provided with steel plates. Figures 16.l and 16.2 show a typical welded plate girder
by AREMA Manual in Tables 7-2-7 and 7-2-8. The values must then be with steel plate deck and a typical through girder with floor beams and
adjusted according to the adjustment factors provided in Table 7-2-3. steel deck plate, curved track, respectively.
Allowable unit stresses shall confonn to Tables 7-2-9 and 7-2-10 provided
in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering. The table assigns differ- 16.5.2 Genenil Rula
ent stress values based on the type of wood, grade, and size classification. AREMA Manual Chapter 15, Part l, outlines more or less typical
Allowed bearing stresses and horizontal shear shall be calculated as situations, and the preference of railroad companies for the use of
specified by AREMA Manual in Sections 2.5.7 and 2.5.9 of Chapter 7. a particular detail or material use should be accounted for in the
Basic stresses for bearing on bolts, whether parallel or perpendicular design. Covered under Part 1 is spacing of trusses, girders and string-
to grain, are provided in Table 7-2-11 for different species of wood. ers, deflection, clearance, camber, skews, and expansion. The spacing
Table 7-2-12 provides a factor to be multiplied by the basic stress between outside trusses or girders is not less than 1/20 for through
depending on the Lid ratio of the bolt. span and 1/15 of the span length for deck span. For multigirder bridge
Section 2.6 of Chapter 7 provides specifications for details of design structure, the girders or stringers are spaced uniformly to distribute
including bolt connections and notched beams. Wood culverts design the load. Assume 5'-0" rail center in the design calculations and center-
practice specifications are provided in Section 2.7 of the same chapter. to-center of bearing or supports for span lengths. For plates girders or
In Section 2.8, AREMA provides recommended practice for simple rolled beams less than 90 ft in length, camber is not required. For gird-
stress laminated deck panels. Spacing of prestressing bars for predrilled ers greater than 80 ft, camber equals the deflection due to dead load,
wood laminates shall conform to Table 7-2-14. whereas, for trusses, camber equals the deflection due to dead loads
and 3000 pound per foot of live-load. For live-load deflection calcula-
16AA Design o.t.111 tions, gross moment of inertia shall be used for flexural members and
AREMA Manual Chapter 7 Timber Appendix 1 provides very useful gross area of members for trusses. For members with perforated cover
design details for Contemporary Designs and Design Aids. Those include plates, the effective area shall be used.
EXTRA STRONG
GALVANIZED
STEEL PIPE
I I
~ )
\
\
\
\
+
~GIRDER~-- -
I
+ DECK PL
+ ----r---
,
I
Flguni 16.1 'fypi.cal welded plate girder with steel plate deck.
552 CHAPTER SIXTEEN
IV-SI"
6'-Q' TYP.
LOCAL TANGENT
lSJ
~ IJPPElf FLOOlt PL
(RAISED PATTERN}
3#4" • HACH/NE BOLTS VARIES
AT 3-1)' llAX. CT$. WITH
HEX. HEAJJS. STD.
WASHERS, AND SELF
LOCIClNG NUTS TACK
RADIAL I RADIAL
WELD NUTS TO PLATE
..
'1 1'-S'
JllADIAL
l'-Y
MD/AL
ll CIJ
STOP PL
TCP OF FLOORBENf
BOTTON OF WEB
Rgure 16,2 Typical through girder floor beams and steel deck plate.
HANDRAIL
SIDEWALK RAIL
CIP/PS BOX
GIRDER
HANDRAIL
SIDEWALK
RAIL
CIP CONCRETE
THROUGH
HANDRAIL
SIDEWALK
HANDRAIL
SIDEWALK
PRE CAST
I GIRDER
I
HANDRAIL
rCLrnACK
SIDEWALK RAIL I
0 PRECAST
BOX GIRDER
v-CL TRACK
HANDRAIL
SIDEWALK RAIL
I
I
D PRECAST
DOUBLE BOX
OD
Figure 16.8 Precast double box girder.
556 CHAPTER SIXTEEN
16.6.2 Gane..I Rules the average spacing of intersecting girder webs or a width as defined in
As stated in the AREMA Manual, bridges shall be designed as per the Article 2.23.lOb for integral bent caps, whichever is smaller.
AASHTO standard specifications. • If the depth of web exceeds 3 ft (900 mm), longitudinal skin
The following loads shall be considered in bridge design as specified reinforcement shall be uniformly distnbuted along both side faces of the
by the AREMA Manual: member for a distance d/6 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement.
The area of skin reinforcement A,,. per foot (m) of height on each
Dead load: structural members, concrete, filling materials, ballast, fas- side face shall be >0.012(d - 30) [or As.1; > 0.3 (d - 750) in metric].
tener and rail, live load, impact load, centrifugal force, earth pressure, The maximum spacing of the skin reinforcement shall be the smaller of
buoyancy, wind load on structure, wind load on live load, longitudinal d/6 or 12 in. (300 mm). Such reinforcement may be included in strength
force from live load, longitudinal force due to friction or shear resis- computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to determine
tance at expansion bearing. earthquake (seismic) load, stream flow pres- stresses in the individual bars or wires. The total area of longitudinal
sure, ice pressure, and other forces such as rib shortening, shrinkage, skin reinforcement in both faces need not exi:eed one-half of the
temperature, and settlement of supports. required flexural tensile reinforcement.
Service Load Design shall conform to the combinations presented in
LATERAL Rl!INPORC::BMENT
Table 8-2-4 in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
Section 2.9, Chapter 8, in AREMA Manual fur Railway Engineering provides
Load Factor Design shall conform to the combinations presented in speci&ations fur compression reinforcement, torsion reinforcement, and
Table 8-2-5 in the AREMA Manual. stirrups for flexural members.
16.6.3 Mllterl•I Specification
SHEAR Rl!INPORCBMENT
As per AREMA recommendation, the cement material used shall
conform to the Standard Specifications ASTM C150 and ASTM C595 Minimum shear reinforcement, types ofshear reinforcement, and spacing
for portland cement and blended hydraulic cement, respectively. of reinforcement are presented in Section 2.10 in the AREMA Manual
ASTM C618 Standard Specifications are recommended for fly ash and
COMPRESSION RBINFOllCEMENT
natural pozzolans. ASTM C989 and ASTM C1240 are specified for slag
and silica fume. ASTM C260 and C494 shall be used for the selection of Limits for reinforcement of compression members shall conform to
air entrainment admixture and other chemical admixtures. the specifications provided by AREMA in Section 2.11. The provisions
Sampling and testing shaD be in accordance with ASTM C33 and the include longitudinal reinforcement and lateral reinforcement.
Standard Specifications and Methods of testing as stated by AREMA.
Reinforcement specifications must conform to Tables 8-1-7 and 8-1-8 SHRINICAGE AND ThMPBllATURE
in AREMA Rail Engineering Manual that accords with ASTM Standard REINPORC::EMENT
Specifications.
As stated in the AREMA Manual, reinforcement for shrinkage and
16.6.4 Reinforcement temperature stresses shall be provided near exposed surfaces of walls
and slabs not otherwise reinforced. The total area of reinforcement
RBINFORCEMBNT DETAILS
provided shall be at least 0.25 in.2/ft (530 mm 2/m) measured in the
Standard hooks shall be used as stated in Section 2.4, Chapter 8, in AREMA direction perpendicular to the direction of the reinforcement and be
Manual The minimum diameter of bend is provided in Table 8-2-6 for spaced not farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness, nor
different bar mes. Sections 2.5 and 2.6 of Chapter 8 in AREMA Manual 18 in. (450 mm).
provide detailed provisions on spacing of reinforcement and ~
protection of reinforcement, respectively. Minimum concrete cover is 16.6.5 Burlng1
presented in Table 8-2-7 for different exposure conditions.
As per AREMA Manual, the design bearing stress shall not exceed
FLBXVllA.L RBINPORC::EMBNT 0.85G>/~ except when the supporting surface is wider on all sides than
Minimum reinforcement for flexural members as stated in AREMA the loaded area; then the design bearing stress on the loaded area shall
be permitted to be multiplied by (A2/A 1) 112 but not more than 2, where
Manual shall be as follows:
• At any section of a flexural member where tension reinforcement A1 = load area
is required by analysis. the reinforcement provided shall be adequate to A 2 = the area of the lower base of the largest frustum of a pyramid,
develop a design moment strength G>Mn at least 1.2 times the cracking cone, or tapered wedge contained wholly within the support and
moment calculated on the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal having for its upper base the loaded area and having side slopes
weight concrete specified in Article 2.26.la. of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal
• The requirements of Section 2.7a may be waived if the area of 16.6.6 Foundllllon1
reinforcement provided at the section under consideration is at least
SPB.EAD FOOTINGS
one-third greater than that required by analysis based on the load fac-
tors specified in Article 2.2.4c. Distribution of reinforcement in flexural Classification of spread footings is provided in Section 3.1.2 in the
members as per AREMA Manual shall be provided as follows: AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering.
• Flexural tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the The loads to be supported by the foundations are ( 1) dead load,
zones of maximum tension. (1) For T-girder and box-girder flanges, (2) normal live load, (3) maximum live load, (4) longitudinal and lateral
tension reinforcement shall be distributed over an effective tension forces, (5) snow load, (6) ice load, (7) earthquake load, (8) wind load,
flange width equal to 1/10 the girder span length or a width as defined (9) loads from pore-water pressures including buoyancy and seepage
in Article 2.23.lOb, whichever is smaller. If the actual slab width, center- forces, (10) area load, (11) impact load (only for special circumstances),
to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension flange width, and (12) vibratory loads to footings on granular material shall be
and fur excess portions of deck slab overhang, additional longitudinal considered.
reinforcement having a total area at least equal to 0.4 percent of excess Section 3.4 in the AREMA Manual presents detailed provisions
slab area shall be provided in the outer portions of the slab. (2) For on sizing of shallow footings on different types of soils. Section 3.5
integral bent caps of T-girder and box-girder construction, tension provides provisions on footings with eccentric loads. Combined foot-
reinforcement shall not be placed outside the bent cap web farther than ings specifications shall conform to those provided by AREMA in
an overhanging slab width on each side of the bent cap equal to 1/4 Section 3.8.
RAILROAD BRIDGE DESIGN 557
PILl!S PIERS
The primary loads imposed on pile foundations are ( 1) dead load, The major pier types stated by AREMA are the following:
(2) live load (vertical and horizontal), (3) centrifugal force, (4) earth • Solid wall, reinforced for strength and temperature.
pressure, (5) buoyancy, and (6) negative skin friction. The secondary • Rigid frame, consisting of multiple columns with a cap reinforced
loads indude (1) wind and lateral forces, (2) ice and stream flow, to act as a frame.
(3) longitudinal forces, and (4) seismic forces. • Bents, consisting of multiple piles extended to a cap.
Sections 4.3 and 4.4 in the AREMA Manual provide provisions on • Hammerhead, consisting of a column supporting a cap which
the allowable loads on piles and the different types of pile foundation, cantilevers at the column.
respectively. The most commonly used types are timber, steel, cast-in- • Drilled shafts, consisting of poured concrete columns extending
place concrete (tapered, cylindrical), and precast concrete piles. to a cap.
The allowable load per pile shall not exceed the following:
• Concrete: 0.3 of the ultimate compressive unit strength of the 111.11.8 LNds
concrete used if:) but not exceeding 1600 psi. Abutments and retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral
• Steel: The unit stresses shall not exceed 12,600 psi. earth and water pressures, any live-load and dead-load surcharge, the
Table 8-4-1 in Chapter 8 of the AREMA Manual presents the recom- self-weight of the walL temperature and shrinkage effects, earthquake
mended pile loads for varying pile diameters. load, and any other applicable loads. Pier supports the vertical loads from
the superstructure as well as the horizontal loads not resisted by the abut-
111.11.7 Remlnlng Wlllls, Abutments, end Plen ments as well as forces wind loads, floating ice, and vehicle impact.
lb!TAJNJNG WALLS
16.6.!ll Design
The main types of retaining walls, as per AREMA Manual, are as AREMA Manual, Chapter 8, Section 5.7, provides details of design and
follows: construction for abutments and retaining walls. Section 5.8 presents
• Gravity wall, so proportioned that only temperature steel is needed. details of design for bridge piers.
• Semigravity wall, proportioned so that some steel reinforcement is
required along the bade and along the lower side of the toe.
• The cantilever wall, requiring extensive steel reinforcement. REFERENCES
• The counterfort wall, consisting of a reinforced vertical face slab AASHTO, LRFD. •AASHTO LRFD Bridge design specifications."
supported laterally by vertical reinforced counterforts extending into American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
the baddill and supported by a reinforced base slab. Washington, DC (2012).
• The buttress wall, similar to the counterfort wall. American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association.
• The crib wall, consisting of an earth-filled assembly of individual Manual for Railway Engineering. American Railway Engineering and
structural units. Maintenance-of-Way Association, 2011.
• Mechanically stabilized embankments (MSE). Northeastern Lumber Manufacturers Association; Northern Hard-
wood and Pine Manufacturers Association; Southern Pine Inspections
ABUTMl!NT Bureau; West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau and Western Wood
As stated by the AREMA Manual, abutments shall be of the gravity or Products Association. USDA Forest Service. Forest Products Laboratory,
semigravity type as a preference. Madison WI.
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Chapter 17
Industrial Buildings0
BY
JULES YAN DE PAS Vice President, CSD Structural EngineflTS, Greenwood Village, Colorado
JOHN ROLFES Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
17.1 PLANNING INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS geometry requirements. The,,e ruponsibilities need to be clearly com-
17.1.1 DellgnConcept
municated and coordinated to facilitate the design process and manage
the project schedule requirements.
An industrial building is typically considered to be any structure that The structural engineer needs to carefully examine the proposed site
encloses or supports a manufacturing process or stores materials. In and process design and determine the critical project parameters. Issues
general, the layout and structural design of an industrial building is that need to be addressed include the following:
almost entirely dictated by the functional or process requirements. • Site and soil information
Co=erdal buildings are also typically designed and configured to • Environmental loads stipulated by the applicable building code
support a specific program or occupancy. However, for industrial build- • Wall and roof material preference,,
ings, the emphasis is on the process rather than on the occupants. • Process layout and work flow
The structural design procedure for an industrial building is like • Process loads
the procedure for the design of a co=ercial building. The program • Utility routing and support requirements
and configuration of a co=erdal building is typically determined • Equipment maintenance access
by the architect and the structural engineer develops the structural • Clear height requirements
design accordingly. However, industrial buildings follow a configura- • Future expansion plans
tion or general arrangement that is determined by the process design. • Preferred bay sizes
The structural engineer must work closely with the process engineer • Loading dock and door requirements
to develop an awareness of the pertinent design requirements for the • Deaign ruponsibilities
building. It is very helpful for the structural engineer to have a basic • Material-handling requirements including conveyors, overhead
understanding of the contained industrial process. Each project requires cranea, forklift truc:ka, or other conveyance equipment
assessment of the unique requirements associated with that facility. • Conveyor routing and support
Therefore, a single set of rules or a rigid procedure may not be appro- • Crane typea, quantitiea, and capacity
priate. However, the basic considerations and approach to developing • Serviceability deaign criteria based on building materials, process
and implementing the design of an industrial building are similar and equipment, and material-handling equipment requirements
discussed in the following sections. • Equipment foundation requirements
• Floor slab design criteria (for slab-on-grade and elevated floors)
11.1.2 Development of Project Requirements • Fall protection and fall arrest system requirements
and Bulldlng L.aJout • Fire protection requirements
Many different contractual arrangements are used for the design and • Exiting requirements
construction of industrial buildings. Therefore, it is critical that the • Expansion joint requirements and details
structural engineer gains an early understanding of each party's rela- • Building environment requirements and considerations based on
tionship and level of responsibility on the project. Parties typically the contained process or generated by the contained process
include the owner, the process engineer, engineers from other disci- • Budget and schedule requirements
plines, contractors, and industrial equipment vendors. The structural The structural engineer should consider incorporating all critical
engineer must work with the owner, process engineer, and equipment de,,ign parameters and load requirements into a single "Basis of Design"
vendors to clearly define the scope of services and work to be shown document. This "Basis of Design" would then be reviewed with the
on the structural design drawings. The structural engineer is depen- owner and process engineer before proceeding with the work. As the
dent on the process engineer and equipment vendor for pertinent project progresses, the •Basis of De,,ign" can be periodically reviewed
process-related design criteria, loading information, and building and updated when necessary as additional design considerations evolve.
'Parts oftlris chapter were written by E. Alfred Picardi and James M. Fisher for prior editions.
560 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
BUILDING LAYOUT rectangular or square, single-story building, with a low-profile roof and
Industrial building projects are configured to conform to the require- concrete slab-on-grade. This solution is most economical from the stand-
ments of the process design. It is conventional practice for the process point of construction, operating, and maintenance costs.
engineers (these may be consultants or equipment suppliers) to illus- Multistory industrial buildings are built where either site constraints
trate the process design in ·General Arrangement" or GA drawings. or process layout dictate the necessity for elevated floors in the build-
The GA drawings should show process equipment locations, loads, ing structure. Site constraints may be pertinent in more developed
anchoring or attachment requirements, required clearances, required industrial parks or urban areas. Process layouts conducive to multistory
maintenance access, critical dimensions, and other information. configurations include processes that work well with vertical flow or
For industrial buildings with significant process equipment and well- require gravity flow or feed.
developed GA drawings, the structural engineer can typically determine The complexity of an industrial building will be dictated by the process
the structural configuration directly from these drawings. However, for requirements. The designer should study the process general arrange-
other industrial buildings with less process equipment or warehouse ment and special requirements of the structure prior to selection of the
buildings, the structural engineer may have more flexibility to choose a framing system. These requirements may include such things as:
configuration that is deemed most appropriate and/or efficient • Stepped-roof configurations
On large storage or light industrial structures having multiple bays in • Large clear-span requirements
both directions, substantial economy can often be realized if the overall • Requirements for column-free transfer bays
structure plan is a square or nearly square shape. Figure 17.1 demon- • Heavy equipment loads supported on the building structure
strates the variation in the ratio of wall perimeter length to building area • Requirements for large overhead doors
as the building length-to-width ratio varies. The length of the building • Interior floor drainage or trench drains
perimeter (and subsequently the cost of the exterior wall) is minimiud • Requirements for routing and support of multiple utility lines and
when the shape of the building is approximately square in configuration. piping to support process equipment
The most common configuration for light industrial buildings is a • Restrictions on vertical bracing locations
w
A= BUILDING PLAN AREA
=LxW
ASPECT RATIO= ~
10.0
9.0
8.0 _.......
7.0
~
6.0 ~
5.0
./
/
/
.Q
~
t5
4.0
/
v
8. 3.0
.:2 I/
2.0
/
(
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Percent Increase in Perimeter
Flg11n1 17.1 Variation in the ratio of wall perimeter length to building area as the building length-to-width ratio varies.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 561
• Overhead crane runway requirements connected to the building structure. In this case, the drift limit is related
• Conveyor layout and support requirements to how the wall panel is designed and detailed.
• Significant ventilation requirements including roofventilators, wall When evaluating lateral drift limits for industrial buildings with
louvers, and fans cranes, the engineer should consider drift due wind and crane lateral
• Special heating, cooling, or refrigeration requirements loads. For heavier cranes, these lateral forces can be significant, and for
• Mezzanine or elevated floor requirements high-use cranes, these forces can be repetitiollll. Moreover, these forces
• Provisions for future additions are localized to the portion of the building length where the crane is
• Additional nonbuilding structures such as tanks, silos, and rack positioned, causing potential differential movement from bay to bay in
storage structures located within or supported by the building structure the building structure. This differential movement can potentially lead
• Loading dock requirements to loss of weather tightness and roof leaks. One strategy is to provide a
• Potential explosion or deflagration concerns due to presence of continuollll horizontal bracing system (tJWls) at the roof level over the
volatile material associated with the process length of the building to reduce the differential movement between bays
This list is not exhaustive but is representative of process-related issues at the roof level It is not advisable to use a metal roof deck diaphragm
that must be considered in the design of an industrial building. An early for this purpose because under repetitive loading, the deck fasteners
recognition of all special requirements will aid greatly in rapid develop- may be compromised, leading to a loss in diaphragm stiffness. Over
ment of a proper and economical framing system for the building. time, slotting may occur at fastener locations in the metal deck resulting
in a loss of weather tightness for exposed metal roof decks. Excessive
17.1.3 ldentlflc.Uon of51ructur•I drift in the building structure can also compromise the performance of
Design Requirements the crane as it travels over the length of the building. For slow-moving
The structural design requirements of the applicable building code and pendant-operated crane systems, building lateral drift limits of H/100
any other owner-specified standards or guides must be studied and incor- may still be acceptable. However, for faster radio-controlled or pendant-
porated into the building design. In addition, the structural engineer must operated cranes, building lateral drift limits from H/240 to H/400 are
work with the process engineer and equipment vendors to determine commonly specified. Computer-controlled cranes may require even
process and equipment design loads, equipment anchorage requirements, more restrictive limits.
pertinent construction tolerance requirements, and serviceability criteria
that apply to the building superstructure and foundations. Serviceability 17.1.4 Selection of Roohnd W.11 System
criteria pertain to limits on deflections, lateral drift, and vibrations that The roof and wall systems must be selected at the very start of the
can adversely atiect the intended use and performance of the building. structural design. Architects typically select these systems in the
Special material and tolerance requirements must be clearly noted on design of a commercial building. However, for many industrial
the contract documents. For example, standard ASTM mill tolerances buildings, the structural engineer and owner may select the wall
for beams may not be appropriate for crane runway girders due to tight system based primarily on cost and functionality requirements for
alignment tolerance requirements for crane rails that are supported on the project. Large industrial corporations with multiple facilities may
these girders. Therefore, tighter tolerances should be specified on the have company standards that dictate wall and roof systems for their
contract documents for these girders. Various industry design guides, facilities.
such as AISC Design Guide 7, Industrial Building Design, 3rd Edition, Possible roof types include built-up roof (BUR) and membrane-
and AIST Technical Report #13, Guide for the Design and Construction type roofs such as ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) or
of Mill Buildings, provide additional discussion on appropriate design thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO). Another alternative is to use exposed
criteria for these buildings. metal roofs such as a screw-down metal roof panel or standing seam
Serviceability design criteria, other than basic deflection limits for metal roof panel. Each of these roof types has different advantages and
beams, are not provided in building codes. Specific requirements should be constraints. The roof specifier needs to consider the advantages and dis-
reviewed with the process engineer and equipment vendors. Excessive advantages of each roof type, the quantity and type of roof penetrations,
deflections, lateral drift, or vibration may negatively impact the process and the size and extent of roof-mounted equipment when selecting
equipment, material-handling equipment, weather tightness, or occu- the roof type. Membrane roofs and BURs are advantageollll if the roof
pants of the building. AISC Design Guide 3, Serviceability Design Con- has many roof penetrations or large rooftop equipment. The roof-type
siderations for Steel Buildings, is a good general reference on this subject. selection will impact the roof dead load as well as the deck and joist
When evaluating lateral drift limits for industrial buildings without spacing and direction of framing.
cranes, consideration is limited to wind loads. Seismic drift limits refer- Roof drainage is another important variable that affects what type
enced in the building code pertain to expected "inelastic» drifts and are of roof system is to be used. Exposed metal roof systems are generally
related to strength design considerations due to potential second-order restricted to buildings with perimeter roof drainage directly spilling from
effects ofgravity loads on the building structure when subjected to these the roof or collected with a gutter and downspout system. Built-up or
larger inelastic drifts. membrane roofs can be used for roofs with interior drains or perimeter
When evaluating serviceability requirements associated with wind drainage. When interior drainage systems are used, the design should
loads, it is common practice to consider wind loads with a 10-year acknowledge the potential for impounded water. The building codes
recurrence interval as opposed to the more stringent, higher wind loads generally require this evaluation be performed considering the primary
Wied for strength design. drainage system as blocked. The plumbing designer must provide the
Lateral wind drift limits for industrial buildings should be evalu- corresponding potential depth of impounded water on the roof consistent
ated in recognition of any process equipment supported on or directly with the code-prescribed design-level rainstorm and drainage system. The
adjacent to the building structure. If this is not consequential, lateral roof framing design must also investigate ponding instability concerns.
drift limits due to wind are generally dependent upon the wall material Various industrial processes can create corrosive environments
selected for the structure. Buildings with metal wall panel systems have within a building. If this is the case, the engineer should coordinate
performed adequately with predicted wind drifts of H/100, where H = appropriate materials and coating systems for the roof, wall, and build-
height of building. The actual drift of the structure may be considerably ing structure with the process designer and building owner.
less due to the diaphragm action of the walls and roof For hard wall Most preengineered metal buildings at this time are supplied with
systems such as precast concrete or concrete tilt-up wall panels, con- standing seam roofs. Standing seam roofs are typically anchored at
sideration of the effects of building drift on panel forces, joint details, the eave of the building and are supported on discrete clips mounted
and connection details is required. This includes recognition of how the to the roof framing below, located in the roof seams. The clips do not
hard wall panel is supported at the foundation level, whether the panel restrict movement along the length of the panel and, therefore, allow
is restrained by the ground floor slab, and how the top of the panel is for thermal movement of the roof which can otherwise lead to slotting
562 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
and leaks at roof fastener locations. The structural engineer must based on structural efficiency, considering the relative cumulative costs
understand that standing seam roofs do not provide diaphragm capabil- of roof framing, wall framing, crane runway girders (when applicable),
ity, and therefore lateral load transfer and bracing of roof primary and columns, and foundations. Common bay sizes used range from 25 to
secondary framing elements must be otherwise accommodated. Screw- 50 ft, with larger bays preferred from the standpoint of minimizing the
down exposed metal roofs are commonly less expensive but are limited number of columns and providing the most flexibility for current and
to use on smaller buildings, where potential thermal movements in the future process concerns. When evaluating bay and module sizes for cost
roof are smaller. efficiency, it should be recognized that larger module and bay sizes will
Possible wall types include masonry, precast concrete wall panels, result in fewer pieces to fabricate and erect, and therefore the framing
tilt-up concrete wall panels, insulated metal wall panels, and exposed layout that provides the least weight may not be the framing layout that
metal panels either with or without insulation. Mixed systems are also results in the lowest constructed cost.
common. Masonry and precast or tilt-up concrete walls can be used When selecting column bay size, the type of wall system to be used is a
to provide a more robust and durable lower wall system where forklift factor. When using a metal wall panel system, the most common option is
or other material-handling systems may occasionally impact the walls, to have girt secondary framing spanning between columns with the metal
with a less expensive metal wall panel system above. Mixed systems wall panel spanning vertically between these girts. Generally, it is most
should be configured with the height of the lower hard wall system cost effective to use light-gauge cold-formed C. or Z-shaped sections for
exceeding the height of the typical personnel door openings. Consider- these girts. These members can either be simple-span elements or posi-
ations for selection of the wall system include cost, local trade practices, tioned outside the column profile with lapped connections at the columns
insulation requirements, durability, fire rating, security, and potential to behave as continuous framing elements. Based on both strength and
future expansion. stiffness requirements, the maximum economical span oflight-gauge girts
is approximately 30 ft. If larger bays are used, intermediate wind columns
17.1.5 Selectlon of Column Spacing must be introduced between the primary building columns to reduce the
Most industrial buildings are square or rectangular in plan with primary girt span, or structural steel shapes (WF beams, channels, or rectangular/
framing running parallel to one axis of the building and secondary square HSS sections) must be used fur the girts.
framing in the orthogonal direction as illustrated in Fig. 17.2. Process From the above, it may seem that a 30-ft bay is the most economi-
flow is commonly oriented perpendicular to the primary framing direc- cal choice. This is especially true if the perimeter of the enclosed area
tion, and the primary framing module width is typically based upon is large relative to the enclosed area since for such buildings the girt
the width of the process layout, with additional width added for crane steel is a larger percentage of cost. However, for buildings with low
hook coverage when overhead cranes are used for material handling perimeter-to-area ratios, the percentage of steel framing in the wall
or maintenance. Module sizes for industrial buildings are often larger framing is less significant. For these buildings and for buildings with
than module sizes typically used for commercial buildings. Module hard wall systems, a bay length of 40 to 50 ft may be more economical.
sizes from 50 to 100 ft are not uncommon. Bay size is usually selected When intermediate wind columns are used, the top of the wind column
BUILDING PLAN
0T 0 0 0 0T
---
----- ____ .,.....
--0
ROOF PRIM ARY
FRAMINGG IRDER
OR TRUSS
FRAMING
MODULEWIDTH
\
\
\
---f t + - - - - - --~ ..... - \ -----+f+
--0
:-r
\
I I I I
I
BAY LENGTH 'l I
ROOF SECONDARY
FRAMING PURLINS
OR BAR JOISTS
Figure 17.2 Framing layout fur ind115trlal building•.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS 563
must be connected to the roof diaphragm or horizontal bracing to trans- detailed so that temperature and shrinkage cracks occur at these joints.
fer the horizontal reaction from the top of these columns into the lateral Control joints should be positioned where slab movement is restrained
force resisting system of the building. by surrounding structure with spacing between joints chosen to limit
When shallow foundations are used, foundation costs have little cracking between joints due to shrinkage resistance.
impact on bay size selection. However, if deep foundations are required, The performance of a concrete slab-on-grade is a function of the
a thorough comparison of foundation requirements for different bay structural design, concrete mix design, environmental conditions
sizes should be made, recognizing that the foundation costs are more during placement, and the workmanship of the contractor, including
significant, and options exist for the type, depth, and arrangement of proper placement, finishing, and curing. Several valuable resources for
piles or drilled piers. slab-on-grade design and construction include the following:
In general, for light- and medium-crane buildings, bays of approxi- • ACI 302.1, Guide to Concrete Floor and Slab Construction
mately 25 to 30 ft will be the most economical because of the cost of the • ACI 360, Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground
crane runway beams. Spans requiring plate girders rather than rolled • PCA Concrete Floors on Ground
shapes for runway beams can increase the structural cost considerably.
17.1.7 Expansion Joint Spacing
Larger-span crane girders may also necessitate the use of a backup hori-
zontal bracing system for the crane girders that is expensive to fabricate Expansion joints are typically used to divide the building structure
and construct. when anticipated expansion and contraction in the building due to
expected temperature fluctuations create excessive thermal loads in the
17.1.6 Founchltlon 11nd Slab-an-Grade building structure or serviceability problems in the roof or wall system
Con1ldennlon1 for the structure. Expansion joint needs are based upon building dimen-
Foundation designs are dictated by soil conditions and the building sions, building materials, roof and wall system, and expected tem-
loads. Llghter industrial buildings are commonly supported on spread perature fluctuations within the building structure. For buildings with
footings, whereas industrial buildings with heavy cranes or large equipment controlled environments, the temperature fluctuation may be relatively
loads are often supported on deep foundations. Heavy equipment foun- srna1L Some industrial facilities do not have controlled environments
dations are typically isolated from the building foundations. Equipment and may be subject to larger temperature fluctuations. In addition, the
foundations may have more stringent settlement criteria and may also process within the building may generate heat that could contribute to
be subject to vibration concerns. There are numerous texts on design potential thermal growth in the structure. The building geometry may
of foundations for dynamic loads and vibrations. ACI 351.3, Foundations result in locations that facilitate expansion joints, such as roof steps,
for Dynamic Equipment, is a good resource on this topic. Equipment where direction of building framing changes or where the framing cross
foundation may also include associated pits, reservoirs, and trenches. section changes. Expansion joints extend through the roof, wall, and
If these elements are deep, it may be required to increase the depth of supporting framing systems. Framing can be isolated by use of either
adjacent building foundations, resulting in higher construction and double frame lines or a single frame line with framing on one side of the
concrete costs. Deep foundation construction may also require dewater- frame supported on slide bearings designed to accommodate expected
ing of the associated excavation for these foundations. thermal expansion and contraction.
Important considerations for the slab-on-grade design are soil
conditions, magnitude and nature of loads (from storage racks, fixed 17.2 CODE REQUIREMENTS AND
equipment, forklift trucks, or other mobile equipment), and durability INDUSTRIAL LOADS
considerations, especially when the slab is subject to repetitive traffic
17.2.1 General Code Requirements
from forklift trucks or other mobile equipment. The slab-on-grade in an
industrial building is commonly exposed (not cnvered), and therefore The International Building Code (IBC) is the model building code used
significant cracks are both unsightly and may compromise the cleanli- throughout the United States. This code includes occupancy categories
ness and functionality of the facility. for industrial facilities. These occupancy categories include Factory and
The floor slab-on-grade is typically supported directly on the underlying Industrial, High Hazard, and Storage. Most industrial buildings will fall
soil Exceptions would be in areas with expansive soils or poor soil condi- into one of the3e occupancy categories.
tions that the geotechnical engineer deems are inadequate to support the Sometimes the industrial process may require a building height that
anticipated loads. In these instances, the floor slab is designed as a structural exceeds the typical code height limits based on occupancy and class
concrete slab spanning between discrete foundations that extend below the of construction. The code does allow certain exceptions. It is recom-
unfavorebl£ soils. These structural floor slab systems are expensive and mended that the owner's representative meet with the code officials
have a significant impact on the overall cost of the industrial building. early in the planning process to discuss and resolve their strategy fur
Failure of a slab-on-grade commonly results in deleterious cracking in addressing thelle limits.
the slab that can compromise functionality of the process within the build- Heavy industrial buildings often include multiple interior levels. If
ing and result in long-tm:n maintenance issues. However, this cracking these interior levels only provide support and maintenance access for
does not typically represent a risk to life safety. The exception to this may be equipment, these interior 1£vels can often be clasaified as equipment
where the slab-on-grade is subject to very high material storage loads that platforms rather than stories or mezzaninell.
can result in shear failure in the underlying soil. The resulting movement The structural building code requirements fur industrial buildings are
in the underlying soil may also cause failure or significant shifting and generally consistent with the requirements fur co=ercial buildings.
rotation in adjacent building foundations. This is a common oversight in Environmental loads are essentially the same as for commercial buildings
heavy production facilities. The structural engineer should communicate using the same wind speed, ground mow, and seismic spectral accelera-
with the process engineer and building owner and identify locations and tion maps used for commercial buildings.
loading restrictions for material to be stored on the slab-on-grade. Ifmate- me specifiell 125 psf minimum occupancy live load for light manu-
rial storage is to occur above shallow building foundations, these surcharge facturing and light storage. A minimum occupancy live load of 250 psf is
loads should be acknowledged in these foundation designs. specified for heavy manufacturing and heavy storage. An evaluation for
Cracks in concrete slab-on-grade are often associated with volumet- actual anticipated live loads should be done to determine if higher de5ign
ric shrinkage in the newly placed concrete slab that is restrained by the live loads are appropriate. In heavy manufacturing facilitiea, uniform live-
underlying soil or surrounding, previously placed foundations, slab, or load allowances of 500 psf or higher may be warranted. These loads are
structure. In addition, variable floor loading and concentrated loads on commonly associated with heavy stored material. In addition, the detign
the floor can result in structural cracks in the floor slab as the slab and should also acknowl£dge any significant anticipated concentrated live loads.
underlying soil deflect in response to these loads. Slab-on-grade are Forklift wheel loads and wheel spacing vary by manufacturer. The
often divided with control joints that are strategically placed, spaced, and structural engineer should communicate with the owner to determine
564 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
the specific equipment that will be purchased for the project. IBC speci- crane in conjunction with a rack storage system. Each storage space
fies a 30 percent increase in forklift truck wheel loads to account for in the rack system has a defined address that is incorporated into the
impact forces. inventory and crane control system. Conveyors are used for continuous
Crane runways should be designed for the specific cranes that will be high-volume flow of materials or loads over a fixed route and are com-
purchased for the project. The engineer should obtain crane data sheets mon with assembly line processes. Cranes and conveyor systems are
with wheel loads, spacing, and clearance requirements. The building typically purchased from manufacturers who specialize in the design
code requirements for impact, lateral, and longitudinal crane loads are and construction of these systems. The structural engineer must work
generally considered adequate for light industrial occupancies. Heavy with the owner and vendors supplying this equipment to get pertinent
and high-use occupancies such as steel mills may need to follow specific loading information. For cranes, this includes maximum wheel loads
industry guides such as AIST Technical Report No. 13, Guide for the and spacing for the end trucks that are supported on crane runway
Design and Construction of Mill Buildings. This document is a guide girders or other rail support system. In addition, the required crane
with reco=endations that are not mandated by the building code. hook height, associated rail height, and clearance envelope dimensions
However, the owner may contractually specify use of this document, or are necessary to establish the crane runway and building geometry. This
the engineer and owner may elect to follow these recommendations as information may significantly affect the building layout and design and,
part of an agreed upon "Basis of Design.• therefore, must be established in the early stages of design. Conveyor
routing, loads, clearance envelopes, and method of support must also
17.2.2 Proceu l.o•d1 be established early in the design process.
Process loads include all the loads associated with the fixed industrial
equipment and the permanently installed utilities that support that process. 17.2A S.l1mlc Loed1
The loads from piping, small ducts, conduits, cable trays, and similar Building code requirements for seismic design have become more strin-
items are often accounted for by providing uniform live-load or collateral- gent and are applicable to more areas in the United States than required
load allowances to acco=odate the support of these elements. by earlier codes. The same basic seismic design philosophies used for
Capacity to support loads from conveyors, large ducts, and pneu- commercial buildings are applicable to industrial buildings. However,
matic lines are typically accounted for or specified as live or collateral the framing systems and geometries used for industrial buildings may
loads per lineal foot of these components. be significantly different than used in commercial buildings. Industrial
Capacity for suspended assembly line equipment may be specified buildings often have high eave heights or floor-to-floor heights due to
as live loads in the form of point load allowances at truss panel point process and material-handling equipment requirements. In addition,
locations. large bays and framing modules may require use of deeper trusses for
It is not appropriate to provide a specific rule for when the engineer primary roof and floor framing. Heavy equipment and process loads
should consider process loads as uniform loads, line loads, or concen- supported on a building structure translate to potentially high seismic
trated loads. This decision requires recognition of how sensitive the forces. Framing systems and lateral load-resisting systems for these build-
design is to the characteristic of the load. For example, bar joists may be ings may also be unique due to process loading and material-handling
very sensitive to concentrated loads, especially if supported at nonpanel equipment requirements. When evaluating process loads for seismic mass
point locations. considerations, the structural engineer should recognize what process
Within reason, the engineer should consider future modifications loads are present on the structure on a regular basis. For cranes, the lifted
as well as current process requirements and provide additional capacity load is not typically considered as contributing to seismic mass since
in their design when future modifications are considered likely. the load is suspended beneath the crane bridge on lift lines and the
response of this load to ground shaking will lag the building response.
17.2.3 Mlltllrl•l-H•ndllng Requlrementli IBC references ASCE 7 for determination of seismic loading require-
Material-handling equipment is used for handling manufacturing ments. Design requirements vary depending on proximity of the site to
materials and manufactured product within the industrial building. known faults, predicted ground accderations for earthquake activity
Common material-handling systems include cranes, conveyors, and along these faults, soil conditions at the building site, the dynamic char-
transport vehicles such as forklifts, air pallets, and robotic transports in acteristics of the building structure, and the level of anticipated ductility
current automated warehouse systems. in the building structure. The anticipated ductility is a function of the
Cranes, monorails, and conveyors of various types are used in indus- building materials and framing system used for the building structure.
trial plants. Various types of cranes are shown in Fig. 17.3. Jib cranes Chapter 12 of ASCE 7 dictates seismic design requirements for building
are used to position and handle loads within a limited area. These structures. Ductility design parameters are quantified based on building
consist of a hoist mounted on a rail that is pivoted at one end and materials and framing system type. Limits for these various systems are
cantilevered from a vertical stanchion or one of the building columns. assigned, dependent on the seismicity of the building site and risk cat-
In these instances, the columns need to be investigated for associated egory pertinent to the occupancy. The requirements of Chapter 12 were
loads, considering the worst-case orientation of the jib on the support- developed primarily for co=ercial buildings with geometries, framing
ing column. Bridge cranes are used for transporting loads over a larger systems, and occupancies consistent with typical commercial projects.
area bounded by the limits of the crane bridge and trolley travel Bridge Industrial buildings may have unique framing systems and building
cranes are supported on runway beams or girders that are integrated geometries that fall outside of the limits stated in Chapter 12. For this
with the building structure. Gantry cranes are independently supported reason, the seismic design criteria provided in Chapter 11 of ASCE 7
crane structures typically mounted on rail systems supported at the states that -i3uildings whose purpose is to enclose equipment or machin-
floor level. Gantry cranes are often used for handling material in open ery and whose occupants are engaged in maintenance or monitoring of
yards, outside of the building envelope. Semigantry cranes have one end that equipment, machinery or their associated processes shall be per-
of the crane bridge supported on elevated crane runway beams similar mitted to be classified as nonbuilding structures designed and detailed
to a bridge crane, whereas the opposite end of the bridge is supported on in accordance with Section 15.5 of this document.~ This classification is
a gantry leg and floor-mounted rail system. Semigantry cranes are typi- intended to apply to industrial buildings where the occupancy density is
cally used where the material-handling requirements are limited to only relatively low, as is often the case with automated industrial processes.
a portion of a larger module width within a building. In these instances, Design per Section 15.5 allows for relaxation of system limits and
the cost of a semigantry crane may be less than a longer bridge crane design requirements in exchange for use of higher seismic design forces.
that would span the full building module width. Monorail cranes are Although these higher forces can result in heavier building structures
used to transport smaller loads over a straight-line distance. Automatic and foundations, cost savings may be realized by less stringent detailing
Storage Retrieval Systems (ASRS) are sometimes used for high-volume requirements. Moreover, the unique characteristics of a specific indus-
warehouse facilities. ASRS are automated systems that use a specialized trial building may leave the engineer with few other options.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS S65
SUPPORT BEAMS
MONORAIL BEAM
HOIST
MONORAIL CRANE
BUILDING
CRANE COLUMN
RAIL
BOOM
HOIST
TROLLEY RAIL
TROLLEY STOP
BOOM
HOIST
BRIDGE TROLLEY MAST
GIRDER
MOMENT
CONNECTED
END TRUCK BASE
CRANE GIRDER
CRANE "J'=-----1---....,....-"'T"T"T""""
RAIL
CRANE CRANE
CRANE BRIDGE BRIDGE
GIRDER GIRDER(S) GIRDER(S)
GANTRY GANTRY
ENDTRUCKW/ LEG(S) ENDTRUCKW/ LEG(S)
WHEELS AT BASE WHEELS AT BASE
OF GANTRY LEG(S) FLOOR OF GANTRY LEG(S) FLOOR
~L....1.----------...._-MOUNTED
~_._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.__MOUNTED
RAIL RAIL
17.2.S I.Nd Comblrurtlons buildings are rarely exposed to the magnitude of environmental and
Pertinent load combinations for structural design are given in me occupancy loads dictated by the building code. Therefore, emphalis
Section 1605.2. These load combinations are based on probabilistic should be placed on selecting a structural system that efficiently accom-
analysis and design miability. Load combinations that provide a higher modates the design requirements (loads and serviceability criteria) for
level of detail for evaluation of crane buildings, including fatigue the everyday process and equipment loads.
and serviceability of crane buildings, are provided in AIST Technical Steel framing systems are more common for industrial buildings.
Report 13, Guide for the Design and Construction of Mill Buildings. Steel framing systems are typically efficient for larger bay and framing
module dimensions. In addition, steel framing systems can be effi-
17.2.6 Fatitue Desltn Considenlions ciently designed to accommodate heavy loads associated with process
Fatigue is characterized u the progressive damage to a component due equipment and material-handling equipment However, no material or
to fluctuating load$. In a properly designed structure, the stress in the framing system can be singled out as ideal for all industrial buildings.
members does not exceed the yield stress of the material. However, at Only after careful study of the project can the designer select a build-
stress concentrations, usociated with material flaws or discontinuities, ing system that is most suitable and economical for a given situation.
small regions of localized stress can exceed the material yield stress. The advantages and disadvantages of steel versus cast-in-place concrete
Progreaaive damage due to repetitive loading can lead to the formation versus precut concrete versus wood buildings will always be debated. In
and propagation of fatigue cracks in these stress concentration regions. addition to initial constructed economy, the engineer should consider
This progressive damage is limited to areas where net tension is devel- durability, adaptability, sustainability, and constructability of each sys-
oped from the repetitive loading. The stress range is calculated as the tem under consideration.
sum of the maximum compression and tension stresa generated by 17.J.2 t.teral Load Resistint S,Stems
the repetitive load at theie locations. Designing to resist fatigue damage
requirea consideration of the magnitude and type of stress concentra- Lateral load-resisting systems in the context of this discussion is defined
tion, the level of service load stress, and the number of load cycles. as the framing system that transmits lateral load$ from elevated floor
Members and connections that are subject to fewer than 20,000 load and roof levels to the foundation level Basically. three types of systems
cycles are typically not susceptible to fatigue deaign concerns. Members are used for industrial buildings:
and connections subjected to more than 20,000 load cyclea can be • Shear wall systems
evaluated using the criteria provided in the AISC 360, Specification for • Braced frame systems
Structural Steel Buildings, Appendix 3. Based on the defined "fatigue • Rigid-frame systems
category" for a given element or detail and the number of loading Shear wall systems are common in warehouse-type buildings with
cycles, the engineer calculates an "allowable stress range" that can be either precast concrete, concrete tilt-up walls, or masonry walls. Braced
compared to the calculated stress range generated by that loading cycle. frames are basically vertically oriented trusses used to transfer lateral
The fatigue categories account for the stress concentrations that are loads on the building to the foundation level. Braced frames are com-
inherent in different types of details in steel construction. The structural mon in one-story and multistory industrial buildings with roof and
engineer must work with the owner and process engineer to understand floor diaphragm systems used to transfer lateral load$ to these frames.
the number of load cycles generated for a given time period. This ls Rigid frame systems or a combination of rigid frames and braced frames
extrapolated for the intended building life to determine the overall are typically the best solution for crane buildings and long, rectangular
number ofload cycles. buildings where interior bracing is problematic and use offloor and roof
Fatigue considerations are generally associated with process equip- diaphragm is not practical.
ment and material-handling equipment. Fatigue loading associated with Diaphragm systems at floor and roof levels are used to transfer lateral
imbalanced fans or motors can generate many load cycles in a reJatively loads to the vertical lateral load resisting systems in the structure (shear
short period of time. For example, an imbalanced motor operating at walls, braced frames, and rigid frames). Concrete decks at floor levels
10 Hz will generate over 860,000 load cycles in 1 day. Vibratory con- are commonly used for this purpose. Either plywood or light-gauge steel
~rs will also generate a significant number of loading cycles very
roof deck is commonly used at the rooflevel for this purpose. In general,
qwckly. Allowable stress range for fatigue loading becomes asymptotic plywood ~r steel roof deck diaphragms work well where the diaphragm
for extremely high numbers ofloading cycles. The threshold stress level aspect ratio does not exceed 3 or 4 to l. For higher aspect ratios, dia-
is defined as the allowable stresa range for an unlimited number ofload phragm atrength and stiffnesa demmd$ may exceed what is feasible or
cycles. For structures supporting high cycle loading as noted above, economical for these systems.
design of the supporting .reel structural elements is accomplished by lw alternative to a deck diaphragm system is the use of horizontal
truss framing to create a horizontal diaphragm as illustrated in Fig. 17.4.
keeping stress levels below these threshold limits.
Fatigue design considerations are also reJevant in the design of crane This is commonly used when the deck diaphragm has insufficient
runway beams and associated details. Fatigue problems commonly strength or stiffness to perform this function. Standing-seam metal
occur at welded attadunents at or near the bottom flange of the crane roo&, by their nature, offer little or no diaphragm capability. Therefore,
beam, where tenaile bending atresses are high and welded attachments supplemental horizontal bracing is often added at the roof level when
and defects can create stre88 concentrations. For this reuon, it is rec- these roof systems are used. Horizontal truss framing can use strap
ommended to avoid making attachments to the bottom flange of crane bracing (flat bar stock) on top of the purlin or roof joist 1ystem aa
girder• or the web of the girder near the bottom flange. Fatigue cracking tension-only web elements for the horizontal truss. Alternatively, rod
can also occur near the crane girder web to top flange joint if the crane bracing or angle bracing hung below the purlin system has been used
rail is not properly positioned over the girder web, resulting in bending with success. The designer is cautioned to provide appropriate connec-
in the flange and web of the girder due to crane vertical loads. Proper tion details consistent with the intended load path for all forces in this
design, detailing. construction, and maintenance ofthe crane and crane syatem. In addition, the design must acknowledge strut and chord forces
runway system will help eliminate or mitigate fatigue damage in the generated in other elements of the roof atructure incorporated into this
crane runway system. sy1tem. Horizontal truss framing is commonly provided at the bottom
chord level of roof trusses for larger-span structures. In these instances,
sway frames are provided to transfer lateral wind and stability forces
17.J FRAMING SYSTEMS from the top chord level of the roof truss framing to the bottom chord
bracing system.
17.3.1 ~ Dilcuulon on Fnnlnt s,stems Rigid frames may be used to resist lateral loads in both directions of
Industrial building. are unique in that the structure may commonly be the structure. Rigid frames use rigid connectiona between the building
exposed to full procesa and equipment loads, whereas the commercial columns and floor or roof beams to resilt reJative rotation between these
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS S67
~XIXIXIXIX~
X -----
BOTTOM
CHORD
STRUT
TRUSS
BOTTOM
CHORD
-----
x
HX ___ -:, _____ XH
~xI~IxI Ix~ BRACED DIAGONAL AT
BOTTOM CHORD LEVEL
SECTION A-A
~uss~23~:
BOTTOM CHORD BRACING
Flgull! 17A Hori%ontal truaa dia:phragtns.
561 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
elements. Rigid frames may also be created with building columns rig- height for a given clearance envelope and the framing module widths
idly connected to truss or bar joist framing members. In these instance,,, are not too large. The design of these systems can be tailored to mini-
the connection of the top and bottom chord of the truss or bar joist to mize beam depth. Framing module widths of up to 50 ft can be accom-
the column are dmgned to transfer the axial force couple associated modated economically with this framing system. Other systems should
with the intended continuity moments. be considered for larger module widths. Engineers are cautioned when
using these systems to evaluate load combinations that include alternate
17.3.3 St•H111mlld Bulldlngs span loading or nonuniform loading.
The most common structural steel systems for carrying roof gravity and
uplift loads are the following: HOT-ROLLED COLUMNS WITH SIMPLE-SPAN
• Rigid frames composed of hot-rolled steel beams or welded plate TRUSSES AND JACK TRUSSES
girder sections with cold-formed C or Z purlins, hot-rolled purlins, or The framing for this system uses jack trusses along column lines run-
bar joists. ning parallel to the roof secondary framing. These jack trusses support
• Hot-rolled columns with simple-span fabricated trusses or joist end reactions from one or more primary roof trusses. These systems
girders and steel bar joists. are advantageous where large, column-free spaces are required in the
• Hot-rolled columns with hot-rolled steel beams and hot-rolled building and the roof is intended to support multiple conveyors or
purlins, cold-formed C or Z purlins, or bar joists. other significant process loads, typically spanning between primary roof
• Hot-rolled columns with simple-span roof trusses, jack trusses and trusses. Llghter wide-flange shapes are commonly used for purlins with
hot-rolled purlins, cold-formed C or Z purlins, or bar joists spanning this system. This system is co=only used in automotive manufactur-
perpendicular to the roof trusses. ing plants.
These systems are illustrated in Fig. 17.5.
17.3A Cancre111-F111mlld Bulldlngs
RIGID FRAMES Concrete building frames are primarily used for heavily loaded, multi-
This is the common primary framing scheme used by the metal build- story, industrial building structures that require fireproofing and that
ing industry to support gravity and uplift loads. In this case, the rigid do not require longer spans between columns. The most economical
frames are typically composed of nonprismatic plate girder sections system is the flat slab with drop panels and column capitals. Where
with material and depth optimized to match demand for all elements possible, capitals are omitted or decreased to minimum dimensions to
of the frame. Automated welding equipment is used to fabricate the provide the maximum clear height around the columns. Beam-and-
rigid frames, and individual fabricated pieces of the frames are com- slab construction is often used where the industrial process requires
monly connected with bolted end-plate connections. Economical spans numerous large openings in the floor structure or where unusually
range from 30 ft to greater than 100 ft. The secondary framing usually heavy concentrated loads must be supported. Frames of this type are
consists of light-gauge cold-formed C or Z purlins and girts that are usually cast-in-place concrete structures with mild steel reinforcement.
economical for spans up to approximately 30 ft. The C or Z sections Reinforced-concrete structures are commonly used in the food, bever-
are commonly lapped and connected at frame lines to generate flexural age, and pharmaceutical industries where clean rooms and surfaces
continuity between adjacent purlin spans. Proper lateral bracing for are required. In general, the most economical and constructible solu-
gravity and uplift loads is extremely important. Flange braces extend- tions occur when formwork is simplified as much as possible and the
ing from the purlins or gifts to the rigid frames are commonly used to reinforced-concrete members are proportioned to result in reinforce-
laterally brace the inside flange of columns and rafters. In addition, all ment ratios near the minimums allowed by ACI 318, Building Code
bolts must be installed, particularly in continuous purlins, to achieve Requirements for Structural Concrete.
continuity. Without proper bolting in the continuous purlin system, Single- and multistory industrial buildings can be economically
premature failure can occur. Rigid frames are also commonly used in framed with precast concrete members consisting of double-tee mem-
conventionally designed building, using hot-rolled columns and beams bers or hollow-core planks supported on precast girders and columns
or trusses with hot-rolled purlins, bar joists, or light-gauge cold-formed or bearing walls. This system provides another economical option and
C or Z purlins. can be advantageous when fire rating is required and sprinkler systems
are incompatible with the industrial process. Hollow-core plank can be
HoT-ROllED COLUMNS WITH SIMPLE-SPAN used for shorter spans up to approximately 50 ft, and double-tee mem-
FABRICATED TRUSSES OR JOIST GIRDERS bers can span up to 100 ft. Figure 17 .6 shows typical details, connec-
Steel bar joists in combination with joist girders have become very tions, and framing of these systems.
popular for industrial buildings. These systems provide a low-cost Exterior walls may be precast, prestressed hollow-core panels or
framing option that can accommodate larger bay and framing module precast solid panels that are prestressed or use mild steel reinforcing.
dimensions. Typically, the bar joists and joist girders are designed as These panels may be uninsulated or insulated, using sandwich panel
simple-span members. Joist girders are economical for light to moder- construction composed of concrete and insulation layers.
ate loads where adequate headroom exists to accommodate reasonable Use of load-bearing precast wall panel with steel roof and interior
joist girder depths. Fabricated trusses are often used in lieu of joist column framing is also very common.
girders for roofs supporting heavier process loading and where there
are numerous connections from ancillary framing that can be readily 17.3.5 Wood-Fr•med Bulldlng1
accommodated with conventional truss detailing and fabrication. It is Wood-framed industrial structures are more popular in those areas of
imperative that bridging and bracing be properly designed and installed the country where lumber is produced at low cost. Warehouse or single-
not only for uplift criteria but also to prevent instability problems for story light industrial buildings can be constructed using glulam girders
gravity loads. These systems are commonly used for framing module (typically configured in a cantilevered system) combined with a system
widths ranging from 40 to 200 ft or more and bay lengths ranging from of panelized purlins and subpurlins. This system is typically configured
25 to 60 ft. Additional building height associated with increased depth around panelized modules based on conventional 4 ft x 8 ft sheets of
of joist girders or trusses will result in additional cost for the building plywood. The subpurlins are typically spaced at 16 in. on-center and the
wall system. purlins spaced 8 ft on-center. Careful detailing is required to ensure that
the wood roof framing is correctly configured to meet diaphragm and
HoT-ROllED COLUMNS AND STEEL BEAMS subdiaphragm design requirements. This system can be prefabricated
Hot-rolled columns with a continuous or a cantilever-beam system and erected in modules to minimize overhead work. This type of fram-
may be advantageous when the goal is to minimize the required building ing is shown in Fig. 17.7.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDING$ Sff
COU>-FORMEO C OR Z PURLINS OR
HOT-ROLLED WIDE FLANGE OR
CHANNEL PURLINS OR BAR JOISTS
WIDE FLANGE
COLUMNS
HOT-ROLLED COLUMNS WITH SIMPLE SPAN TRUSSIJOISJ GIRDER ANO BAR JOISTS
- - -
/
\_SIMPLE SPAN COLD·FORMEO C --'
WIDE FLANGE ORZPURLINS
BEAMS OR HOT·ROLLED
- WIDE FLANGE CHANNEL OR
COLUMNS WIDE FLANGE
PURLINS OR BAR
JOISTS
COLUMN
HOT-ROLLED COLUMNS WITH ROOF TRUSSES. ,JACK JBUSSES, AND PURUNS OR BAR JOISTS
PRECAST CONCRETE
HOLLOW-CORE PLANK
OR DOUBLE-TEE BEAM
mmom u r
PRECAST CONCRETE
COLUMN
CONNECTION AT
ALTERNATING WEBS
DOWELS GROUTED
INTO SLEEVES
BEARING PAD-----~
BASEPLATE PRECAST
ANCHORAGE CONCRETE
AS REQUIRED COLUMN
SHIM STACK STEEL
AND GROUT BASEPLATE
PIER OR
FOOTING
17.3.6 Metal Bulldlng Systems • Class D-Heavy service where the crane will be used constantly
Sted buildings supplied by metal building manufacturers (preengi- throughout the day with typical lifts at or near 50 percent of the rated
neered buildings) are often assumed to be simple standard buildings. capacity of the cranes and no more than 65 percent ofthe lift.. are antici-
However, in current practice, virtually all buildings provided by metal pated to be at capacity. High crane speeds are commonly desirable with
building manufacturers are unique custom-designed buildings that 10 to 20 lifts per hours.
have been designed based on specific project requirements. Framing • Class E-Severe service with anticipated lifts at or near capacity
systems commonly used for these buildings were previously discussed. throughout the day and 20 or more lifts per hour. High crane speeds
The typical cladding systems consist of exposed metal roof deck. are anticipated.
Standing-seam roof decks are used with most metal buildings today, • Class F-Continuous severe service with anticipated lifts at or near
but screw-down metal roof panels are still available. Metal building capacity and severe service conditions or environment. An example
framing systems can also be designed to incorporate conventional roof would be a hot, dirty environment such as would be expected in the
and wall systems. melt shop of a steel mill. These cranes must be very reliable.
Fatigue considerations will normally impact the design of crane
17.3.7 Crane Buildings girders for Class D, E, and F cranes. For heavy cranes and/or long
Steel-framed buildings are predominantly used for crane buildings. crane girder spans, the crane runway girders are often required to
A major distinction between the design of crane buildings and other be plate girders to meet strength and serviceability limit states. The
buildings is the consideration of fatigue. Crane buildings are often loaded crane girder web is typically welded to the top flange of the girder
to their expected design loads, and in many cases the design loading will with complete joint penetration welds due to high contact stresses
occur thousands of times. Thus, member and connection design must beneath the crane wheels and rail. Fabrication costs associated with
consider fatigue limit states. these plate girders make these girders more expensive than hot-rolled
Crane runway girders and supporting columns are usually included beams. Allowable stress range for fatigue concerns is also reduced
with the building design. Wheel loads and spacing are provided by the for plate girder sections due to potential flaws and associated stress
crane manufacturers. risers in the welded joint between the bottom flange and web of the
The Crane Manufacturers Association of America (CMAA) classifies crane girder.
cranes according to service class, in recognition of the number of antici- The following suggestions for various girder types may prove helpful:
pated load cycles for that crane and the environmental conditions that • For lighter cranes and shorter spans: Use plain wide-flange beams.
the crane is exposed to. These classifications are as follows: • For moderate capacity and service class cranes with girder spans
• Class A-Standby or infrequent service where capacity loads are ranging from 30 to 40 ft: Use wide-flange beam with cap channel
handled during initial installation of equipment and for infrequent or other similar top flange reinforcement to improve the top flange
maintenance. strength and stiffuess for crane lateral forces.
• Class B-Light service where the crane speed is slow and typical • For heavy cranes and spans up to 40 ft: Use a plate girder profile
lifted loads are light, with only occasional lifts at full rated load. with a larger top flange to accommodate strength and stiffness require-
• Class C-Moderate service where the crane will handle loads ments for crane lateral forces.
which average 50% of the rated capacity with 5 to 10 lifts per hour and • For heavy cranes and spans greater than 40 ft: Use a plate girder
not more than 50% of the lifts are at or near rated capacity. with a top and bottom flange backup bracing system incorporating
572 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
BUILDING CRANE
COLUMN COLUMN
BUILDING
COLUMN
STABILITY
BRACES
MOMENT CONNECTION
CRANE COLUMN CRANE COLUMN
CRANE GIRDER
TIEBACK CONNECTION
TO BUILDING COLUMN
BUILDING COLUMN
CRANE GIRDER
Figure 17.9 Use of continuou roof bracing syatem for crane buildings.
horizontal lacing to a backup beam or truss to improve the lateral and • Laced columns, with the composite, laced column supporting ver-
torsional strength and stiffness of the crane girder to acco=odate tical loads from the crane and roof and the laced column cantilevered
crane lateral forces and potential torsional forces that are more of a up from the supporting foundation and integrated into the lateral load
concern for longer spans. resisting system for the building.
When evaluating serviceability requirements for crane runway gird- • Battened columns with adjacent building and crane columns
ers, vertical deflections are generally calculated for the maximum crane designed as a composite cross section, using short beam or batten sec-
wheel loads from a single crane on the runway without vertical impact tions between the two column profiles that are rigidly connected to one
forces. For top running cranes, typical criteria are as follows: or both column profiles, generating composite behavior similar to the
• Span/600 for CMAA classes A, B, and C cranes laced column option discussed above. These composite columns sup-
• Span/800 for CMAA class D cranes port vertical loads from the crane and roof and are also integrated into
• Span/1000 for CMAA classes E and F cranes the lateral load resisting system for the building.
For underhung and monorail cranes typical criteria are as follows: These column options are illustrated in Fig. 17.8.
• Span/450 for CMAA classes A, B, and C cranes Continuous longitudinal bracing at the roof level can be used to dis-
The design of underhung crane runway beams and monorail beams tribute crane lateral forces to adjacent frame lines, minimizing the effect
must consider combined stresses in the bottom flange due to bending of these forces on the supporting columns, lateral load-resisting system,
over the span of the beam and localized bending in the bottom flange and foundations. Design of this system requires use of an analysis that
generated from the concentrated wheel loads. recognizes the lateral stiffness of the columns, each frame line, and the
Lateral deflections of crane girders should be limited to span/400 so continuous bracing system at the roof level. This approach is illustrated
that crane operation is not compromised and to limit the effect of lateral in Fig. 17.9.
distortion and associated twist in the crane girder on the resulting forces
or stresses in the girder. REFERENCES
Simple-span crane girders are reco=ended. Use of multiple-span or
continuous crane runway girders can complicate and compromise the 1. Fisher, James M.: Design Guide 7, Industrial Building Design,
fatigue design of the girder and can be problematic if differential settle- Third Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, IL.
ment occurs between foundations for the supporting columns. 2. Guide for the Design and Construction of Mill Buildings, AIST
Several types of column support options for crane girders are com- Tech. Report. No. 13 (2020 Edition), Association of Iron and Steel
monly used, including the following: Technology, Pittsburgh, PA.
• Bracket supports off adjacent building columns. 3. West, Michael A., Fisher, James M., Griffts, Lawrence G.:
• Independent crane support columns with lateral stability provided Serviceability Design Considerations for Steel Buildings, Steel Design
by adjacent building columns. Guide 3, 2nd Edition, American Institute of Steel Construction,
• Stepped columns, with columns providing support for vertical Chicago, IL.
loads from the crane and roof and the columns also integrated into the 4. Foundations for Dynamic Equipment, ACI 351.3R-04 (R£approved
lateral load resisting system for the building. 2011), American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
574 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
5. Guide to Concrete Floor and Slab Construction, ACI 302.lR-15, 10. Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, AISC 360-16, American
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml. Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Chicago, IL.
6. Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground, ACI 360R-10, American 11. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI 318-14,
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Ml.
7. Tarr, Scott M., Farny, James A.: Concrete Floors on Ground, 12. Specifications for Top Running Bridge & Gantry Type Multiple
4th Edition, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. Girder Electric Overhead Traveling Cranes, CMAA Specification No. 70
8. International Building Code, 2018 Edition, International Code (2015), Crane Manufacturers Association of America, an Affiliate of the
Council, Inc., Country Club Hills, IL. Material Handling Industry of America, Charlotte, NC.
9. Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings 13. Metal Building Systems Manual, 2012 Edition, Metal Building
and Other Structures, ASCE 7-16, American Society of Civil Engineers, Manufacturers Association, Cleveland, OH.
Reston, VA.
Chapter 18
Tall Buildings
IY
CHARLES BESJ.AI(, PE,, SE SkUlmore, Owings 6' Mem1l
BRIAN Mcl1HA1TEN,, PE,, SE Arup
PREETAM llSWAS, PE Slcldmort. Owinp 6' Merrlll
18.1 DEFINITION OF TALL BUILDING and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) suggesta a building be classl1led as
18.1.1 COtmll'doMllUI~
"supertali- if It iJ over 300 m (984 ft) md u "megatall" If it is over
600 m (1968 ft). There are only 1hree megmll buildings as of today. A3
According to the International Building Code (IBC}. a building am the level of tedinology developed and demandJ for space ue funher
be defined as "Any structure uted or intended for supporting or diel- inaeased, there will bemoie megatall buildings in Che future.
tering any use or occupancy:' Conventional small-scale buildings are
constructed from timber or muomy and tend to expand hori2:ontally
rather than vertically when more area Is needed. The design of small- 18.2 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
sc;a!e buildlnp is typ.lcelly based on tu u.sag~ommerdal. rmdentid. 18.2.1 An:hltedunil
indu.ttr:ial, etc.
AJ demand for commercial and office bulldlngs increased in urban Azchltecture is an integration of the social physical, and aefthetlc
ce.ote.rs such as Chicago and New York City and with. the advent of needs of society and l.U e.nvironment. Architecturd design of tall bulld-
modem technology such u the pU8a!ger elevator. vertical apanslon inp must take into ~ both the a.esthetic and the prac:tital to not
became an attractive and economical option for mu:imizing usable only expm1 and communicate the a.tpirations and aperience1 of the
tpace. dea!gner but alto perform ita inte.Dded functJon to a ialiefactory degree.
Technologlc:el dewlopment has made many grand architectural ideas
18.1.2 11111. SupMUll, Meptlll Bulldlnp come to reality, suc:h as large cantilever• and complex. curved fa~e
There ii no absolute deftnilion for tall buildings. For instance, a build- surfaces. Along with these compla geometries, innovative structural.
ing of 10 stories might be COM!dered "tall• in an ordinary European aysteme have also been developed. The deti!gn of tall bllilding$, where
clty or a iuburban town but 18 almost an afterthought in a clty iuch the structural system Is more vital to bullding performance when com-
as New York or HO.Ilg Kong (Fig. 18.1). A building with many floon pared to the dedgn of a smaller-sc;a!e building. provide~ opportunity for
may not M like a "tall• building due to a. large foo1print. Usually. a. intl:gration of arcllitecture and structure in the aesthetic de1ign of a tall
building is coMidemi "talf' if the controlling clementJI of design an: building to generate elegant, efficient de1igns.
dominated by the height and 3lendernw of the building rather than any
particular unge: either sped.al vertical transportation technologies or a 18.2.2 Vtrdc-''lftNpoN11on
deditated ruuc;tural system to control movement under wind loading Vertical transportU!on it very Important in t1ID buildings. Including
are required. stairs, elevators, and utility ahalt.t. In general, the higher the building is,
Tall buildingll can be further categomed .Into "supertall." and "meptan• the more vertical tnmportation fadllties are needed. Au result, tall build-
when their height is slgnitlc:ant enough. The Counc.11 on Tall Buildings ings have a lower percentage ofrentalie/u"1>le space. The percentage of
Flg1n 18.1 Hong Kong bu more tluln 1300 blllldlnge over LOO m {323 ft) tall (Photo 0 R,'&ll Cheng. 20LO.)
576 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
rental area to gross area wually ranges between 85 and 90 percent in a floors spaced throughout the height of a tower or independent firc-
tall building, but it can be as low as 55 to 65 percent. In most cases, vertical suppression systems for egress stairs.
transportation is concentrated inaide the building core.
PROGRBSSIVB COLLAPSE MITlGATION
11.2.3 MEP From a structural perspective, resilient design is concerned with struc-
Mechanical, electrical, plumbing (MEP) equipment is usually located tural stability under extreme load cases that may or may not result in
on designated service floors and/or inside the building core. It is not members or groups of members no longer contributing to the structural
uncommon that there are multiple MEP floors or 7.0Des in a taller building. system. Local building codes as well as documents produced by public
Ideally, heavy MEP equipment should be located on lower floors of the agencies such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
building to minimize the dynamic impact of a large mass at the top of or the General Services Administration (GSA) provide general and
the building. However, the presence of a designated MEP zone can be prescriptive requirements fur resisting progressive or disproportionate
advantageous-as MEP floors have fewer aesthetic requirements as collapse.
compared to occupiable space, structural enhancement, for example, There are two primary methods for resisting loads caused by a delib-
outrigger and belt trWlses, can usually be added in these zones. erate attack of a building structure:
MEP requirements also impact the floor clearance and must be • Alternate load path method: the structure is designed such that it is
accommodated, as well as structural beam depth, in the architectural stable when one or multiple members are removed.
ceiling sandwich. Ducts, pipes, and other MEP system elements often • Local resistance method: a Mdesign threat" is sdected, generally by
must also enter and exit the building core. Penetration of beams and a security consultant, and members and connections are designed and
shear walls is a common resolution of these requirements. Coordina- detailed such that they can resist the dynamic loads imposed. This will
tion between building trades in tall building design is crucial to ensure generally require complex, nonlinear finite-element analysis.
a successful design.
According to a National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) report, Tall buildings must be designed to fulfil] strength and serviceability
there are over 10,000 high-rise fires annually. High-rise buildings requirements. AB building heights increase, their design is increasingly
present a unique set of challenges in fire and life safety due to large dominated by serviceability concerns-effects of building motion and
occupation and long vertical travel distance. To reduce the travel dis- accelerations on occupant comfort and fayade design among them. The
tance for occupants and provide a better protection under a fire event, design must also take gravity and lateral loading into account and satisfy
refuge areas are usually designated throughout the height of modern the requirements of local building codes.
tall buildings.
18.3.1 GrllYlt}I l.Clllds
11.2.5 Sust.-in11bility
Gravity loads on a tall building are generally static loads-they will be
Due to their size and high occupation, tall buildings consume a con- present throughout the entire life of the building. Static gravity loads
siderable amount of energy from construction to operation. In order that need to be considered in tall building design include the structure
to promote sustainable and high-performance design, the U.S. Green self-weight and superimposed dead load (SDL), such as weight of fixed
Building Council has developed the LEED rating system, which offers a service equipment, fixed partition, floor finish, and cladding. Loads that
checklist for typical green commercial buildings, including sustainable are time dependent but not applied to the structure dynamically are live
sites, water efficacy, energy/atmosphere, materials/resources, indoor loads (LLs), related to the we and occupancy of the structure, such as
air quality, innovation, and design/build process. Common strategies movable equipment and movable partitions. Due to the large total floor
for high-performance tall building design include passive solar gain, area of tall buildings. floor loading accounts for a considerable portion
~e technology, structure and material preference, and harvesting of the total load. The floor framing system is often chosen based on
wind energy. High-performance or sustainable design should be a full building usage: office buildings tend to use metal deck and steel fram-
integration of architecture, structure, and MEP disciplines. ing, while residential buildings wually adopt a concrete flat slab system.
Gravity loads also impact the serviceability behavior of a tall building.
11.2.6 Construmbllity A concrete system is generally much heavier than a comparable steel
Tall and supertall buildings, especially those built with structural steel. system, increasing demand on foundations but reducing the likelihood
often consist oflarge built-up steel members and nodes. AB part of the the building will have adverse dynamic effects due to wind loading or
design process it is important to consider fabrication, transportation, footfall-induced vibration of floor framing systems.
and erection of these elements. Large pieces must be sized such that they The sequence of construction must also be considered in high-rise
are able to be lifted by the cranes available for con1truction and able to building design, especially for composite structures (those using both
fit on the trucks or traiill used fur transportation between fabrication steel and concrete structural elements). Further discussion on these
shop and site. effects is presented in Sec. 18.11.
It is often the case that the design of structural connections is not
performed by the structural engineer of record but instead delegated 18.3.l Lateral LNcls
to a steel detailer or fabricator. Similarly, the layout of reinforcement AB previously discussed, lateral loading is the dominant design criteria
in concrete is not usually specifically documented in a set of drawings for tall buildings. Both wind and seismic loads are dynamic loads: their
but instead schematically laid out In tall and supertall building con- magnitudes and directions are time dependent The lateral load applied
struction where loads and member sizes become large, economy and to the structure depends on the building location and geometry but
efficiency can be realized by coordinating connection and detail design also the building structure itself. For example, the wind load demand
for high-intensity areas earlier in the design process. on a building is dependent on the local wind climate, site terrain, and
exposure but also building geometry and structural dynamic properties
11.2.7 Other Considerations
(mass, stiffness, damping). The nature of wind loading on tall buildings
is discussed in detail in Sec. 18.9.1.
Bl.i'JLDING Rl!SJLIBNC::Y
While wind loads are generally the dominant lateral load on a tall
In the context of tall building design and construction, resiliency refers building, in locations that are seismically active, earthquake loading
to the ability of a building 1tructure to resist extreme events. Both the can control the lateral system design. It is similarly related to both site
structural and the architectural design of a tall building must incorpo- characteristics and building dynamic properties. Earthquake design is
rate resiliency criteria. For example, many building codes require refuge complicated by the inherently unpredictable nature of seismic activity.
TALL BUILDINGS 577
In most pmaiptive codes, the building lateral system must be deaigned design and interior partitiom. Generally. this is a wind-movement iNUe.
for a given eanhqualce return period. ancl explicit limits on the heighu but in moderate to high seillilic region.a, the earthquake movement.'I
to which particular structural. system• can be wed are included. Some may govern. Like the overall buil.d.lng dlsplacementa, these movemeat.t
building code.t allow for a performance-based design to addrm thae betwee.11 floon are also a func:tl.on of floor heiglit. h, and are terme<l u
llmlts and reach performance beyond simply guarantedng the safety of intmtory drift ratio, which is illumated In Fig. 18.2. Common lnter-
occupanu in a seismic event. Section 10 d!KuMes performance-bued atory drift ratios are in the range of h/300 for wind loads and an be
seismic design to a. pater extent. u low u h/50 under high seismic loads. Practical Vllluet bued oil
fa~ and partition standard detailing practices would limit the lnter-
18.J.J Foundl11oft 8tory drift at J6 to ~ in. ASCE 7 provides further guidance on these
'fyplcal foundation types fur tall bulldlnp include piles, barrier walls, limits a.nd the wind return periods to be comidered in the section on
cai11.11ona, and mw. The foundalion aystcm can be deep or shallow serviceability co.ntlderatlont. If the buil.dlng h in a high seismic region.
depending oil the conditions belowground-for instance, many tall sped.al detalllng and systems may be required to accommodate the
buildings In New York City are supported on a rdnforced-concrete es:pected large inter8tory drifts to limit damqe and prevent falling of
mat 4lttlng on solid rock. while where competent bedrock Is not found, the fa.?de panels.
towen can be supported on a mat sitting on deep piles driTen into a.
softer subrtrate. For tall buildinp with a dual structural. system comi.st-
.lng of a core and perimeter frame, the core can be supported by a mat
foundation while the pe.r:lmeter frame .la supported by piles or spread.
footinp. In some cues. the entire ruucturc can also at on a. tingle mat.
Comide.ring the acale of tall building ltructures, foundation systems can
be gigantic. For enmple, the mat foundation for the Jin Mao Tower In
Shanghai Is 4 m (13 ft) Chick.
.............. ················~
18.4 SERVICEAllLITY CONSIDERATIONS
Al iDdlc:ated in Sec. 18.1.1, one of the primary factors in tall building
design is the need to control building movements for both occupant
comfort and protection of other building components.
18.4.1 OccupentComfort
People respond to building motions In wrylng degrees with some Inte:rstary Drift Ratios= hi/Si ll.lld hiC6.r6i,)
being more aifecti:d than others. Several criteria have been developed
ova: a number of yean thst seek to ensure that the majority of bull.ding Flgul'8 11.2 lntent.ory drift ralio.
occupants wlll not be bothered by these motions. These are a function
of building periods/frequencies. occupancy type (reddent!d or office), 1&.5 STRUC1\IRAL SYSTEMS FOR TALL BUIU>INGS
and mum period ofthe wind n"mt M. D. Burton et al. (2015) provide a
18.5.1 ~
compn:he.111ive look at occupant comfort pm;eption stucliu and n:com-
mended criteria for tall bulld.lngs. High-rite buildings an: typically commercial (office) or residential.
The two primary measurements related to occupmt comfort are many with mall or public amenity tpaces at the street level. IJ dis-
acceleration• and tomonal vdoc:ities. cusaed In the section ".Buil.d.h'lg Usage.,• the building usage can haft a
• Ac:celeration1 are n:lated to the building's modal response a.nd luge impact on the approprtase choice of ltl'Uc:tural system•
.Inherent damping (plus eupplemental damp.mg Jn some a.aee). Thae
are aper:tenced by the occupauts u a speeding up and slowing down of 18.5.2. S,sttm Erolu'don
Che buildillf as it moves throllfh its modal oscillation• with the greatest The Home Inruranc:e Building In Chicago, a 10-story steel-framed
effeciJI being felt a1 the top of the building. cletigned by William Le Baron Jenney and completed In 1885, Is widely
• Toraiollll veloc.ltl.ea are tt1ated. to the accel.e.rations and e:q>erienced ams:idered the 6m modem high-me building. By utilizing an iDteri.or
as a twisting of the floor plate in addition to the ovenll. motion of the steel frame instead of bearing masonry walb, the early architectt and
builclliiB. Therefore, the patm effects would be felt fiardlest from the engineers of the Chicago school we.re able to reduce the weight of a
center of rotalion along the perimeter of the floor plate. Occupmt.t ateel.-framed bull.ding to one-third of an equiwlent masonry ltrUcture.
e11peclally perceive this when there ls an adjacent buil.dlng or other point An:hitectural principles such a.s the concentration of building servicea
of reference outlide thst giva a sense of relative momuent. and vertical tramporta.t.ion in a •service wr:i' a.nd other engineering
• Return periods fur wind uaed in the eval\IU!on of accelerations lnnovationt, ruch as the development of the deep pile foundation sys-
and tonion.al vdocitiu have historically been between I-year and tem, led to a rapid increase In the achievable heiglits of t1D. building•.
10-year event.I. Thae are still applicable for many Ull. buildingt, but as Ever «ince then, the ability to build higher ancl higher and thu.s
more slender towtn have been propo.ioed, more frequent wind events inc.reue urban demity to unforeaeen leveb has defined the modern city.
(leN than 1 year) have b«n found to control these criteria for IOllle In the 1920., tall building conttructl.on boomed-known ae the "nee to
prcjecta. the sky.' Notable buildings, such as Che Chrysler (925 ft, 282 m tall) and
Procedures emt for the structural engineer to estimale the accel- Empire Stt&te (1250 ft. 381 m) bWldinp, were built in New Yo.rt City.
erations and tonlonal vel.odt!e.t. but it u most common and aoouate These towers utilized m:d moment frame sysrem1 and became iconic
to work with a wind tunnel testing f'adllty to determine these. This componam of the New York City skyline and lb cultural identity.
appIOadt will be discu.ued in further detail in Sec. 18.9.3. The tube concept was then introduced 1n late 1960s and drastically
Methods for controlling these building movement.I will be disawed changed the design of modern akyscrt&per. Rather than a solid central
later in the chapter. con:. a. perimeter tubelike ltrUctUR with significantly pater muc:tural
depth wu utilized to res:lrt the s:lgnlfic:ant lateral loads In hlgh-riae
18.4,,2 lnternclr, Drtft A.lllllo and buildings. This concept greatly reduced Che required material quantity
Nom!lructural c.mpol'Ml'ltl for a tall building and thus the auoclated construction coo. The fim
In the section above Oil building displacements, the movement between building to incorporate this idea. wu the 43-story DeWitt-Chmnut
.Individual floon was noted u an important consideration for the fa~e Apartment Building by SOM. completed in 196' in Chicago. Other
57a CHAPTER EIGHTUN
aignific:ant buitdinp in<:orporatinf this conGept in this period include Reinforcing ban have a1ao increue<l in 8tmlgth &om 11. typical ctpadty
the John Hancock Ccnta, the Wdli.t (formerly Sean) Tower, and the of 33 bi in die early 2odi century to 80 or 100 bi today. Prob!ction and
orlglnal World Trade Center towers, all of which are over 100 atoriea coaling technology of rebarl hu also improved over time, leading to
In height. .Increased longevity af concrete atructures.
The co.re-outrigger Sf'1elll couples the perimeter mucture to the A.. the coll1rl.b1111on of typical building mate.rids to energy consump-
COil! at. dircrete locati.011.1, allowing the lateral R.li.stance of both tymma tion and carbon emissions <:0mes under closer 1c.rutiny, mm timber
to be utilb:ed. Outriggers have been wed extemively in tall bulldlngs is an attraciive option for tall building comtruction. While there an:
In the put several deades in steel. concrete, and comp°'1te buildings. algniftcant design challenges associated with Umber towers-fire pro-
Figure 18.3 allow. ttructural syfteml for tall building• of inc:reulng tection obviously among them-It Is an area of active research in the
heights. structural engin«ring and dmp community.
1U.4 Technologkal Evoludoft
11l.S.!1 Mnl!rill Evolutlon The teclmiques 11.nd methods Uled to duign tall building• have
The JJ1.U1 usage of 1teel and mnforced concrete u building materials is ad.vmced alongside improvements in building malniah. In an increu-
c:om:id.ered. to be the beginning of the •modem" era of comtru.ciion, and ingly competitive markd. developen worlclwid.e have been quick to
they remain the most commonly used .mater:lab for tall building con- market new bulldlng1 as "first of 11. kind," "tallest;" or "grandest"-
atruciion today. The streogdi of these materials b.u Improved slgnift- promises tzamlating to demand fur heroic struawu that pWlh the
c:antly over time-for example, the tteel-frame memberi of the Home boundary of conventional ~ New toola. such a.s compllkr-aided
Inrunnce Building had. yield strength of only 16 bi. By the midpoint design and analym software, allow for the conception and analysis
of the 20th «ntury and the construction of the John Hancock building. of complex bulldlng1 with unique three-dimensional geometries and
the .majority of building steel was A36 with a yield strength of 36 bi. facadea. Three-dimensional diglt11 modellng and detalllng tools allow
Today, the mcm <:ommon structural ltcel grade for rolled 1ec;tiom is fur material and proceat optimization, allowing engineers to model and
ASTM Am with a yi.c:ld strength of 50 bi. In many localiona, rolled c:oo.rdinate complex connection1 or CUJtam elementJ in detail.
eeciione and cut or forged compone.ntt with yield strengths of up to 80 Along with new higb.-rtrengtb. conc.retee, advanced pumping technol-
or eve.n 100 kal. are available. A36 I• still commonly used for detalllng ogy and admiztures have been developed to allow for pumping concrete
members. Nc:h u channels and mgles. to extreme heights (up to 600 m). Self-climbing formwork Sf'WDJ have
ObWnable oonaete mength b.u al.to ligniticantly increased over the also been adopted to reduce required tabor for ooncrete <:0n.attuction.
years, lead.Ing to ill.created effidency of concrete construction. Strengths Specialized GPS technology has alto been developed to monitor
of8to10 ksia.re common In a tall building, and can beuhigh u 14bl. struc:tural performance, repl.ac.lng co11VeD.tlonal NrveyiD.g methods.
120
TYPEI SHEAR FRAMES
TYPEll INTERACTING SYSTEM
110 TYPElll PARTIAL TUBULAR SYSTEM
TYPE IV TUBULAR SYSTEM
100
90
80
(/)
w
a: 70
~
LI.
0 60
a:
w
m 50
~
::>
z
40
30
20
10
I
eeee TYPE I
Figure 1LS Tall building 1J11b=111.S.
II TYPE II I
DIJ DJ
TALL BUILDINGS 579
18.6 SYSTEM CONCEPTUALIZATION From a serviceability view, areas with relativdy frequent, strong wind
events from thunderstorms, etc. will impose further acceleration con-
Early in the design of any tall building, it is important to consider poten-
trol challenges on slender buildings requiring structural systems that
tial structural systems from a conceptual level. Understanding which
provide better response.
system(s) might make sense and how to quickly evaluate them can save
time and money for both the structural engineer and their clients and SEISMIC INTENSITY
likely lead to better project outcomes.
Similar to wind climate issues, regions of high seismicity will place
increased demand on the building structure. Additionally, many building
18.6.1 System Choice
codes require a dual system for seismic resistance that must be integrated.
Co=on structural systems for various tall building heights arc recom-
mended in Sec. 18.7. The appropriate structural system(s) to be utilized BUILDING USAGE
for a given tall building project will often be influenced by a number of Building program can often play a role in which structural systems can
factors including architectural aspirations/limitations, building height, be considered. Below are a few examples of this.
building slenderness, wind climate, seismic intensity, building usage, Often residential buildings will be beam-free at the perimeter to
local construction practices, material costs and availability, etc. These allow for generous floor-to-ceiling windows, ruling out perimeter tube
factors and how they affect the structural system will be discussed system. Diagrids or perimeter bracing systems are also undesirable in
further in this section. Often several of these will need to be considered some residential projects due to potential for blocked views.
together to arrive at viable systems to evaluate. Office buildings generally have wide open floor plates with more
simplified footprints. While a buttressed core system like that of the
ARCHITECTU.RAL ASPI.RATIONS/LIMITATIONS
Burj Khalifa works very well for the three-legged footprint, it would not
The architectural vision for a tall building will often weigh heavily into be practical for most office building layouts.
the structural systems that can reasonably be employed. Note that building usage issues often go hand in hand with the archi-
For example, ifthe form of the building is irregular over its height, the tectural concerns discussed earlier.
application of a diagrid system or a perimeter brace system may prove
difficult from a price or constructability standpoint LOCAL CONSTRUCTION P.RACTICBS
Often perimeter column spacing and size as well as perimeter beam It is not uncommon for tall buildings to be built in locations where the
depths are critical elements to architects. workforce has limited knowledge of some construction methods or
• Megacolumn systems will require a small number of very large where one is significantly cheaper than another.
columns that architects often don't like in the program spaces. For example, many countries are comfortable with reinforced-
• Tube systems will rely on closely spaced columns with potentially concrete construction but are not experienced in structural steel, par-
deep spandrel beams that can limit views in and out of the building. ticularly for complex bracing systems or high seismic systems.
Understanding the potential architectural concerns early on can Early in the project, it is important to understand these local preferences/
help to focus the structural work and get to a preferred structural limitations to further inform the structural systems that are most viable.
system more efficiently. However, this is not to imply that as structural
engineers we should not work with the architects to find compromises MATERIAL COSTS AND AVAILABILITY
on their end that would benefit the structure and lead to a better end Similar to the previous point on local construction preferences, the costs
product and potential savings for the owner. and/or availability of common materials like steel and concrete can be a
major consideration to a tall building project.
BUILDING HEIGHT
Tall buildings often take advantage of high-strength concrete to limit
As shown in Sec. 18.5.2, there are generally height ranges that work member sizes and provide higher stiffness. This may not be available due
well or are appropriate for certain systems. The appropriateness of these to local sourcing of the needed raw materials. Options to acco=odate
systems is also affected by building slenderness to be discussed further this may be a heavier structure or looking to systems that are conducive to
below. structural steel. On the other hand, quality structural steel often needs to
Many of the systems employed in supertall buildings would be overkill be imported from a far and may become an economic deterrent.
for tall buildings. While they may work, the efficiencies found in very Often issues with local construction practice and material costs are
tall buildings may not be realized, and the construction costs to build related.
these more complicated systems would be burdensome to the project.
Conversely, systems that work well for tall buildings cannot be applied
in an efficient manner to supertall or megatall buildings. For example, 18.6.2 RulesofThumb
having a core wall-only lateral system is often not even possible from In most cases the design of tall buildings is not driven by resisting the
strength or serviceability standpoints for very tall buildings without imposed gravity loads. Instead, controlling the movements of the build-
having an artifu:ially large building core leading to loss in floor plate ing and providing adequate strength and overturning resistance under
efficiency and high structural materials costs. Similarly, a single-tube wind loading are the key design drivers.
system using perimeter frames is extremely difficult to employ for Below are a few measures of tall buildings that are easy to remember
very tall buildings without a large amount of structural material on the and important to understand early on in the design process.
perimeter (closely spaced columns or very large columns with very deep
spandrels), which has cost implications and has impacts to the architec- SLENDERNESS RATIO
ture as described in the previous consideration. The single most important metric of tall buildings is the aspect ratio
or slendemllSS ratio (SR), is defined as the building's height divided by
BUILDING SLENDERNESS its least width at the base, as shown in Fig. 18.4. As the SR increases,
Refer to discussion bdow under "Rules of Thumb" for information on controlling building accelerations and displacements and preventing
this critical parameter. As with building height, some systems are not overturning at the base of the building become substantially more dif-
efficient or applicable to buildings with high slenderness values. ficult Until the last 20 years, most tall buildings had SR under 7.0. For
example, the Willis Tower (aka Sears Tower) and the John Hancock
WIND CIJMATE Tower in Chicago have SR of 6.4 and 6.6, respectively. As wind tunnel
Project locations exposed to extremely high winds from hurricanes or testing and computer horsepower have grown and become more sophis-
typhoons will impose a further constraint on the structural systems that ticated as well as further developments in supplemental damping sys-
can lead to efficient solutions as a result of increased strength demands. tems, SR have continued to increase to meet the demands for expensive
5'0 CHAPTER EIGHTUN
CW1 <Wi)
Byjldine Plan at Base
Slenderneas Ratio= BIW1
Building Elevation
F'lfure 1U Building alettderlle:l81'1t!o.
Buildinp «mll'~ of mu.ctura1 steel tloor framing ancl 1atcral 18.7 SYS'llM PARAMmAS AND atOICES
rptems generally ha.ve longer primary period.I than similar-sized
The following ffctions iillllt:rate examples of tall building symm. by
.relnfor«d-conc.rete buildingll. It would not be uncommon fur them to describing Cheir utili2:at.ion in ailting tall buildings.
be on the order of SO percent higher for the flnt ttanslational mocle In
each p.rlmary ortho50nal direction.
Aa apectecl, then, buildings cmnposed of composite conmuction, 18.7.1 Fnme..Qnl)'Sptem
Chose making use of reinforced. concrete and structural steel memben, The structural. syitem.s of the early •k.yscrapen were generally rigid steel
wlD.llkdy have modal.responses between an aD. .relnforced-<oncrete and frames-early archib:c:ta and engineers had not yet considered Che sk.y-
all-ruuctural-mel buildlng. aaaper as a vertical cantilever but instead u simply a taller vmion of a
In terms of preferred mode shapu, ha:ring primary ttanslational typical low-rille building. Towen aw:h 1.1 the Empire Stite and Chrpler
mode• occurring before the primary tonlonal mode is best. Buildinp buildings reached great heigbta while utilizing a frame-only 8}'*tem but
with high torsional mode• may be subject to Increased building accel- are exceptionally heavy (the Empire Sate Building contains 30 per«nt
eration and tonlonal velocity l..ue.. Also. tome international codes. more steel than the John Hanc:oclt Tower despite a 8llnilar heisJ!t) ancl
such u the Chinese national code, prohibit having the primary torsional have many tightly spaced interior columm.
mode before tramlational mode1 for seimlit conc:erm. While the material cosb a.11ociated with inctta9ed height grow dis-
Structural engineers should keep in m!nd tb.ete three key metrics of proportionately for thae rigid-frame structum, Chey are appropriate
SR. cmra1I. displacement ntio, and lnterstory drift Ntl.os as they colllider for towm on the o.rder of 20 or 30 mm« tall
potential tall building muttural ~· and ~their behavior.
18.7.2 C.Ore-OnlJSynem
Common '1aJl Building Strucmral Mmrial Choica: Proa and Com Alternatively, the Latu.al load-misting system can be located e!lt:i.rely
Material Pro• Cone in the service core of the bulldlng. Wind loa.d.t are tramferred from
llddorcc4 Readily aTallable In most Lower ~-to-weight ratio
the ~de to the co.re structure Chrough rigid floor diaphragms, often
con~slabs.
conc:rde mari:etl than~ •tcd ~larger
member 1izea mi,lllml While Chis ii ~ the cue (by choice) for low-rile buildings, site
Llbor fotta gmcnllr faml1lat Lower lltiffnea-to-weigbt tal:lo comtraintJ cm rutrict the continuity ofperimeter elements a.nd force a
with OODStrudiQD. tedUllqaa than ttruci:llral steel ~ larger core-only syatem for taller ftl'Uctures. Due to advance.tin hlgh-mength
member •lze.t mi.lllrecl materlala md fabrication of complex built-up memben, core-only
Pmvida MUl!l'inhamtdamp· Prone to cnep and •hrixikaie muctum Nch as One Manhattan West and 150 North Rivenide have
Ing than ilU'llciW'll llteel e1£ecte, part1cUlarly in tome reached rupertall heights by relying only on a lltiffinternal core.
coupled struaunl systemt
Can be -uy formed Into ScUmlc weight Is fll&her than 18.7.J Tubtis,sutn
varioua lhapet and lrizet that of lltru.ctural -1
Hu inhen:nt fireproofing lncruaed foundalion dananda Tube systems, popularized by engineer Fazlur Khan in the 1960s and
properlies aver olher materials 1970s. utilize the perimeter ttructure of a tower by imitating the load-
Very hJ&h atreq1hs becoming Low dudl1lty oompmd to raifting beha.Yior of a thin-walled. tube. Tubulu systems can be utilized
.11101e comm011 and available ttnu:tllnl ~ in steel or concrete structuret and led. to a drutk increase in achievable
Perfonm well in oompmrlo.u Perfonm poorly in temlon building helghta.
Prone to cracking and Nbte- The tubular system develope<l by :Khan wu not1ble fur coml.dering
qw:nt Iola al atiffna1 a. tall building as a single cantilever extending from the ground rather
Sln.ctanJ. Hlgher 1tn:ngth-to-weilJht UIWll!y requira a more 1i:ilkd than a. series of stacbd frames. Efficiency is achieved by engaging the
ad ratio compared to rdn- 'WOrkfo!l:e, llmlUng locatione perimeter mucture in lateral rutstance, leading to a deflected ahape
for«d e<x11c.rete -+ amalle.r where It .may be 1.Mled 8imilar to a cantllewr beam (see Fig. 18.6). A measure of a taD. building
member 1iza fOllibk
Hlgher 1tlfliie.u-to-wdght Lea illhemrt dampillg 1han
ratio compared to rdn- rdnfotced concrete
for«d conciete ~ mialle.r
member aiza fOllibk
Creep and lhrinkafle effem LariJe mm llCClione oftm needed
are not a C<IDCel'll. fur tall bulldmp require labor-
~bullt-11pmembcn
Hlg.b dllCtlllty r:dattve to Complo:: and ~!Te co.n-
rdnforud «111aete 11ectio111 often needed
RccW.oed GOllJUw:1iol1 limet Supplemcnal fireproofing often
depcudizig OD.~ ofthe needed
employed ICrlldQral '7'I=
Performa well in tmlio11 Prone to local and pibal bucJr..
ling 111 compreaaloD.
Co:mpollitc Allowl the oomhlnatlon of IntegratiDg the two imteti&la
benditt from berth~<:- can le4ld to c:ompla form-
tan! 8teel and relnfon:ecl work l.Nllet or COl1ltnletion I
I
am=te to be tta1l2ed f!O«durea I I
Broy Sutainable mmrial v~ 1mge memben mi,mrm a.ndl
I
tlmha> or mocc clotely spaoed. membera I I
Perform.a well in lltt, uawnlng Low ll1lfneu rdalhe to IU'Uc- I
SIMGLB'I'uBll
A single-tube bulld.blg will gene.rally utilize closely spued aterior
(Olumm connected at each floor by deep spandrel beams. forming a
stIUctural tube. In this iYJtem, the exterior frame iYJtem will resist the
lateral force and a portion of the gravity load, while the core will carry
the mualning gravity load. to the foundation. The overturning moment
due to wind ii reailted by bending of the tube (azial thortening and Plaage Web Wcib
elongaiion of the perimeter columns on the windward and luwant
facet of the building), and the thear due to wind it primarily realtted by
frame action on the face. of the building panllel to the wind direction.
A chall51F in smste-tube ~ is 1he War lag effect (Pig. 18.7)-
while in an actual thin-walled tube under flaure there ii consiltent uial
streu in the "flange" milt, due to the dhcominuoua nature of a towei"s
perimeter atruc:tutt, an uneven dilttibutlon ofmat load.ls observe<l along (a) (b)
the perimeter wan.. Fi9uM 18,7 Al!al. s1l'el9 dlstlibut!Oll In beam~ (4) l'li1float Wu lag
The original World 1iade Center Towers 1 and 2 were example.1 of and (b) with 11-r lag.
single framed-tube structure.. and were the bllelt building. in the world
when completed in 1973. Figure 18.8 shows a typical floor plan and the
pl'dabricated perimeter columnJbeam element. 1Ued to construct the
perimeta' structure. load. through axial IOl&d on the brues md (Olwnnt-genenJ!y refllh-
ing in more efficient wie of material. The diagonal elementl can also
BUCBD Tu.BB redistribute load. from. more heavily loaded columm to leu strwed
The braced tube structural S)'8tem is a variant of the framed tube struc- column• on the same face, helping reduce the thear lag effect.
tural system. It allow• kwer and futhcr ~d exterior columns by ll is !mportult to .note that bracing atiffneas is largely dependent on
introducing diagonal rtruc:tural elements on the perimeter. Imtead of m configuration (chevron brace, X-brac:ing. inverted V-bracing. ett:.)
resiltlng wind ahear through frame actlon, the trwl8 planes resllt wind and the inclination of the bracing membmi. Considering a general
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Figure 11.8 (4) Typical f!OCU' plan of World Trade Cent« 'rawer l; (b) pmmmr tube ueemblr.
TALL BUILDING$ 513
v
v
v-- - - - - -
J ' - - - -d----1'
F1tu,.18.9 Sheu relsted by brue.
x-bradng diagram as shown in Fig. 18.9, from the force equilibrium In 40-story structure. The eyatem. b ao efBdent that the aiD.gle tall struc-
X and Y direction c. ture was built fur the same price as the original proposal of two aborter
towers. Integrated to the overall ardiitccture. the perimeter bracei al'°
l:,P,,=V-C.coa(9)-T6 C08(9)=0 (18.1) make the tower an iconic component o( the Chicago Uyline.
IP, =C.lin(B)+T.*1(9)=0 (18.2) BmmLlll> TuBB
From Eqs. (18.1) and (18.2), the tens!0.11 and compression forces In When the total area of w:h Boor in a tall building incrnse1 to a <:ertain
degree, interior columm are requiRd tD maintain efficiency o( Che Boor
the brace c:an be wriUen as
framing system. A bundled tube system utilizea theae Interior columns
r. =c. =v / 2coc(&) (18.3) u part of the lateral iystem-the tower con&lsta af several modular
framed tubes linked together sudi that aD of the building's columm.
Further discus.rion on optimal brace configuration ii presented in both interior and exterior, contribute tD the overall stiffness.
Sec. 18.7.6 on dlagrid syrte.ms. The John Hancock Centu wu one af The Wlllla (formerly Sean) Tower, ahown in Fig. 18.12, 18 a 110-story,
Che ve.ry first structures built using the braced tube concept It is a 100- 1450-ft {442 m) tower that was the tallest in the world from 1974 to
story high-me building with a height of 457 m (1500 ft}. As shown in 1998. Jt conmts of nine bundled tubes, w:h a 75 x 75 ft square with
Fig. 18.10, the column stre111e1 are rdalively uniform under both wind a>.lumm spaced at 15 ft on-oenter on eadi face. Figure 18.11 Jhows
load and gravity; auggestlng little ahear lag and con1lrmlng the concept a ache.matte view af column. furce distribution within Che structure.
of braced tube. The total muctural steel quantity is 29.7 lb pe.r squue ahowing the partldpation af interior columns and elimination of the
foot of floor area. whidi roughly c;oryesponda to that of a traditional shear lag effect.
/
WI ND
TuB:SINTuBI&
The tube-in-tube syrte.m, alto known as "hull and co.re' system, linb
Interior and mertor tubes through rigid floor diaphragms. Ge.11erally,
the majority of the gravity and lasnal loads are misted by the aterior
tube. and the interior tube house1 building :ierrieet and vertical t.ran.a-
portation.. IC the exterior tube 18 a frame atruc:ture, the mear deforma-
R911N 18.10 John Hancoc:k bullcllng perimetft braclllg ll:nlc:turc. tion ls restraiD.ed by the cantilever deformation of the generally more
584 CHAPTER EIGHTUN
rigid diear wall (Ol'e (Fig. 18.13), reducing overall building deflection
and intel"ltDry drifbr.
+ 18.7.4 OU11f...,S~temt
'
- -' Moment wldl. outri.a:sen
''
! ! t
AtuN 1L15 Interaction of~ and outrlggen.
TALL BUILDING$ 5f5
8.SSMETERS
• •
•
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w 00
Figure 18.1' Olltriggel' o;onfigllrat!on for (11) Jin Mao Tower ancl (b) Nanjing Zifeng TO'lft!r.
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-- ---- ---- --
Embt!ddod plate d!!tall EncaJH!d !Qi> and bottom !lo dota!!a Enca80d tru&&
(a) (b) (c)
F1gln 18.19 ScllemesfurOODDeetlon <If md. outrlgga:UUUtoc:onaete o;ore. NalljlllgZlfengTowe1"11ses (c}, and Hymidai-Hypemn Tower
1111e.t(b).
TALL BUILDING$ 517
-- - - Co*l.llM l lhQiot
_ _,.-----i
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~--- THICKENED
DIAPHRAGM SLAB
,____ _ _ _ REINFORCBD-CONCRBTE
BELT WAIL
SN CHAPTER EIGHTUN
PBRIMEI'BR COLUMNS
~-1--~ 0UTRIGGHR
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(b)
(a)
1Ag11r111.2f (o) Coiutni«!OD photo of Poly lllternatloml Plau. Beljlllg. and (b) dlagrid aDalpm and typl'81 floor: plan.
HO CHAPTER EIGHTUN
(a) (b)
F1gure 18.27 (a) Typical~ node detail and (b) labola1ory teat of typ!al dlaglid node.
the tawer minimize dynamic effecb of the wind on the tower. The
superframe girden alto serve to dJaaJpate energy in a ff.!r.mlc event
through frame action. and Che perimeter ruucture is also C0.11o.ected to ? \
a reinforced-co.ncrete tloor through thick slabs acting u virtual outrig-
gen on the supcrframe prder floors.
The Tianjln Goldin Finance 117 Tower (Fig. 18.30) is a 117-story,
597-m (1959 ft) towu located in Tl.anJID, ChJna which utilizes a braced
superframe structurd syftelll u well u a reinforced-concme core .imt-
lar to the Guizhou Culture Plaza Tower.
Compared to the Gutt.hou Culture Plau. Thwer, the Finance 117
Tower utll1zes relnfo.rced-concrete megacolumn• and a braced perim- (a) (b)
eter mepframe structure. Belt tnules are alto used at inW'mediate
locatiom to enhance the torsional ltilrne11 of the tower and tnn1fer Ffgur.18.28 (.i} Soperhm.e ~ syrtem and (fl} art!~ Nperframe
gravity loadi.ag to the comer megacolumm. lltnldural ~ (Luo, Y., 2015).
TALL BUILDING$ 5'1
1U ANALYSIS PARAME11RSAND1UHNIQUES
Modeling tcdmique. md USllJllptiom Uffd by the ~ engineer
can ha.ve major impa.cU on the n:1ulb of the analysis modeh wbir.h c:an
aB'ect:
• The structural properties provided to the wind twmel for deter-
mlnlnB atructural wind loads and «ecderadom and the subfequent
results
• The calculated seismic loads as a function of the bull.din.g's modal
rc;pon•e
• The dlatrlbll1lon of gravity ud lateral loads throughout the struc-
tural aymm
The assumptioD.t on the appropriate bull.ding mau to be co1t1idered
for determlningthe muctural wind loads and wod.ated bull.ding accel-
eradons Ct&I1 play a &lgnificant role In the mulls provided by the wind
tunnel Similarly, the building mu. ueecl for ammic analysis will have
an impact on the associated 1einni.c effecbl.
A number of modeling com!derat!one and uaumpti.om will be dJs..
CWl8ed below.
be distributed based on stiffness. The columns would be designed from equilibrium is reached on the deflected shape and provide the cor-
this model. The floor slabs could be potentially designed from this responding member forces and moments generated as a result. This
model as well, or the additional shear and moments from the lateral is in most cases an option that must be activated and defined in the
loads could be added to the gravity effects calculated in the slabs from a program.
separate analysis and design program. • The second option is to use approximate methods outlined in
• Model 3: Serviceability model with similar assumptions to Model 2. codes such as AISC and ACI which apply magnifiers to results from a
This model may be used to provide modal information to the wind tun- first-order analysis.
nel for determining structural wind loads and expected accelerations. In either option, it is important that the load factors applied to the
This could also be used for checking building deflections under wind gravity loads are consistent with those required in combination with
loads. A potential issue with using Model 1 for these purposes might the applied lateral loads causing the displacements in the first place.
be excessive torsional response depending on the core wall layout and Refer to appropriate load combinations in the applicable codes for the
location. project.
The important point is that the structural engineer takes care to The interstory drifts and associated overall building displacements
ensure that the lateral loads are properly accounted for and considers discussed earlier in this chapter will drive the magnitude of P-Delta
how the modeling assumptions affect the flow of these loads and the effects. The more flexible a tall building is, the more impacted it will be.
potential effects on elements that were not considered part of the pri- While this may vary somewhat between engineering firms, common
mary wind-resisting system. practice for using P-Delta is generally as follows:
• P-Delta ·on• for evaluating building periods
18.8.2 Bulldlng Mllu Con11der.ilon1 • P-Delta •off~ for evaluating service-level wind drifts
The wind loads and accelerations determined by the wind tunnel can • P-Delta ·on• for evaluating seismic drifts
be very sensitive to the modal information provided by the structural • P-Delta •on• for evaluating strength and stability effects
engineer. In general, a longer building period results in larger wind It should be noted that wind and seismic loads will generally produce
effects, while the opposite is generally true ifthat period is shorter. Simi- most P-Delta effects, but it is possible for buildings to lean under their
larly, seismic loads calculated by either simplified static approaches or own weight, depending on geometry and structural stiffness, which can
more rigorous methods such as response spectrum analysis are directly create additional P-Delta effects to be considered.
proportional to the seismic mass. Therefore, proper accounting of the
expected mass of the building is very important. 18.8.4 sr.ctlve Stlffneu for Reinforced-Concrete
Self-weight of the structural elements of the building must be consid- Elements
ered and are generally determined automatically bythe structural analy- Reinforced-concrete structures are prone to cracking which will lead to
sis software and can be known with a fair degree of certainty. A caveat reductions in the stiffness of the cracked elements. Accounting for this
to this would be cases where some structural members are left out of potential loss of stiffness is very important for tall buildings utilizing
the model for load path simplification, requiring separate accounting reinforced-concrete lateral systems for evaluating both serviceability
for their mass and distribution. The amount of expected SDL from floor effects and load effects.
finishes, partitions, ceilings, building services, and ~ades as well as the • Serviceability: overall building displacements, interstory drifts, and
LL are less certain. Generally, the values ofSDL and LL used for strength accelerations can all be affected by stiffness reductions in the elements
design are conservative, especially when considered over all floors of a comprising the lateral system.
tall building and for the duration of a design-level wind event. • Strength: distribution of loads throughout the lateral system and
Engineering judgment along with an understanding of the expecta- P-Delta effects can be impacted by stiffness reductions in the elements
tions of the architect on levels of finishes etc. is needed to determine a comprising the lateral system.
reasonable percentage of the design SDL to consider for modal analysis These stiffness reductions can be considered in three different ways
results provided to the wind tunnel or used for seismic considerations. with varying degrees of accuracy, effort, and/or required software capa-
This can vary depending on the building usage and the specifics of the bilities which will be explored in more depth in the following subsections.
finishes, but it is not uncommon to use 50 to 75 percent of the design
IMPLICIT APPllOACH #1-SIMPLIFIED METHOD
SDL for wind load. A similar range may be appropriate for seismic
analysis, but the sensitivity of the particular building to associated The simplified method is the most common approach that has been used
period changes and seismic effects should be studied. for years due to its ease of application in the analysis. Stiffness reduc-
The LL measured in actual buildings has been found to be substan- tion factors are applied to the member properties of the lateral system
tially below the code-prescribed design LL. For modal analysis, the based on the element type (columns, beams, walls, etc.) and are used
percentage of design LL used is typically low for office and residential throughout the structure.
floors, especially if the partitions have been accounted for in the SDL. ACI 318 has for many editions contained recommended stiffness
Common ranges are 0 to 25 percent for wind considerations. Many reduction factors, which are now contained in the section on evaluat-
codes have specific requirements regarding LL contribution to seismic ing second-order effects. Others have been proposed as well in tech-
weight that must be followed. An exception would be the LL on dedi- nical papers and other ACI documents. Table 18.1 taken from ACI
cated mechanical floors where 80 to 100 percent of the LL or the actual Committee 375 document SP-240 provides a comprehensive set of
equipment weights should be assumed for wind and seismic evaluation. service level and strength level stiffness reduction factor recommenda-
tions. Note that the majority of the reductions are related to bending
18.8.3 P..Delhl Effects of the elements with a few area reductions for axial or shear-controlled
As tall buildings displace laterally under applied loads, the gravity loads elements.
act at an eccentricity to the undisplaced shape, creating secondary The simplified method will generally lead to a safe, conservative
member forces and moments throughout the structure which in turn design but inherently also leads to design inefficiencies due to the blan-
lead to more displacement and load effects until equilibrium is reached. ket assumptions on all elements.
These are known as P-Delta effects. It is very important for these to be
considered in the design of the tall building's structural members to IMPLICIT APPllOACH #2-lTERATIVE METHOD
ensure adequate strength and stability. While the simplified method applies the same reduction factor to all
P-Delta effects can be evaluated in two primary ways: elements of the same type in the structure, the iteratiV£ method looks at
• The first option is to use the built-in P-Delta capability of most elements of the same type separately to determine the level of cracking
commercially available finite-element programs which can iterate until under various load levels. For example, it is unlikely that all walls in
TALL BUILDINGS 593
a building will be cracked to the same extent give varying load levels, account for axial compression. If a column is under a net tensile load,
sizes, reinforcement ratios, etc. Different stiffness reduction factors the cracking stress should follow the limits noted below under the walls.
would then be applied based on the expected cracking under the applied
loads. Walls: Many structural systems rely heavily on concrete walls to provide
The effective stiffness of various structural elements can be calcu- a substantial portion of the lateral load resistance. Depending on the
lated using well-documented approaches. These are briefly described configuration of the walls, they may be more prone to flexural behavior
below. like web walls connecting flanges in a c:ore wall system or may function
primarily as compression-tension elements like the flange walls in a
Beams and Slabs: Effective flexural stiffness can be calculated uaing the core wall system. In either case the approach for columns may be used
method outlined in ACI 318 baaed upon the applied moment and here as well. Rahimian (2011) provides a good discussion of effective
the cracking moment ofthe section under consideration. In caaes where stiffness for concrete walls and shows several ways of evaluating reduc-
the slabs engage the columns to provide flexural resistance to lateral tion factors with varying degrees of accuracy and effort. The stress
loads, care must be taken to define the appropriate effective slab width at which walls will crack should be taken as lower than the common
per ACI if an appropriately small finite-element meshing of the slabs is 7.5.J(J:) from ACI, which is intended for primarily flexural elements. It
not undertaken in the analysis model. is common for tension in walls to be more uniform than in beams and
Columns: Effective flexural stiffness can be calculated in a manner simi- slabs, leading to cracking at a lower stress level. Orackal and Wallace
lar to beams and slabs with a modification to the cracking moment to (2006) recommended a value of 6../(Jj based upon experimental work.
SM CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
This limit should be considered also for columns that experience sig- Diaphragms can be considered in three different ways for modeling:
nificant tension. • Flexible-loads are distributed only based on tributary area.
All the name implies, the iterative method is not a one-step process. • Rigid-rigid body motion of the overall diaphragm is assumed,
Typically, the analysis starts by assuming that all members to have full leading to load distribution based on stiffness of the elements compos-
stiffness. After the initial analysis run, all members of the lateral sys- ing the overall lateral system.
tem are checked to determine if cracking has occurred. For those that • Semi-rigid-the actual in-plane stiffness of the diaphragm is
have, reduction factors are determined per the above discussion and considered which will lead to the loads being distributed based on a
applied. The analysis is run again, and another check is performed to combination of tributary area and on the stiffness of the elements com-
look for cracking in additional elements, which is common due to load prising the overall lateral system. This relationship will vary based on
redistribution after the initial reduction factors are applied. Appro- the particular diaphragm properties.
priate reduction factors are applied, and the analysis is run a third In practice, flexible diaphragms are not applicable to most tall build-
time. This process continues until no further cracking is observed. ings, as solid concrete or concrete on metal deck is typically used for
This process is performed for both service-level loads and ultimate/ floor systems.
strength-level loads. Rigid diaphragms are the most common and generally applicable for
The iterative process is obviously a very time-consuming effort which most tall buildings, with a few exceptions which will be noted below.
is why the simplified method is often used. These allow for reduced computational time and ease of modeling.
Regardless of which implicit method is used, it is recommended that Semi-rigid diaphragms are necessary for unusual floor plate shapes
a service-level wind load analysis be carried out first with all members which require a more complex load path for the loads in the diaphragm
uncracked. Generally, it is preferable to have the lateral system essen- to be directed to the corresponding vertical elements which will then
tially uncracked at service-level loads to more easily achieve serviceabil- carry them down through the building. Some examples are diaphragms
ity criteria related to drifts and accelerations. This becomes particularly with large openings, diaphragms with reentrant comers, and diaphragms
important for very tall and/or slender buildings. If cracking is found, it with large ratios between the orthogonal dimensions. Semi-rigid dia-
is prudent to use an iterative approach to look more closely at the ele- phragms are also required when changes in lateral system stiffness occur
ments that are cracking and the extent within the overall lateral system. requiring the diaphragm to transfer loads through it to other vertical
Upsizing of some elements or rearrangement of the lateral system may lateral load-resisting elements. Common examples of this would be
be required or preferable to achieve better behavior. reduction in the core wall system footprint as elevators drop off over
When considering strength-level design, often there is not a huge the height of a building and ground level slabs where large portions of
consequence to the design efficiency in using the simplified method in the lateral loads move from the above-grade lateral system out to the
lieu of the iterative method. At this design level, deflections and drifts perimeter basement walls.
are not usually a critical consideration like they are for serviceability cri- Special considerations are warranted when analyzing the loads being
teria. The simplified method will tend to produce larger building move- resisted by elements such as outrigger trusses/walls, belt trusses/walls,
ments, leading to additional P-Delta amplification. Unless the structure and perimeter bracing systems. The floor diaphragms will have a ten-
is sensitive to P-Delta effects, the penalty to the design efficiency is often dency to attract axial loads that would otherwise be assumed to be car-
minimal and may be justified for the ease of analysis. The structural ried by these elements as a result of the high in-plane stiffness of most
engineer should study the P-Delta sensitivity of the structure before floor slab systems. If unaccounted for, the top chord of trusses, hori-
deciding on the approach to be used. Stability factors are discussed in zontal ties, and outer zones of outrigger/belt walls could be designed
ACI and elsewhere which consider the first-order and second-order for unrealistically small loads, leading to a load transfer problem to the
movements and can be used to classify this sensitivity. remaining elements of these systems. Rigid diaphragms should never
be used at these floors and generally not for a few floors above and
EXPLICIT APPROACH below these systems. If semi-rigid diaphragms are used, the in-plane
The explicit method makes use of the considerable processing power stiffness properties should be modified to very low values. Some sensi-
available now to structural engineers and requires analysis software tivity studies using values on the order of 0.001 to 0.10 of full stiffness
capable of doing material nonlinear analysis. Rather than doing the should be conducted to determine a value that does not lead to overall
cumbersome, time-consuming iterative approach described in the pre- analysis run errors while reducing the axial loads in the diaphragms to
vious section, explicit method essentially automates that process. very small values.
The stress-strain relationship of the concrete as well as that of the When providing mass distribution and modal information to wind
reinforcing steel is needed as an input A preliminary strength design tunnels for their modeling, many analysis programs will require rigid
is often needed so that the reasonable reinforcing ratios can be defined diaphragms at every floor in order to report the required floor informa-
for each element. The setup for this method can be somewhat time tion, such as mass moments of inertia, centers of mass, etc. A separate
consuming, but the analysis is done very quickly. model would be used for this purpose.
The explicit method can quickly and accurately predict the degree
and extent of cracking throughout the lateral system and provide
18.8.6 Foundation Assumptions
very useful information on the expected movements of the building.
Care needs to be taken so that the structural members have not been Tull buildings can generally be thought of as large cantilevers, and the
stressed beyond their yield capacities since the concrete stress-strain stiffness of the supports for these cantilevers can have a significant effect
relationship in that case would need to consider cyclic behavior strength on the overall deflections and load distributions throughout the system.
degradation. This would commonly be associated with high seismic Considerations for the foundation flexibility and, in many cases, the
events. Refer to further discussion in Section 18.10 on performance-based stiffness and friction of the soil against the basement walls should be
seismic design. accounted for by the structural engineer.
All noted above, the implicit simplified method is currently still the Input by the project's geotechnical engineer will be required to
most used approach, especially in wind-controlled regions. As taller and estimate equivalent spring stiffness valuea that are appropriate for the
more slender buildings become more common, the explicit approach foundation type being used based on soil conditions and foundation
may become more common. properties (material, length, etc.). They should also provide valuea for
use in modeling the effects of the material behind the basement walls
18.8.5 Floor Di.phragm Considerations in dissipating the lateral loads on the tower above grade. Note it is com-
As with all building types, the floor diaphragms play a crucial role in mon in projects with a few levels of basements for a great deal of the
moving the loads at each floor level due to wind and seismic events to overall building shear and overturning moments to be taken out via the
the vertical elements of the lateral load-resisting system. basement walls prior to reaching the foundation level.
TALL BUILDING$ 5'5
\Vind
\Vind
'Wind
The atrw:tural engineer will need to provide the wind tunnel with
.Information on the building's modal behavion for at least the ftnt
three primary modes and often betwun 6 md 10 modes. Very tall or
dender buildinp may require even more. The modal information wiD
include the building mass at eac:h floor, the diruibution of that mus Tia
the maaa moment of Inertia, and the modal dl.tplacemems of a point
in the building that can be .reported c:an&istently aver the hdght An
ummed damping value wiD alto need to be provided to the wind twmd.
Thi.I value wiD likely be ju.t the inhenmt damping initially and then
potentially augmented with aupplemental damping valuea dCICl'ibed
above depending on die building'• performance. After the physical
wind tunnel tut has been run. the modal info.nnation and damping
Rg11re 18.D Vuc:ou.a dampen on 181 Pruiont in San Pranciaco.
va1ue(a) will be u.sed by the wind Immel to post-proce:a the mults to
determine appropriate wind load.I for the structural engineer to we in
Damping am generally be increued by an additional 3 to 6 percent die design and to estimate the acceleration rapon1e of the bufldillg for
with vllcOUI damping ayttems. occupant comfort.
Bady on in the de1ig:n. the building ahaping strategies described
11.9..S WDrklngwldlWlndTunnm earlier can be quicldy telled by the wind tunnels to gauge the potential
Tall buildinp a.re ruely designed to cod.e-akulated wind load. for a .recluctiom in wind load and acceleration rapo111es. Thll can be a great
variety of .reuona. In many cuea the loa.da co.ming from the cod.ea a.re aid to the arcllltects and structural engi.neen u they work to 6naliu the
c:ontervativc in nature, .. the approach .Is amplified to mm it Wlable for building lbape and layout
a wide variety of building typea while aiming to ensure that wind load. Aa the dealgn proceeda, it ii not WWIUal for there to be 1everal
are not undae.ttimated. Some other ilme1 which complicate the use of lteratJom where updated structural propertie1 are provided to die wind
code wind.I are unusual building geometrie1, llencler buflclinp prone tmmd. who then recalc:ulatea wind load.I and ac«leration1. Assuming
to dynamic ampliflcation dkcu, and the lnfluence1 of current or p.ro- the building lhape has not changed, thiJ can be done without another
p01ed nearby buildlnp on the wind loadl. At a result, wind tunnela arc phyllal wind tunnel tl!$t and is a quick and economical way to optimize
often engaged by the structural engineer fm building. around 30 storiea die buflding structure. If changes to the buflding lhape md/or height
or greater. In 1ome inltances, lhorter buildJngs may warrant thls as well. occur during the design prograe. a new wind tunnel ten will likely be
The Wle of wind tunnels to determine appropriate wind loads could also .reqm-i
be comldered u a eort of perfurmance-bued deslF measure. 11.t.4 Mcldon IWapdblllty
A 1caled model of the uea around the propa1ed building. which will
be a function ofhow tall the building ii u well u how much variation in Aa noted in Sec. 18.4. occupant comfort rdmd to motion perceptibly
ternin type• occur1 upwind, will be aeated for the wind tunnel tating. ii a by driver in tall building de1ign. Aue11ing the opecte4 building
A IClled modd of the buflding'a p:ometry will al.lo be generated bued ac«leratiolui h one of the primary piece.I of information coming out of
on informmon provided by the pzoject ~et Figure 18.36 is an die wind tunnel tat.
example of a wind tunnel model Acceptance criteria for acceleration1 lw been eatabll8hed by a
Buie deaign wind apeeda are often ltated in building codes. ~ number of organiza.tiom and code bod.le., with the International
the wind tunnel consultant will use wind meuurements from nearby Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the Architectural lnllituk
airp~ and other meteorological stations to detmnine an appropriate of Japan (AIJ) belng two of the more commonly .referenced. Generally,
wind climate for the project site which wiD tii.cmr in, among other things. 1t .Is recogniud that cliffi:rent occupant u.sage1 have cliffi:rent levcla of
frequency, dJrectionality, and wind apeedt. Depending on the aV1ilable ac«leration perception and aubtequent tolerance li.miu. For example.
data u wdJ. u the types of eventa producing the winds (hurricanes, .reaidential :tloora demand more stringent criteria than office tloon due
thund.errtonm, etc.), additional methoda may be applied in piecing to the amount of time occupants will .llbly epend in their reaidencet
together the wind climate analysiJ. More on wind climate analysiJ can and the types of actlvltiCI ln which they are iDvoM:d (e.g., lying down,
be fowid in other aource& loung;.ng. etc. '"· sitting at a delk). The ac<;eptance criteria are baaed
TALL BUILDING$ 5'9
upon llci.entmc; midie• ancl aim to limit accderanons to a thmholcl kvel serioua permanent atruc:tural deformations and reduced capacflie. that
which does not bother the majority of potential builcling ocxupanu. make them un111able or have IWltained ligniticant damage to builcling
In general, moo people will tolerate clltcomfurt felt infrequently or serricet and nonltruc:tural content which would require a huge amount
fur thort periods of time but not u routine occur.re.ac::e. For a.ample, of money and time to repair them.
a larger accelmdon will be tolmted If thl8 happen• ruely. Common Another issue with moat prescriptive seismic code approac'hes is their
practice hu been to focua on occupant comfort U11e1SID.ents occur- explicit limiu on heights to whiclt putic:ular muctural aymms can
ring on the 10-year recurrence !nten11. However, me.rt lsauea have be employed. This prevenb the majority of tall building system.I from
come from movements which are aperlenced more frequendy than being used ill high aelamlc zones.
the 10-year return period. As a retUlt, a more re<:ent trencl hu 8eU Performance-based design (PBD) for ae.lsmlc has been around for
the enlualion of these motions at a 1-year m:um period to account many yean and i8 now standard practice in many high 1eiunic regions
for the fact that longer mum periods do not appropriately address the for buildings of all 1hapu and 1i2e1. h initially started a.s a way to
potential discomfort related to regularly ocaurlng wind events. The addrae the above-mentioned code llmlts on heights fur atruc:tural ayt-
IS010137 guideline glveis frequency-dependent maximum acceleration tems. In .recent years. more emphasis has been put on meeting enhanced
limits fur the I-year mmn period for both office and residential uu1. performance goa!J beyoncl juat collapse premition, so that builcl-
Refer to Fig. 18.37 for the IS010137 chart. inp remain usable or can easily be repainid ~ a large earthquake.
AJ buildin.g1 stretch. to new heights and become J.nc.reuingly ale.nder, PBD a a tool that allows these enhanced goalt to be evaluated and
the c:ril.lad wind velocity that am inJl.late a dynamic: mpo~ In the lmpleme.ated.
building oa;uri more frequently. This critital velocity is deten:ninecl General PBD approach requirements and methodologies are defined
through a llimple rela.tiomhip between the na.tmal. frequency on the in codes lib ASCE 7 u well u puhlicalion.1 from FEMA, the National
building, the breadth of the building. and a nondlmemional quantity Earthquake Ha2:ardt Reduc:Uon Program (NBHRP). and the Applied
known as the StroUhal. number, which is e.entially an architectural Technology Council (ATC). A tpeCiflc document related to ~ build-
shape &ctor. For tall •lender builclinp. thi8 mtical velocity can often ing• wu first releued in 2010 titled "'fall Building hlltla1ive-Guidelinea
occur within a monthly or biyearly recurrence in:terV1l1. For these for Performance-Baaed Design ofTaD Buildingi' developed by the Pacific
llhorter retum. periods, the peak ae«le.rations ahould be kept beneath Earthquake Engineering Reaearcb. Center (PEER).
the tlueahold ofperc:eption. which Is typically thouglit to be of the o.rder At its core, PBD Involves evaluation of structural. behavior of a build-
of 5 mllli-g. ing with l.U materiala potentially pushed beyond. their elutic: l1mita
A comprehensive look at motion pen:eptibility can be found in the (material nonlinearity} while undergoing large member deformations
paper written by M. D. Burton et aL (2015). (geometric no.nlinearity). Several commercial software packages which
allow theae nonlinearltla to be modeled and an.alyzed are anllahle.
18.10 PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN FOR SEISMIC
Groundmotionsfromrecordedearthquakeeve.atsorfrom.syntheslzed
evcnta m scaled to the ~ ~ accelerations in the project ma
While bll buildlngs are generally governed by wind loads, there are a and used in the analyals. The required duration of the ground motion
.number of reglom around the world where slgnJ&ant 'elsmlc potential I& a multiple of the building's fundamental. period, so the length of the
mm and can approach or m:eed the wind demand. record in the analysis get longer u the building geu taller. The nonlinear
The primary goal of all seimlic de.Ugn codc:a ii to en.1ure that behav- analysia ii then run in time m:ps which are a fn.ction of the total recmd
ior of buildinp under the muimum credible earthquake will be tatit- length, often involving hundreds to thomandl of an.alym stept.
:factory for life 8afety conalderationa, whJch generally means preventing Locations where the atructurel have gone beyond the elutic: range
collapae. However, these buildings are often left In a condition with and potentially completely plastic are genenlly refe.rred to u "hlngeis:'
___... 23.2
-- ~~ ~ ~~ 15.5
- -
l,....-
:...---
_..., l---" ~
_...- ~
_...,
--
ISO Office
.....
~
......-
-o-
~
-o- ISOResi
10
Period (s)
A pat deal of seimW: energy iJ ~in forming theae hinge.. but <:olwnn in which it iJ ~ded. By taking advantage of the smaller
they rc:preaent locatiom where the structure can tab no additional load accelen.tiom, the seiJmic demands on the building can be reduced from
and will conlinue to deform at thatloadlevel Where thae hmgea form is the beghuililg. allowing fur a more economical. and realistic design. SSI
Important and needs to be cardWly controlled by the structural engineer. .Involve• collaboratlon between the ruuctu.ral. engineer and the geo-
Beyond allowing hinges to form in convmtional ruuc:tural members. technlcd engineer to properly ac:count for the IOU properties and the
a. number of other approaches exin to limit seismic forces or to concen- seismic w:m:1 puaing through them. The analym is more intense, time
trate struc:tural damage to «rWn areas: consuming, and specialized; hence, ib current application ls limited.
• Base Isolatlon-the entire building is supported on isolating pads In summary; PBD am be uaed to ensure lire safety fur beyond-code
or beulnp which CtW1e the fundamen1al periods to inc:reue to the structural ~ u well as looking lit enhanced performance objec-
point that the 1eismic demands on the building are much smaller. Very tm:s for increased res:iliency, leading to le11 d.image and downtime,
large overall buildings motions retu!t. which require special detalllng that is, less potential ecru to owners and tenanb In the event of a major
around the perimeter where the building meets the ground u well u earthquake.
spedal connections for the \11illties coming In ud out of the building.
Bau ilolalion ii not very common for ull buildings. 18.11 CREEP ANI> SHRINKAGE
• VucoUI Dampen-as noted. under the section titled "lna:eued
Damping!' these element& act u ahoc:k. absorbers. They can lncreue the As previously discussed, nructural reinfim:ecl concrete undergoe.t long-
overall dmlping md reduce the viole.at •b.aking of the structure to some wm defurmatlon under summed load (creep) and as & natural reflllt
extent. leading to a. rcduaion in the 1eimllc forces and displacements of moinure evaporation (shrinkage). ThiJ tendency must be accounted
of the building. for in tall building design, upecially for composite structmu when1
• Bucldlng-Rutrained Bnc:e1 (BRB)-the.te elemeab are designed to a central core (generally concrete) ii linked to a perimeter atructure
perform well in both tension and compre.ion with a known strength (uaually steel), refllltlng in long-term dl.ffi:.re.lltlal settleme.at betmen
limit Thi• allowi them to be m.ecl wch that they will yield prior to dam- the a.tenor and interior of the structure. ThiJ difi'emitial movement
age of the surrounding 1tructme. Theoretically, they can be replaced can both induce 1ignificant ltrels in the muc:tural element& that tie the
after a major selamic event core and perimeter together and hrtroduce eerviceabllity i&tue.t such aa
• "Fuaei'-these dements are considered saai&.lal components unlevel tloors or unwanted cracking if not properly con&!derecl in the
lized .uch that they yield prior to the 8W'1'0Ullding muctural elementl analysis and de1lgn process.
reaching their capacities. Damage is concentwed in the.11e elemema, and Typical muctural analysis 1oft:ware will allow for nonlinear ltagl:d
they are detalled with the Intent of being removed and replaced. Fuies construction analysia, in which a predicted construction sequence
am take many funm which are incorporated In both moment frame u well u the time-dependent properties of concrete are lncorponted
and btulng system•. BU. deKribed ~ are a specific e:wnple of in the analysl• model The recommended numerical model for long-
a.fwe. term beh.avior of reinforced. concrete ii the Gardner-Lochman method
Soil structure interaction (SSI) h another form of PBD that is not (ACI 209.ZR-10). Refer to Fig. 18.38.
commonly uaed but Is a potentially powerful approach to reduce the Depe.nding on the .nature of the co.n.nection between core a.nd perlm-
seilmic low that the strudure it expected tom~. Seismic dte accelen- ew-. d!Hcrent methods are awJ!able fur molvlng the l.sNe ofdlffi:rential
tiom med for sailing the ground motions applied in the PBD analym settlement. A populu ltl'a.tllgy for mitigaling exceu:ive ltrell in outrig-
modeb are U1Ually takai at ground level a.nd are generally hlghert there. ger 1rU1te1, u dbcutted in Sec. 7.4, is delaying the full connection of the
However, most tall bulldingt are rupported on foundation. often attttng core to the perimeter structure until the full tower atrw:ture is complete.
below KVml floors ofbueme.at. The «celeratlom at the1e depthl can Overlengtha are also typically provided to address elutic shorteniDg
be substantially mialler than the ground level Talues depending upon of steel elements su.dt that floors arc level after the total building dead
the soil profile. In reality. the overall building moves along with the IOil. load is applied.
1500 1500
6 fem only CV = 32% 6fem only CV= 25%
• All data CV = 25% •All data CV= 19%
1250 1250
-.z
t
x
1000 .-....
6 tf't>.
-
t
x
1000
s:
750
6 J 750
J
llS
J
Cll
6
:;
i
0
500
0
~
500
250 250
CEBMC9G-99 CIL2000
250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Measured e,.h x 1cre Measured~ x 1cre
(a) (b)
Ffgure 18.38 Compartton of(.i) CEB-l'IP 90 and (b) GI.2000 methodt (AC! 209.2R-10}.
TALL BUILDINGS 601
Garai,R.,Sarkisian,M.,Mathias,N. J., Krebs,A2015. ·Three-Dimensional Guiyang:' In Asia 0- Australasia: A Selection of Written Works on the
.Exterior Bracing Systems for Tall Buildings:' In Proceedings of CTBUH Worlds Tall Building Forefront, 12-23. Seoul: CTBUH.
2015 New York Conference, 555-560. New York: CTBUH. Luong, A, Gibbons, C., Lee, A, MacArthur, J. 2004. "Two International
Goonan W., Ho, M. 2016. •The Evolution of Outrigger Systems in Tall Finance Center:' In Proceedinp ofCTBUH Conference, Seoul: CTBUH.
Buildings:' InteTnationalJournal of High-Rise Buildinp 5, no. 1: 21-30. McAllister, T., Sadek, F. Gross, J. L., Averill, J. D., Gann, R. G. Jui. 2013.
Hall.ebrand, E., Jakobsson, W. 2016. ·structural Design of High-Rise "Overview of the Structural Design of World Trade Center 1, 2, and
Buildings" (Master's The.!is). 7 Buildings; Fire Technology 49, Issue 3: 587-613.
Hoogendoorn, P. P. 2009. •r.ateral Load De.!ign of Tall Buildings: MIT, ed. 1998. Andrew Scott, Dimensions of Sustainability. London:
Evaluation and comparison of four tall buildings in Madrid, Spain" E & FN Spon; New York: Routledge, 109-114.
(Master's Thesis). Orakcal, K., Wallace, J. W. Mar.-Apr. 2006. -Plexural Modeling of
Iyengar, S. H., Khan, F. R. •structural Steel Demgn for Sears Tower.• Reinforced Concrete Walls-Experimental Verification," ACI Structural
Proceedings of 1973 Australian Conference on Steel Developments, Journal 103, no. 2: 196-206.
Newcastle: Australian Institute of Steel Construction. Partovi, A., Svard, J. •Global Analysis of Tall Buildings with Tubed
Khan, F. R. Lyengar, S. H., Colaco, J. P. 1968. "Analysis and Design Mega Frame Structures" (Master's Thesis).
of the 100-Story John Hancock Center in Chicago (USA)." no. 6: Rahimian, A. Nov.-Dec. 2011. "Lateral Stiffness of Concrete Shear Walls
271-274. in Tall Buildings:' ACI Structural Journal 108, no. 6: 755-765.
Khan, Y. S. 2004. EngineeTing Archittldure: The Vision of Fazlur R. Rahimian, A., Eilon, Y. 2008. •Hearst Headquarters: Innovation and
Khan. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Heritage in Harmony:' In Proc-'inp ofCTBUH 2008 Sth World Congress,
Korista, D. S., Sarkisian, M. P., Abdelrazaq, A. K. 1995. "An Optimal Dubai: CTBUH.
Use of Concrete in High-Rise Concrete Building Design-Therm Mao Sarkisian, M., Mathias, N. J., Long, E., Mazeika, A., Gordon, J., Chakar,
Tower.• In Proceedings of Third National Concrete & Masonry Engineering J. 2006. ·rm Mao Tower's Influence on China's New Innovative Tall
Conference, 463-484. San Francisco: NCMEC. Buildings:' 2006 Shanghai International Seminar ofDesign and Construction
Lee, K., Ho, G.W. Lee, A., Y-m, C., Liu, G., Huang, X. Dec. 2012. •The Technologies ofSuper High-Rise Buildings. Shanghai: CTBUH.
Structural De.!ign ofTianjin Goldin Finance 117 Tower:' InteTnational Sev, A. 2009. •Typology for the Aesthetics and Top Design of Tall
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Performance and Iconicity: A 2lst Century Supertall Tower for Structure Magazine, 12-16.
Chapter 19
Thin-Shell Concrete
Structures
BY
EDMOND SALIKLIS California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo
MUSTAFA MAHAMID University ofnlinois at Chicago
DAVID P. BILLINGTON Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering. Princeton University (Deceased)
JULIAN A. DUMITRESCU Consulting Structural Engineer, Raytheon Engineers and
Constructors (Retired)
19.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL OVERVIEW approaches to design and analysis ofthin structural shella that occurred
in the 20th century.
David Billington's writing on shells is import.ant from multiple perspectives.
The story of 20th-century shella could begin with a father and aon
It is a historical record of the significant contributions to shell analysis
team of designers in Spain and the United States: the Guastavinos.
and design from many academic: and practicing engineers. It lays the Rafael Guastavino Sr. received significant commissions even in the late
foundation for membrane theory, an equilibrium solution that simplifies 19th century to design and to build extremely thin masonry vaults.1 He
a complex 3D problem into a tractable format It is also, in part, a tribute used the tile vaulting tradition of laying thin bricks flat on top of each
to Professor David Billington, who has inspired countless engineers other to form convex, 3D shella. The shella he and his son constructed
over the past 60 years and who began his career at Princeton working are relatively thinner than a chicken's eggshell, and they have withstood
on concrete shells. the test of time and heavy use in more than 600 existing buildings, pri-
Yet, if this chapter were solely a historical look backwards, it would marily on the East Coast of the United States. Stresses and thrusts were
belong in an archive and not in a contemporary structural engineer- not very large in these vaults, and their blending of art and technology
ing handbook. Today, design and analysis are merging in the hands of is virtually unparalleled in the history of structures. Few predictive tools
talented engineers in a way that Felix Candela and other leading shell were used; rather, expert construction workers deftly followed 3D lines
builders intuitively mastered. The difference today is that remarkably in space to construct magnificent thin vaults. This section closes with
sophisticated tools allow designers to create shella with complex geom- this very image.
etry while ensuring there is minimal bending under dead load. In fact A markedly different approach to thin-shell analysis and design
we may be at the dawn of a new era of interdisciplinary design, an era began roughly contemporaneously with the Guastavinos. In the 1920s
where the engineer and the architect seamlessly transfer ideas and tech- and 1930s giants of structural engineering in Germany such as Franz
nical information via modeling software. Yet thin shella require a third Dischinger, Walther Baursfeld, and Ulrich Finsterwalder made enor-
mous technical strides in thin-shell design and construction through
expertise even at the preliminary stage. The construction of the shell
the use of membrane theory and differential equations.2 This German
must be carefully considered even during the initial design ideation
School of concrete shell design was important because it rapidly
between the engineer and the architect and the construction manager.
advanced the mathematical state of the a.rt of thin-shell analysis, yet it
The engineer who is well versed in construction practices and who is was limited by this very fact as well.2 The reliance on differential equa-
aesthetically sensitive and architecturally trained may take the lead in tions drastically limited the choice of structural forms to cylinders and
this new era of parametric design. This may be so because only the spherical sections. The Planetarium at Jena in 1926 was a landmark
engineer is profe$.Sionally trained to consider an ultrathin shell's sus- structure primarily because of its innovative shotcrete construction.
ceptibility to buckling. Stresses are extremely low in so-called funicular The 1933 Algeciras Market Hall by the Spaniard Eduardo Torroja was
shells, that is, ones with a minimal amount of bending. Yet safety against also important from a constructability point of view. It used prestress-
buckling becomes a major concern as the shella get thinner and thinner; ing to capture the horizontal flow of roof loads as they pass through
consequently, a large factor of safety against buckling must be ensured. a somewhat awkward transition to vertical columns. Torroja himself
This brief section will explore some of the exciting research currently had mastered the differential equations of thin shells, but he saw it was
taking place. But it begins with a summative overview of the various a limiting tooL and he abandoned them in favor of a simple graphic
604 CHAPTER NINETEEN
statics approach for some of his more complex structures. 3 A spectac- West coast American mid-20th-century architects were constantly
ular 1955 structure, only 8 cm thick with a 52-m span, was the Royan exploring innovative hyperbolic paraboloid roofs for homes, hotels,
Market Hall in France. With this structure, the architects Simon and and even gas stations. How fitting it would be if some of the passion
Morisseau with the engineer Rene Sarger showed the state of the art of surrounding mid-century modern design was channeled into scholarly
shell design in the mid-1950s. This remarkable shell can be considered studies of these thin-shell structures. The architecture of Paul Revere
one of the first •free-fonnft reinforced-concrete thin-shell structures, Williams or William Cody deserves to be analyzed from a mechan-
insofar as its general conception is guided by structural mechanics ics point of view. More attention should be given to the m.asterwork
principles, and geometrically it is a fanciful combination of parabolic sports stadia of this era as well. A shining example is the 1963 Assembly
and sine waves.4 Hall by Max Abramovitz with engineering by Ammann & Whitney.
Differential equations were similarly mastered, then abandoned by A decade later, the Seattle Kingdome was engineered by another IASS
one of the greatest structural artists, Felix Candela. Candela pioneered Torroja Medal winner, John V. MJack" Christiansen. Using a rotating,
the design and construction of hyperbolic paraboloid concrete shells, reusable formwork system, Christiansen created an extraordinary thin-
and his prolific output is a lasting testament to the blending of skills shell concrete structure, spanning over 200 m. Its demise provides a
of the architect, the engineer, and the builder. Candela's colleague, the profound context to the thorny question of preservation of landmark
Irish engineer Colin Faber, was keenly aware of the prescience of that works of structural significance.
moment in Candelas career. His excellent book on Candela details a Early 2lst-century researchers benefited from faster computers and
remarkable moment in the history of structures.5 improved graphic capabilities. This spurred on a large body of impor-
The prolific designer/builder Pier Luigi Nervi brought a new light tant work, notably by Kai-Uwe Bletzinger and Ekkehard Ramm.11 They
to the architectural possibilities of precast concrete. His extraordinary carry on the tradition of Frei Otto's Institute of Lightweight Structures
legacy is due in part to his ability to predict and economically construct in Stuttgart, Germany, wherein experimental hanging cloth or hanging
many large-scale and CEiting monolithic reinforced-concrete shells and chain models are replaced by shape optimization algorithms which can
gridshells. Nervi's own books on structures deeply influenced designers reproduce these physical experiments numerically and can modify the
around the world.6 warp and the weft stiffness properties of the medium being suspended.
Similarly, much thoughtful scholarship is rightly devoted to the Swiss This inspired a large body of work in optimization of shell forms based
engineer Heinz Isler. John Chilton has produced important studies of on computer-aided geometric design methods, finite-element analpes,
Isler's work to capture yet another zeitgeist in our profession, as Isler's and nonlinear programming techniques. Succinct and state-of-the-art
experimental form-finding approach was radically different than any summaries of this form-finding research can be found in a recent pub-
of his predecessors.7 This variety of analytical approaches progressed lication by Sigrid Adriaenssens et al.12
quickly through the first half of the 20th century: differential equations, Another German approach to form finding of shells and mem-
then graphical methods, then simplified methods, culminating with branes also originated in Stuttgart with the Force Density Method by
Isler's experimental methods. Hans-Joerg Schek. This technique originated in the 1970s and allowed
Another innovative development in the constructability of shells for the linearization of large deformation equilibrium equations
occurs with Italian Dante Bini. So-called Bini Domes, approximately and then solving iteratively for displacements which are beyond the
1000 of which have been built, use a large inflated membrane as the sole traditional small displacement assumption. 13 The landmark timber
formwork during construction. gridshell Multihalle in Mannheim, Germany, of 1974 was designed
The literature on the history of structures is nowhere near as vast using this technique.
as that of architectural history. Inevitably, its extant discussions of The Teshima ArtMuseum, an important shell designed by Rei Nishizawa
20th-century shells focus on the story briefly outlined above. Yet and the acclaimed engineer Mutsuro Sasaki, brings us fully into the
there are many other fascinating lines of inquiry in need of greater 21st century. This shell is not particularly thin, but it is important
study and wider dissemination. A telling example is the magnificent because of its magnificent blending of art, architecture, and technology.
work of Tange, Tsuboi, and Kawaguchi, a team that Peter Rice dubbed Furthermore, it sets the stage for the new era of shell design, namely, the
•The Japanese Engineer Gods.98 The architect Tange had a profound ability to computationally predict the behavior of reinforced-concrete
control of structural form, and he was willing to create structures shells that are neither simple geometrical shapes such as a sphere or
that very few engineers on the planet were capable of understand- cylinder nor the mid-century hyperbolic paraboloid nor the experimen-
ing fully at that time. Their Hiroshima Children's Library and their tally driven shapes ofTorroja or Isler.
many sports stadia are landmark structures worthy of deep study. The The early 21 st century is truly the dawn of the new age of geometry-
cable-suspended roof by Matthew Nowicki had a profound impact based design rules. Sustainability and efficiency of material usage is a
on engineers around the world. Its pure structural logic and remark- primary motivator for this new school of thought. A fascinating path of
able roof lightness inspired many designers. In the 1970s, many deep research was spurred by John Ochsendorf as he prepared his PhD
cable-suspended concrete roofs were created by daring architects and at Cambridge University with mentoring from the legendary Jacques
engineers in countries behind the Soviet Iron Curtain. Because of Heyman. Among Heyman's many significant insights to the world of
political isolation, almost no English language studies are currently structural mechanics are his formulations for the lower bound theorem
available for these works, and this deficiency must be corrected while of masonry structures. This theorem shows that if a thrust line, or equi-
a few of those designers are still alive today. One exception to this rule librium force trajectory, can be found for a given loading condition such
is Ulrich Muther, who created magnificent shell structures in East that the trajectory fits within the structure's cross section, a static solu-
Germany. His works are carefully archived and available to scholars.9 tion can be found. Ochsendorf's own PhD work laid the foundations for
Some non-European shell designers have received due attention. Ela- Thrust Network Analpis, a form-finding and analysis tool that incor-
dio Dieste of Uruguay, who created spectacular masonry shells, is one porates graphic statics into equilibrium solutions of 3D shell structures.
shining example.10 Raji Sundaram of India recently received the IASS Phillipe Block's PhD work at MIT developed and implemented Thrust
Torroja Medal for his prolific shell building. Network Analysis. In recent years, Block's research group at ETH-
German engineers again return to the story in the 1960s and 1970s. Zurich developed an important body of work in two-point-five- and 3D
Joerg Schlaich's mastery of structural design includes a vast hyperbolic graphic statics. Block's PhD student Masoud Akbarzedeh used the same
paraboloid in Hamburg and a glass-fiber concrete shell in Stuttgart. methods that are used in 2D graphic statics, namely a form diagram and
Professor Curt Siegel of Stuttgart University made a major contribution a force polygon, and he mapped it directly into a 3D form and a force
to the study of structures, including shells, with a book that looks at polyhedron. 1• While it is true that these works are highly theoretical,
structural form and forces from a purely qualitative point of view. His the exciting 2 lst-century development is that this theoretical work
pedagogical materials deserve much wider distribution, especially to has resulted in a number of experimental ultrathin compression-only
architecture students.4 shells actually being built. The stone Armadillo Vault for the 2016
THIN-SHEU. CONCREn $111UCTURE$ to5
An:hiteaure Bicnnale in Venice ill a muming showcue of the blendinf conltrllctability &om 81Hfght timber formwork u weD u archit«turd
of engineering. an:hiteci:un, and comtruction.IS drama. It often niquired an edge beam, and this edge beam collects
Thil rich llne ofscholarly inquiry hu led to important rediacoverlea of shear forca from the shell, acaimulating more and more load as the
Mu:wcll's Theorem u 'm1I. as the AJry Straa Function.. The 1864 paper edge beam travels to the loweft poilXt 011 the ahell. Figure 19.1 mows a
by IWikine. which condste<1 of four semences. wu at(d by Marwdl in typical h)iperbollc part&bolold ruhJected to selfmight. Principal messes
another paper. several sentences long. The profundn:y of these two para- and comequently principal f'orce flow an! shown in Fig. 19.1.i, the
graphi written by Rankine and by Maxwell continues to absorb todaya arrows clearly mawing the load t1owing into the support at a dinction
most brllllant structural englneer111g raeardiers and practitioners that i. parallel to the edge beam near the aupport but aomewhat more
around the wodd. from William Baker of Chlcqo"s Skidmore Owings turbulent near the peak of the structure. Figure 19.lb qualitatively
and Menill (SOM) to Cambridge Univen:ity, to Zurich's ETH, and to the •howi the uial. fon:es along the length of the e<lge beam. starting nearly
Univenlty of Pennsylwnla.16.17 The issue raised by Ranldne u well u at zero at the crown. with greatut. compreaion a1 the ba.se mpport.
Marwdl that u stiD. being studied by theff researclJ.e.n 150 years later Is A uaefuJ. tool that 18 now readily available in the commercial <e-
the mapp.lng of forms and force. vl& 2D ~to 3D repraaitt&tions. element program. SAP2000 is the abWty to capture the deformed geom-
bal:k and forth between fmm and force. For aample, an urangement etty of the~ u the starting point for a n(W, subsequent anafyiis.
of poinb in 2D equilibrium, ruch a.s a planar 1rwll subjected to external. Thill ii particularly helpful when de1igning, analy.zing, and con.attuct.ing
loacla, hu a paired. rec.lprocal. 3D polyhedron, the polyhedron be.Ing & thin shellt bee awe whJle the stra5ea are low, deformations under de.tign
map of the force. in the bus of the truss. This redproclty between furms loads may caun small, but dgnl1lcant geometry changes. Figure 19.2a
and fon:e. in 2D hu been wdl documentecl in n:umerou.s extdlent tat- shows loc:al buckl1ng. and Fig. 19.2b c:aptw:es large nonlin.ear defonna-
books from the end of the 19th century and in a recent book by Edward tiom with no buckling.
Allen.18 What18 lea bawn u the depth of the idea poatted by Rankine These defurm.atiom push the shell e,omewhat out of itt funicular
and Muwdl. The redprodty of form and fon:u in 3D hu led to uum- {bending free) shape. Comttuctlon errors causing anaD. perturbttio11S
illhing insights in R«Ilt publications, such as a direct mathematic:.al link &om the intended funiculu shtpe can also be included in a <e-
between the mapping of the reciprocal diagnma in 2D and 3D irpace element buckling analysis. New and potentially lup;er ddormation1 ma.y
with traditional maw .methoda of indetennlnate rtructuraJ. ana1y11b. •7 occur in the next structural. analyait iteration. Subsequent iterations
Another Insight has found that the 3D polyhedron I• completely analo- may also introduce .material nonllnearlties which may be engaged Jfthe
gous to the Airy Streat Function, a structural mechanics tool orlginally stnim become large enough. The modlflc:ation of the original flnlte-
in 2D. Today it i1 a 3D f'orm-nnding tool, with no bending in a 3D element meth to the defonned shape as the •ubae<tu.ent starting point
rtructure de$igned for c.ertaln loads through the mapping of the Alty is very easily aa:ompliahed with SAP2000 by simply Uling the Modify
Stress Functlon..19 AD of the.e top!« ue currently being studied and Undefurmed Geometry button under the ANALYZE tab.22 Figure 19.3a
dl.Nemin.ated by engineers around the world. Many of these algorithms mows a factor ofsdety against buckling for the original shdl geometry.
are incmpormd into plugim such a.s Rhino Vault and new computa- Figure. l 9.3b and l 9.3c show the new propem:ity to buckle based on the
tional envirorunenb such u COMPAS, which it freely dimibut(d by deformed, not the original shapes.
the Block.Research Group at ETH-Zurkh.10 Another newform-flnding Another adting &nd rich. development 1' cum.ntly taking place in
tool bued on 3D graphic mtlc. is the recently releued program the world of sheD analysl• and design. The plug-ins for the clr&wlng
PolyFrame, developed and dimibuted. by the Polyhedral Structum program Rhino now include Gr.uahopper, which an parametrically
Laboratory.21 form-find a funicular shape Ullng partlcle-tprillg .m.odellng, u well as
Tim brief aect!on e.nda with a qualitative descrlptJon of some latue. Karamba, which can perf'orm at.reu analy1lb and buckling analyab of
SlllTOUDding force flow in shells. The 1960t hyperbolic paraboloid was structures.23 Figure 19.411 show• the wont prindpd 8Uess flow gener-
not a funicular ~. which mean1 that a combination of tension ated by Karamba. Thill worst principal sinu perfectly aligm with the
and compm1ion and bending ma.y be presenl ItJI primary benefit wa.s flow of worst compreaaive forces in the lhdl. Clearly shown is the path
(a) Original Factor of Safety (b) Defonned shell F.S. =8.6 (c) Deformed plus nonlinear
(F.S.) =11.9 behavior, F.S. =5.3
Figure 19.J Flllal. CODfigllrattOD of ODe analy.tisuorlglnal. <lOmlguralion of rubseq\lent maly9:ls.
(a) Primary load flow (b) Secondary load flow (c) Superposition of primary
and secondary flows
Figure ltA Prim.uyandau:ondaryloadflowin 1heD.
the load tab1; mw:h u water would 11ow to a downtpout. so d.o the This m::til:m amclu.des by m:uming tD the beginning of 1he stmy,
compre.ulve fo.rcet flow to the supportl of the shell. Figure 19.4b shows namely; the GuartaY:tnos. Their muctures are conaidered u structural. art.
the second prindpal sttta tlow. ThlB second principal mess clearly They were e<:onam!.ally and quickly built, and !hey~ prowd duralie
mUlt be perpendlc:ular or 90 d~ &om the first IOt&d. ftow net. u it beyond anybody's C'llpe<:tatiom. Yet they were not detlgned by any oi the
required by mech.anic1 principlea and u shown with 180 degrees on sophisticated c:ompum algorithms just dacribed.. The mle of the builder
Mohr's Circle. Thl.a seco.nd principal flow of force• approaches zero at becomes paramount in the trWlgle of englneer-arcliliect-builder when
the free edge of the main span of Che shell, perpendicular to the free considering she& Sl.ldl as Guastavlno vaulta. Could !here be a 2ltt-centiuy
edge as 11. free body diagram wouhl require. Figure 19..k thewt the simple. elegant. and commoosenae ant&logy to the trllde ~patented by
Nperporition of the primary and seconduy ftow nets. Many an:aa of Guam.vino in the early 20th c:mmryt The answer is emphalically yes! The
low to :i:ero 10t&d.11ow would be ideal positiom for an oculus. answer ii in the iae of graphical equlllbrium methods, primarily graphic
THIN-SHEU. CONCREn $111UCTURE$ to7
(c)
(b}
The pIO<:m <:an be repeated with other funiculars, and the designer
has tobll am1rol aver the Coma as well u Che fon:es in each s1rip ofm.ataial.
These funicular 2D lines in 3D space are completely analogous to the
visual gulde11 used by Guutavlno's conrtruction crew. This u not yet
{a}
sheD aaion; hoop foJ:Ce$ need to be «dded to the structure. such u
iplines between 2D arches as shown in Fig. 19.6. This tool can easily
be used for quick form finding to aid students as well as educators and
practitioner• who are unfamiliar with the more complex computational
algorithms which are now readily awilable. Te:xtbooka are available to
hdp engineers and architect.t learn about funiculan and graphic ltltict
as well as other form-6n.dlng tools for sheJb.12-24
As a unique blend of arr:hitecture,, engineering. and consttuct!OD, Figure 1'.7 Dc<lOllf of airvaturc: (11) shell of poclt!Te GalW!an cu.mtllrc,
sheD structure~ have a rich history as well u a bright future. {b) ehell of zero 0-lan ~and(') lhell of negatm: 0-lan ~
601 CHAPTER NINETEEN
where rx and r are the principal radii of curvature. Shells of positive Middle
Gaussian curvfture, sometimes called synclastic shells, are formed by Surface
two families of curves both with radii of curvature in the same direction.
Spherical domes and elliptic paraboloids are enmples. Shells of zero
Gaussian curvature or singly curved shells are formed by one family of
curves only; some examples are cylinders and cones. Shells of negative
Gaussian curvature, sometimes called anticlastic, are formed by two
families of curves each having radii of curvature in opposite directions.
Hyperbolic paraboloids and hyperboloids of revolution are examples.
Another useful classification divides shells into rotational and transla-
tional shells. Domes and tanks are normally surfaces of rotation, whereas
cylindrical barrels, elliptic paraboloids, and hyperbolic paraboloids are
surfaces of translation.
resultaim. If these lut two wnditions are not met. the membrane y
theory u no longer reliable.
The following method of anal)'lis Illa both the membrane and the
bending theorief u fullows:25,2'7.U
1. AJ a primary system. the IO&ding b CODllidered to be remted
entirely by the membrane ltR11 l'elUltmu. h
2. This system leadJ to erron ill the forces and displacements at
the ahell boundaries which will. In general. not be c:ompatJbl.e with the
known boundary c:onc!Jttons.
3. CorrediOlll to the11e foru1 and dilplacement.1 (edge ef:fecu) mull z
be applied 1X> the ahrll boundariet 1X> remove the illco.mpatibllitiet
(errors) raultillg from the primary ll}'lfaD.
4. The value. of the edge ~ necessary to remel\'e the error•
caused by the membnne ltrell ruu1tanb are found by solving compat-
ibility or equilibrium equa1ionl for the shell bounduies. (a)
S. The final aolution It found by superlmpoaing the •correction"
effecta on the membrane tolutlon.
One important dw"teristic: dif'krenc:e among ahell typea i$ the
propap1ion of edge effects into the shell. For shelll of positive CUIVll-
ture, the edge dfec:ta tend to damp rapidly and are uaually con&ed to a
narrow zone at the edge. Thua, in these lb.dis the membrane theory will
often be valid throughout the entire ahell ac:ept near the boundaries.
This rapid damping hu been clearly demomt:rated for spherical domes.
For ahelll of zero c:urvature (c:ylinders), the edge effecta are damped but
tend to mend farther Into the ahell than for shell• of pocltlve curvature.
Finally. for ahells of negative curvature (hyperbollc parabololda), the
damping i1 mubdlr leu than for the others. Thua, the boundary effect.I
tend to become significant over large portion• of the shell. which makes
the correction method described abc:A'e Inapplicable.71.2t
1u.1 c,11.-.m S1teH . . . CMe111b..... n.-n wall. The way the ahell behavior depend! upon p an be swnmarized
ufullowa:
Figure 19.!illll ahowa a ground ttonge raervoir whote structure .18 a cir- I. The umller the r and henc:e the 1tJF the curvature, defined as
cular c:yllnder loaded by an Internal pl'C#\UC that increases linearly with l/r, the more the load i1 c:anied u a .hell, that ii, c:anied bythe in-plane
depth. Figure l !il.!ilh ahowt the horizont3l ring tenlion N8 in the wall attea ~mltant Nr;
for two typea of bue rmraint: free and fixed. Figure 19.9c shows the 2. The amaller the h, the more the load la carried u a shell.
vertical bending moment M, actiDg on horizontal aectlont for the &ed 3. When the •hell edge ii rcstrainec1, the region close to that edge
cue, there being no moment for the c:ue of no base remalnt (free). For exhibiu bending which damps out away from that edge. That damping
the me c:ue, di the intcnW pre.ure u carried by the horizontal rinp increuea u p gets larger; that is, for ahelll with large p, the bending u
which apand in1X> tmaion according to the formula confined to a region dote to the edge, and the membrane theory well
NI= y(H - y)r (l!il.3) deac:ribes the behavior elsewhere In the shell.
In general. therefore. shell behavlor dependa upon ~ thldmm.
where Ne= stres5 resultant, repreaentillg the force per unit length In and bowidariea. The almp)i&.ed ideaa presenred. here for the c:ylinclrical
they direction tack suggest how these three factors intluence the deslgn. but a more
r=den1ity of fluid detailed ana1ysla la escentlal to ahowthe llm1tatloos to theae slmpllflc:atiom.
H - y = distance down from cylinder top Forezample. thecurve1ofF18.19.!il fur the ftu:G-buetaokue balled upon
r=radim the simplifying usumption that H will be larp enough llO that the influ-
For the tixed c:ue. the bue a1D.11ot ezpand or rotate. and henc:e ence of the heel bale will not be felt near the tank top.
Ne= 0 there. The llOlid line1 in Fig. 19.!ilh and 19.9c show the fixed cue,
whereu the duhed line ahowt M, for the cue where N8 = 0 through- 19.2.2 Cyllndrtal 'bnlrl
out. Th.18 last cue ocxun when thC ahell-rlng ltiffneu k, = B1tlr ii very
The membrane theory for cyllndrkal ahella results in the following
undl c:ompared to the shell bendinf mffne# D = Eh3/12 (1 - v1), that
general equati.Olll (Fia.19.10):
ill, when the ratio
(l!il.Sa)
(l!il.4)
(19..sb)
ii tmall 11iil ratio indic:ata the emnt to which a c:ylindriw shell car-
rin load. by in-plane uia1 force1 1Uch u N8 or by out-of-plane flexural
(19.Sc)
fol'CC$ auch as M,, and o,.the .horizontal ahear In the radial dlrection.
AJ the quantity ~ decre-. the rlnp arry )elf, and the cantilever•
caxry more; the c:ylinder am leu lib a shell and mme lib a retaining
610 CHAPTER NINETEEN
(a) (b)
Figure 19,10 Membrane theory for cylindrical ahella forces and displacements.
ff the thickness of the tank wall varies linearly (Fig. 19. llc), the stress
(19.Sd) resultants for liquid pressure are given by Eq. (19.6). The displacements are
2
w= Lcn-x) (19.Sa)
(19.Se) Ehx
dw =ell= yr2 ~ (19.Sb)
(19.Sf) dx x Ehx hx
where hx = thickness at elevation x.
where h and f,. arc determined from support conditions.
The rotation of the tangent to the circle at any point, positive as SEISMIC LOADING
shown in Fig. 19.lOb, is given by ff the horizontal acceleration can be considered as a percentage a of
the dead weight q, so that q, = aq, the loading is p• = q, sin 9, Px = O, p, =
(19.Sg) q, cos9, and Eq. (19.5) give, for N~ = N;= 0 atx=H,
N. =-q,rcos.p (19.9a)
INTERN.Al. LIQUID PRESSUllE (FIG. 19.11a)
(19.6b) WINDloAD
r
Eh where
z
(a) (b) (c)
Rgur• 19.11 rntemal liqlli4 preerll!1! GD ahelle.
The follow:ing values of a and z1 in Eq. (19.11) are from Ret: 30:
• Cities: a= 3, z1 = 1500 ft
N', • Rolling COW1try or shrubs: a= 4.5, z,= 1200 ft
• Opencountry:a=7,z1 =900ft
The clrcumferential dlst:riblll:lon of wind pressure ma.y be represented
The 6nt eight harmonics are generally suf&lent.'° Values of A,, cor-
Z, W
raponclingto the tut values of H+ In Table 19.la are given in Table 19.lb,
(a) (b) (c) dong with value. for the cylinder with UD = I.
3 Q.39(;6 0.5046
UD 4 -0.05811 o.1064
s o.om -0.0948
+,deg 7 25 Re£4
6 G.0609 -0.0186
0 1.0 l.O 1.0 1.0 7 -0.0179 Q.0468
15 0.8 o.8 0.8 o.8
~ltef.9.
30 0.1 o.t 0.1 o.2
45 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9 -0.S
60 -1.2 -1.7 -1.9 -1.2 For each term in the series, Eq. (19.S) gift
75 -1.6 -2.2 -2.5 -1.3
90 -1.7 -2.2 -2.6 -0.9 (19.13a)
105 -1.2 -1.7 -1.9 -o..t
120 -0.7 -0.8 -0.9 -0.4
135 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7 -0.4 (19.13b)
150 -0.4 -0.S -0.6 -0.4
165 -o.4 -0.S -0.6 -0.4
180 -0.4 -0.S -0.6 -0.4 (19.13c)
612 CHAPTER NINETEEN
Pa.!MAB.Y SnTlll
1' I . _, The roof slab is assumed 10 be freely supportecl on the wall.
i-J :! I
h
1f1 I
I ' I
Euoas
r:!: Displacemenbl are considered po1itive in the direction of the redundant
forces (Fig. 19.13). Conditi.ons at the base of the wall (Le., whether it 18
H.L~w - H
Mo ~w &ed. hinge<l, free to slide. et1:.) are usually immaterial in this anal.yd!.
Thill ii be<:ause of the localizecl nature of edge WI«$ on the wall For the
dab under uniform load. radial displacements are uro.
Rotation of the edge 18 given In '.lllble 19.2. Th\1$,
-2C,IW0
S:o=O 8~=- dw = 3qr3 futv=.!.
dr 28D 8
(:L. tlw -
2
5to=D 5~=--=-"-
dx Bia
114 Wllform. 0.11 drcumference Uniform q over rurfaoe Ulllform. q o-.cr swf&ce
q
M,
-~~
M, q
(~)
'II'
I. ~r J
r
Mr(r1-.R1)
Em
...1...c,2-.12>(s+11 ~ -.12)
l ~r J r
...1...~-.R2)2
2D(l+11) 64D 1+11 6W
42.,, M,
_...!...( 3+1I rl-3R1 ) _...!...(r2-lR1)
tlR2 - D(l+11) 16D l+v 16D
M, M, 0 -~
8
ML M, ~
16 (l+to) ~(1+11)
THIN-SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES 61 J
R~
'hlbla 19.4 Coeffldents Cfor 'hlbles 19.2 •nd 19,7"
~or ~~t C1 c; Cs C4
w
0 1.0000 1.0000 0 1.0000
0.1 0.8100 0.9003 0.0903 0.9907
0.2 0.6398 0.8024 0.1627 0.9651
0.3 0.4888 0.7077 0.2189 0.9267
0.4 0.3564 0.6174 0.2610 0.8784
0.5 0.2415 0.5323 0.2908 0.8231
0.6 0.1431 0.4530 0.3099 0.7628
0.7 0.0599 0.3798 0.3199 0.6997
0.8 -0.0093 0.3131 0.3223 0.6354 x
0.9 -0.0657 0.2527 0.3185 0.5712
1.0 -0.1108 0.1988 0.3096 0.5083
1.1 -0.1457 0.1510 0.2967 0.4476
1.2 -0.1716 0.1091 0.2807 0.3899
1.3 -0.1897 0.0729 0.2626 0.3355
1.4 -0.2011 0.0419 0.2430 0.2849
1.5 -0.2068 0.0158 0.2226 0.2384
1.6 -0.2077 -0.0059 0.2018 0.1959
1.7 -0.2047 -0.0235 0.1812 0.1576
1.8 -0.1985 -0.0376 0.1610 0.1234
1.9 -0.1899 -0.0484 0.1415 0.0932 Figure 1!11.13 Displacement sign convention (tanka with flat roofa).
2.0 -0.1794 -0.0563 0.1230 0.0667
2.1 -0.1675 -0.0618 0.1057 0.0439
2.2 -0.1548 -0.0652 0.0895 0.0244 The radial displacement of the circumference of a circular slab sub-
2.3 -0.1416 -0.0668 0.0748 0.0080 jected to unit radial forces at the perimeter is given by
2.4 -0.1282 -0.0669 0.0613 -0.0056
2.5 -0.1149 -0.0658 0.0492 -0.0166
2.6 -0.1019 -0.0636 0.0383 -0.0254
2.7 -0.0895 -0.0608 0.0287 -0.0320 and the edge rotation is zero, so that
2.8 -0.0777 -0.0573 0.0204 -0.0369
2.9 -0.0666 -0.0534 0.0132 -0.0403 0:2=0
3.0 -0.0563 -0.0493 0.0071 -0.0423 The edge rotation resulting from X2 is found from Table 19.3. With
3.1 -0.0469 -0.0450 0.0019 -0.0431 M,.=A2= l,
3.2 -0.0383 -0.0407 -0.0024 -0.0431
3.3 -0.0306 -0.0364 -0.0058 -0.0422 0, =dw =-'-
3.4 -0.0237 -0.0323 -0.0085 -0.0408 22 dR D(l+11)
3.5 -0.0177 -0.0283 -0.0106 -0.0389
3.6 -0.0124 -0.0245 -0.0121 -0.0366 Compatibility is established by satisfying the simultaneous equations
in X1 and X2, where /)11 = /)fi + ()J1 etc.
3.7 -0.0079 -0.0210 -0.0131 -0.0341 With X1 andA1 known, the internal forces to be provided for in the tank
3.8 -0.0040 -0.0177 -0.0137 -0.0314 are evaluated using H = -X and~= X2 in the formulas of Table 19.2, to
3.9 -0.0008 -0.0147 -0.0140 -0.0286 which the membrane stress resultants [Eq. (19.6)] must be added. The
4.0 0.0019 -0.0120 -0.0139 -0.0258 internal furces in the roof are obtained similarly fiom Table 19.3.
4.1 0.0040 -0.0095 -0.0136 -0.0231 The analyses for a tank roofed with a cylindrical dome and for the
interaction between wall and floor (if they are continuous) are identi-
4.2 0.0057 -0.0074 -0.0131 -0.0204 cal. However, the loads acting on the floor and the corresponding errors
4.3 0.0070 -0.0054 -0.0125 -0.0179 and corrections may be more difficult to determine (see Re£ 27, p. 90).
4.4 0.0079 -0.0038 -0.0117 -0.0155
"From Ref. 10. 19.J DOMES
tp, fur cimtlar cylinden ('lable 19.2); p, fur dom.. (Table 19.7).
The dome in Fig. 19.14 carries vertical axlsymmetrical loads much
like a series of pie-shaped arches along meridian lines. But unlike
CORRECTIONS arches, these meridional strips can carry loads with bending even if
For the wall, using Table 19.2 withH= -X1 = -1 and M0 = X2 = l , their axial curve is different from the beam bending moment diagram
for the loading because the stress resultants Nfi act as stiff rings to
prevent meridional bending. Thus, unlike arches, the form of the
dome is not critical thanks to the rings, but, as with arches, the edge
supports of a dome are important. Consider a dome for which only
614 CHAPTER NINETEEN
i
___,},i......
'·---·-,,..,7
~- ,,..,..
-· 9 ,,..,. /
,,..,.-< /
./ d9~
,,..,./ /
,,..,.,,..,. ./
__,..,.N' ./
,/
• /N'11>8
"' , /'
/
ro
/
/
/
The equation for vertical equilibrium (see Fig. 19.15) gives an expres-
sion for the meridional stress resultant Figure 19.16 Stresses and loads on a shell element.
N'= __ R_ (19.15}
+ 21t1'0 sini1>
where r1 = principal radius of meridional curvature
where R = resultant of the vertical components of all loads above the r2 = principal radius of rotation
angle cjl. p, = local radial pressure
A second equilibrium equation (Fig. 19.16) in the direction normal Using Eqs. (19.16) and (19. 17) with the relation r0 = r2 sin cjl, we find
to the surface gives (see Fig. 19.17)
N' N'
___.!+___.!+ p, =0 (19.16} N' - R 'o (19.17)
9
T2 lj 2itlj sin2 cjl P. sincjl
The displacements v and w (see Fig. 19.11) are given by The rotation of the meridional tangent at the edge is
(19.18) (19.22b)
n. Eh
w=vcot,.- T2 ( Na-vN+
' ') (19.19) wheref iB the function defined in Eq. (19.20). The positive directions of
AH and A.,. are shown in Fig. 19.18.
where v = Poisson's ratio
C =constant determined by support conditions SPHERICAL DOME OF CONSTANT Tu!CKNESS
Withq =weight per squarefootof domesurface,p,=q cos4> (Fig.19.19).
/(4>)= ~[N.(r1 +vr2 )-N.(r2 -vr1)) (19.20) Then, with r1 = r2 = a, Eqs. ( 19.15) and ( 19.18) give
The rotation ~ of the tangent to the meridian at any point is N'- aq (19.23a)
•-1+cos4>
A,=.!.+ dw (19.21)
Ti lidill 1
N. = aq(---cos4>) (19.23b)
Values of the displacements are usually needed only at the supports. l+cos4j>
For supports as shown in Fig. 19.18, v.,. = 0, and the horizontal displace-
ment is given by The distribution of these resultants is shown in Fig. 19.19. If the dome is
a spherical segment, there is no hoop tension at the edge if ip < 51°50',
(19.22a) and there is continuous support by forces tangent to the edge.
With load p per square foot of horizontal projection of the surface,
p, = p cos2 cjl, and Eqs. (19.15) and (19.18) give
N•=- ap
2
(19.24a)
.. --- ----
(19.24b)
Stress resultants for other loadings are found similarly. Results for
several cases are given in Table 19.5.
With N. and Ne known, edge displacements for domes sup-
ported as in Fig. 19.18 are found from Eq. (19.22}. Corresponding to
Eq. (19.23),
a
AH=- l+v
2
----cosa
Eh l+cosa
q(
sina J (19.25a)
-aq -aq
2 2
(+)
-aq +aq
N'Cl N'e
Figure 19.19 Dlatrlbution offorces.
616 CHAPTER NINETEEN
Loading
Q per ft 2 of wrfa<:e
-1111
eoatii-w•+
1111.2•
N'
• -N·-.iqCOI+
Ne
$ • 1
-llljl+CM•
-N·-~C1l•• 0
p per ft 2 po'ojection
- •(1-
.J.to)
sm
1 -N+-qccr 0
~
2
+o For +o ; O{no opelllllg)
. • 0
0
-~ _!e,"°'1.
...·2· -N+
2
+o =0 {load PL at vertex)
0
$•
-pz. For
-.P.--1-
-Nt 0
"2ua1D2 ljl
§L$§ -p
11 cot+cose
---(2-3c.o.++
•3 • ' •
Gii' •> -N+-q., llln ljl C<ll 0 N,tme
•co•+
and, corresponding to Eq. (19.24). T•ble 19.6 Ml!mbr11ne l'Gl'Gl!.t '" Par11ballc Dames
azp :i •
l!r..11 =- 2IJli (-cos 0:+11)11110: (19.26a)
Loacling N'
• Ni N.'t6
q per ft 2 of surfoce
_!f!. 1-C<l•l•
•2+coi• .1.
_!f!. 2-3cor++<M' 0
A,_ =-~(3+Y)sin2 0:
?$
(19.26b) 3 3
2Bh
SPHERIC.AL DOME 011 VARIABLE TB!Cl.N.BSS
A good approximailon of the edge fon:ea and displa.cemenu in a spheri- p per tt 2 of PfOjectioR _ _ft_
_l'o ClOlljl 0
cal dome of variable thicla!en a obtained by aaumlng a uniform thick- 2cos+ 2
ness equal to that at the arc distance S,. from the edge,•
s. =o.s.Jdii: (19.27a)
~
where a= radius of dome
h.,= average thicknm of thickened portion
This approximation involve,, the a11umption that the thickened portion The only way that the force can be transmitted through. the system is up
extend8 the distance S from the edge, through the arcli, over the crown, and down the other side. The effeGt
dearly is to produce high-bending momenu through.out the entire uch
s. =z.Jiiii: {19.27b) system, with a mu:imum moment at the crown. We see. therefore, that
the arch is not only remtcted in its more efficient form by the nature
of the loading but also very sensitive to foundation dlaplacements or
PAAABOI.IC DOMll 011 CoNSTANT Tmamiss edge forces.
The membrtine stre5& rewltants for two cues of loading are given In Let us give a GOrresponding horizontal force to the dome. SuGh a forc;e
Table 19.6. D.iaplacements 1111 and.\. Gan be deten:nined by subatituting may be c:onsidered as a uniform homontal thrust applied all around
these valuu in Eq. (19.22). the circular edge of the dome. In cross section, It would appear that this
horizontal force would create bending moment. throughout the dome
EDoE EFncn-BENDING Tm!o11.Y similu to those cnated in the arGh. This i1, however, not the GaJe. As
For the bending near the edges of domes, it is UIUally sufficient to use the hori2onbl. force tends to bend the shell and thUJ to be carried up
the Geckeler apprcxima.tJcn (see Ref. 27, pp. 31 to 32). Th see the idea a meridian. the riDgll again come into play and GaWle a rapid damping
behind this approzlmatton. we can GOnlider the effect of boundary of the bending so that at a relatlvely short distanc:e from the edge. the
conditions (Fig. 19.20) on both the uch and the dome structure~. Ifwe bending effi:Gt is no longer observable. Thwi, edge fora:a in equilibrium
give the an:h a horizontal pwh at one side, thU force muJt be held in applied to an arch propagate throughout the entire structural. system
equlllb.rlum by an equal and oppo1lte force acting at the other •upport. and aeate large bending moments. whereas slmllar forces actlng on a
1111N-SHEll CONCRETE STRUCTURES 617
Arch
Surface load
Meridinial forces
H
~--------
Edge load
.....
MA= arch moment
Dome M0 = dome moment
(a) (b)
Flguni 1UO Comparuon of dome and arch! (a) ll:rudural. IJWtmul and (b) laadinp.
dome create bending moments in a very narrow region near the edge Table 19.4. V.!ues ofN+'. N~ and Mt are given for any point In the shell
and have generally no effect elsewhere in the dome. Thill behavior is defined by the angle v. The edge dfsplac:ements AH and A,. are positive
aim.liar to that of the vertical cylinder with a restrained base (F.lg. 19.9). direction• of H and Mw respectivdy.
Indeed, the atent of the bending In a dome can be well estimated by The formulas In Table 19.7 derive from a bending-theory differential
using the same analysis u for a cylinder where the ratio jJ has the same equmon of the fourth order. To simplify the solution, the radius r2
meaning. except r is now r2, the radius of curvature of the dome edge. is tabn constant, which ii correct only for the spherical dome. It is
ddlned as r2 = r 0/1in a. The 1olution for bending in a full cylinder beca11.1e edge dfeds damp out so rapidly tha1 the formulas can be used
is used for the dome edge. Table 19.7 give. values for domes loaded for moat ab.e1ls of revoluilon. The formulas can be relied on only if the
by edge forus and moments. Valw:1 of the coefficient C are given in opening angle a Is greater Ihm 25 or 30 degrees.
'fyp!cal dimenalons ofspherical domes are given in Table 19.8.
,...,.. 19.7 Feral ..et PllPl•-nts In Dom• ol ~lutlon .._..,,.. lftllall Dnenslons for Spherlall Domes"
l.allded bJ Edit!! F_. Unlfann •ra...d • Pllrdel Orde
Section D,ft h, In.' .. deg R, ft 11, ft
the solution was pmented in Sec::. 19.1.3. For what follows. a number of ERRORS. Edge dhplacmients are considered ~ In the direc:t!om
examplu are p.ruented to illustrate thiJ method. of the redundant forces X1 and X2 (Fig. 19.22). Then. from Eq. (19.25),
IU'.A.KPLB-IUOIDLY SVPPOll.TBD sPBBIUCA.l. EO.H.11
9452 1 167
The domeofF!g.19.21 is2Y.t In. d!ldc. en:ept1hatltl.s1hickenedet1heedge J;. 0 = q ( " -0.883)0.469 = - 3340.!
to 6 in. with a uniWnn taper over a length of 8 Ct. The average dud load for
"' 0.33B 1883 B
the shell a tabn at 40 pi£ Rooting phu lift load u SO psf. Edge displace- 94.S2q q
ments wlD. be calculated fur a un1furm 1hickness of 4 .ID. (Flg. 19.22). ~ = 0. 3.E X2.1677X0.469=291B
3
p4 =0.00300 3(1-0.1672)2
(94.SX0.33)
P=o.234 P2 =0.54s P3 =0.012s
811
=2x0.234x94.5 2
xo.46,i 2780
li'o.n B
X1 =2.63q=0.237kip/t\
&omwhich
X 2 =-2.86q=-0.260ft-klp/ft
N' =- 94.Sq =-SO.lq The dome of this example .Is the same u that of the precedlng enmple
a l+0.883 m:ept that Che edge .Is stl1mled wilh a ring which Is monolldilc with
the dome and which is free to slide and rotate on an imm<Mhle support
and the horizontal and vertJcal components are (Fig. 19.2311).
PRIMARY SYSTEM. Thil oonsisbi af Che ahell and the ring as sepame
N. = N~ coea =-50.llf x 0.883 =-44.Sq rtructura, subjeded to the membrane atreas reaulmnt N;,. which 18 a.wmed
to act at the ldealbedjwlctlon of the shell andriDg (Flg. 19.231'). Displace-
N~v = N~ llina =- 50.lq x 0.469 =- 23.8q ments are taken ~in the dmdion.s of die redundant. X1 and }{2.
THIN-SHEU. CONCREn$111UCTURE$ flt
Shell tapers
to 2 Yz" (Fig.19.13)
J_,./
. t:; ~
..--·" !
13
"":
c.O
II
le
'
= 414"
.
~ >- I
11 -- ·-·-· --- ~ ring
~
,...: 1
'
L i--_,.:_s_·
.___-"71~---
i
- -1
(a) (b)
Rguni 19.U Ring-tt!!l'e.oed tphertcal dome-ldeall7.ed JU11ciicn of shell and~·
The s1ress raultuita and their horizontal and vertical componenta b/2, which is small compared with r, the horizontal d.laplacement due
were determined in the preceding ex.ample. For the dead. load q =40 psf, to His
N' =~kips/ft
r2H (19.28)
!J.11=-
• l+c;os. EA
N& =3.18(-
l+cos•
--cos+)
1
kipllf\
whe.re A is the area of the ring.
From Fig. 19.26b, Me =rMa.. A.miming a. linear stm. distribution
f =M,,y/I, the rotation .6o. of the ring due to M,. ii given by
Nd!= 1.78 kl.P'lft N~v =-095 ldptlft
2
ERRORS. These consist of displacemenbl at the junction of the shell lJ. =er =.f!....=!!!J!..= r M 11 (19.29)
and the ring. For the shell, ualng the raulte from the preceding example, ~ y By BI BI
Ma
I:// I(
H~'Z r
b
(a) (b)
620 CHAPTER NINETEEN
Then, from Eq. (19.29), PRESTRESSED RING. The effect of prestressing the ring is easily
2 determined. The radial pressure H11 is given by H11 =Fir, where Fis the
3Jt - 44.25 x 0.695 7980 rad prestressing force. HF is not eccentric with respect to the center of grav-
20
- 0.667(1.4533/12)E E ity of the ring, Eqs. (19.28) and (19.29) give
The horizontal displacement Om is, from Bq. ( 19.28), 0i _ 44.25 H 11
2
+ 2020H11 ft =
620 0
2 o- 0.667Xl.453X10 E
l)lt - 44.25 (-1.78) 0.5061>lt =- 3596 -0.506 7980 = 7634 ft
10
0.667Xl.455E
20 E E E The equations of compatibility are
The last term in this equation is the horizontal displacement at the 7740X1 -4420X2 +2020H11 =O
junction due to rotation of the ring. Thus, the Oo displacements are - 4420X1 +12,870X2 = 0
t 7767 lt
010 =010 +~o = - - - from which X1 = -0.328H11 kips/ft and X2 = -0.114H11 ft-kips/ft.
E
The value of P required to counteract ring tension due to the dome
' lt 7992 dead load plus live load is obtained by combining the two solutions. For
020 = 020 + 020 = - -
E the dome load,
CORRECTIONS. With X2 = 1 acting on the ring, Eq. (19.29) gives
T =r0 (N~ +X1)=44.25(-l.78+0.81)90/ 40=96.5 kips
2
OR - 44.25 - 11,490 rad
and for the prestressing,
22
(0.667x1.4533 /12) B
This rotation produces a displacement at the junction of the shell with C=r0 (H11 -0.328H11 -0.328H11 )=29.7H11 kips
the ring:
with C= T, H 11 = 3.24 kips/ft.
~lt -~lt --o 0611,490 __ 5810ft The stress resultants and moments caused by prestressing can be
0 12 - 0 21- .5 -
E B determined by using H = X1 = -0.328 x 3.24 = -1.06 kips/ft and M 11 =
With X1 = 1 acting on the ring, the contribution to 011 of the moment X2 = -0.114 x 3.24 = -0.374 ft-kip/ft in the equations of Table 19.7. The
-1 x 0.506 resulting from the eccentricity ofX1 must be added to the value results are given in Table 19.9.
given by Bq. (19.28). This moment gives the rotation -0.506 x 11,490/E = REINFORCEMENT
-5810/B. The resulting displacement at the junction is 0.506 x 5810/B = 1. Dome hoop reinforcement is provided to take all the hoop tension.
2940/B. Thus, the displacement due to X1 is For the segment 'I'= 0° to 'I'= 1° (an arc length of 1.65 ft), the tensile
force (Table 19.9) is
44.252 2940 4960
Oii o.667xl.453B +E=E T _ (26.64-25.65)+(17.65-15.25) _ 2 ki
.- x 165
. - .8 ps
The displacements of the shell edge due to unit values of the redun- 2
dant were determined in the preceding example: l\l1 = 2780/B, Ol2 =
for which
&;: 1 = 1390/B, and~= 1380/B. Then, from =OR+&, o
28
_7740 _ __ 4420 _12,8ro A,= ' = 0.14 in.2
011- B 012- 021- E 022 - E 20
4
= O.l = 0.085 in. 2 /ft, No. 3at15 in.
Compatibility is obtained by satisfying the equations 1.65
7740.Xi - 4420.X2 - 7767 = 0 Similarly, for the regions, 1 to 2°, A,= 0.18 in.2 = 0.11 in.2/ft, No. 3 at
-4420X1 + 12,870X:z + 7992 = 0 12 in. and 2 to 3°, A,= 0.10 in.2 = 0.06 in.2/ft, No. 3 at 22 in. Beyond 3°,
there is no appreciable tension owing to edge effects.
for whichX1 =0.81 kip/ftand.Ki = -0.34 ft-kips/ft. 2. Minimum dome reinforcement will be supplied throughout the
The stress resultants and moments throughout the dome can now be shell equal to at least 0.0018bh for welded-wire fabric, as specified in
obtained byusingX1 and.Ki in the equations of Table 19.7 and combin- ACI 318-11 31 and in Section 7.12.2.1 for slabs. For the 2~-in. shell,
ing the results with the membrane stress resultants. Table 19.9 gives about 0.054 in. 2/ft in each direction is required. A welded-wire fabric
these values for dead load plus live load (90 psf). 6 x 6 - 6/6 provides 0.058 in. 2 /ft in each of two directions.
Table1!U Stress Resultants In Dome of Fig. 19.21 (Surface Loecl q =90 psf)
Dome with ring Ring prestreaa = 3.24 kips
J. ' deg N.,kipl/ft Nil> kips/ft M+' ft-kipolft N.kipsfft Nil> kips/ft M~ ft-kips/ft
3. Meridional bending reinforcement will be provided to l'e$lst From ACI 318, withJ: =4000 pal andJ, =40,000 pal.
Che combined effects of N• and Mt At the dome edge (V = O) from
'W>le 19.9, for total surface load plus prettressing,
M,, =+A,J,(d-i)=l.42
M+=-O.n-0.37=-1.14 :ft-kipllft
A.I,= o.asf.,'tifl
N+ =- 2.92-0.94 =-3.86 ldps/ft
from which a= 0.12 ID. and A,= 0.13 ID.2/ft.
If die smdl compremve stress {3860/72 = 54 psi) I• neglec«:d. the At 'I'= 2°, M.., ~ +o.68 - 0.93 = -0.25 ft-kip/ft. Wrth d = 6 - 3.5 x
resulting s:implificalion ill comervmve, and with d = 6 - 1.5 = 4.S in., 3.30/8 - l.S =3.0 m.,
M l.l~Xll
A, f.jd
0.16m..2/ft .A. 0.25 x 0.12 0.06 in.2 /ft
20X3X4.S 20xix3.0
8
At v = 1°, M+ = +o.25 - 0.85 = -0.60 ft-kips/ft, from which, with
Initially.
= =
d 6 - 3.5 x 1.65/8 - 1.5 3.8 in.,
A, 0.6~Xl2
20X-X3.8
O.ll.in.1/ft M• =+ 0.68 x: x-1.25 0.93=-D.86 :ft-.kipl/ft
8
Mu=~!,(d-i)=l.S x0.86=1.29 ft-kipa/ft
Since the momenu from p~ and su.rfu:e loads are of opposite
agn at thU loa!ion, it ii nec.eaary to check for initial pn:stressing. Allsum- from which
lllg initial presll'es9 ata25 percmt inaeasea:ad only dome dead load acting,
A,= 0.15 in.2/ft
40
M+ = + 0.25 x
90
-1.25 x 0.85 =-0.95 :ft-ldps/ft = =
Similar calculations at ljl 3°, w:llh h 3.8 ID., give A,= 0.14 m.2/ft
and atv= 5°, withh=2.5 ID.,A,=0.11 iD..2/ft.
A, =O.llX: =0.16 in.2 /ft These computations show die need. largely due to intia1 prmresdng.
for top radial reinforcement of No. 3 at 8 in. (A,= 0.17 in.2/h) extmd.ing
10 ft from the edge (just beyo.ad II'= 5°).
This moment Is temporary and probably will not increase, so that The layout of.relllforcement is show.o. ID Fig. 19.25.
f, =20,000 psi is conmvative. It is more logiw to~ an ultimate-load
analym, where RING PRESTRESSlNG. The final temion fu.rce required. .IB
M.. =-0.95 x 1.5 =-J..42 ft-kips/ft T=rH,.=44.25x3.24=143 kips
rings in dome
Q2 CHAPTER NINETEEN
PRd:resl will be fumiahed. by cizcular rings of tensioned stffl :;rt an with a wall, temperature efre<:ta will be important (as in the edge-fixed.
aasumed :8naJ. meaa of 120,000 pal: dome ofSection 19.3.4) and should be invealgaled.
h=0.667'
Elm 16
Elm 14
---- +- El 20.5'
- - - - - R = 44.25'
Elm 13
Wall tapers
to h = 0.583' El 19.5'
at elevation 0.0' Node@
THIN-SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES 623
l'llble 19.11 De1d Lo.d .nd Live l.cNld from Finite-Element An1lysls
Dead load Live load (q = 50 paO
Element
number N+• Ne• 14• o,• N+• Ne• M+t o.·
29 -1.44 -1.46 0 0 -2.40 -2.30 0.00 0.00
20 -1.28 5.23 -0.47 -0.23 -1.88 8.53 -0.72 -0.29
19 -1.12 6.61 -0.90 -0.34 -1.60 10.30 -1.25 -0.40
18 -1.11 7.62 -1.22 -0.09 -1.54 11.70 -1.65 -0.05
17 -1.22 8.77 -1.25 0.41 -1.61 13.45 -1.68 0.64
16 -1.01 9.16 -0.89 0.49 -1.19 13.70 -1.15 0.70
15 -0.97 7.02 -0.53 -0.08 -0.03 10.30 -0.66 -0.13
14 -1.11 4.95 -0.26 0.28 -1.18 7.16 -0.31 - .39
13 -1.17 4.01 -0.04 0.17 -1.18 5.73 -0.01 0.23
• In klpa/ft.
t In ldpo.
of N•
and N 9 very cloae to those from membrane theory: = N0= N. WIND LoAo'0 ·35-36
-aq/2 = -1.47 kips/ft and -2.36 kips/ft, respectively. Table 19.11 also Membrane stress resultants are not easily computed since the load
shows that the shears Q• carry a significant part of the vertical dome is not axisymmetrical. The meridional stress resultant is critical for
load, thus resulting in N• values near the ring substantially lower design. Comparisons of meridional stress resultants computed for wind
thanN•. distributed as described in Tables 19.la and 19.lb with results from a
19.JA Hyperbololds bending-theory solution show very little difference except in the values
The type of shell wall shown in Fig. 19.27 has been used frequently
of Ne near the base.
Because several cooling towers have collapsed during windstorms,
for natural draft cooling towers, for which the two principal loads sufficient reinforcement must be provided in both the meridional and
are dead weight and wind. The overall dimensions for a natural draft the circumferential directions. Reco=endations are given in Ref. 37.
cooling tower depend upon the thermal criteria, the construction Other simply curved shells, such as truncated segments of cones, are
economy, and structural questions. The thermal conditions usually set sometimes used. They behave similarly to cylindrical segments, pro-
the diameter in the base region where the heat exchange takes place, in vided they are not too radically tapered.
the air inlet areas where the diagonal columns support the shell, and A report ofthe ACI-ASCE committee37 on concrete shell construction
in the overall height which produces the draft_ Construction economy recommended that the load factors used for the shell be U = 0.9D + 1.3L
can modify these dimensions, for example, where wind loads are high, (where D and L are in opposite directions), where L is the wind load
by requiring a lower but wider tower to reduce the foundation costs. based upon a 100-year return fastest mile including a gust factor.
Structural requirements influence the meridional shell profile, the For Portland, Oregon, the 100-year return wind is between 100 and
size of columns, the shell thickness and its variation, the need for top 110 mph, which from the ANSI code would give for exposure C wind
edge rings, and the shell reinforcement. The geometry and loading pressure from 90 ft up to 580 ft of from 46 to 79 ps£ The design was based
of the Trojan Tower34 on the Columbia River in Oregon are shown on an earlier report which led to values from 46.6 to 92.5 psf. The static
in Fig. 19.27. computations for dead load and wind gave, at the tower base,
The membrane stress resultants for dead weight are computed from
Eqs. (19.15) and (19.16) by numerical means as follows: N'1J = -76 kips/ft
Wind
El= 492.0' h = 14.8" Pressure
R = 125.0' Cornice
h = 10.0"
El= 466.3'
92.5 psf
El= 493.6' h = 10.0''
R = 116.0' Throat
El= 320.0'
El= 262.6'
69.9 psf
El= 70.0'
El =0.0' Base
more than the amount obtained from the loadii. At a distance of about which shoWJ Chat the critical section can occur wdJ. above Che base. 1n
180 ft above the lintel, where the shell thl.cbess 19 a minimum of 10 in., Che d.n:umferential. dUection. the streS9e8 do not normally conttol. and
the comparable values are .minimum 8ted. will be use<1 throughout. This d.n:umfuentl.al sted ls
N+D =-30.0 ldpi/ft essential to the Integrity of Che tower. e.pedally dnce thermal gradients
will cause meridional cracking.
N+w=+72.8 kips/ft In this tower. the earthquake loadii did not COJ1trol the de.tign, and
&omwhich .neJther did the <fyu.amlc: Jnfluencel!.3 ' MJ. lmpomnt qumion is the
de&gn of reinforcement neu the hue to ac:c:ount for the concentrated
A,= 1.39 in.2 reactions of the columns onto the lintel. This theontically complex
compared to a minimum rcq_uiRd of problem is normally solved by using a. deep-beam appromnatlon to get
tensile steel requirements at the free edge between columns and up In
A,= 10 x 12 x 0.0035 =0.42 ln.l Che ah.ell over the wppom.
THIN-SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES 625
+0.3
-4.00
+1.00
(a) (b)
Figure 19.28 Deep-beam approximation for the behavior of the base of a cooling tower: (a) stress coefficients at
support and (b) stress coefficients at midspan.
Figure 19.28 gives some idea of the behavior of the shell in its lower Also, these solutions neglect the shell curvature by assuming a planar
support region where it is supported by columns of total width C deep beam.
spaced a distance L apart. The diagrams shown are based on analytic For the Trojan Tower, Fig. 19.29 shows the distribution of N+ at the
solutions given by Franz Dischinger38 in 1932 and applied to concrete lintel level, where the maximum tension is about 116 kips/ft, and it
deep beams some years later by the Portland Cement Association.39 As occurs ate= 0°. The maximum compression comes at about 69 degrees
shown in Ref. 39, the loading for the analytic solution is taken at the and is about -84 kips/ft. This compression combines with the dead load
free edge, and the beam depth H is taken equal to the column spac- of about -76 kips/ft to give -160 kips/ft. The appropriate load factors
ing L, whereas in reality the load is N~ distributed uniformly at some for dead load and wind are
distance above the edge. Thus, the solutions shown are approximate
and serve mainly to indicate the type of special reinforcement needed: N+v = 0.75 (1.4N+D + 1.7 N•w)
along the lower edge near midspan and higher up over the supports. = 1.05 N+D + 1.28 N+w=-80 -107 = -187 kips/ft
100
80
60
40
20
Anglea
go 54° 63° 72° 81° goo ggo 1080 117° 126° 135° 144° 153° 1620 171° 180°
This load is taken as constant over the span between columns even after bending, the distance between any two points within a cross section
though it will be somewhat less away from 0 = 69° as seen in Fig. 19.29. remains the same as it was before bending, which is always the case in a
Because there are 44 supports a round the lintel of a radius of about solid rectangular beam. In a T-beam with wide flanges, the extremities of
182 ft, the span will be 2'1t(l82)/44 = 26 ft. The lintel width b varies the flanges may not deflect the same as the web, but the simple t1exural
from 40 in. at the base to 30 in., where H = L = 26 ft. Thus, the maxi- theory still provides a reasonable basis for design. In a barrel shell, how-
mum stresses, from Fig. 4.22, aref,=-4.0(187/12)/40 = -1560 psi at the ever, the cross section may undergo substantial lateral distortion, and it is
supports and/m = 1.0(187/12)/40 = 390 psi at midspan. The maximum principally this distortion that causes the longitudinal stresses to depart
tension over the supports would be only (0.4)( 15.6)/40 = 156 psL Even from the straight-line distribution ofthe beam theory.
though these low tensions would not normally cause cracking, it is good Figure 19.30 shows six different examples of the longitudinal stress
practice in thin shells to consider that all tension be taken by reinforce- resultants, N,., where the ratio of r/L varies. In addition to these N,,
ment. The horizontal reinforcement can be proportioned on the basis of values, there can be transverse bending moments M• owing to the
the diagrams in Fig. 19.28, where, for example, over the support from a lateral distortion of the cross section. This distortion is substantially
distance of O.lH from the base up to 0.5H, the amount of tension would reduced either by intermediate ties or diaphragms on a single barrel
be about 0.3(0.4H)q = 0.12qH or about 0.12(187)26 = 585 kips, requir- or by connection of a series of barrels together in the transverse
ing A,= 585/0.9(60) = 10.8 in.1 Additional steel would be required from direction. Then, for long shells, the designer can use a simplified
0.5H to H above the base as well. At midspan, the total tension would analysis that considers the shell as a beam with longitudinal stresses
be about 0.37(0.lH)q/2 + 0.37(0.lH)q + 0.63(0.lH)q/2 = 0.088qH = determined by beam theory. In this case, the in-plane stresses are well
0.09(187)26 = 440 kips, requiring A,= 440/54 = 8.2 in.2 approximated by
There is already a minimum shell reinforcement of 0.0035(40)(12) =
1.68 in. 2/ft in the lintel area, and because of the approximate nature
of this analysis, it is good practice to add the steel found from the f " = N,,
h
= M,y
I
(19.31a)
deep-beam analysis to the minimum. To provide shear reinforcement,
some of the midspan horizontal steel should be bent up near the
supports. N"'1 VQ
v=-=- (19.3lb)
The diagonal columns need special care where there are significant h lb
earthquake loads; it is especially important that the column steel be well
anchored into the shell and confined by spirals to prevent pulling out by where M =bending moment about centroidal axis
combined vertical and horizontal vibrations. I= moment of inertia of shell cross section
V = total shear at cross section
b =total cross-sectional thickness of concrete measured
19A CYLINDRICAL BARREL SHELLS horizontally
19.4.1 cyllndrlc:11I Shell Roofs
Cylindrical roofs are segments of cylinders cut along their straight-
line generators. They transfer loads by a combination of longitudinal
beam action and transverse arch action. Depending on the aspect
ratio, r/L (radius over span length), either the beam action (long
cylinders) or the arch action (short cylinders) may be dominant.
Cylindrical shells, sometimes called cylindrical barrels, are classified
as follows:
• long shells where r/L s; 0.4
• intermediate shells where 0.4 < r/L < 2.0 Ur= 1 Ur=3 Ur=5
• short shells where r/L > 2.0
(a)
The tables from Manual of Engineering Practice 3128 do not include the
intermediate category and are based on a division at r/L = 0.6.-lll Short
barrels are used for aircraft hangars and auditoriums. They often have
transverse spans of from 150 to 300 ft with longitudinal spans L of20 to
50 ft between stiffening ribs. Long barrels more commonly appear in
warehouses and factories, where longitudinal spans L of about 50 to
150 ft are required, with transverse spans of 20 to 40 ft. Other shells
with single curvature are, for example, truncated segments of cones,
which behave similarly to cylindrical segments, provided they are not Ur= 1 Llr =3 Llr= 5
too radically tapered. (b)
The methods of analysis for cylindrical shells can be divided into
two categories: (1) simplified (approximate) methods based on the Figure 19.30 Compariso.n of barrel-shell and beam behavior: (a) aingle 8hell
membrane theory and/or on global assumptions that assume behavior with free edges and (b) typical Interior shell. (After Ref. 43.)
to be like beams, arches, cantilevers, and so forth and (2) more rigor-
ous methods that often use shallow shell theory, based on the theory
of elasticity, simplified by the Kirchhoff assumptions (as for plane
plates). Transverse moments M• may be approximate by considering the slice
from the barrel shown in Fig. 19.31, where the vertical load q is held in
equilibrium by the vertical component of the in-plane shearing forces.
19.4.2 Behnlor •nd Slmpllfled Anmlysls of The arch moment and thrusts may be determined by any of the methods
Long cyllnders for arch analysis.41
The principal action of the barrel shell with small flexible longitudinal Implicit in the beam-arch analysis are the assumptions that all points
edge beams is longitudinal bending, but the bending stresses are within on a transverse cross section deflect equally in the vertical direction
the plane of the shell itself. The simple flexural theory, which leads to and not at all horizontally and that the radial shears Q, the longitudinal
a straight-line stress distribution, requires that all cross sections of a bending moments M,,, the twisting moments M,,., and the strains from
member remain plane and undistorted after bending. This means that in-plane shearing forces can be neglected..
1111N-SHEll CONCRETE STRUCTURES U1
~---------------p{
I I Or~
c,lndrtail Shall (fnam lllf. .20)
'
~ ~----------- f~ Mc
VQ
~
<a> lb I
'1;~ K ~d~g K
~
-- - - - - 8""m rnalhad
ener& have been wed to prevent budding.
Except in the area nett to the longtludlnal edge1, the load Is carried
- - - Sl'lllllow-shell 1haory
to the aupporting transverse arcliel (trulae8 or walls) by membrane
action [see Fig. 151.10, Eq. (19.5)]. Table 151.13 shows the membrane
furces fur some common c:ases. The lower portiOll of the shell (next to
the free edge). having a height of the order ofmagnitude of the 1pan and
•om~es as much as roughly equal to the span, behaveti 11 a airved,
deep beam. The total tenaion ~ in the lower part of the deep beam
Rquircl longitudinal reinforcement. In addition, an edge member is
usually provided.
rll.=4.0 rlL =1.0 rll = 0.2 Because most of the roofload ii carried to the supporting transverse
Shari lntermedia111 Laro frame1 by beam action only near the longitudinal edges, the support-
ing arch is subjected to outward thrusts near the sprlnglng lines and
hence msy have only a small compression, or ~ aome tension,
near the crown. But the adjacent shell I• under compression, 10 there
is incompatibility of main or, more properly, the ideal behavior is
modified, and some of the load ii tranmrRd into the arch by bend-
Rg1ft , 9.J2 Comparlson between rlm9el from beam method and shallow-lhell. ing forces. The effect is to increase the compre11ion in the supporting
theory. arch and reduce the comprestlon in the shell adjacent to the arch or,
~ ,
-q!{L-x)cu•(tic-tl - q (L- 2x) sin <•k - t)
p p11r ft 2 projection
~
-pr COS2 (4'1: - f) -q.:.{L-x)cos(tic-tl
r
~
621 CHAPTER NINETEEN
in other words, to force part of the shell to act as a flange for the arch The stress couples are defined by the changes in curvature and
in T-bea.m behavior. twist as
Figure 19.31 shows an arch rib loaded by the in-plane forces N and
M.=-d<x .. +vx+)
the radial shears Q. The latter are so small that they may be neglected
so that the rib may be analyzed as an arch for the forces N alone. Tables M•=-D<x++vx.)
and standard computer programs simplify the analysis. M,,,. =-M... =D(l-v)x...
1!1AA Rigorous Anai,sis of Barrel Shells
The complete 5et ofeight internal forces acting on a shell element is shown which, after substituting in (a) to (c), give
in Fig. 19.33. The following set of equilibrium equations is the result:
+a2w)]
2
M =-D[a w
"' dX2
+.!.(av
12 fJcjl dcjl2
<JN.. r+ <JN•.,+ p r=OdQ"' r+ dO. +N + p r
dX dcji • dX dcji • •
M <JM.,, fJN+ oNx+ M =-D(~+ a2w +vo2w)
=0+-e +---Q.r=O--+--r-Q,+p,r • ,2 acii ,2 dcjl2 axl
d:c acii acii ax 2
i)M <JM.,.
=0---• +--r+O.r=O
dcjJ ax
w 1 av)
(a
M•• =-M+• =D(l-v) rtJxdcjl + 2r tJx
7
u
L=66.5'
(a)
~2.25'
37.6'-------.-. ~ ~1.0'
(b)
Figure 1!1.34 Barrel shell geometry.
45 -0.60 -2.97 -2.38 0 Figure 19.35 Stress trajectoriC$ for shell and edge beams.
40 -0.60 -2.97 -3.04 -0.29
30 -0.42 -2.88 -7.52 -l.38
20 -l.11 -2.49 -13.02 -3.67 Figure 19.36 shows a layout of reinforcement for the barrel shell of
10 +0.21 -1.58 -13.53 -6.73 Fig. 19.34b. Reinforcement is provided to take all the principal tensile
0 0.0 -0.15 -7.08 -8.73 stresses and may be placed either in the direction of the stress trajec-
tories or in two directions, usually orthogonal. Principal stresses are
Beam edge 0.0 0.0 +173.5 0.0
computed from the values of the stress resultants N 9 and N""
GO CHAPTER NINETEEN
L
8 xxx xxx xxx
x=O
support ~
i
-t------1 1- i
--·-·-r-·-·-·-;;,~~----·-c·~----·-·-·-~;~:-·-·-·-·-·-·_j·-·- -·- ~
:: :3
@~ ~
: .2 \
20.9'
- - - # 4 @ 11"- - -+
Shell 2 - #6
edge\ 2 - #4
Edge
beam
1. 33.25'
RguN lt.36 Developed plan af ah.di rdnfura:ment (welcled·"Wirc fabric not shown}.
At the comen, where the shear u a. muimum. reinforcement u Edge-beam reinforcement ii usually s:i2:ed for the tensile force in the
generally placed at 45 degree•. Transverse (hoop) reinforcement (No. 3 beam. Thl8 can be determined by computing the stresses at the top and
bars Ill. Fig. 19.36) is based on M., usually neglecttng Nt' Ifthe torund bottom of the beam. Tests show that it Is advlsible co place moat of the
lateral ~eim of the edge beam are neglected in the analysu, M+ reinforcement neu the bottom (Fig. 19.37).
=0 at the edge. However, it is advisable to provide reinforcement for 1t.4.S FlnltHlltnMnt An1!yslt
some poall:ive moment caused by edge-beam atiffnut. Thl8 can be done
by placing the prindpal-temlon rdnforcement Ill. this region near the ThU a.ample Illustrates the types of rmdu obtained. as well as some of
undem.de of the shell (the No. 4 bars at 11 in. in Fig. 19.36). the problems associated with finite-element PIOgIUl1.S.
Longitudinal reinforcement at the juncture of the shell and the Figure 19.39 ah.OWi some resuhJ from studies on one-quarter of the
tranaver11e rib is uaually baaed on the auumptJon that the rib per- two-way symmetrlcaJ. simply rupported dngle-barrel ihell dlacu8sed In
mits no radial movement and .110 rotation of the shell. Th.ls produces Se<. 19.-4.2. The come medi CO.lldsU of10 elemenu that are evenlyspaced
a moment M,, =-0.29hN+. At :c = O, N+ =0 because of the usump- (LU= 3.225 ft) in the :c direction md six elements that are evenly spaced
tion of 1in1uoidal loading. but since the actua.1 loading is uniform. (~ =7.5°) in the+ direction; the tin-coane mll.lh has a. finer mll.lh near
N+ must be constant along the span. Therefore, the value of N+ at the transvene support, the free edge, and the Cl'O\¥D< and the fine m~
x =L/2 should be used to determl.lle M 1 at :c = O. An allowa.11ce for divides the quarter shell Into 306 eleme.11ts as shown In Fig. 19.38.
additional moment rewltillg from arch deflection of the rib can be Figure 19.39 plots N" to show that even the coam-meah multi fol-
ma.de. The No. 4 bars at 11 in. in Pig. 19.36 are proportioned. on this low closely those found in the more rigorous method using the analytic
batis. solution. The &e-mesh re.tulu do show minor dliferenca in dl.ttribu-
.Minimum .reinforcement of 0.35 pe.n:ent In each of two directions in tion and modest increases Jn maximum tensions and compressions, but
tensile zones md 0.18 percent in other zonC*. fPICCd no farther apart the lnftuence on de&gn would be negligible.
than me time.I the shell thickneu, is recommended. This can be sup- At. for the transverse bending moments Mt>' the difference between
plied in the form of fabric. coarse me.th, fine mesh, and the analytical results are again of no
THIN-SHEU. CONCRETE STRUCTURE$ 631
2 - #6
2'3"
#3@ 12·
Rigid plane
dlephragm
Freeadga
.. -· I
---·-· -·-·+~-~~~·---~-- 37.6'
x
18.8'
I. 88.S
.I
33.25'
(8) (C)
Ftg-19.Ja Plnlte-danenl meah for a barrel lhdl: {•) plan and come meah, (~) ftne-coane mellh. and {c) fine mah.
632 CHAPTER NINETEEN
Crown 45°
43.75
41.25 • From Table 19.14
Finite-element analysis
--0---
coarse mesh (SAP)
30"
26.25
18.75 20°
16.25
6.25
3.75
.25
-30 -20 -10 0° 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Compression Tension
Flgunt 19.39 Comparison of N, results by various methods.
~o
60 20 6-0 4-0 4-6 1.9-2.7
I .
..I
9oyw"'1h
bending moments depart radically from tho1e that would be obtiined 19.5..2 E:arnple
by assuming the ridge.. unyielding as In Fig. 19.41. Dim.emiom of the folded-plale roof of Pig. 19.41 aruhawn in Pig.19.42.
The roof will be designed fur the following Wllfurmly distributed load:
1t.S.1 Anllytlt tit Folded Pll.Ws
A full bibli~y on folded-plate analy.U tppeared In a 1963 report.39 Live load. 20
Roofing. insulation, etc. 10
which m:ommended the simplified analym given in the second edi-
Plate lit 4 In. 2l:!
tion of this handbook. and in the Jim edition of Thin Shell ConcreU sop.sf
Slnlctum.4.3 Slnc.e then, numerical methods, e~clally flnite-eleme.nt
analysis, have become the ma.re practical methods.40 The.refure, we give liible 19.17 summames the crl.liadvalueuhownlnFig.19.41 for this
only some raulu herein to indi<:atc the behaYior of such ~s. folded plate and taken &run a simplified analysis. More rigorous analy-
The resultl of a folded-plate analpis will normally be longitudinal plate su show thai these values give a reasonable buis for design. Table 19.18
streaae.t and transverse ben.dlng momenb u shown for the midspan in dlaplays longltudin.al straaes from Table 19.17 and Includes also values
Fig. 19.41. The designer uses thelle values to provide reinforcement u at other sect.Ions from the support {:r =O} to midspan (:r =U2), where
illumawd in the example that follows. the dimbution is taken as parabolit: that is, at ;c =U4. the vilues are
392
(210)
N,.h, psi
(a) (b)
Rgme 19A1 Campari.lon betwem qlin.drial aegmmt and folded plate.
6J4 CHAPTER NINETEEN
Supporting member
------37'-2"------1
(a)
-·- ·-·~
·..:.
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
8'-8" - -- 2 f---- 9•.11· - -- i
3 4
(b)
0.75 times those at midspan. These values permit the calculal:ion of the
principal stresse.t, shown also in Table 19.18, the results of which appear Joint2: A,= ll3 x4S =0.29Sin.."lft.No.4at8in.
20,000
graphically In Fig. 19.43.
The pattern of reinforcement is shown in Fig. 19.-«. The require- Plate 3:
ment.t are based on the principal ltreUet of Table 19.18. Along the 51)(48 2
support, mrtlng at joint l ln plate 1 and proceeding to the longitudinal Middle: A,=--=0.122in. /ft,No.3at10iD.
«nterline, the required reinforcement at 45 degrees is 20,000
2~
·a
....,
0
- - - - Tension - - - - - Compression
Rgure 1!"43 Stress trajectories in developed folded plate of Pig. 19.37.
Longitudinal sUess, psf +1456 +745 +36 -122 -281 -214 -147
Transverse bending moment, lb 0 0 ot +392 -948 -600 -2067
*Denote< polnt mlclway betM:en joints 0 and 1 (1Ce Fig. 19.31).
'A more rlgorou.o analytla lhowa a value of238 ft/lb/ft (1ee p. 29-t of Rd. 1).
t symm.
Support
3 ----+-----
#4@7"
-----i-- t symm.
i
2 i
5'-0"
#4@5"
~
1 I
5'-0"
Joint 0
_!,,_
-'4=- 3L _!,,_
8 8 2 #4@5"
Plan
Showing principal tensile
reinforcement only
W.W. fabic
4x4- 6/6
W.W. fabric
Cross section at U2
Detail at joint 1
REINFORCEMENT FOR TRANSVERSE MOMENTS for unyielding ridge lines, which is the limiting case as L ~ 0. When
At the middle of plate 2, M = +392 ft-lb/ft (Table 19.17) and h = 4 in. L = 35 ft, the moments have approximately the same values as for L = 0,
With a covei of Yi in., d = 3 in. Then, with f« = 20,000 psi and f ~ = but for L = 105 ft, the maximum moments are from 2.5 to 6.5 times the
4000 psi, values for L = 0. On the othei hand, the in-plane slrC$Ses (Fig. 19.45a)
exhibit the same geneial behavior whethei the span is 35 or 105 ft, with
392
A,= xl; 0.09in.2/ft relatively high tension at the bottom and much lower compression near
20,000x-x3 the top.
8
'fRANSVERSE FRAMES
for which No. 3 at 12 in. is provided at the bottom of the plate. At joints 2 The T-bearn behavior of the transverse frame is similar to that of the
and 3, respectively, transverse arch for cylindrical shells. The behavior of the longitudinally
continuous folded-plate structure is also similar to that of the continu-
A,- 948xl; _ 0217 in.2 /ft ous cylindrical shell
20,000X-X3 1!11.5.3 Prestl't!ued Folded Plates
8
Prestressing can substantially reduce the longitudinal tensile stresses
A, 2068x12 0.473 in.2 /ft in folded plates (Fig. 19.46). Analysis shows that a force F = 146 kips
20.oooxix3 applied in the edge plate of the roof in Fig. 19.42 will completely
eliminate longitudinal tension, as shown in Table 19.19. Note that the
for which No. 4 at 10 in. and No. 4 at 5 in. are provided. At the middle moments are all reduced except that in the middle of plate 2.
of plate 3, the moment is 55 peicent of that at joint 2, so half the No. 4
bars coming from joint 3 are cut off at that point.
The longitudinal distribution of these moments is not well defined
in the analysis. For cylindrical-segment thin shells, it appears that the
moment drops off toward the supports somewhat more slowly than a
sine curve. In this case, we shall provide the full amount of steel in the
center half of the span and reduce it to roughly 75 percent in the outei
quarter-span lengths. The reinforcement is shown in Fig. 19.44.
INFLUENCE OF SPAN
Figure 19.45 shows how the longitudinal stresses from in-plane plate
bending and transverse moments from one-way slab bending are influ-
enced by the span L. The dashed line in Fig. 19.45b shows values of M Flgul't! 1!11.46 Prestreasing of a folded plate (prestreaaing profile).
~ symm.
3 -147 +25
(a)
(b)
Flg111.. 1!11A5 Folded-plate behavior for various spans: (a) m%/h, psi, and (b) M+• ft-lb/ft.
631 CHAPTER NINETEEN
Tllble 19.19 DHd LCllld, Uw l.o•d, and The horizontal projections are given by
Pre1tressed Results (Folded Plmll
DLandLL l're.rtre&I Combined
In Eq. (19.33), Pz•Pi• and p. are loads per unit of area of the hori-
19.SA Continuous Folded Plates
zontal projection of the surface. The relationship between these compo-
When folded plates are continuous over transverse supports, design nents and the load p" p,. and p. per unit of area of the shell surface is
practice consists of determining stresses by using the ratios of continu-
ous beam moments to simple beam moments. For example, for a folded
plate with the cross section shown in Fig. 19.45a, continuous for two (19.34}
spans of 70 ft each, the midspan tension of 1456 psi at the lower edge
(Fig. 19.45a) would be reduced to 728 psi (ratio of wL2/16 to wL2/8).
The lower-edge compression at the interior support would be 1456 psi
(the same as the midspan tension for a simple span of 70 ft) because
Where only uniform vertical loads need be considered, z = p p1 = 0,
the negative moment at the interior support of a fully loaded two-span so that q = -p•' and Eq. (19.33} are greatly simplified. Furthermore,
continuous beam is wL2/8. Results of more accurate analyses confirm the vertical load can be assumed to be uniform over the horizontal
this practice as a reasonable basis for design.'" projection for fairly fiat shells, so that Eq. (19.34) is eliminated; that is,
p,=p•.
19.6 TRANSLATION SHELLS OF
DOUBLE CURVATURE 19.6.l Elllptlc Parabololds
N'y
Figure 19A7 Stress resultants on a differential element Figure 19AI Elliptical paraboloid shell.
THIN-SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES 639
Substitution ofEq. (19.35) into Eq. (19.33b) yields lf the torsional stiffness of the supporting arch is small, the shell
edge can be assumed to be simply supported, in which case w =
2 2
2c d F +~ d F =q
2
Mxa=O,so
b 2
ax 2 2
a ay2
P,
Q,..= 2p (19.39a)
Once a stress function F that satisfies this equation is found, the
membrane stress resultants can be determined by Eqs. (19.32) and With the edge shear known, moments at interior points are deter-
(19.33a). Various solutions are possible, depending upon the assump- mined from Table 19.2. Thus,
tions relative to the boundaries. Most important is the case where all
four edges are supported so that they are subjected only to in-plane
(19.39b)
shears N;,,,(Fig. 19.48). In this case, the shell needs only four point sup-
ports, with edge members to carry the shear. Derivation of the stress
resultants is given in Ref. 45: l!XAMPLB
Assume a =40ft, b =50ft, c1 =8ft, ez= 10 ft, h=3 in.,p,= 60 psf. From
- 2k
N' =-p,a xcoefficient (19.36a) Eq. (19.36), assuming k = 1,
" C:1
60x402 •
N~ = - - - = -12,OOO x coeffiaent
(19.36b) 8
2
, 60X50 •
N"' = - - - = -15,000 x coefficient
10
(19.36c) 60X50X40
N' = -13,400 x coefficient
"' '/00
+N'2
"'
is suggested in Ref. 45 that N:,,
can be considered to be maximum at
The results are shown in Table 19.22.
x=a-0.4.ji;h y=b-0.4.{r;h (19.37) From Eq. (19.35).
where T" and Ty are the comer ndii (Fig. 19.42). This assumption ls based
on the fact that edge disturbances damp out rapidly.
The Geckeler approximation (Sec. 19.3.1) may be used for an
approximate evaluation of the bending near the edges. If the edge arch from which the radius of curvature T1 is
is much stiffer than the shell the shell edge can be assumed fixed. Thus,
for the edges x = ± a, r. =[l+ilz/(dy)2]312 125 [1+(....L)2J'2
T2
W=-2A-Q -2A2 -M
T2 p
+-•-
T2 Y a 2 z1ay2 125
"'Eh "" ... Eh '"' Eh
At the comer, Ty= 125 x 1.16312 = 156 ft, and from Eq. (19.37), the
2 2
d edge shear can be considered maximum at
~=2A~Q +4A 2 ~M =0
dx "'Eh ... ... Eh ""
y = 50 - 0.4J156 x 0.25 = 47.5 ft= 0.95b
In these equations, the terms involving the edge shear Ou and the
edge moment M"" are obtained from Table 19.2. The last term in the Thus, according to Table 19.22, the largest principal tension along the
first equation is the radial (hoop) displacement due top.. The solution is edge is 9.64 kips/ft.
Reinforcement for the tension at the corners is usually placed diagonally.
The controlling tension is usually that at the edge, but principal stresses at
(19.38a) several interior points should also be computed to determine the extent
of the area to be reinforced. Minimum reinforcement of at least 0.0018bh
for welded-wire fabric (ACI 318-11, Section 7.12.2.1) should be supplied
With the edge shear and moment known, moments at points interior throughout
to the boundary can be determined from Table 19.2. Thus, The transverse shear and moment along the edge x = a = 40 ft can be
estimated by Eq. (19.38) or (19.39), depending upon the assumption as
M = C3 Q + C M
" Jl ... 4 ...
= p,
p2
(c -c,)
3 2
(19.38b)
to relative stiffnesses of the shell and its supporting arch. The comer
=
radius rx is to be 125 ft, from which Jl 0.24. Equation (19.38a) gives
Ou= 250 lb/ft and M,,. = -520 ft-lb/ft. However, if the edge is assumed
640 CHAPTER NINETEEN
1'1ible 19,20 Coeffldents for Computing Stress Ruulhinb In Elllptlc•I hr•bololds [Eq, (19.36111,,_ tt.I. 24)
Valueofy/b
Stress
%/a resultants (a) cl/CJ. =1.0 (d) cl/CJ. =0.8
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0
(b) cl/c2
0.465
=0.6
- 0 0.101 0.229
'hlble 19,21 Shar ~llong Edges of Elllptlail P•nibololds to be simply supported, Ox.= 125 lb/ft [Eq. (19.39a)], and the corre-
(Eq. (19.36c)) lfrom Ref. 26) sponding maximum moment is, from Eq. (19.39b),
cl/c2
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Mx =0.32~=167ft-lb/ft
2X0.24
yfb Mx=±a
0.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 The maximum value 0.32 ofC3 is from Table 19.2 and corresponds to
0.1 0.0419 0.0389 0.0342 0.0307 0.0137 ~. = 0.8. Therefore, this maximum moment is located about 0.8/0.24 =
0.2 0.0854 0.0793 0.0701 0.0550 0.0286 3.3 ft from the edge.
0.3 0.1319 0.1231 0.1Cl96 0.0872 0.0481
The supporting arches should be designed for the edge shears N:,_
as in the case of the barrel shell.
0.4 0.1836 0.1721 0.1546 0.1254 0.0731
0.5 0.2432 0.2294 0.2081 0.1728 0.1075
19.6.3 Hyptirbollc hrabololds (Hyp•rs) with
0.6 0.3204 0.3066 0.2859 0.2493 0.1818 Slr•lght-Une Bounurles
0.7 0.4071 0.3897 0.3627 0.3173 0.2296
These shells have a simplicity of geometry and a potential for shape that
0.8 0.5363 0.5178 0.4887 0.4400 0.3443 is economical and attractive. The simplidties, however, may mislead
0.85 0.6279 0.6090 0.5791 0.5292 0.4306 the designer into geometries or details that violate good practice in
0.9 0.7570 0.7378 0.7074 0.6667 0.5659 reinforced concrete. Specifkally, if the rise is too slight, compressions
0.95 0.9777 0.9582 0.9276 0.8763 0.7741 are high, and moments due to creep can cause instabilities. Also, sim-
1.0
xla
- - -
Aty = ± b
- - plified procedures for determining stresses often provide no criterion
for reinforcement except for the minimum dictated by good practice.
The design of hypars must be based on a study of successful struc-
0.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 tures as well as those that have experienced difficulties..ci;-50
0.1 0.0419 0.0444 0.0468 0.0488 0.0500
0.2 0.0854 0.0903 0.0950 0.0990 0.1014 MEMBRANE Tuso11.ys1
0.3 0.1319 0.1391 0.1460 0.1519 0.1553 Many hypars designed on the bam of membrane theory have per-
0.4 0.1836 0.1930 0.2019 0.2095 0.2140 formed well. However, numerical analyses of bending have shown that
0.5 0.2432 0.2545 0.2652 0.2743 0.2798 membrane-theory stresses can be misleading at times.
0.6 0.3204 0.3317 0.3425 0.3516 0.3571 The equation of the hyperbolic paraboloid is (see Fig. 19.49a)
0.7 0.4071 0.4213 0.4348 0.4463 0.4532
0.8 0.5363 0.5515 0.5659 0.5782 0.5855 (19.40)
0.85 0.6279 0.6434 0.6582 0.6707 0.6782
0.9 0.7570 0.7728 0.7878 0.8005 0.8081
0.95 0.9777 0.9935 1.0087 1.0215 1.0290
For x (or y) constant, z describes a parabola in a plane parallel to yz
1.0
- - - - (or xy) so that the surface can be generated by translating the parabola
EOF along the parabola GOH.
N' 0 -0.52 -1.06 -1.65 -2.31 -3.08 -4.11 -5.23 -6.95 -8.17 -9.90 -12.85
N' "" 0 +0.04 +0.15 +0.35 +0.65 +1.10 + 1.82 +2.68 +4.14 +5.24 +6.84 +9.64
(8)
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
z /
/
/
/
/
-----------------1
I
I
I y
I
L
(a)
(b)
Figure 1!51.50 (a) Alternatift surface representation with reference to axes (x, y) parallel to the projections of the straight generators. (b) Internal forces as a result of
applied uniform preaaure.
The surface contains two sets of straight generators; OJ in Fig. 19.49a SJCBWED SURFACES
represents one set, and OK the other. The projections of these generators If the surf.ice is bounded by straight generatonJ and ro ;;/. 90° (Fig. 19.50a),
on the xy plane a.re shown in Fig. 19.49&, where ro is given by
p•
a load uniform over the horiwntal projection can be carried by
UNSYMMETRICAL Lo.An
Once a stress function F that satisfies this equation is found, the If some quadrants of the surfaces in Fig. 19.51 are unloaded, stress
membrane stress resultants can be determined by Eqs. (19.32) and resultants for the loaded quadrants can be determined by Eq. (19.43).
(19.33a). Various solutions are possible, depending upon the assump- However, this results in unbalanced forces in certain edge members. If
tions for boundary conditions (Ref. 27, pp. 263-283). When the load only two quadrants of the surface in Fig. 19.5ld are loaded (Fig. 19.52),
p• is uniform over the horizontal projection of the surface, a solution of the edge-member furces F must be reacted. Unless there is external
restraint at these points, F must be equilibrated in each case by the other
practical interest is (see Fig. 19.50b)
half of the edge member. This subjects the unloaded panels to shearing
forces along their edges. This problem is discussed in Ref. 50.
"N~=P.aobo
-, 2C1i
iJx =Ny =O (19.43a) Solutions based on Eq. (19.43) are not reliable fur the surfaces shown
in Fig. 19.Slb-d because the shell cannot deform as the membrane
theory would predict. Though a more refined analysis is needed for
The edges are subjected only to shearing-stress resultants, which design, the membrane theory still can provide indications of behavior
must be resisted by edge members. The projected principal stress resul- of the type seen in Fig. 19.51 and Ref. 50.
tants are inclined 45 degrees with the edges:
BEHAVIOR CoNSIDBRING BENDING THEORY
The gabled shell in Fig. 19.53 demonstrates the differences between
- _ N- _ "P.aobu membrane theory and bending theory for the behavior of the shell, of
N1 - - 2 - - - (19.43b)
2co the horizontal ridge beams, and of the gabled edge beams.
THIN-SHELL CONCRl!T! STRUCTURES 643
(a) (b)
--- --___,.,.__
/ I ..............
I ...................
(c)
r101Dix
24"
H
al~ 10·
- ro·---1
I . i
I 24·
-I ~
i
~------- I. _________J· 12"
1.. 80' .1
Membrane theory
Figure 19.SJ Gabled hyperbolic paraboloid. (Prom Ref. 52.)
For the shell under uniform load on the horizontal projection, the mem- This behavior arises because those edges cannot carry the tensions
brane theorywould give sh.ear stresses evuywhere of~= Pi2k, where Pr = assumed by the membrane theory; rather, they move inward as shown
37.5 pgf and k = 8/402 = 0.005, so that~= 37.5/0.01=3.75kipa/ftor1:"1 = in Fig. 19.55 and thereby force the diagonal arches to carry the load. We
3.75/(12 x 3} = 104 psi This stress is numeric.ally equal to the principal can see the same behavior reflected in the forces carried by the edge
tensile and compreasive stresse3 through (k), and hence, according to the beams. Figure 19.56 shows the forces in the edge beama derived from
membrane theory in each quadrant, the shell carries the load-half by both the membrane theory and the bending theory. The former gives
parabolic arching slabs parallel to the diagonal between the central crown result. closely approximated by C = (a - x)S = 40 x 3.75 = 150 kipa at
and the support and half by parabolic hanging slabs parallel to the diagonal the support where x = 0 and a= 40 ft. The figure shows a alightly higher
between the gable crowns at the edges. Shaaban and Ketchum showed that value because it is based on dead load rather than a uniform load on the
the hanging slabs carry less load; it is nearly all taken by the arching slabs, horizontal projection of the surf.ice. The bending theory gives smaller
which have thereby twice the stress that is obtained by membrane theory. values which are nearly constant up until about halfway down the gable.
Figure 19.54 shows this behavim and further emphasizes how the diagonal
arch slab part that is directly between the crown and support takes very
much high.er stresses near that support in the case they studied. This gabled
hyperbolic paraboloid shell acts primarily as two diagonal arches crossing
at the crown and delivering nearly all the roof load directly to the comer
supports. It does not act as a set ofarching and hanging slabs bringing load
to the straight-line edges as derived from the membrane theory.
0
-200
--- -- ---- -- -- -- ;i-- -- --- --
--400 I/ ............ r--....
,___Membrane theory
~
-600 Finite-elements
/\
-~
-600
solution
\
-1000 \
-1200
-1400 i....
Crown Support Crown Ridge stiffener
Figure 19.54 Streu temltants in a gabled hyperbolic paraboloid. Figure 19.55 Displacements in a gabled hyperbolic paraboloid.
(From Ref. 53.) (From Ref. 53.)
THIN-SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES 645
......".....
~r---..,.
-40 J l
~ ........... J l
" ,,
"'
a.
-80
Membrane theory
.. ....... .... _ .....
.......
A
LI
I l
I
A
_J
:sz -120 .... - - - - - - _ --1,X/L _ - - - - - -
',---- ---
~
-160
-- -------(
'
-200 1 rI
i r
i r
1 I
Ridge Support I J
I J
Figure 1956 Forces in edge beam of a gabled hypezbolic paraboloid.
(From Ref. 53.)
Then, its force increases rapidly until, at the support, it is about equal to
the membrane theory result. Thus, Figs. 19.48 and 19.50 show that the
I. 40'-0"
(a)
.I
shell rather than the edge beam carries much of the load except near the
comers at the supports.
LLl:z:
These results, while useful as insight, do not have a major bearing on
the layout of shell reinforcement since the stresses are so low. However,
they have a major influence on design of the edge beams for two t
5'-6"
reasons. First, the much-reduced edge-beam loads suggest that those
beams need not be large. Second, the reduced compression makes such
beams less able to carry bending because they are less precompressed
than the membrane theory assumes.
Schnobrich52 has shown that the edge beams and the ridge beams
Section A-A
+3. *
actually load the shell rather than the converse, but they keep the high (b)
axial stiffness. This is espedelly true for the ridge beams becauBe they are
Figure 19.57 Bnmple of Section 19.6.3.
horizontal and, hence, can be subjected to substantial deflections and
bending in regions where the shell is so flat that it provides little support.
The compressive stress is only
EXAMPLES OP FINITE-ELEMENT ANALYSIS
3000 83 .
What follows are analyses of an umbrella-type structure (Fig. 19.57&) f = 3Xl2 = psi
and a gable-type structure (Fig. 19.57d). The results are obtained first
using the very simple membrane approach and, second, a refined finite- The tension Tat mid-length of the edge member• is
element analysis. The program used, CDA-SPRING, formerly known as
MSC-PAL, allows nonplanar quadrilateral shell elements. As in the cyl- T = 3000 x 20 = 60,000 lb
inder examples, program FEMAPs. is used for pre- and postprocessing. for which
EL\MPLE1 A,= 60,000 =3in.2
For the inverted umbrella shown in Fig. 19.57, a= b=20 ft, and c= 5.5 ft. 20,000
The weight of the 3-in. shell is 37.5 psf, to which is added 12.5 psf to The shearing forces on both sides of the sloped edge members con-
account for the weight of the edge beams. The live load is 30 ps£ Then, tribute to its axial force. The compression C is
from Eq. (19.43).
- - - 80X20X30 C= 2 x 60,000x~--- 125,000lb
~2a2+s.5 2
-N,,, =N1 =-N2 = x .S 2960:3000lb/ft 20
2 5
Choosing an allowable compression on concrete of 500 psi,
The required reinforcement in the direction of N 1 is
3000 2
A =125,000= 2SOin.2
A,= = 0.150 in. /ft f 500
20,000
Minimum reinforcement in the orthogonal direction for temperature For the triangular cross section shown in section AA of Fig. 19.57,
and shrinkage is 0.002 x 36 = 0.072 in. 2/ft (ACI 318-11Section7.12.2.1). the area furnished is
For easier placement, steel is often placed along the straight-line A = 20d2 =250in.2
generators. Assuming A,,, =A.,, Eq. ( 19.47) gives, since lj> = 45°, g 5.5
3 from which d = 8.29 in. In Ref. 50, this depth is made 9 in.
A =A =NP= 000 =0.lSOin.2 /ft The finite-element model is shown in Fig. 19.58a and 19.58&. The
"' ., f, 20,000
shell is a perfect hypar as defined in Fig. 19.58b and by Eq. (19.42).
Thus, where it follows the straight-line generators, the steel required is The shell is thickened to 9 in. at center, tapering to 3 in. at 2 ft on
2 x 0.150 = 0.3 in.2/ft. On the other hand, only 0.15 + 0.072 = 0.222 in.2/ft each side of the symmetry plane and at the perimeter (Figs. 19.57 and
is required if it is placed along the paraboln 19.58b). so that the median surface is not a perfect hypar anymore.
646 CHAPTER NINETEEN
k:
(b)
Flgul'll 19.51 Finite-element model (a) and (b).
The perimeter beams are 12 in. wide and 7.5 in. high on the exterior, mid-length ofthe edge (calculated from the element stresses) is 61,500 psi,
and have variable thickness at the interior. The loads defined are the which is in very good agreement with the result given by the membrane
actual dead load for 150 psf and a live load of 30 psf uniformly distrib- theory. From this force, 40 percent is spread in the shell, and 60 percent
uted on the shell surface. is located in the 1-in.-wide beam.
Only one-quarter of the shell was analyzed assuming two symmetrical
planes. The displacements show that the membrane behavior assump- 19.6.4 Hyp81'bollc Plr•bololds with
tions considered in the simplified analysis are not satisfied. At about Pllr•bollc Boundllrles
three-fourths of the diagonal length (measured) from center, the tension Po8si'ble systems of stress resultants fur a surfilce bounded as in Fig. 19.49
perpendicular to the main diagonal is 5400 lb/ft ( 450 lb/in.), resulting in a and with x,y directed as in that figure are
stress of 150 psi (which is 80 percent high.er than given by the membrane
theory), while the bending stress in the same section is 230 psi.
Based on these numbers, we conclude that at about two-thirds - pa2
of the diagonal length, measured from the center, the calculation of N =-·- N,=Nxy=O (19.45a)
" 2c1
reinforcing based on membrane theory may not be conservative, and
cracks may show on the upper face of the shell. However, due to the
high redundancy of the system, it is unlikely that the ultimate load is
significantly reduced (if the reinforcing is based on membrane theory).
The membrane compressive stress along the stiffened area is 390 psi (19.45b)
(compared to 500 psi obtained in the simple method), but it is coupled
with a bending stress of ±320 psi. The total axial force on a 4-ft-wide
band is 103,000 lb, which compares well to the 125,000 obtained in the
membrane analysis.
The edge-beam tension is not confined to the beams but spread (19.45c)
into the shell, creating stresses parallel to the edge. The total tension at
THIN-SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES 647
The first system requires anchorage of the surface at x = ± a, the For positive values of tan 29, 9 is measured counterclockwise from
= =
second at y ±b, and the third at both x =±a and y ±b. The resultants the face upon which N1 acts.
N" and N 1 nonnal to the vertical planes AHB, AED, and so on consti- Minimum reinforcement should be provided as required in ACl 318
tute heavy load that will usually be impracticable to support even where not required by analysis.
Combinations of the surface can be made. An example is the groined In areas where the computed tensile stress in the concrete exceeds
vault of Fig. 19.59. Reference 49 contains tables of coefficients fur this 300 psi, at least one layer of reinforcement must be parallel to the prin-
structure. cipal tensile stress unless it can be proved that a deviation is permissible
because of the geometrical characteristics of the shell and because,
for reasons of geometry, only insignificant and local cracking could
develop.
The allowable stress for reinforcement may be used at any point in
the shell independently of the magnitude of the stress in the concrete
at that point
Additional reinforcement to resist bending moments must be pro-
portioned and provided in the conventional manner. Generally, where
moments are significant in thin shells, the effect of direct compression
forces may be neglected. Either working-load or ultimate-load analysis
maybe used.
Where the computed principal tensile stress (psi) exceeds 2..JJ:
E A,C,
(f; in psi), the spacing of reinforcement should not exceed three
times the thickness of the shell. Otherwise, reinforcement should
be spaced not more than five times the thickness of the shell or more
than 18 in.
Spli.ces in principal tensile reinforcement should be kept to a practical
minimum. Splices should be staggered, with not more than one-third
of the bars spliced at any one cross section. Bars should be lapped
only within the same layer. The minimum lap for draped reinforcing
bars should be 30 diameters, with a minimum of 18 in. unless more
is required by ACI 318, except that the minimum may be 12 in. for
reinforcement not required by analysis. The minimum lap for welded-
wire fabric should be 8 in. or one mesh, whichever is greater, except
that ACI 318 governs where wire fabric at a splice must carry the full
allowable stress.
Concrete covf!T should be at least Y, in. for bars, 1' in. where precast
and for welded-wire fabric, and 1 in. for prestressing tendons, provided
the concrete surfaces are protected from weather and are not in contact
E D A with the ground. In no case should the cover be less than the diameter
of the bar or tendon. If greater cover is required for fire protection, it
y needs apply only to principal tensile and moment reinforcement whose
yielding would cause failure.
FlguN 19.59 Groined vault
SHELL ROOFS
Buckling can be initiated by relatively high permanent-load compres-
12
sive stresses, which with time can lead to creep and eventually large
Free top displa=ents. Displacements of a shell normal to its middle surface
imply a change in curvature, so thin shells, since they rely on their
curvature for resistance to load, are particularly susceptible to large
10
displa=ents and thus to budding. Although much has been written
on the stability of thin shells,62 - 64 there is little experimental work on
H thin-shell concrete structures of the shape and boundary conditions
usually found in roofs.
8 The buckling pressure q., on a spherical thin shell63 is given by
(19.50)
K 6
h2
qa=CE- (19.51)
2 3 4 5 6 rxr,
H/r
where rxand r, are the two principal radii of curvature.
Figure 1!1.410 Valuca of K In Eq. (19.48) for r/h = 100. Note: c = internal These equations show that instability becomes a problem for shells
suction coefficient as a multiple of q.,. which are very thin and flat or oflow-modulus concrete. Concrete creep
can contribute to large deflections but may be reduced by providing
reinforcing steel in both faces of the shell. The effect of creep can be esti-
mated by assuming a reduced value of E or, if the principal membrane
For hyperboloich under wind loading, simplified bifurcation results
are from two to three times higher than wind-tunnel results. 57 The latter stresses at any point are known, by determining the tangent modulus of
elasticity and dividing it by a factor for long-term deflections. The factor
lead to an estimate of budding pressure as"
should not be less than 2.
Results from a comprehensive set of tests on concrete-dome mod-
(19.49) els at Ghent Univenity led to the value of C = 0.16 as a reasonable
estimate (when creep is considered) for uncracked spherical domes
without imperfections. Scordelis summarized methods for including
where q" =buckling pressure, psi, along windward meridian imperfections and crac.king.66 He gives graphs taken from the 1979
C = empirical coefficient = 0.052 Recommendations of the International Association for Shell and Spatial
h = thickness at throat, that is, at point on meridian where hori- Structures.67 Ali Scordelis notes, the Recommendations give buckling
zontal radius is minimum capacities much lower than does the Report of the ACI Committee 344.68
r = radius of shell parallel circle at throat In any case, designers need to consider imperfections and cracking in
a = empirical coefficient = 2.3 estimating dome buc.kling capacity so that the design will not be con-
The value of a has been derived from theoretical considerations as trolled by buc.kling.
7/3 (Ref. 58). The coefficient C shows wide scatter. Reference 59 shows In hyperbolic parabolical shells, there is danger of creep and failure
0.052 to be a reasonable lower-bound estimate. 57 The value of qcr by if the overall form is too flat. An example is the 1970 failure of a gabled
Eq. (19.49) should be compared with the design wind pressure at the roof in Henrico County, Virginia, of the form shown in Fig. l 9.5ld. The
top of the tower to ensure an adequate factor of safety against budding. Henrico shell was flat, defined by the ratio cofflo&o as in Eq. (19.43&). It
For cooling towen, qcr should be at least twice qc- at defined in was also made of lightweight concrete, and its supports were flexible
Sec. 19.2.2, when dead load is included and cracking considered. This columns connected by prestressed tension ties. Lightweight concrete
is because thermal gradients across cooling-tower shells (and possibly has a lower E than regular concrete of comparable strength. and it is also
other types) are large enough to cause vertical cracks and hence to more prone to creep. In an earlier shell of the same form built in Denver,
reduce substantially the circumferential stiffness of the shell.60 Since the hyperbolic-paraboloid was less flat, made of regular concrete, and
this bending stiffness plays a major role in the buckling capacity, its supported by heavy hinged buttresses tied together by a stiff floor and
reduction can reduce the buc.kling pressure drastically. The solution is framing below. Moreover, the flat central section at Denver had over
to provide enough circumferential reinforcement to control the crack- twice the steel reinforcement in its shallow ridge beams than did those
ing and to use a thickness sufficient to keep q.,. > 2q. of the Henrico shells.
THIN-SHELL CONCRETE STRUCTURES 649
19.1,2 Dyn•mk hh•vlor Forms should be built carefully. The designer should consider the
All the analpes presented in this section are for static behavior. For structural effect of small deviations from the plans and should set
concrete-shell roofs, wind is not usually a dynamic problem. Because tolerances. The stability of the shell depends upon its radii of curvature,
of the weight of the concrete, a more usual problem is the tearing off of and relatively small radial deviations in surface dimensions can cause
roofing because of the wind suction that arises over much of a shell roof. large variations in radius. For example, a variation of Y. in. radially in an
Seismic loading on shell roofs can be a difficult problem if the roof is arc length of 10 ft in the dome of Sec. 19.3.1causesa45 percent change
supported at a few isolated points, in which case the horizontal shears in radius if the surface remains spherical.
from seismic motions can be large and need to be considered. Concrete should be cast in a symmetrical pattern to avoid bracing the
For shell walls, the principal design loading can frequently be either scaffolding for the effect of unbalanced loads. It is recommended that
seismic or wind. Quasi-static approximations, such as those in Ref. 69, concreting commence at the low point or points and proceed upward.
to either loading have normally led to successful structures. If there Concrete should be deposited as nearly as possible in its final position.
appears to be a possibility that the natural frequencies of a shell are Vibration of thin sections is difficult. It has been done by vibrating the
close to important wind gust frequencies, special dynamic studies may reinforcement or the forms, but these systems must be rigid to with-
be warranted. Reference 61 gives a discussion of dynamic wind loading stand such treatment. Vibrating screens have been used successfully.
on cooling towers. Thin shells are susceptible to shrinkage cracking if curing of the
concrete is faulty. In hot weather, the use of retarders, preliminary
19.9 CONSTRUCTION
fog-spray curing. and wet burlap or water curing is advisable. In cold
weather, accelerators and special precautions against freezing are usu-
Two main problems in construction are scaffolding and forms and ally required. ln moderate weather (40° to 70°), ordinary methods such
reinforcement and concrete. One major question regarding scaffolding as membrane-curing compounds are usually satisfactory, although wet
and forming is that of reuse to reduce cost per square foot. This reuse curing may produce better results.
can be either by precasting or by casting in place. Precasting can lead The method of form removal ( decentering) is usually specified by
to a reduction in scaffolding altogether, but it also leads to an increase the designer in order particularly to avoid any unwanted temporary
in field connections. Casting in place on a scaffolding which then is supports or concentrated reactions on the shell. It is best to begin
moved has been more economical than precasting in many cases, espe- decentering at points of mlliimum deflection and progress toward
cially where the shell is a long barrel and the scaffold can move along points of minimwn deflection, with decentering of edge members pro-
a straight track. On the other hand, for domes of rotation, the scaffold ceeding simultaneously with that of the adjoining shell. It is important
can be built for only several pie-shaped segments and reused by rotating to control deflections at the time of decentering, and it is common to
to a new position. This method, however, changes design because the specify a modulus of elasticity that must be obtained before permission
partial shell must carry its dead load as an arch without the stiffening to decenter is granted. Small, lightly reinforced beams tested in flexure
effect of the hoops. have been used successfully to determine E. 72
Another design question, that of sufficient concrete strength, arises Thin shells of dramatic shape and lightness, which can be successfully
when the scaffolding is moved and a section of shell must then carry its built in warm, dry climates, cannot always be duplicated in harsher
loads early in its life. The young concrete in roof shells can be subjected regions. Furthermore, it is not easy to predict whether a particular con-
to higher creep and thus greater deformation than older concrete. struction scheme will be economical.
The reinforcement and the concrete influence construction largely in
two ways. The simpler the reinforcing pattern, the easier building is, even 19.10 APPEARANCE
though simplicity may sometimes lead to more reinforcement than a pat-
For appearance, there are two general problems. The first is that many
tern carefully detailed to reflect the calculated stresses. The concrete prob-
well-known thin shells were designed primarily for appearance and
lem mainly arises where the design requirement for a stiff mix, to achieve
have consequently either not performed well under load or proved
small creep and shrinkage, conflicts with the construction desire for a
uneconomical to build. The second is that many engineers do not
workable mix to reduce honeycombing and to permit rapid placement
consider appearance to be part of engineering design. That is to say,
A thin shell should be as thin as is practicable in order to induce in-
they consider safe behavior and economical construction to be the
plane stress as opposed to bending.70 However, the high cost oflabor in
engineer's province and appearance to be solely the architect's domain.
the United States usually makes it more economical to use a thicker shell
But the fine visual potential inherent in thin shells has been exploited
than to enforce the careful casting techniques essential to construction
by many engineers. Apart from the striking appearance of their shells,
of very thin shells. Three layers of steel are usually used, and to place
the excellence of these designers' solutions depended upon their con-
concrete properly, a 3-in. thickness is about minimwn.
cern for minimizing materials and costs. When these two fundamental
Slope of the shell should be less than 45 degrees to avoid top forms,
constraints are not recognized as essential to the success of their works,
which increase the difficulty of eliminating honeycombing. Where the
designers can easily imagine that the fine appearance is something sepa-
slope is 30 degrees, concrete with a slump of 1 to 3 in. can be cast to
rate from fine engineering. The primary reason why the best-known
reasonable tolerances without a top form. Where the alope exceeds
shell designers (Maillart, Torroja, Nervi, Candela, Tedesko, Isler, and
45 degrees, it may be possible to cast without top forms if the slwnp
others) have made such striking works is that they conceived of design
is low, but the cost of placing is increased. In some cases, concrete has
as the integration of efficiency, economy, and elegance.47
been shot onto vertical surfaces successfully.
Location ofribs can be important. Application of insulation and roof-
REFERENCES
ing is relatively timple when the surface is free of ribs. However, ribs
projecting below the soffit complicate movement of forms. Form move- 1. Ochsendorf, J.: Guastavino Vaulting. The Art of Structural TI~.
ment may constitute a large item of cost in continuous, cylindrical- Princeton Architectural Press, 2013.
aegment roo&, in which case ribs are built above the roof: These projections 2. Billington, D.: The Tower and the Bridge, Princeton University
must be carefully flashed. Ribless shells, that is, shells with wide, flat Press, 1985.
ribs, have been successfully built for short spans where budding was not 3. Lozano-Galant, J. A., and I. Paya-Zaforteza: Structural analysis
a major factor in design.71 of Eduardo Torroja's Fronton de Recoletos' roof, Eng. Struct. 33:
Maximum aggregate size should not exceed one-half the shell thick- 843-854, 2011.
ness, the clear distance between bars, or 1Y. times the cover. Where 4. Siegel, C.: Structure and Form in MolWn Architecture, Van Nostrand
top forms are required, maximwn size of aggregate should not exceed Reinhold, p. 271, 1962.
one-fifth the minimum clear distance between forms or the cover over 5. Faber, C.: Candela: The Shell Builder, Reinhold Publishers, 1963.
the reinforcement. 6. Nervi, P. L.: Structures, F.W. Dodge Corp., 1956.
650 CHAPTER NINETEEN
7. Chilton, J.: Heinz Isler, The Engineer's Contribution to Contempo- 40. Concrete shell structures, practice and commentary, J. AC!,
rary Architecture, Thomas Telford Publishing, 2000. September 1964.
8. Rice, P.: An Engineer Imagines, Ellipsis Londen Pr Ltd, 1998. 41. Chinn, J.: Cylindrical shell analysis simplified by beam method,
9. Lammler, R.: Ulrich Muther Shell Structures, Verlag Niggli, 2010. J. ACI, May 1959.
10. Anderson, S.: Eladia DMste, Innovation in Structural Art, Princeton 42. Wilson, E. L.: SAP IV, Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
Architectural Press, 2004. Report no. EERC 73-11, June 1973, rev. April 1974.
11. Bletzinger, K. U.: Form Finding and Morphogenesis, Fifty Years of 43. Scordelis, A. C.: Analysis of cylindrical shells and folded plates,
Progress for Shell and Spatial Structures, JASS, 2011. Coner. Thin Shells, ACI Puhl SP28, 1971, pp. 207-236.
12. Andriaenssens, S., P. Block, D. Veenendaal, and C. Williams: Shell 44. Pultar, M., et al: Folded plates continuous aver 11.ai.ble supports,
Structuresfor Architecture, Form Finding and Optimization, Routledge, 2014. J. Struct. Div., ASCE, October 1967.
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putation of general networks, Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 3( 1):115-134, 46. Students clear gym moments before roof fails, Eng. News-Ree.,
1974. September 24, 1970.
14. Akbarzadeh, M.: 3D Graphical Statics Using Reciprocal Polyhedral 47. 15-year-old H. P. roof fails, injuring 18, Eng. New-Ree., July 10, 1975.
Diagrams, PhD Thesis, ETII Zurich, 2016. 48. Tedesko, A.: Shell at Denver-Hyperbolic paraboloid structure of
15. Block, P., T. Van Meele, M. Rippmann, and N. Paulson: Beyond wide span, J. ACI, October 1960.
Bending: Reimagining Compression Shells, Detail Pre3S, 2017. 49. Mihailescu, M.: A new shell form for prestre3Sed sheds, Proc.
16. Baker, W., A. McRobie, T. Mitchell, and A. Mazurek: Mechanisms International Colloquium of Shell Structures, Madrid, Paper A-13.
and States of Self Stress of Planar Trusses Using Graphic Statics, 50. Elementary Analysis of Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells, Portland
Proceedings of the JASS Symposium, Amsterdam, 2015. Cement Association, 1960.
17. McRobie, A., and C. Williams: Discontinuous Maxwell-Rankine 51. Candela, F.: General formulas for membrane stresses in hyperbolic
stress functions for space frames, Int. J. Space Struct., 2018. paraboloid shells, J. ACI, October 1960.
18. Allen, E., and W. Zalewski: Form and Forces, Designing Efficient, 52. Sc.hnobriclt, W. C.: Analysis of hipped roof hyperbolic structures,
Expressive Structures, John Wiley and Sons, 2009. J. Struct. Div., ASCE, July 1972.
19. Akbarzadeh, M., Tom Van Mele, and Philippe Block: On the 53. Shaaban, A., and M. Ketchum: Design of hipped hypar shells,
equilibrium offunicular polyhedral frames and convex polyhedral force J. Struct. Div., ASCE, vol. 102, no. ST-11, November 1976.
diagrams, Comput. Aided Design 63: 118-128, 2015. 54. FEMAP-Finite Element Modeling and Postprocessing, User's
20. https://compas-dev.github.io, 2018. Manual, Enterprise Software Products, 1993.
21. https://p&.design.upenn.edu/polyframe, 2018. 55. Wang, Y-S., and D. P. Billington: Buckling of cylindrical shells by
22. https://www.csiamerica.com/products/sap2000, 2018. wind pressure, J. Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE, October 1974.
23. https:/lwww.karamba3d.com/tutorials/tutorials_basics/simple- 56. Kundurpi, P. S., et al.: Stability of cantilever shells under wind
shell-and-beam, 2018. loads, J. Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE, October 1975.
24. Salildis, E.: Structures: A GllOmetric Approach, Springer, 2018. 57. Cole, P. C., et al: Buckling of cooling-tower shells: State of the art,
25. Scordelis, A. C., and K. S. Lo: Computer analysis of cylindrical J. Struct. Div., ASCE, June 1975.
shells, ACE 64(5), May 1964. 58. Ewing, D. J. F.: The Buckling and Vibration of Cooling Tower
26. Clough. R. W., and C. P. Johnson: Finite Element Analysis of Arbitrary Shells, Part II: Calculations, Lab. Rept. RD/L/R 1764, Central Electricity
Thin Shells, Concrete Thin Shells, ACI, Puhl. SP028, pp. 333-363, 1971. Research Laboratories, Leatherhead, England, November 1971.
27. Billington, D. P.: Thin Shell Concrete Structures, 2nd ed., McGraw- 59. Der, T. J., and R. Fidler: A model study of the buckling bchavior of
Hill, New York, 1982. hyperbolic shells, Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 41, London, September 1968.
28. Design of Cylindrical Concrete Shell Roofs, ASCE Manual of 60. Cole, P. P., J. F. Abel, and D. P. Billington: Buckling of cooling-
Engineering Practice 31, New York, 1952. towc:r shells: Bifurcation results, J. Struct. Div., ASCE, June 1975.
29. Dumitrescu, J. A., and D. P. Billington: Concentrated edge loads 61. Billington, D. P., and J. F. Abel: Design of Cooling Towers for Wind,
on hyperbological shells, f. Struct. Div., ASCE, vol. 1, January 1984. Proc. Specialty Conf ASCE, Madison, Wlllconsin, August 22-25, 1976.
30. Wind forces on structures, lrans. ASCE, vol 126, part II, 1961. 62. Fliigge, W.: Stresses in Shells, Springer-Verlag OHG, 1960.
31. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and 63. Timoshenko, S. P., and J. M. Gere: Theory of Elastic Stability,
Commentary, ACI 318-11, American Concrete Institute, Farmington 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1961.
Hills, MI, 2011. 64. Collected Papers on Instability of Shell Structures, 1962, NASA
32. Billington, D. P.: Thin Shell Concrete Structures, McGraw-Hill, TN-Dl510, 1962.
New York, 1965. 65. Schmidt, H.: Ergebnisse von Beulversuchen mit doppelt
33. Abel, J.: «stattower," Program for the Analysis ofAxis)lmmetric Shells, gekrummten Schalen-modellen aus Aluminium, Proc. Symp. Shell Res.
Princeton University, 1972. (Delft). North-Holland Publishing Company, 1961.
34. Cole, P. P., J. F. Abel, and D. P. Billington: Buckling of cooling- 66. Scordelis, A. C.: Stability of Reinforced Concrete Domes and
tower shells: state of the art,]. Struct. Div., vol.191 , no. ST6, proceeding Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells, Concrete Shell Buckling, ACI Puhl SP-67,
paper 11364, pp. 1185-1203, June 1975. pp. 63-110, 1981.
35. Niemann, H. J.: Zur stationaren Windbelastung rotationssym- 67. Reco=endations for Reinforced Concrete Shells and Folded
metrischer Bauwerke im Bereich Transkritischer Reynoldszahlen, Plates, JASS Working Group No. 5, Madrid, 1979.
Technischwissenschaftliche Mitteilung, no. 71-72, des Instituts fur 68. Design and Construction of Circular Pre8treMed Concrete Structures,
Konstrktiven Ingenieurbau der Ruhr-Universitat, Bochum, 1971. J. ACI, Rep. of ACI Committee 344, no. 9, proc. vol. 67, p. 664, September
36. Sollenberger, N. J., and R.H. Scanlan: Pressure Differences Across 1970.
the Shell of a Hyperbolic Natural Draft Cooling Tower, Proc. Int. Conf 69. Building Code &quirements for Minimum Design Loads in Buildings
Full Scale Testing of Wind Effects, London, Ontario, June 1974. and Other Structures, American National Standards Institute, Inc., 1982.
37. Reinforced Concrete Cooling Tower Shells-Practice and 70. Tedesko, A.: Construction aspect of thin shell structures, ]. ACI,
Commentary, Report by ACI-ASCE Committee 334, J. ACI, January 1977. February 1953.
38. Fliigge, W.: Stresses in Shells, Springer-Verlag OHG, 1960. 71. Tedesko, A.: Multiple ribless shells, J. Struct. Div., ASCE, October
39. Dischinger, E: Die strenge Theorie der Kreiszylinderschale in ihrer 1961.
Anwendung auf die Zeiss-Dywidag-schalen, Beton u. Eisen 34: 257-264 72. Billington, D. P., The Tower and the Bridge: The New Art of
and 164-294, 1935. Structural Engineering, Princeton University Press, 1985.
Chapter20
Cable-Supported Roofs
IY
PAUL A. GOSSEN, PE Geiger Bngi11un, Svfforn, New Yori
KE11H M. MlldlAIN, Ph.D,. PE Gtlgtr Bngintm, Sujftrn, New York
20.1 INTRODUCTION Other meam of supporting a roof structure is through the wie ofsta.y
cables that reduce the spans of the convent!onal framing and elimin.ate
Cable• in roof co.nmuc:tion have foU11d their popularity due to the
interior supporu (Fig. 20.7). Section 20.3.2 l1m teveral e:nmples of
large areu dlese roofi are capable of spanning. The structural system
cahle-suppom:d roo&.
spanning the SJ*e acts primarily In ten&lon; thus. the telf-weight of
dme muctures is lower than the c:ml'feiltional framing. The fi>llowing 20.2 CABLE MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
1cbema.tic:s illustrate different tension roof systems.
Cibles are te.nslon members only. To .resist a load revmal, one may 20.2.1 '1)pes
consider 11. double ccble net that forms two opposing cable net laycn There are two types of cable conruuc:tion: strands and ropu. Strands
(Fig. 20.1) or a. roofing '}'Item ba'ring sufficient dead load Nc:h a.s con- are leaf flexible th&n ropes mcl ht1.ve a higher teNile capacity. Strands
e.me plank.t or Jlaht (Fip. 20.2 and 20.3). are the p.n:d.ominant material used fur cable roo&, whereu ropes are
To reilst 11. cahle't teaalon force, compression or flexural member• are more commonly used in "running stock" appll.ca.tio.n1 where hoiiting
.requlml. These may be located at the perimeter of the coveml space. and movable cables are requlrt<l.
They <:a11 con.sin of mall8ive frame• (Fig. 20.4) or be tdf-colltained Commonly uted cable types for 8tl'Ucturet are helical wire strand
ltructurel wc:h u ami:pres.rion rings in which the cable temion ii con- (ASTM AS86), wire rope (A.S1M: A603). and lockai coil Strands are
verted to comp.reulve hoop furca (F.lg. 20.5). compo.ted of teVenll layen of wires, called lays, that are twisted in a heli-
The space cove.red by 11. cable net can co.n&!at of continuous cables or cal fuh!on about a central wire. Ropes con«lst ofmultiple strands twisted
stepped cable tTwl8et suc:h as used for a "cable dome• sy8tem (Fig. 20.6). around a ((llter core that can be either 11. metalllc or a nonmetallk; 8trand.
651
e52 CHAPTER TWENTY
Compl'8881on
arch
Boundary cable
CABLE-SUPPORTED ROOFS t53
Double Support
compression ring column
Post
Hoop cables
654 CHAPTERTWENTY
Dead man
Wherea8 .rope wires are always round, atrand wim can be round or, in the During production, the individual wire• are initially .rolled. but in 1he
case oflocked coll cables. Z-wped. The Z-shaped wires fur locla:d coil 1ina1 fabrication procea the wires are cold drawn through a .mandrd
atrandl are commonly used only In the outer layen. Figure 20.8 illustntet whidi produce. 1heir high mength (270 bi}. This cold working reduca
the c.ro11 1ection for 1hue cable types. 1omeoftheplallic bc:ha:rior (yield.) that is commonlyU10c.imd with mel
productt. Not all of the hlgh-mength capadty of the wire ls utill2ed in 1he
1ina1 cable fabrlartlon due to the hellc:al. wire construction. Cables with a
long lay wire pitch (cinall angle to the cable ans) have II. higher et&pacity
1han those with a. ahm:tllr lay wire pitch ClarBe angle to the cable am).
The stranding pzocess (twiitillg the wiret into a cable) lea.vet the wire.t
.relatively uncompacted so that the calie wlD. haw an initial ioocenea"
that rmil1s in a one-time nonel.astic: •construction metdl" when IOll4ed.
When deirigning able ltrUctmel, an.alym is bami on the assumption of
elutic member beha.vim; including the cables. Thui, the comtruc:tion
(a) Helical wire strand atmdi moo be dlmln.ated aa much as poaalble during 1he fabrication pro-
cea Prestretch1ng the c:ahle to 50 percent of Its nominal 8trell.gth. aome-
timet ~d 8everal time.. removet moat of the conmuction Rmdl..
Even with this procedure, however, a perfectly linear-elastic bc:havior
of the calie .Is not achieved. Ill dea!gn. a close approrimatton to a linear
-·
be'havlor la assumed based on test data. For cahlea. the modWus In the
elastic range is defined by the dope of a secant between the atre5S point at
10 pera:nt of the breaking stnngtb and end point of 90 percent of the pre-
metcbing furce (Fig. 20.9). Shloe the allowable Slm1gth factor .Is 2.2, lhe
(b) Wire rope
modulus In the elutlc range coven wen Che range of the detign demand.
20.2.2 Hudw111'9 •nd End F1ttlnp
Cable hardware COii.lists of devices atta.c.bed directly to the cable, •uch
as e.ad fittings (anchorages), c1ampa, and sleeves. Hardware necessary to
••
guide die cable and ill componenu. •uch u .addle• and looee tleeves,
are not connectlld to the cable.
Three means of end litting atb.c.hmentt are common: rpelter •ockets.
swaged littings, and mechanlc:al. loop splices. A spelter socket conslm of
a cone-like basbt into whkh the cable it inserted. Within the basbt the
(c) Look coil strand cable winll are cmm1y splayed. Zinc. milchmml, or ruin is then poured
Figure 20..a Cablecmu llK!iom. (ImljU t&km from ASCB/SHI 19-16.) into the buket. The rauhing hardened cone under cable temlon wedge.I
CABLE-SUPPORTEP ROOF$ f55
Stress at nominal
cable strength
Stress at
prestresslng force Stress (o) vs. Strain (&) Curve
Stress at 90% of
prestressing force
Stress at 10% of
nominal cable strength
the wires into the bubt and forms the metnS of load trt&nsfer. &waged
(cooiprused) fiuinp can be used for cable diameters up to 2 in. They
co.milt of an anchorage attached. to a sleeve thst ii rwaged aroU11d the
cable. Swaged and apeher eoclcm are typically uaed fur structural. cables. BI,__ _ _ __...:..;.!...,,)
.Blther IWap1 or ape1ta aocbu may be 1lff<1 with wire rope. Spclta
sockets are mcmly used with R:rw:tura1 stnnd.. Pigurct 20.10 and 20.11
(a) Open swaged socket (b) Closed swaged socket
~ r111111n
(c) Threaded swaged socket
Figure 20.11 Swaged fiUixlp. (Image t&lcen fnnn ASCB/Sl!I 19-16.)
lllustnrtc 80me commonly used apeher and swaged e.nd :flttinga. ~<:hanl.
cal aplic:e loops are used on ropes. The wira of the rope are l'e'WCMD. Into
the rope to form a loop. A thimble. a curved piece ofhalf pipe, i.s in.med
(a} Open socket (b} Open socket wtth into the loop to prevent the wirel from being pinched. which would
bearing reduce their strength.
Oampt are often used where other components are attached to the
cable. The sliding force iJ given in 1he ASCE/SEI 19 u 7 percent of the
clamping Cora:. Due to the compaction of the cable unda- load. and c.rep
of the zinc coaling (which recluca the cable diameter). the force in the
clamping bolts can dlmlnJ.th. The reduction of 1he cable diameter causes
a 10# of the preteNion 8traln of the bolt and thu t. damping forte. To
counm 1hil loss. long bolta can be used, which reduces the mun loss.
Clearly thlJ iJ not to say that longer bolts imroduce more force but nther
that, by simply rec:alllng the ddlnitton of strain, one notes that fur a g1vm
d!Jpluement. a longer element hu les. s1rain (Le~ Jou of 8traln in this
(d) Closed socket wtth caae). Clamps are generally u.ted only fi:ir mi.aller wire-rope cahlea.
(c) CIOSfld socket
bearing Saddlet are used to change the direction of a able. The radl11.1 of the
saddle, as well as Its gro1m configuration, can reduce the cable's capadty.
20.13 Proc:ur4!ftlt!nt
Cable. arc •hipped in large coils or mb. The diameter of the (;Oi1a or
reeb ii depend.ent on the diameter of the cable u well u its conltruc-
tion. Reeling a cable onto a spool with a diameter too anaD. fur the cable
will loosen the wires. resulting in the 1088 of the predictable modulm
of elasticity that was obtained during the pre-metdt proc.af. When
a cable is coiled on a spool for shipping. the relative movement oC the
individual w:ltts can result Jn a "1et," causing a ahorte.nlng of Che cable.
(e) Open bridge socket (f) Closed bridge socket Ifa set occurs, Che umolled cable may need to be "aerclled" co return it
RguNl0.10 Sfclteuoc:Utflttinp. (lm.agctahn fNm ASCB/SBI 19-16.) to ita pre-8tretch dmgn length.
6ff CHAPTERTWENTY
'fyplca1ly a manW'acturer requirea a cable't length with the usociated 2D.3 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
tension force for deten:nining the unloaded fabrication length. Cablet Cables are tension-only elemenu and must be part of a luger system.
are typically con1idered linear-elastic thus, any state where the cable is
Often thit will include major muctl.lral componenU, such as a compre~
not lllack can be used for calculating the wiloaded fabrication length. lion ring or muta.
20.14 Proeedlan
20.J.1 Compadbll~of Petlgn
Strands and ropes are fabricated to ASTM rpecificatiom with vuying
protective coatings. Corrosion p.roteciion of cable.t 18 of high impor- Cables ue flelible and defo.rm under load, generally by a luger amount
Wlce due to Che hlgh-tenalle rue.agth ofits wim. The levd ofprotection dian ordinary framing. This deformation is not jlllt a a mwt of cat-
depends on the degree of (:OrroaM exposure. Wue pl'fanization or enariet uauming a funicular shape in accordance with the applied loads
aluminization are methods that are used. though galvuiization ill by far but also due to the larger strains they aper:tence because of their high
more common. ASTM aped.tkationt cover three levels of galvanization: streng1h as compaml to common framing. Thu., the combination of
A, B, and C. Coating A Is applied by hot clip galvanizing, while coating cables and framet must '"°unt and allow for the different strain of the
B and C generally arc ipplied by the Bethanization (elec;trolytic zinc) component.I. For example, if rigid roof paneh usembled of common
p.roce.u. Coalingl Band C c:onlilt ofa thicker layer of zinc than coating ttructural steel were rigidly attached to roof cables without provblon• to
A and tend to give better protection; however. the coating it softer and .release Che differential stnlm, the panels would assume the wne ltraln
thus more vulnerable to abrasion. Cables CID be fabricated with a vui- u the cables t.nd be overstretaed.
ety of combinatiom. though moat applications use a B or C coating on
the outer wiret and an A GOll1ing for the inner wires. The coaling affects 20.3.2 &.npla
not OJ1ly the cable's protection but alto its struc:tural perfomwice. The Cable• in roof rtructures are used In several wap. They are used in rigid
heavier coating requlm a .reduction in the steel area to malnWn the sted roof\! as tension-only members (such u ties and/or stay cable~
cable tlu, reaulting in a reduction in the strengd1 of the cable. An addl- (Fig. 20.7)} that support the &aming for the roof skin (cable 8'11ppO!'ted}
tional level of corro.rion protection anilahle ii to fill die tpaa• between or u SUJPmded catenariea that support the roof skin dircctly or part of
the wires with a protective greue. a ridged frame work (cable 1u.rpended).
Ullllke the Z-shaped wim In a locbd coil sttand that interlock. to An aample of a stay cable scheme u the roof of the Soccer World
form a water tight 8eal when temioned. round wlm bear upo.11 each Cup Stadium. Seoul Ko~ built In 2000 (Fig. 20.12). Bl.amples of
other at point amtacu, putic::ularly when they arc con.ttruc:ted with a roof skin supported directly by suspended c:ablet arc the North
alternating lays. This point bearing C&UK11 the 2inc coating to yield. Carolina State Fair building (1953), the "tent" ltructure in Munich for
reaultiD.g in a minor elongation of the cable and. more importantly. Che 1972 Olympics, and Maditon Square Garden. Roof cladding for
compaction of the strand diameter. This DI.If ht.ve lmplicatiom on the cable-8Ulpellded roofs can be membrane or rigid panels. Mon of the
performance of any clamped-on hardware. structuret with a fabric or film membrane cladding ire c:able-sutpended
In nrvi.ce, a sign of rusty spots may indicate common of the inner roo& because these maleriah are most adaptable tD c.rtenary defonna.-
w.ltta, though a brown color on the rtrand'e outer wires may only be 2inc tione. Air-inflated roo& alto fall Into thl8 category.
or 2inc: cmde dlscolort.tion. There are only a few me am of testing c:ables The stability of cable-suppom<l roof\! is provided by pretensl.olling
for interior common. Radiographic or X-ray examination may be used. die roof cables. The 1evd of pretension CO.!lailNtet fiSnIDc:an11y to iU
though they are difficult to interpret became of the voids inherent in the rigidity. If cables lose their tmJion, imtability of the roof structuR! can
cable col19trucl:lon. Cuttiog a sample cable open for examination will occur. Pretemlonlng can be done In several ways. First. the dead weight
obviously require It• replacement. of Che roof cladding, mch u concrete pl.anb, can be used to load Che
There are very few means of fire protectlon for cables. Indirect pro- cables. Bxamplet include the roo& of Mt.dllOD Square Guden and 1he
tection may comm. of a iprinkler symm. Direct protection may conmt nalatorium in Flushing Meadows Park. both in New York City. A second
of coating with an intume.1u:ent paint or other fire-retardant compound. method is to design the roof with a doubly curved c:able net or anticlutic
Theae compounds or painu must have enough tlaibillty to accommo- cable net In t1m scheme, two or more laya:s of cables widi. opposite
date the deformations of the cable under varying loading conditions. AD C\l1'WlUl'e are premeMed and ultimatdy load each other. The preatress
of these solutions have nontrivial udtmc:tural implicatiom. in diese ~ can easily be manipulmd. a fea1ure not anilable in
gravity-loaded Gable net syRmlJ. In air-wpported. roe&. the air~ enmple. backsmy cables support the s1rll1J and mam, while suspension
loadt the fabric that in tum loads the cables. The effm is llimilar to that cables anchored to the mutt support the roof skin.
of gravity low on the cable 8fllem but applied in an upward dlrection.
Two structunl system• for anchoring cable1 <:a11 be ide.llillled: a 20.3.3 Geomttlfc NonllnMrhy
clOffd struc:tural system that equlllb.ratet the cable forces in a compres- Cables are typlcdly conaide.red linear-elastic elemenu. Their placement
lion muc:ture, 1uch as a ring or polygon, and an •open" anchor system in a structural ~ may. however. ca~e their rapon1e to be nonlin-
Chat uiet dead men, rock. or earCh anchors. Open anchor system• rely ear. In thiJ cue. a large-diJplacement analyJis ill required whereby the
on the weight of the dead men and engaged soils or, In the cue of rock equailont ofequilibrium. are solved ualng the deformed geometry. Many
or IOi1 anchon, on the density and 90\llldne.. of the media in which aoftwue products are available today with this capability; however, the
Chey are anchored. Closed-aymm polygon-Uiaped muc~• are ide- u.ser 1hould be aware of the diffmnce between the large-d.iap1"em.ent
ally desig11ed with a funicular shape, which ls geometry cons:lrtent with analpia described here and what ill sometimes called P.8 analywis.
Che pattern of the react!Olls of the cables. More specifically, a funkular which. only app.rmimates thae effectt. Generally a large-dlaplacement
shtpe Is one that resl.m a tp«ific pattern of applied loads without llif analyals ls ftiiulre<l when force I• dlre<:te<l largely twisvme to the cable.
flexural ra:imnce. Any devialion from the funicular geometry forced Figure 20.14 illuruates two structures where linear and nonlinear analy-
by the cable reaci:io.111 will result in bending of the polygon. Design- s:il would be appropriate.
.Ing the ring to be very :flexible will reduce itll bending momentl due Unfortunatefy; there is no lillSlemearure whereby a system changes from.
co non-fimlcular loading; however, this will also mult in slgnifi<:a11t llnear to nolillneu. Ifit la not obvloua u in the enmple ab1m, It Is common
deilecti.ona. Cable tcmion varies with load cues; thu., the funicular to ant&lyze 1he 8tructw'e using both methodt. Rmlhs Qll be compued to
shape will change. Maintaining a funicular boundary requires sigrilli- make a.detmninlllion baaed on a.selected thretb.ald (e.g., 5 pen:ent differ-
<:a11t structure movemente that have arclil.tectunl implicatiOlle, that la, ence ill rmdts). A geometric nonllnear analym is more computaliomlly
co flnlshes Chat are Incompatible with these movements. An effective ~and It may be desirable to avoid Ifnot necessary.
way to control these mo't'CD!ents is to introduce "lateral q>nnp• around Some programs consider the poalblllty for 1111 element to go mck
Che polygon or ring that resiJt the unbalanced forces which cawie the (e.g.. modelingu a tmlion-only member). Thill is a lon:n of nonlinearity;
deflection. Springs can be amall-cantilevered beamB that are attached howevei; h it not equivalent to the geometric nonllneu:ity ditc:iwed
co the polygon or ring. The polygon or ring may also be supported by here, and one must be certain of the software's capabilltJes.
gravity load-carrying columns that have Ndia1 releuet to allow for free/
rertrained temperal:Ure-induced movement!. 20.J.4 COit El'llm.ltlon
Cable-supported and cable-tuSpe11ded systems can occur indepen- As with all projecb,collbldependnotonlyon the design effort buta!Joon
dently or be used together in one roof structure, such as the "cable comt.ruciion management and coll.lt.rUclion time. In nee! construction,
dome· or the roof of BC Place in Vmcouva; Canada (Fig. 20.13). In thl• three areu of cost CUI be identlfled: materiall, fabrication, and erection.
Suspension cable ~
lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
~
i ~
Linear analysis Nonllnear analysis
Flgur. 20.14 Lillw- ver1111111onlinm' uaiy.lf of cable.
65' CHAPTERTWENTY
While smdler cable. of up to 1 in. in diameter are usually stock ilx!ms. Che supporting structure. Often this wlD. be e.lgenwlue analysis; how-
l1111er-diameter cables are generally fabricated !-or a specific job. Ifthere ~. Ritz vectou are also suitable. A.$ part of this analysi•, the so~
are rpeclal req,uirement.t, such as enhanced. corrosion protection, the mould be able to use the stiffneu malrix at the end ofthea1-restanalysi.t
lead time wiD. be longer. End fittings are generic in most applications. (a.k.a., prestreill +dead load).
PnMll deaips have been used ova- the ~· and thelr costs are weD. Ifsigllliic:ant geometric nonlineartty is present. the cable system stiff-
embfuhed. End fitti.ap are generally a major cott <:0mponent of cable ness change. with displa«Inent. In this situation. the concept of natural
as1emblies. Swaged. fittings are generally less a:pemive than 1pc:lter frequency d.egrada somewhat becawe, whereu the mass is conrtmt,
aocketa, but for cable• greater than 2 .In. in diameter, speltered sockets Che stlffneu changes, and so too doe.t the frequency. In other words, Che
are used. Specl.al. cable treatme.nta, such as extended. pmtretdiing and frequency is a function of the d!1place.ment (applied load). 'fyplcally,
mm qrdins. that are outside of the norm will impac;t the delivery time a stYuctw'al system Including cable. is a st1Hening sysWn; however,
and colt. P.mtretclrlng cables aver 3 in. in diameter to SO percent of it could be sottming u well. Though this effi:ct is ofmi neglecti:d
their nomJnal ruength generally require• apedal equipment that may a.ad ouWde the Jcope of this work, it is 111eful to illustrate by way of
not be readily available, and this may .Impact the delivery schedule. The displacanent-response diagrams shown in Fig. 20.15.
ere«ion pro~ often determine. the type ofend fitting u.sec1 and <:an The mpon.se of a lillear system given at the left is shown for three
also be an impmtmt cost component of the job. ASCB/SEJ-19 requires different damping ratios @. F~ 20.15 shows the ratio of the peak
an outline of the envisioned erection procedure withl.a the contract irteady-state respome divided by the static response (R4) for different
documents. Often an e.rectlng contractor is consulted during Che de&gn ratios of die periodic fore.Ing function freque.ncy (0) dlvlded. by the .11at-
phue to assist in developing the erection procedure. ural frequency ofthe~ (0>,.). The nonlinear respon.se shown on the
right ii given for three diiferent magnitude. of the forcing func:tion (P),
20.4 DYNAMICS
and the natural frequency (0>,.) is take.a as the initial tangent wlue. For
.refu.re.nce, the response 011 the right wu generated for a~ l" AS86 cable
There are two potential concerns for the dynamic. of cable-.upported spanning 50 ft with an initial prestreM force of 20 k and a clamping rado
roo&: strength and serviceability. Sernceahility concerns are generally of 0.5 perant. The interested reader is refem:d to Duffing's equation
centered on dhplacemenu. for more information on Che development of the nonlinear response.
20.4.1 fgNnlll F'feqUll!ftdH .20.4..2 SenllcullllltJ
The natural frequency roof a stri.ag under tension T with JlWS per u.ait Flutter or galloping, which is a wild vibration of a cable. is <:0nsideRd
length p and free length L is given below: here as a sernceability mue. h can be cawed by wind gusts or vortex
medding. I1 .Is noted Chat extreme case• can lead to inadequate M.Dgth
through fatigue of the cable Itself ancl/or !ta components; however, this
m=il will be far beyond what i.a (:Olllidered. mvi<:eable. There is limited. guid-
ance available on galloping and vortex shedding in Section 11 of the
AASHTO LRFD Standard Speciflcat:l.ons for Structural Supports for
Unfortunately, this is not a particularly useful relation for the overaD. Highway Signs, Lumillaires. and Traffic Signals.
behavior of cable-.upported roo&. This i.a becau.se the length of interest Generally. the.e consicleratiom do not govern the overall design. Fur-
(e.g.. overall span length) i.a generally not fn:e and without atta.c.hmmts. ther, there are vibration-mitigating devices, such as tuned-IllUll dampen
Further, any attachment to the cable reiUl.tt in an we.mbly, and it is and alrfolls, that can be employed. if needed.
easily demonstrated that the illdlvldual freque11de11 of two Independent
system• are in general not equal to the re~ frequenc;ie. of the sys- 20.S ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
tem once connected. as a whole. The relation above ill useful, however,
when lnvestiptlng partlculu free lengtla for serviceability as dhciwed. Design of cable structures ill outlined. In the ASCB/SE[ SW1dard 19-16
later. "Structural Application of Steel Cable11 for Buildings;" which is also
The preferred. method for computing natural frequenae. for a cable- applicable for cable-supported roon. Allowable Stre~ Design (ASD) ls
supportcd roof is by way of a computer model, ideally incorporating the basis of the analpis and design.
- ~=0.5%
- ~=5%
- ~=10%
- P=2.67k
- P=6.67k
t
0.1
0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
o¥m,, o¥m,,
Linear systems Nonlinear sliffening systems
F1gurt120.15 Rctpome afllncv venua no:allncar ~·
CABLE-SUPPORTEP ROOF$ Mt
Due to the nonllneu behavtor of the cable comtruct!on over IU entire The force in this cable vvie. owr the length; however. the midspan
stnu-ltrain range from "O"stn:sa to the breaking 1tn111 (see stre.u-nrain force T can be euily derived by c:onsi.dering a fRe body of one-half and
c:urve, Fig. 20.9). Load Resl.Nnce Factor Daign (LRPD) ii generally 8\UlllDing the momeab about a support. The resulting equation below
not used, though the Eurocode has adopted a deaign approach U8iD.g ls often useful for the .Initial stage of design:
strength duign me1hodology. For analysis, the stl1fness ofthe cable itself
is to be um!. In designing cables. howeTer, the cable assembly ~gth wL2
should be used because d.eflecton1 such u sa.d.dles, as well as end fittings, T=-
81
generally reduce the nomin.al stren.gtb. of the cable.
Analysis and cle&gn are typlally Iterative processes that advance It should be clear to the designer that there must be some sag (cur-
together. When the engineer is involved. in the initial nap of design, vature) ifthe cable is to support trannme loads. This is evident in the
there may be different de.rign concept. under c:omideration; however, equation above by noting that the term s ii in the denominator thus
Jt la more typical that the arcliltect or owner hu already determined muat be noiuero.
some aspects that are not subject to change (e.g.• geometry; structural For application of this equation, we consider an e:umple of one
symm). As a rmi!t. the methods involved in analyiis do not chansc ~on in "two-way cable \Til.tS sy11em depicted in the plan view of
muc.h, but there can be wide variations u to what the methods of design Fig. 20.17 and the 1ection of Pig. 20.18 below.
may mean for a given project. For example, the engineer may be asked For preliminary de.dgn. his poulble to consider the upper and lower
to aplore the benefits of d.lffi:rent systems if this has not already been cables independently using the equation above, where the sag of the
deW'mine<L upper cable ($u) is not necmarlly equal to that of the lower cable {si).
For each of the cables. the governing loa.dJ are c:omidered {i.e., upward
20.S.1 PrtllrinlrJn..lgn or downward), and bee awe one generally does not want any cable# to go
Simple equations are available to provide reasonable estimates useful slack, some allowance ls added for the force of the cable not considered.
for preliminary design of cable.. Often the more important part of the In a two-way symm such as this e:nmple, an~ load dlmibu-
preliminary design proce.u ii how the cables interact with the overall tion in ea.eh direction can be obWned from the relal.iYe spam.
l}'Jtem. In other words, the force of the cable is uaeful for preliminary This approach clearly ignom many aspect. required. for a complete
alz!.ng, but generally It I• more important to bow the demands it deliv- deaign. The advantage of developing prdlmlnary de.rign .In this manner,
ers to the rest of the struc:ture. Figure 20.16 depicts a cable spanning a however, is that it may be done without the need for a Cully devdoped
distance L with a midspan sags and supporting a uniform load w. computer model One may even construct a spreadsheet with only a
few parameters, such u the spacing of the cables and their sap. In this
w manner, one can eully change fundamental aspects of the design with-
out reconstructing or remeshlng a compute.r model. Further, it gM8 the
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 designer a first estimate of the demands (reutioni) on the S'llpporting
structure. which will also generally influence the de.rign.
20..5.'2 Computer An1¥ill 1nd D.Mlgn
Often computer modding is uted in the early design phase as well as
the fin.al de1ign. This approach leads to betm quanlifica1ion at the
Flgure20.16 c.ble fUPPCll1illg a tl'alllVereeloacl. early stages but is typically not easy to make changes should the design
Compression
ring
Cable truss
(typ.)
Compression
Compression strut (typ)
ring
-..J...1~~-· - · - · -
Lower cable
-..~~~~--ll._~~~~1-____ji _l__Sl
Cantertlne
(symmetric)
Larger f'orce in
tensioning cable last
t
Last erection step-sequence 2
F1srure20.1t Fm:e 111 dllfeteut erect1011 •equenoea.
nonlinearity is genmilly most pronounced. in the vertical direction and can be anchored at any points along their length. This allows the pull
much leas u part of the lateral tyatem. jacb to leapfrog the temporary c.ehle until connectlom for the perma-
hlP«IM SpecUum ~ If there ls slgnlficant geometric nonlin- nent cable can be made. Although high forces are required to tension
earity. the tangmt mffneas matrix muat be c.omideml in the c.omputation the cablea in place.. the ad:vl&Jltqe u a unifi:lrm force introduc:tl.on into
of mode ah.apes. Most programs that c:onnder geometric nonlinearity the S}'ltem.
allow for thi.t •.M noted above, Che change in stlffnm through the range Prelllress it normally introduced into the system by way of jack-
of dlaplacement Is not .rep.resaited Ill the mode shape•. This Is generally ing. Selection of where to plau jacks Is worth conslderatlon. n Is
not a c:on(Cl'Il, p~uly if the nonlinemty ii Im pronounced for lat- often ad.wntqeous to make final (Ollllections where there Is greatett
eral fomis u compared. to vertical fon:ea. mechanical advantige and/or leut force. For example, in a. cable mus.
nrne-HlltarJ An1~11 The time-history analyab approach may be there will genmilly be leas force in the struU than the cable. 10 one
linear or .110Dlinear. and for cables the c:ode refers to the diffi:re.nce as a might consider placlng a fuw struts Jut rather than connec:tl.D.g the
maserid nonlinearity (not geometric}. In either cue, one will comider upper cable last as depicted in Fig. 20.19.
geometric nonlinearity u nquired. The time-himiry approach requiRI
a set of representative earthquake recordt and a peer review. REFERENCES
I. Manwl for Sfrlutllral AppliC#tii:ms ef Steel Cablu for Buildings,
20.6 ERECTION
American Iron and Stul institute. Washington, DC.1973.
The erection procedure for cable-supported roofs it generally not 2. Cable RoofStructuru, Bethlehem Steel, Bethlehem. PA. 1968.
unique, but often the spec!Bcs of Che structural system wlD. lead to a 3. Kriahna.Prem: Cable-suspended~.McGraw-HID.BootC~
prefem<l p.roce<lure.. In complex Cllble roof syfteml such as cable nets. New Yolk 1978.
mnporary cables can be strung to hoist the permanent cables to their 4. Structural Application of Steel Cables for Building, ASCR
anchor poinu. The temporary cables are often seven-wire strandt that Standard 19-16.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter21
Reinforced-Concrete Silos0
BY
RAMEZ B. GAYED Adjunct Professor, University of Calgary, and Senior Structural Engineer,
thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (Canada) Inc.
MUSTAFA MAHAMID Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering,
University ofnlinois at Chicago
AMIN GHALI Professor Emeritus, Univ11TSity of Calgary
iii
~... ...E<II
c: ::;
::c B c: ::c ::c
.!!l I!!
OI
ii= .!!l
:t:::
::c A
f
~L .i::.~
"/ -
Pocklltsilo
30•
ell' 20•
a.J 10°
50°
a.
ell'
Figure 6.3.3.3a in ACI 313-16 (Rei 15). Similar charts are given also in 3. Maximum µ' and maximum k for maximum vertical pressure "
the DIN specifications11 and by Gaylord and Gaylord.18 4. This situation is of particular importance for silos designed to
The regions in Fig. 21.5 labeled •uncertain" indicate conditions for contain various co=odities (see Example 1).
which flow may shift abruptly between funnel flow and mass flow, with DIN 1055 Sheet 6. The Janssen formulas are also used in this standard,
large masses of material being in nonsteady flow and the consequent except that a distinction is made between filling (at rest) and emptying
development of shock loads. 14 Such flow conditions will also lead to conditions. Formulas are given in Table 21.1. The value of k is given in
nonsymmetric flow patterns and, hence, to nonsyrnmetric loads on Table 21.6; it need not be calculated from the angle of internal friction as
the silo walls that generate combined bending moment and tension. in the formulas of Janssen and Reimbert Values for emptying are derived
Uncertain conditions can seriously damage a silo and should be avoided directly from those for filling; thus, P, = e,,p1 and V. = 1.1 V1(Table 21.1).
by designers. This standard is applicable to silos with vertical walls and bottoms
consisting of either flat floors or hoppers. The height H must be at least
21.1.2 BlnPrusures 0.8 times the diameter D of the inscribed circle. For HID< 0.8 the stan-
Formulas by Janssen1 and Reimbert6 for computing bin pressures are dard may be used if the silo consists only of an outlet hopper that makes
given in Table 21.1. Notation is defined in the table and in Fig. 21.6. an angle a. ~ 20° with the horizontal. The standard is limited to silos for
These formulas give pressures for the stored material at rest (static pres- which the ratio q/"f does not exceed 25 m (82 ft). For silage the height
sures). They give substantially the same results and are commonly used may not exceed 25 m. Also, it is not applicable to silos with annular
in the United States. cross sections because during emptying such silos develop both flowing
Values for unit weight "f· angle of internal friction cjl, and coefficient and stationary regions that depend on the number of outlets and the
of friction µ', for use in Janssen and Reimbert formulas, are given in distance between them. This results in non-axisyrnmetric pressures on
Table 21.2. Formulas for the cross-sectional area A, perimeter L, and the walls that require special investigation.
hydraulic radius R for various cross sections are given in Table 21.3. Bunkers. Although the formulas in Table 21.1 can be used for shallow
Janssen Formulas (Table 21.1). As Y approaches infinity (practically, bins, Rankine's active pressure (Chap. 7, Sec. 7.4) is sometimes used for
and within 1 percent error, when Y/Y0 = 4.6), the limit pressures are bunkers. In this case q= yY and p = kq. Coulomb's formulas for pressure
on retaining walls (Chap. 7, Sec. 7.4) have also been used for bunkers.
(21.la) 21.1.3 Emptying Pressure1 on Siio walls,
DIN 1055 Sheet Cl
As indicated in Table 21.1 the vertical pressure at emptying q, is less
(21.lb)
than the corresponding value q1 at filling and need not be calculated.
The vertical frictional force per unit width of wall during emptying is
Table 21.4 gives values of 1 - e,-YJ/Yo by which qlim and Pum are multiplied 10 percent larger than the value at rest. These differences are relatively
for the region 0 < YIY0 < 4.9. Linear interpolation is acceptable. minor. However, major changes take place in a silo between lateral pres-
Reim&ert Formulas (Table 21.1). Equations (21.1) also give the limit sures generated during filling Pt and emptying p,. The filling pressures
pressures by the Reirnbert formulas. Values of Pum and C for various are uisymmetric and uniformly distributed around the wall perimeter.
cross sections are given in Table 21.5. For silos with a circular cross section the emptying pressures consist of
Case of Variable Values of y, µ', and k. Where"(,µ', and k vary, it is two components: a uniformly distributed axisymmetric pressure p, =
required that the following combinations be used with maximum y. e,,p1 and a nonuniform partial pressure¥.= ~p•.
1. Minimum µ'and minimum k for maximum vertical pressure q The quantity e,,
is an eccentricity factor given in Table 21.6. For
2. Minimum µ' and maximum k for maximum vertical pressure p silos where HID ~ 5µ one may use the listed value, but for HID ~ 2.5µ
Janssen (static values only) Reimbert (statk: values only) Filling Emptying
Lateral preasure p qk
P1un[1-(~+1f]
Vertical frictional force per (yY-q)R (yY-q)R (yY - qf)R l.l(yY - qf)R
unit width of wall V
'Y = wdght pu unit volume of atored material (Tabla 21.2 and 21.6)
Y = depth ddined In Flg. 21.6
Y0 =Rll"k
Y"'=RIJ'fkpfilling
R =hydnullc ndlua ofborimntal ao.. 10ctlon of llorage apace =AIL (Table 21.3)
A= aou-aectlonal area of lilo (Table 21.3)
L=perimeterof1ilo (Table 21.3)
µ' = C<Jefficient of friction between lllored material and wall (Tobie 21.2)
k = P1! = (1 - sin f), Jan11en and 1leimbert
~- J>lqJ(Table 21.6)
; =angle of Internal friction or (apprmlmakly) angle ofrepooo p (Table 21.6)
C= clwacteriatic aboclua {or Rdmbut'a formula ('Ilble 21.5)
It,= height of idupmg top '11lfu:e of :do...! mdori&l (Fig. 21.6)
Pton = Reimbert'1 limit lllatic premire (Table 21.5)
•h =emptying factor (Table 21.6)
Actual lop of material
2h For circular
3 slloswlth
centerftll
Depth, Y
As per: Jonssen and DIN
q
H
As per Reimbert
Flgunt21.6 Silo dimensions fur use in calculation of pressures fur walls and happen.
Tilble21.2 Example Phpul Properties of Gninular Materlal1 (from Tilble R6.3.1.J of ACI 31 J-16t
Circle ~ D
4
~
a.D' D/4
8 1+ 2/a
a,Degn:es 0.00218 aD' (0.0087 a + l)D D/4
1+114.6/a
Regular 271: D K
-c;os-
polygon~<
.:-..~,.. _"ff
•.,' I
4 N
8[ I \·;:<t=
' ·.:.. ,..
DJ2 a OOllK/N
Sllin2 K/N
Rectangle b alt
2(4+ lo)' Long Side
..
2
K(D,+DJ
~(IY.-n2)
4 • "'!
I~
!=O.llMD
4
uae e,, = 1. For intermediate valuea of HID. determine e,, by ltralght-llne where J!A = 0.2H/D + 0.8, but 1 S P11 S 1.6 (21.3a)
interpolatlon; that 15, use 1 + [(H/D)/(2.5µ) -1] (e,, - I).
J!~ = 0.50(1 + 3a/r), blll: 1 SPa S2 (21.3b)
The quantity Pthat determines the partial nonunlform component of
the lateral pressure accounts for the dfect8 of (1) silo denderness HID-, P. = o.3o - o.oos3(rtt) - 70), but o.o5 s JJ,. s o.3 (21.3c)
(2) outlet of&et .tr, where " = clmance from center of silo to ccnter of
outlet; (3) lltiffiie. r/t, where t = thiclmen of silo wall; and (4) henip or ~ is listed in Table 21.6 for various bulk solids.
malevolent bmavior of the lilo oontenb. The cornsponding factors are The partial pressure 4p. = !Jp, ls applied to a quadrilateral area having
~ p., p,. and Pc- n followt that a side length S=0.8R. The lateral loadM. =1Jp,,S2, which prorideastatic
equilibrium, is similarly applied dlametric:ally opposite. One need only
I!= PhPAPc c2i.2> c:alculate the efl"ecta of the nonuniform partial pressure at mid-height
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 669
n.ble 21.5 V•lues of Piim •nd C In the Relmbert Formul.s section and for circular silos having both horizontal stiffeners (presum-
Silo PJ.im C IWnarb
ably rings or flat slabs) at the top and bottom and walls with adequate
capacity for transverse-load distribution. For these silos an increased
Cin:ular yD _E_ _ !1_ uniform lateral pressure 1'1'11< may be used instead of the complex non-
4µ' 4µ'k 3 uniform lateral pressure. The following values of 1C are specified:
yR
For silos with circular cross section:
Polygonal. of more than four aides !:_l__ !1_ rfrom Table21.3
µ' 7t 4µ'k 3
.E.. _a__ !1_
x=l.0+0.5~+0.02~!. forrlt-5. 70 (21.4a)
Rectangular, on short.:r wall a t
4µ' 1tµ'k 3
' =
2ab-
x=l.0+3.o~J!J forr/t<!:lOO
(21.4b)
Rectangular, on longer wall b a
11+b
For the range 70 < r/t < 100 use straight-line interpolation.
For silos with regular-polygonal cross section:
of the silo shell and apply the same percentage increase over the entire 1C = 1.0 + 0.8~ (21.5)
silo height. The beneficial elastic-foundation effect generated by the
contents reacting against the silo walls is not used in this calculation. It If a silo is designed for mass flow and it can be established that mass
may be considered sufficient to calculate only the tensions and bending flow will occur for all operating conditions, the effects of nonuniform
moments in the circumferential direction (and ignore them in the verti- pressures may be disregarded.
cal direction) for silos that are vertically reinforced in both inside and It is reasonable to provide hoop reinforcement, in both the inside
outside surfaces, each with at least 20 percent of the hoop reinforcement, and the outside surfaces, regardless of the method used to calculate
but not less than ASTM A615 Grade 60 No. 3 rods at 10 in., or the equiv- the effects of emptying on the silo walls. As a rule, circular silos that
alent. (For practical reasons, however, vertical steel should consist of No. are designed using the increased uniform-load method should have
4 bars or greater.) The effect of nonuniform partial pressures on adjacent 60 percent of the required reinforcement placed in the outside face and
cells of a grouped-silo configuration (Fig. 21.3) need not be considered. 40 percent in the inside face. The total amount required by the increased
An alternative method for calculating the effects of emptying on uniform-load method should be increased by 20 percent if it is desired,
lateral pressures is available for silos having a regular polygonal cross for practical reasons, to have the same hoop reinforcement in both faces.
21.1.4 EmptJlng Prellsures on Siio W.lls, the free surface and a depth of 16 m (52.5 ft). Below this level the rate
ACl313 1i changes abruptly to almost hydraulic values {0.8 and 0.9 for classes 1
During initial filling, and certainly during discharge, lateral over- and 2, respectively). For class 3 silage the variation is hydraulic through-
pressures may occur against the silo walls. This is true because of out the height. For none is there a distinction between the filling and
imperfections in the cylindrical shape of the silo, nonuniformity in the emptying conditions. Because the vertical pressure q in the material at
distribution of particle sizes, and flow convergence at the top of hoppers any given depth is yY, it follows that the provision qly < 25 m imposes a
or in flow channels. Thus, the lateral design pressure for silo walls above maximum height of25 m (82 ft) for the storage of silage.
the hopper, for concentric wall patterns, is to be obtained by multiplying The trend is toward silage heavier than that shown in Table 21.7.
the lateral pressure computed according to Sec. 21.1.2 by a minimum Thus, it is recommended that the designer determine the actual unit
overpressure factor C4 = 1.5. Lower overpressure factors may be used for weight of the material and classify it in one of the three classes shown.
particular cases where it can be shown that such a lower factor is neces- Always use class 3 for silage that is pumped into the silo.
sary. However, in no case is the overpressure factor to be less than 1.35. It is important to note that the values in Table 21.7 assume that an
Use of C4 = 1.5 is allowed by ACI 313-91, in spite of the fact that outlet will be provided for the silage juices to drain out of the silo in
higher and lower point pressures have been measured in full silos. This such a way that the maximum fluid level does not exceed 1 m (3.3 ft).
is because the substantial stiffness inherent to reinforced-concrete silo All silos should be clearly marked as to the class of silage for which they
walls ensures vertical distribution of overpressures that can then be are designed. In addition, silos designed for classes 1 and 2 should carry
averaged over larger areas for structural design. Note that C4 =1.5 may a visible warning that ifthey are used instead for class 3 silage, they must
not be acceptable for design of steel silos unless their walls have been not be filled to more than 50 percent of the height.
provided with vertical stiffeners capable of generating the stiffness and If emptying takes place from the top, negative wall friction (uplift)
bending strength required for vertical distribution of overpressures. might occur for which anchorage must be provided. DIN 1055 specifies
Asymmetric Flow. ACI 313-91 is explicit in its requirement that pres- a minimum anchorage of 4 kN/m {274 lb/ft) for the perimeter of the
sures resulting from asymmetric flow from concentric or eccentric dis- silo. Anchorage provisions should be distributed uniformly along the
charge openings be considered in the design of the silo walls. However, perimeter at reasonable spacing.
no method for doing so has been endorsed officially. Several methods Storage of damp grain calls for determination of pressure and loads
for evaluating the effects of asymmetric flow have been published,12.19-27 both as silage {Table 21.7) and as granular material {Table 21.1); the
although none has been endorsed. The author recommends the DIN largest values govern design.
1055 Sheet 6 method described in Sec. 21.1.3. For large (30 ft diameter)
21.1.6 Pressures on Horlzontlll Bottomund
concrete silos storing non-free-flowing materials such as coal, the use lncllned Hoppen (Adopredfrom Ref. 72,)
of hoppers promoting mass flow in the silo is strongly recommended,
as well as wall design using the provisions of Sec. 21.1.3, particularly In silos with horizontal bottoms and those with slightly inclined hop-
regarding the effects of partial pressure. ACI 313-1615 specifies over- pers (a< 20°, Fig. 21.7), the vertical pressure on the bottom Pb may be
pressure factor for concentric flow c4 of 1.6 in Section 6.3.2.2. Section considered uniformly distributed only if HID ~ 1.5. The values ofPb may
6.3.3.2 of ACI 313-1615 (funnel-flow hoppers) specifies overpressure be calculated from
factor of 1.45 for concrete hoppers and 1.6 for steel hoppers, and Section {21.6)
6.3.4 of ACI 313-1615 (pressures for flat bottom) specifies overpressure
factor of 1.45 for concrete bottoms and 1.6 for steel bottoms. where cb is a coefficient given in Table 21.6 and q1 is the vertical pres-
sure at rest (filling condition, Table 21.1). Although for circular silos
21.1.5 Siiage where HID < 1.5 the vertical pressure at the bottom is not uniform, it
Design of silos for silage is different than design for storage of powdery may also be calculated using Eq. (21.6) except that q1 is obtained for
materials or granular solids. For the latter there is an exponential varia- y = H at the perimeter of the wall and y = 1.5D at the center of the silo.
tion of pressure that tends to an asymptotic limit with increasing depth, Nowhere however, need the value ofPb exceed the quantity 'Y)I, where y
while for silage there is a hydraulic-type linear variation of pressure that is the local height of the silo contents at any given location of the silo
increases without limit as depth increases. bottom.
Three classes of silage are considered in DIN 1055 (Table 21.7). Note PreS1ures in hoppers may be obtained as the sum oftwo components:
that for classes 1 and 2 the lateral pressure exerted against the silo walls (1) those generated by the actual bulk solida in the hopper and (2) those
increases at a relatively slower rate {0.4 and 0.5, respectively) between generated by the bulk solids stored above the hopper itself {Fig. 21.7).
------- ········--··········
:::: Pb :::::::::::::::::::
:.:-H . : : . : : . : . : : . : : : : .~
(b)
Flflurw 31 .7 Preaaurea in happen (a) due to cont<!nU in hopper and (b) due to contents above hopper.
The pressures generated in the fust case (Fig. 21.7a) are given as where q 0 is the initial vertical pressure at the top of the hopper com-
follows: puted by
a
Pn = 2.4yRk1 sin
1
.Jii. (21.7a) q = yR (1 - e-µ 'l:Yil) (21.9b)
0 µ'k
P.
p,. = ; (21.7b) The initial pressure normal to the hopper surface at a depth h,. below
the top of the hopper is to be taken as the larger of
where pft and p.,. are the pres1ures perpendicular to and parallel to the
hopper wan., respectively. Values of k1 are given in Table 21.6. Note that - qytan0
(21.lOa)
the reduction in pft indicated in Fig. 21.7a for the upper quarter of the P. - tan9+tan~'
hopper applies when bulk solidi are stored only in the hopper itself.
When storage includes the silo wan. (Fig. 21.7b), no reduction in Pn
or (21.lOb)
ahould be made.
The pressures generated by bulk solids situated above the hopper
(Fig. 21.7b) are given as follows: where ell is the angle of friction between material and wall and hopper
surface.
Poo =(p,, coa a+ plf/(lin a) ( 1 + •:~)
2 2 The initial friction force per unit area of hopper wall surface is to be
(21.Sa)
computed by
where Pno and Pou are the orthogonal pressures generated against the vn = q1 (l - k)sin9cos0 (21.llb)
hopper walls at the upper and lower levels of the hopper, respectively,
and Pw is the pressure parallel to the hopper walls. when Eq. (21.lOb) is used.
It is noted that the formulaa given by Eqs. (21.7) and (21.8) are empir- Design pressures at and below the top of a funnel-flow hopper are to
ical in nature because they were derived from test results and disregard be computed using Eqs. (21.9a) through (21.llb) with 'lo multiplied by
equilibrium requirements. For hoppers where a >45°, mass-flow condi- an overpressure factor of 1.35 for concrete hoppers and 1.50 for steel
tions during emptying may cause transition peak pressures (switch) that hoppers. The vertical design pressure at the top of the hopper need not
may reach values several times larger than the pressures p, calculated as exceed yY. Design pressures at and below the top of mass-flow hoppers
indicated in Sec. 21.1.3. These peaks occur only in a narrow strip of wall can be significantly higher than initial pressures. In no case, however, is
lituated just above the hopper, but it is necessary to check the delign for the design pressure to be less than computed for funnel-flow hoppers.
this effect and provide additional reinforcement as required. In multiple-outlet hoppers, the condition that initial pressures exist
Adapted from Ref. 13. Initial (filling) pres1ures below the top of the above some outlets and design pressures exist above others must be
hopper; see Fig. 21.6. The initial vertical pressure at depth h1 below the considered.
top of the hopper is to be computed by Initial filling pres1ures on flat bottoms are to be computed by
Eq. (21.9b), with Ytaken as the distance from the top of the floor to the
q,=~+)411 (21 .9a) top of the materials. Vertical design pressures of flat bottoms are to be
672 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
obtained by multiplying the initial filling pressures by an overpressure 21.1.. W.11 Foras
factor of 1.35 for concrete bottoms and 1.50 for sted bottoms. The verti- CIRCULAR SILOS
cal design pressure need not exceed yY.
The hoop force F per unit height of wall resulting from the radial pres-
21.1.7 hrthqvake Forces sure p of the stored material is given by
The following minimum requirements have been proposed for design
per ACI 313-91. 13 The total lateral seismic force H, for shear at the base F=pD (21.13)
is given by 2
The increase till in the diameter can be determined from
H. =zc,cw, + w4 > (21.12)
where Z =earthquake-zone factor =3/16, %, ~. and 1 for zones 1, 2, 3, (21.14)
and 4, respectively (Fig. 21.8)
W1 = weight of structure
Wcff = 80 percent of weight of stored material, applied at centroid where t =wall thickness
of volume Walls are also subjected to vertical compression from the roo£ from
c, = 0.2 for silos with material stored on bottoms above ground their weight, and from wall friction of the stored material.
and 0.1 when silo walls extend to ground and stored material Grouped Circular Silos. Some groups frequently used are shown in
rests directly on ground. For intermediate cases, C1 may be Fig. 21.3. Initial design of individual circular cells of these groups is
obtained by linear interpolation. done as if they were isolated. The effects of interstices are determined by
If the bin bottom-supporting system is independent of the walls, W.,1 considering the adjacent circular cells to be empty (Fig. 21.9). Formulas
may be distributed between the two independent structures according for the case of an empty central circular cell with adjacent full circular
to their relative stiffnesses. cells are given in Fig. 21.10.
A dynamic analysis, using a design earthquake spectrum compatible Analysis of other cro5S-sectional configurations and empty-full cases
with the seismic zone and with local foundation conditions, may be is possible by treating the whole horizontal cross section as a rigid
used instead of Eq. (21.12). frame. The curved members and variable wall thicknesses at wall
ACI 313-W5 Section 6.3.8 requires that silos and stacking tubes shall intersections may make an exact analysis quite complex and laborious.
be designed to withstand the seismic force in accordance with ASCFJ Approximate methods based on local analysis of dements fixed at the
SEI 7-10.28 The design shall consider the full range of loading. from sections where silo walls intersect are acceptable and may be the only
empty to full. practical thing to do in many cases.
-- - , . . _ -,J'\._
1-
-L
TANA NORTH DAKOTA \ MINNESOT""':'/ ..._,, f t ' . ' 7 '
I f-~~.._ ...
~ t
1
WISCONSIN '"\
SOUTH DAKOTA
r·--·"'\ ' 1 I Ot""
\MICHIGAN
I
I ........_ "") - -\ ;
:--L..., IOWA
<
T
1 COLORADO r
HAWAII
--------:4
. .-- --e
,,,....,... #1,,
\/111
. .-- / 1/ '
/ /. I
/~·I
a..1 .
. I
I /
/
/
/
/
ll_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..>!
"
M0 = ~ (D + 2t)(D + t) sin a (cos a.i - si~e) Fe= ~(D + 2t)(1 - sin 9 cos a 1)
Figure 21.9 Full inteutice and empty adjacent celb. (AdaptN from Ref. 20.)
Attention to local effects at wall intersections is important. Good are continuous at their junctures, moments may be determined as fur
design should provide strength for proper transfer of bending moments, a frame. Formulas for M, F, and V fur a horizontal strip are given fur
shear, and direct axial force at these locations. rectangular walls in Fig. 21.11 and regular polygonal walls of N sides
in Fig. 21.12.
RECTANGULAR AND POLYGONAL SILOS
Rectangular walls whose height is less than half the width may be
Walls in the pressure zones of square, rectangular, and polygonal silos analyzed for one-way bending in the vertical direction. The lower edge
are subjected to bending moment, horizontal shear, and horizontal can usually be assumed fixed. The upper edge may be assumed fixed
tension resulting from the lateral pressure, and from vertical compres- or simply supported, depending on the attached construction, or free
sion by the roof, from their weight, and from wall friction of the stored if there is none.
material. Moments in walls whose height is more than half the width but less
Walls whose height is more than twice the width may be analyzed than twice the width should be determined as fur a plate supported on
for one-way bending in the horizontal direction. Since adjoining walls four edges or, if the upper edge is free, as a plate supported on three edges.
674 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
Sign convention
--o-
Tables of moment coefficients for various cases are given in Refs. 8, 21, to bending moment M and axial force P caused by loading unrelated
and22. to thermal effects, Gurfinkel29 has shown that the additional thermal
Walls that are supported on columns are subjected to in-plane moment M 1 for a given strain gradient depends on the existing strain
bending because of the load from an attached bottom. Analysis distribution, which in turn depends on M and P; iteration is required
depends on the height of the wall relative to the spacing of the columns to determine M,. ACI 313 1'-15 calculates the thermal bending moments
(Sec. 21.2.7). M"' per unit of wall height and M,.t per unit of wall width as if generated
in an uncracked section of wall subjected to a state of plane strain. Thus,
1'HRRMAL EFFRCTS
A differential temperature AT between the interior and exterior faces M _E/a,llT (21.15)
of a silo creates a strain gradient a/!Tlt in the wall section, where t is , - 12(1-v)
the thickness of the wall and llt is the thermal coefficient of expansion
of concrete. Because of the closed nature of silos, rotational restraint is where Ee and v are the concrete modulus of elasticity and Poisson's
imposed by continuity, and thus bending moments are generated in the ratio, respectively. For normal-weight concrete Ee= 57,000,[l;, llt =
presence of thermally induced strain gradients. For a section subject 5.5 x 10-6 /°F, and v = 0.2. This formula gives conservative values fur the
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 675
1
~ = 12(1 + n) PafJ
( 2
a
+ nptiJ2) where n = b(fa)3
tb
M+a=P.a2-~
thermal moments since any cracking of the wall section would reduce Re= 0.08 represent the thermal resistances per unit thiclmess (resistivity)b
its stiffness and result in lower values. of the stored material and the concrete wall, respectively, and R. = 0.17 is
the thermal resistance of the outer surface film of air, then
Temperature Differential. The temperature differential between external
and internal faces of a concrete silo wall containing hot stored material K - 0.08t (21.17a)
can be calculated from r - tmR,,, +0.08t+0.17
(21.16)
where T~.w = T1 - 80, T1 =temperature of stored material, T0 =design h>fhe unit of conductivity (Btu!/Plhr/0 Plin.) a the amount of heat in Btu that
winter drybulb temperature, and Kr = ratio of thermal resistance of will flow in 1 hour through 1 ft2 of a layer 1 in. thick of a homogeneous material
wall alone to that of the wall plus an outside surface film of air plus a per l "F temperature difference between surfaces of the layer. Resiativity, which
thickness t,,. of stored material acting as insulating material If R,,, and measures the insulating value of a material, la the reciprocal of conductivity.
676 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
a p
a= Dsine/2
F Bf-cos~ ..eQCOSJL
2 2
V Bf-sin f 0
M -~sin 2 ..e._
2 ~sin 2 _e_
12 24 2
Figure 21.12 Lateral pressure on polygonal silo.
For silos storing hot cement ACI 313 suggests t,,, = 8 in. and t,,,R,,, = 3.92. 21.2.2 Design er.ck Width
This reduces K1 to An important design consideration is the design craclt width that may be
0.08t tolerated. For grain and cement storage silos and for other silos exposed
{21.17b) to weather, this would help prevent penetration of water that causes
Kr = 4.09 + 0.08t
corrosion of the reinforcement, spoils the silo contents by inducing
The analysis is illustrated in Example 5. germination of the grain, or causes hydration of the cement. For walls in
the pressure zone, thickness and reinforcing should be proportioned so
that, under initial (filling) pressures, the design craclt width computed at
21.2 DESIGN OF WALLS a distanced, = 2.5 d from the center of a bar having a diameter d should
Except all noted, design formulas in the following articles are in terms not exceed 0.010 in. The design craclt width w {in.) is computed by
of strength de«ign. Subscripts u denote ultimate values obtained by
multiplying service-load forces by load factors. ACI 313 13 prescribes w=0.0001/,~ (21.19a)
load factors of 1.7 for live load and 1.4 for dead load. ell is the capacity- where f, {k/in.2} is the calculated stress in the reinforcement at initial
reduction factor. ACI 313-1615 requires that load factors and strength
{filling} pressures and A {in.2} is the effective tension area ofconcrete sur-
reduction factors shall conform to ACI 318-11.:Ml
rounding the tension reinforcement and having the same centroid as that
21.2.1 Minimum Thickness af Circul•r Walls reinforcement; see Fig. 21.13. For a silo wall reinforced with steel bars of
To allow for noncalculable moments resulting from transient nonuni-
=
diameter data spacings, one finds d, =2.5 d, A 5, and from Bq. {21.19a),
form pressure on the walls of circular silos, the following minimum 2
w = 0.0001/, ~l2.5d s (21.19b)
thickness is recommended:u
Craclt-width evaluation is illustrated in Example 2.
D rnE, + f, - nfa
(21.18)
tmlD =p2 f.fc1 21 .2.3 W.lls In Tension
The required reinforcement A, per unit height of wall is given by
in which m = shrinkage coefficient {may be taken as 0.0003), f, =
allowable steel stress (between 0.4 and 0.5fy). and Ja= concrete stress in
A =.!a_ (21.20)
uncracked section under static lateral pressure {may be taken all O.lf,).
Final wall thickness is governed by practical considerations and by
' ell!,
load requirements and permissible craclt width. A minimum thickness ljl in this equation may be taken all 0.9.
of 6 in. should be used for cast-in-place silo walls. However, at least 8-in.
thickness is recommended for placing two layers of hoop reinforce- 21.2.4 W.lls In Tension •nd Flaxure
ment. ACI 313 15 Section 6.4 provides minimum and recommended Silo walls for the containment of solids are subjected to the combined
wall thickness. action of tension force, N, and bending moment, M. Design codes in
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 677
r-. -·I I I
---=-2-.;.;.;.;;__in.
net cover
I I ~No.4@5.in.
~1 I
1~ d=0.5in.
I
• d, • •.•
1.25 in.
I
I I I I
I• 2dc = 2.5 in. •I
r ~ 1- -, I I I
r
'\
,J
\
I I
'I
I I I
I I
~ s=Sin.
1
i@
I I I I
-I- I_ I I
A =2dr;S= 5d8
Figure 21.13 Wall section and reinforcement.
the United States 13 and Europe12.31 reco=end that these walls be lower bound. One involves ignoring the compression steel, Eq. (2la);
designed fur hoop tension and for bending moments generated during the other considers only the action of the steel couple and ignores the
the emptying procus. This applies even to round silos with a single con- concrete, Eq. (2lb) (see Fig. 21.14):
centric outlet and certainly to those silos where the outflow is through
eccentric outlets situated on the floor or in the walls or through multiple
hoppers. Combined tension and moment are generated also in square
M -Af
""- , J
[d-!_ A,f, ]
2 0.85J:b
(21.2la)
,
I ~ I
,
h
d
,,,, ,
,, ,,
,,_ - - - - ----1:..~ T= A,~
e..,>>eY
M :A f(d-.!!_)
nc ''ey 2
where a= A.~
0.85 rcab
r--
1 d'
I
I
I d
I I d-d'
I I
I
L__ \_J A.
I
C..,>>Cy
Use Mn = 177 k-in./ft. The actual Mn = 184.7 k-in.Jft, as obtained by reinforumenl If, however, the bending moment were dominant, an
iteration. Note that the lower bound obtained from Mnc and M., is about increase in dimensions of the section would be necessary that would
96 percent of the actual value of Mn. For design purposes, the reduced also bring about a beneficial increase in the wall stiffness.
value of M. is~= 0.90 x 184.7 = 166.2 k-in,/ft. Also, Nn = 2 x 0.48 x Design. The following two approximate interaction equations are
60 = 57.6 klft and 4PN. = 0.9 x 57.6 = 51.8 klft. The actual variations of offered for design:
M,. vs. N. (UID) and 4JIM. vs. 4PN'n (Ii> x UID) are shown in Fig. 21.15.
Let load-factored design values be M. = 60 k-in.Jft and N. = 34 k-in.Jft M"+~5:1 (21.22a)
(tension). Is the given wall acceptable? Plot the point (60, 34) in Fig. 21.15 M. 4PN.
and realize that it lies within the envelope of acceptability that is pro-
vided by the 4> x UID curve. Had the point fallen outside this envelope, and M. + N. 5:l (21.22b)
it would indicate that the wall needed additional strength, that is, either ellM. N.
more reinforument or an increase in the thic:kness of the wall together
with an increase in concrete strength or all of the above. As far as the These two relationships are presented in Fig. 21.15 as the long dashed
4j> x UID tension branch is concerned, increasing only the reinforce- line and the short dashed line, respectively. The smaller of these values
ment is equivalent to a parallel displacement outward. If, however, is always contained within the concave shape of the ell x UID diagram,
the reinforcement were kept constant but the section dimensions and thereby rendering a simple and conservative alternate to the latter. Thus,
concrete strength were increased, then the tension branch would move one need not draw the ell x UID curve of any given section to determine
outward by rotating about the point (0, 4>N.). Thus, if the dominant its acceptability. Instead, one only needs the corresponding M,. and N.
component were the tension load, it would be better to increase the wall values.
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 679
10
20
..I<
,,;
I:!
.e 30 1.6" 5J1' 1.5'
c:
·~
c:
{!
II II
II II
40 L 11 II _J.
II II
II II
II II
11 11
~M
60
N._~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--
Figure 21.15 Tension branch of ultimate intttaction diagram of a doubly reinforced-concrete wall. The solid straight line• represent the approximate +xUID fur
design purposes.
and then solve for A,. substitute the latter value of A, to evaluate the left
Consider the same section 1111 before with M. = 60 k-in./ft and N. = side of the equation, and obtain a value slightly larger than 1. Using this
34 /c/ft. Check suitability given M,, = M..c = 177 k-in./ft, N8 = 57.6 /c/ft, value 1111 multiplier for A,. obtain the next trial value for A, and repeat
and cj1 = 0.9. Thus, the previous step. The process converges quickly and monotonically.
A practical solution for A, is usually obtained with only two trials. Thus,
60 34 A,=0.477in.2/ftfrom Eq. (21.24a) andA,=0.463 in.2/ftfromEq. (21.24b).
-+--- 0.339 + 0.656=0.995<1 (21.23a)
Using the larger value, select No. 4 Gr. 60 @ 5 in. (A,= 0.48 in. 2/ft) to
177 0.9X57.6
reinforce each face of the wall.
60 34 Shear. The shear stress 11• is given by
and - - - + - = o.3n + o.590=o.967<1 (21.23b)
o.9xln 57.6
11
v. (21.25)
•= bd
Since both equations are satisfied, the given wall is a valid solution.
Calculation of the required amount of reinforcement is possible after where v. should not exceed 11, given by
the thickness of the wall and the strength of concrete and reinforce-
ment grade are selected. Take t = 8 in., d = 6.5 in., II= 1.5 in.,fc = 4 ksi, 11, = 2cjl(1-0.002 · :; ).JJ;psi (21.26)
f, = 60 ksi, cjl = 0.9. The required area of steel in each layer of the wall,
A,. for Mu = 60 k-in./ft and N. = 34 /c/ft, is obtained using Bqs. (21 .22a)
21.2.5 Wiiis In Compression
and (21.22b) 1111 follows:
ACI 31835 allows walls for which the compressive force falls within the
60 + 34 51 (21.24a) middle third to be considered as concentrically loaded. Ifbuckling is not
1 A, X60 ] 0.9X2A, X 60 involved, the permissible compression is
A, ·60[ 6 ·5 -2· 0.85x 4xl2
f. =0.55cjlf: (21.27)
60 34 where cjl = 0.70
+ -- - 5 1 (21.24b)
For rectangular walls, where slenderness may influence strength,
0.9A . 60[ 6 .S _ !. . A, x 60 ] 2A, x 60 buclding should be accounted for by using13
' 2 0.85 X4Xl2
where 41 = 0.70 and H0 = clear vertical distance between supports. If 21.2.6 W.lls In Compression •nd Flexure
H 0 > I 0, where I 0 = clear horizontal distance between supports, use I., These may be designed using the provisions of ACI 318, Chapter l0.30.lS
in place of H 0• Combined compression and flexure is also discussed in Chapter 11.
Circular walls in the pressure zone may be designed for the allowable The interaction diagrams in that section for rectangular columns with
stress of Eq. (21.27) if there are no openings. If there are unreinforced reinforcement on opposite faces can be used for walls.
=
openings, Eq. (21.28a) should be used, with H 0 height of opening.
Circular walls below the pressure zone, continuous throughout,
should be designed forl3 21.2.7 In-PIH• Bending ofWd1
The in-plane bending behavior ofa wall supported on columns depends
on the height of the wall relative to the spacing of the columns.
(21.28b} Low Walls. The stiffness of a wall of a low bunker is of the same order
as that of the hopper walL and the two can be assumed to act together in
transferring vertical load to the columns. For bin walls with H/a ~ 0.5,
If there are unreinforced openings, use Ciesielski et al36 recommend that the wall and that portion of the hop-
per wall whose vertical projection is 0.4a, where a is the length of the
wall, be analyzed as a beam (Fig. 21.16a). The resulting bending stresses
(Fig. 21.l6b) are computed from f =MIS, where Mis the moment result-
(21.28c) ing from the vertical loads. The stress in the part of the hopper wall not
considered to be part of the beam is assumed to decrease linearly from
the value of the bottom fiber beam stress to zero at the vertex of the
The design axial strength per unit area for walls, where global and local hopper wall These stresses must be considered in combination with the
buckling do not controL is calculated in accordance with the provisions moments and axial tensions resulting from lateral pressure (Fig. 21.11)
of Section 6.4.7 of ACI 313-16. 1s Where compression and/or buckling in determining the wall reinforcement.
may controL the design axial strength per unit perimeter is calculated A folded-plate analysis ofthe joint action of a low bunker wall and an
per Section 7.4.4 of ACI 313-16.1s adjoining hopper wall can also be made.8
I·
a
·I f
QI
iq
0
VI
J:
•••
•
••
Figure 21.111 Low wall and bending stress distribution.
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 681
High Walls. Experimental studies by a number of investigators of the l'llble 21.8 Minimum Relnfoiament Requirements
beam behavior of reinforced-concrete walls are discussed in Ref. 26. Region Horizontal steel Vertical llteel (No. 4 or larger)
Walls for which H/I ~ 1, where H =height and I= length, can be designed
by the usual procedure for reinforced-concrete beams. For a single-panel Pressure zone Aa required by calculations. Minimum ratio of vertical
wall with H!l > 1, simply supported on columns spaced l center-to-center steel to gross concrere area
is 0.0025 for exterior walls
and carrying a uniformly distributed load w, the tension T that must be
and 0.0020 for inb!rior walls.
furnished by tensile reinforcement is given by Maximum vertical bar spacing
is the lellel' of 4, and 18 in. fur
(21.29) exterior wafu and 24 in. for
interior walls.
The value of T for H/l = 2 is to be used for walls with H// > 2. The rein- Below pressure Continue A, from above Same as above.
zone fur a distance equal to
forcement is to be distributed over a depth 0.11. six tlmea wall thickness.
If one-half to two-thirds of the tensile reinforcement is bent up, the Below this, provide
shear strength V of the panel is given by 0.0025t per unit height
of wall.
v <. 0.54 J:t2 JHti (21.30)
Bottom of wall& Dowe!J as needed to prevent
If the shear wM//2 exceeds V by Eq. (21.30) or if no bars are bent up, and columns uplift and slllfting by earth-
quake or wind loading.
web reinforcement must be provided to resist the tension T, given by
Author recommends always
using enough dowels to match
1<.H <.2 (21.31) the vertical steel in walls and
I columns above.
It is assumed in this formula that the necessary web reinforcement Wall inter- Provide as required. Provide as required.
is inclined about 60° to the horizontal. Of course, equivalent reinforce- sections
subjected to
ment in the form of stirrups can be used. moment
Equation (21.31) is based on tests in which the load was applied to the
Adjoining silos Provide as required to
top of the panel. However, tests on panels loaded along the bottom edge prevent separation.
showed that the formula can also be used for this case.
Circular walls, Place neareat to the outer
21 .2.8 Walls SubJ•ctwcl to TIHlrmal Stl'HJles single- faces.
reinforced
The required additional vertical and horizontal reinforcement per unit
width or height is given by
l.4M1
(21.32) farther apart at specified access locations. The total amount of verti-
A.,t = f,(d-d")
cal steel is unchanged; only the spacing is affected. The conventional
practice ofleaving the slipfonning jack rods embedded in the concrete
where M 1 is given by Eq. (21.15). This steel should be placed near the
is fine, but widely spaced jack rods should not be construed as the
cooler (usually outer) face of the wall. In singly reinforced walls it
should be added to the main hoop steel, which should be near the outer equivalent ofvertical reinforcement.
Typical reinforcing patterns at wall intersections are shown in Fig. 21.17.
face. In doubly reinforced walls it should be added to the outer layer, but
Wall Openings. Table 21.9 summarizes the requirements ofACI 313.13
for simplicity an equal amount is often added to the inner layer to avoid
Added reinforcement to replace load-carrying reinforcement that is
having bar sizes or spacings differ from one layer to the other.
interrupted by an opening must extend in each direction beyond the
Vertical tensile thermal stress is usually offset by vertical dead-load
opening. The extension each way must be as follows:
compressive stress so that additional temperature steel is often not
1. Sufficient to develop full yield strength of the reinforcement
needed.
through bond
21 .2.51 Vertical Reinforcement 2. Not lellS than 24 in.
3. Not less than one-half the opening dimension in a direction per-
This is required not only in outside walls of silo groups but also on all
pendicular to the reinforcement bars in question
inside walls. Vertical steel distributes lateral overpressures to adjacent
Figure 21.18 shows a typical detail of the reinforcement of a narrow
horizontal reinforcement. Gurfinkel 37 reported a silo where failure
silo wall between openings; these must be designed as columns.
was averted when vertical steel redistributed lateral pressures that could
not be resisted by hoop reinforcement that was in an advanced stage of
corrosion. Vertical steel also resists tension caused by bending moments 21.3 DESIGN OF BOTTOMS
resulting from restraint against circular elongation, eccentric loads from 21.3.1 Bottom Pressure
hopper edges or attached auxiliary structures, and temperature differen-
tials between inside and outside wall surfaces or between silos. Static unit pressure q. normal to a surface inclined at an angle a to the
horizontal is given by
21.2.10 Details and Placement of Reinforcement
(21.33)
Table 21.8 summarizes the requirements of ACI 313. 13 Bar splices, both
horizontal and vertical, are staggered. Adjacent hoop-reinforcing splices Silo bottoms are designed to resist q,.. In seismic zone 4, q in Eq. (21.33)
in the pressure zone are staggered horizontally by not less than one lap should be computed for the effective weight (80 percent) of the stored
length or 3 ft and do not coincide in vertical array more frequently than material because of the loss of friction against the silo walls resulting
every third bar. from seismically induced lateral vibrations, that is, q = 0.8yY. In other
Slipforming should not be considered an excuse for not tying rein- seismic zonea, q should be increased by the following &actions of the
forcement together. Haeger considers the normal tying of the ends of
hoop reinforcement, with additional ties every 4 to 5 ft between to be
*
increased pressure (O.ByY - q) for zone 4, for zone 3, % for zone 2, and
3/16 for zone 1.
acceptable.38 Vertical steel should not be omitted to provide access for ACI 318 load factors are suggested for ultimate-strength design under
concrete buggies in slipform construction; instead, it may be spaced seismic load.
682 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
x--
~It
I
I
x
At least 6 in.
Figure 21 .17 Reinforcement at intersecting walb. (Adaptedfrom Ref. 13 and Ref. 15.)
Table 21 .9 Reinforcement lit Wall Openings Formulas for bending moments and deflections of circular slabs, with
Openings Hori2:ontal steel Vertical steel and without a central hole, are given in Ref. 21. Tables of coefficients
are given in Ref. 8. Moments and defections in rectangular slabs can be
In pressure zone Add at least 1.2 times Pn:lvide by assuming narrow computed by the ACI 318 procedure for two-way slabs.
area of interrupted strip of wall, 3t in width on
reinforcement, 'h each side of opening. to act as 21.3.3 Conie11I Happen
above the opening and column within opening height
'h below. subjected to !ta own vertical
Walls of these structures are subjected to meridional and circumferen-
load plus that from 'h wall tial tensile membrane forces Pm and Ft (Fig. 21.19}. Values of F,.. and Ft
span above opening. Add steel per unit width at any horizontal section are given by
at least equal to that eliminated
by opening. F.=~+~ (21.34}
Outaide pteasure Add no leu than the A.above. "' 4sina 7tDsina
zone normal reinforcement
interrupted by open- F.= q,,p (21.35}
ing, distributed as t 2sina
above.
Closely spaced See Fig. 21.18. Design as columns.
=
where q, q,. pressures computed at the section
D = diameter at the section
W =weight of that portion of hopper and hopper contents below
21.l.:Z Plmne Bottoms
the section
Design loads for horizontal slab bottoms are dead load, vertical pressure Fmu and F1r1 for strength design are obtained by multiplying q and q,.
q, and thermal load from the stored material. For inclined slab bottoms by the load factor 1.7 and computing W by
q,. should be used. Allowance for earthquake forces should be made as
described in Sec. 21.3.1. W=l.4W~ +l.7W,.. (21.36}
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 683
Opening
Opening
reinforcing
Flgu1111 21, 1• Typical reinfon::ing of narrow silo wall between openings.
a,
I· ·I Fmb
Fmb
Fr
Fmb
Figure 21.20 Forces In pyramidal hopper.
If a > b, q. < qb (because the hydraulic radius is smaller for the longer Plate Bending under Normal Pressures. Bending moments in tri-
side). This suggests that the vertical component of the meridional force angular walls may be approximated by the bending moments in the
on wall b may be larger than on wall a. Assuming W/4 and the resultant equivalent rectangular plate shown in Fig. 21.21a.8 Tables of coefficients
vertical pressure on the triangular area adjacent to each wall to be car- for the analysis of triangular walls with various types of edge support
ried by that wall, the following formulas result: are available.8
>
Bending moments in trapezoidal walls for which a 2 /a 1 4 can be
F.,.=(W +q,b)-.1- (21.40a) approximated by the moments in the triangular wall formed by extend-
a 4sma. ing the sloping sides to their intersection8 (Fig. 21.21b). Therefore,
trapezoidal walls of these proportions can also be solved by using the
F...b=(w +qba)-.1- (21.4-0b) equivalent rectangle of Fig. 21.21a.
b 4smab
Bending moments in trapezoidal walls for which fli/a1 < 4 can be
The horizontal membrane force Ft is given by approximatedbythemomentsinanequivalentrectangularwall(Fig.21.21c)
1 with the dimensions8
Fill =-(q.b + 'Yn cosa:b)bsina. (21.41a)
2 2ai(21Ji +ai)
Fill= i(q.. + 'Yn cos a. )sinab
(21.41b)
a=~~~~
where 'Yn =weight of hopper wall per unit of area. b =h-0;i(0;i-11i) (21.44b)
P111u and Pru for strength design are obtained by multiplying q by the .,, 6(11i +a:i)
load factor 1.7 and computing W by Eq. (21.36). The weights Wh and
Tables of coefficients for the analysis of trapezoidal plates with a 1 =
W111 are given by
%a2 and a1 = ~O:i with various types of edge support are available.8
Edge conditions (fixed, simply supported, and so forth) of hopper
(21.42)
walls depend on the adjoining construction. They should be consid-
ered fixed at their junctures with adjoining walls. In adjoining walls of
(21.43) unequal lengths, the average of the unequal end moments may be used,
or they may be distributed in the ratios given by the negative-moment
where a1=length formula in Fig. 21.11; moments in the central regions of the plates
b1=width of section at which F ls being computed should be adjusted to correspond. Upper edges that are continuous with
a 2, !12 = corresponding dimensions of hopper opening silo or bunker walls, with or without an intervening edge beam, may be
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 685
a
82
2a/3
I· ·I
~..c: ..c:
!£!
Ill
(a)
H (b) (c)
Flgunt 21.21 1liangular and trapezoidal walls approximated with equivalent rectangular plate.
assumed to be fixed. On the other hand, the upper edge of a pyramidal is assumed to vary linearly to zero at the vertex, as shown. The bending
bunker that has no roof must be considered to be free. moment can be computed from M = F"' a2/8, where Fm is the meridional
Bending in-Plane of Wall. In-plane bending of a hopper wall act- tension computed by Eq. (21.39) or Eqs. (21.40). These bending stresses
ing in conjunction with a low vertical wall is discussed in Sec. 21.2.7 must be combined with the horizontal membrane forces to determine
(Fig. 21.16). A similar analysis can be made fur the bunker without wall reinforcement.
vertical walls, using an effective beam depth of O.Sa at midspan8 Concentrated Forcu at Pyramidal Bunker Supports. Pyramidal bun-
(Fig. 21.22). The stress in the portion below the effective-beam depth kers and pyramidal hoppers supported independently on columns at
I· ·I
' \ I I
'~ I I
~ I I
\1'
v
Rgunt 21.22 EffectiVI: beam width at midspan of a bunker without vertiW walls.
686 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
the four corners are subjected to concentrated forces at the supports tension, which produces a uniform compressive force, equal to (Fm cos a)
(Fig. 21.23). The tensile force Talongthe edgeofadjoiningwallsis given by (D/2), in the ring (Example 3).
Ring beams supported on columns or pilasters, as in Fig. 21.24a,
T=~ (21.45) must be designed for the moments shears and torsion resulting from
sina Fm as well as the ring compression. A design procedure for this case is
where a is the angle of the edge with the horizontal. discussed by Safurian.33
The compressive forces are given by No bending moments are produced by twisting of an eccentric edge
beam of a rectangular hopper. Torsion can be neglected in edge beams
c.= Pcos a cos P. (21.46a) on bearing walls. Edge beams on columns should be doweled to the silo
cb = Pcos a cos~b (21.46b) walls to resist torsion.
Where supporting beams are not used and the hopper is keyed to the
where p4 and Pb are the angles between the edges a and band the diago- silo wall, reinforcement must be provided for the hopper-wall bending
nal of the horizontal cross section of the hopper. moments at the juncture.
Since these forces are localized, they need to be provided for only in
the vicinity of the column. 21.3.6 Columns
Columns supporting silo shells and particularly silo bottoms will be
21.3.5 Hopper-Supponlng Btl•m1 subjected to a live load resulting from the stored material that is sub-
Concrete hoppers are usually supported by edge beams cast integrally stantially larger than the dead load of the structure. Long sustained
with the hopper wall (Fig. 21.24a and b). A conical steel hopper supported periods of material storage cause reinforced-concrete columns to creep.
by a ring beam is shown in Fig. 21.24c. The beams may be supported As a result, concrete stresses decrease, and the load carried by the steel
continuously by a wall or by pilasters or columns. reinforcement increases. Subsequent emptying of the silo may place the
If the hopper wall does not intersect the centroid of the supporting- concrete in tension as the reinforcement recovers elastically.
bearn cross section, a twisting moment acts on the beam. In ring beams Once the tensile stress in the concrete exceeds its tensile strength, the
this produces a bending moment that is uniform around the circumfer- column develops severe transverse cracking. The situation can be dan-
ence. Both moments can be neglected if the beam is supported on a gerous if transverse cracking is accompanied by longitudinal cracking,
wall because the deformation that would be generated is prevented by as could occur with high bond stresses during unloading. To prevent
the silo wall and the bearing wall. Therefore, such a ring beam can be this condition, it is reco=ended that the reinforcement ratio p not
designed for only the horizontal component of the hopper meridional exceed 0.02 and that the total amount of reinforcement not exceed UfY'
Flgul'9 21.23 Pyramidal bunkers and pyramidal hoppers supported on columns at four corners.
REINFORCED-CONCRETE SILOS 687
•
•
•
• •
Column
Column
Figure :111.24 Typkal hopper-supporting beams. (From Ref. 13 and Ref. 15.) For clarity. column and wall reinforcement are not abawn.
where L is the live load on the column. If lateral loads must be resisted, Concrete silos are supported on pile foundations or on extended
larger columns should be used to keep the steel ratio low. All other rafts in the case of a stiff subsoil Theimer2 cites various reasons for
provisions of ACI 318, Chapter 11>35 for the design of columns should failures: (1) the weight is usually great and may shift considerably with
be followed. Anchorage of the vertical reinforcement of all silo columns unbalanced filling and emptying of the numerous cells, causing major
and walls to the supporting foundation is strongly recommended overstress in the foundation; (2) dredging in an adjoining river may
The analysis described here is illustrated in Example 4. weaken the pile foundation; (3) batter piles may fail after having been
damaged by a ship collision; (4) piles that have been eroded by aggres-
21.J.7 Roofs sive groundwater may buckle; and (5) underlying soft soil may shift,
Designers are divided on the subject of attachment of concrete roof causing tilting of the raft and elevator. Prevention of foundation failure
slabs to silo walls. Some believe that the slab should be supported only requires thorough investigation of subsoil conditions including a num-
vertically at the walls (on elastomeric material or heavy tar paper) so as ber oftestplle loadings. Thorough control and inspection of pile-driving
to be free to contract or expand with temperature changes and to move operations and cast-in-place piles (especially those without steel shells
slightly during earthquakes. To prevent total freedom of horizontal dis- to prevent mud intrusions) are necessary. Batter piles should always be
placement, the slab may be attached at one central location, usually the used to support high silos against wind action and seismic motions. Raft
elevator tower. On the other hand, attaching the roof slab to the walls foundations should be designed as continuously reinforced-concrete
stiffens tall silos against wind, earthquake loads, and vibrations during mats with two grids to resist bending moments caused by unbalanced
emptying and also reduces lateral deformations. Continuity with the loading of the silos.
silo walls also makes the roof slab stiffer and reduces vertical deflec- Incorrect determination of silo pressures has resulted invariably
tions under live load Use of as much continuity as possible is strongly in underreinforced structures. Application of the conventional Jans-
reco=ended. sen theory without any allowance for overpressures generated during
In long installations, expansion joints are provided to reduce crack- emptying and by eccentric outlets, combined with the use of higher
ing of the slab in winter and undue longitudinal forces on the silos in allowable stresses for concrete and steel, has caused unacceptable major
summer. Good design c:alls for an expansion joint to cut across the silo cracking and even total failure in numerous instances. ACI 313 13 and
group by extending down to the foundation, especially if the roof slab is DIN 1055 will give a more accurate evaluation of load effects.
attached to the silo walls. Major damage and even collapse of silos have resulted from improper
The steel beams that support the wood platform during slipforming detailing and faulty construction. Irregular and excessive spacing of
of silo walls are used later to support the roof slab, thus reducing its span hoop reinforcement, particularly in slipformed silos, may seriously
considerably. Ample bearing on the concrete wall should be provided reduce strength. In addition, radial displacement of hoop bars is fre-
at the ends of the steel beams, and the concrete below and to each side quent, and by reducing concrete cover, the capacity of the lap splices
of the beam should be reinforced to prevent undue cracking or even a is limited. ff hoop bars are placed without tying, circumferential shifts
concrete fallout after some years of service. may occur, thus making some lap lengths shorter and some longer than
the specified length. Bending moments that decrease the curvature of
21 .J.I Failures the walls induce radial tensions in the concrete that may cause cracking
Three major reasons for failures of reinforced-concrete silos are founda- and circular delamination; radial reinforcement tying opposite hoop-
tion failure, incorrect determination of loads, and improper detailing steel layel'$ may be required. Absence of vertical steel in combination
and faulty workmanship. with excessive spacing of hoop reinforcement may leave large portions
... CHAPTERTWENTY·ONE
; ~·
Placement of two layers of hoop reinforcement in all silo walls
ill strongly rec.ommended to prcvent failure raulting from lack of
adequate strengCh for simultaneous action of hoop te.111iom and either
poailive or negative bending momente.
Absence ofspecial wrt!cd reinforcement, required at an 8 x 8·ft door Node j \ Element m
opening in a 90-ft-diametcr c.o.11cretc tank in West Africa. is cited bythe
author u an example where omilllion of original details (in the set of I i
drawings prepared by the local contractor for use at the job site) could ! I
hn
have had ddeterlom consequences.
Poor COl1nectiom between au:siliary structural ~el elements and
supporting concrete W1l11s are another source of potential failure that
may not oaly rault In local failure but ac:tually ca111e total collapae
of the silo. Thllf, the author lnvest!gmd the cue of a suspended sted
hopper that was poorly attached to the skirt walls of a tall c.onaete silo.
Connection failure caused the swipended hopper to drop to the silo Globol
J
"~ ~' \V
tloor, instantly setting the overhead mus of grain in motion. The major (a) (b) Degrees of freedom
latenl. overpressure generated by the grain against the silo walls, while at a typical node
the vertical. motion of the grain was being stopped at the floor. ripped
-~-
the s:ilo Wllll.s open from the bottom up.
Vertical reinforcement of walls and columns should be anchored
to the foundation by dowels to prevent uplift and dllftlng under
earthquake or wind IOt&d.lng. Insufficient cover for the hoop rdnforce-
ment cause• it to corrode in a rather short period of time.' 7•40 Sloppy
workmanship may cause all splices of hoop reinforcement to be at the
(c) ~
same locations without staggering. thereby lncreaalllg the pOHlb.Wty Fi9u.. 21.25 Idullzatioo of. uisymmdrlcal shtJl of mclutton by <:0lllcal theD.
of bond failure (with splitting) md thus weakening the wall. Improper element: (a) 'ffrlical MCl:ion ofqa..Jiaped digatorfal' ~ wamtttatment;
(ft) fuilte.element ideall2:alion; and (c) typical ahell dc!ne2lt.
detailing at wall intenections of interstices and poc.ket hln• may omit
wall filletJ and double layers of reinforcement that are neceuary to
mlat local bendlllg moments and aheara. Proper attention to detail.
followed by inspection at the job site and proper control and organiza-
tion of cons~tion, is required to prevent ~ that may lead to Designers should consider the layout of variowi buildings in an instal-
collapse. lation to dec.reue lb vulnerability to explodom u a whole. Theimer
suggests leaving as luge a space as possible between the vvlous build-
21.3.9 Dust Explosions I" GNln U.V.tors and
Flour Miii.i inp. Explosion relief's such u venu, light brick and lipt roof wall•.
construction should be provided.
Major destruction of these installations occ:un when dun from grain
producb igD.ltet and releases great amounts of energy. An. extremely 21.3.1 o Sllllile-Q!I Clrallllr Siias: Finite-Element
rapid pressure rise, of the order of 2000 tonslct'-/s, orlglnate11 a pressure ANIJlll
wa~ of such high intensity that normal vent. for the release of explo- by Ramez B. Gaye<! and Amin Ghali
sion pn11un11 are insufficient to prevent the installation from blowing Walls, buef, and covera of concrete allos--having the ah.ape <Xf ubym-
up. Theimer'1 cites three principal ca.use.t for these explosions: a dust metrl.cdly loaded drcu1.ar •hells-are malyzed as contlnuoua strw:t\lres.
cloud, a source of.lgllition. and the pre11ence of oxygen. The shell is idealiu<I as uscmblage of finite ckmenu as shown in
It Is necessary to ha~ a minimum COl1centrUion of 0.02 oz/ft!' of Fig. 21.25. The rdatively simple element used hen: is adeqwrte for UJe in
grain or flour dust (resembling a dense fog) before it can become design. Shell of Revolution (SOR) u the name of a computer program that
ignited If the concentration ii greater than 2 0%/ft', incomplete com.- performs 1he analysis; an aecutable file Is available at website ofGhal1,, .A.,
buat!on of the particle.t retud• lgnltion and prevents the aploslon. Dry 2014.42 The equations used in SOR are based on assumed deformed thape
dust that accumulate6 on tloors. walls, ledges of doon md windows, functions of finite elements (Ghali and Neville, 2017)."
steel beams, ovnhead ducta. and 10 forth is highly oxygenated and
quite dangerous. Good ho~eping calls for constant removal of NODAL DI$PLACBM.l!NT$ AND NODAL FOllCBS
such dun. Suction .18 the principal method to control dun clouds by Figure 2 l .26a depicts & typical element subjected to uisymmetrical
induchlg air currents supplied through dust-collecting systems. Vent- pressure represented by fon:et {P•} =static equivalent load. q multiplied
ing is also recommended for bins, head. of bucket elevator•, and lcale by the le.ngth of nodal lines 1 and 2:
hoppen.
lgD.l.lion temperature• 'l1U'y between 750°F and 930"F when the air
relative hwnldlty .Is between 30 and 90 percent. Sources ofheat that can
ignite dust clouds are (1) open flames (lights. mau:hes. burning ciga-
rettes); (2) heat. generated on pulley! ofbuc.ket elevators ruulting from
beh slip; (3) hot surfaces of radiators, bearingi, and llghtbulbs; (4) sparks
caused by metal parts In rotating machinery, elec:tru: equipment. and
&lct!on; (5) static electric;lty; md (6) weldlllg. cutting. and soldering. The element nodal forces and dlsplau.ment• in local directions In
In addition, Theimer'l cite.I a case of spontaneoUI ignition ruuhing Fig. 2 l .264i are related by geometry to forces and displacements in global
from comtant increase in the temperature of Che material cawied by directions (Fig. 21.2611):
inadequate heat dispe.nllon. Obvloudy; all prewntl.on measures should
be tU:en to avoid ignition heat .ources. {D"}=[T](D} ; {PJ=[T)r{P•} (21.48)
REINFORCEl>-CONCRETE SILOS ..,
Elemental area with s being the clinante from node 1 to any point on the meridian and
isolated in (c) l ii the length of the meridian line 1-2.
I
STJPPNESS MATRIX 'I'llANSPOIUILATION
Equation 52 tnnlforms the stifihw .matrix [S") of_individual element
with .respect to local coordinates to stiffness matrix [S) referring to coor-
dinates In global directions (Fig. 21.26" uid b):
(a)
=
where [SJ ma.trh relating {ii} and {D},
[SJ{D}={PJ (21.53)
DlSPLACDll!NT lNTl!llll'Ol.ATION
The dlaplace.mente {u, w} are uaumed to be related to the nodal dis-
placements by
(21.54)
where
l
{O}= (dJ{e} (21.56)
[t] [o] ]
[T]= [ [o] [t] ; [t)= -~a
[ cosa
co;a ~
sina O
(21.49) (2157)
The angle a and iU pomive sign convention are defined in Fig. 21.26.ci
and b; the superscript T indicates matrix trampodl:lon.
The &ite-el.e.ment stiffness matril. [S-J, to be derived in the section
"Element Stiffness:' relates the element nodal £i:ll'CC$ and dU'placemenu 1 v
in the 1ix local coordinata defined in Fig. 21.261.1: Bh v 1
[d,]=--2 0 0 (2158)
1-v
[S"){D*} ={P"} (21.50) [
0 0
Coordinates 2• and s• repr«e.nt translations or forces in the direction
of a normal to the co.ne Sll1fa(e. Coordinaie. 3• uid ,. rep.resent rota- where {o} and {e} = generalized stress and strain vectors defined by
tiru1s or moments in radial plane.. and D; D;,
repreaenting rotations at Eq. 21.57, [d,] =element's elastld.ty.matril. (Eq. 21.58), N andM=the nor-
1he ends of a meridian, can be apretsed u mal force and the moment in the meridlui direction per unit length. Nt
and~=thenonnalforceandthemomentinthecirGumferential(hoop)
directiru1 per unitlength (Fig. 21.26c), h =element thickness, B= modulus
(21.51) of elasticity, and v =Polsson's ratio. The positive sign conventions of the
men resultuiu are shown in Fig. 21.26c. SubrtlM!on ofEq. (21.54) In
Bq. (21.57) give.1 the relal:i.onship of{£} to nodal displacementa, {D·~
where w =translation at any point in the direction of Che normal to the
shell (same diRc:tion u coordinates 2• and s• in Fig. 21.26a) and~ =sll. {£} =[BJ {D'} (21.59)
HO CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE
1 1
0 0 - 0 0
l I
sina(l-~) cosa Li cosa ~ sina~ cosaLi cosaL
-- 4
T T T T T T
[B]= (21.60)
1 1 1 1
0 12(6-12~) -(4-6~) 0 12(12~-6) -(2-6~)
l l
The stress resultants are given by NODAL FORCES DUB TO DISTRIBUTED LoADS
l
Determine the hoop and meridional reinforcement for a 30-ft-diameter
µ(T0 -T,)/2 ) silo 100 ft high with an 8-in. wall and a conical hopper 20 ft deep to
µ(T0 +T,)/2 contain wheat (Fig. 21.2a). Use ACI 313 (Sec. 21.1.4) with.fc = 4000 psi
{a,}=-[d,] µ(T.-7;)/h (21.64)
and A615 Grade 60 deformed bars.
µ(T0 -T;)/h From Table 21.2, obtain cjl = 23° and µ' = 0.25 for soybeans and cjl =
23 to 37° andµ' =0.29 to 0.47 for wheat and corn. Usey= 50 lb/ft3• For
maximum values of q, p, and V, as required for design, it is necessary to
where {a,} =generalized stress that would develop if the thermal expan- use the following combinations of variables: µ:m., (0.29) and k,,,m (cjllllll =
sion is arbitrarily restrained by forces {F,• } at the six coordinates in 37°} for f1mu> µ:,, .. (0.25) and kmu (cjlmiD = 23°) for Pmu; andµ;_ (0.47)
Fig. 21.26a, where and k...u (cjlmin = 23°) for V mar Soybeans govern Pmu: because of their
low value ofµ', whereas wheat and corn detennine qmu and Vmar
The basic pressures and forces are obtained from Janssen's formulas
(21.65)
(Table 21.1) as follows: For qmu: use
The equivalent restraining forces of individual element in global R=D/4=30/4= 7.5 ft,k=l-sin cjl=l-sin37°=0.3982
directions are Y0 = R/µ'k = 7.5/0219 X 0.3982 = 64.95 ft
{F,)=[Tf {F;J (21.66} q = yY0 (1-e-rir, )= 50x64.95(1-e-r164.95 ) = 3248(1-e-f/64.95 )
The element-restraining forces are then assembled to give the restrain- For Pmu use
ing forces of the structure to be applied in reversed direction to eliminate
the artificial restraint and give nodal displacements due to temperature.
R = 7.5 ft, k = l -sin23° = 0.6093, Y0 = 7.5/0.25 x 0.6093 = 49.24 ft
When the nodal displacements are detennined, Eq. (21.61) gives the
generalized thermal stress resultants in individual elements. p= kyY0(1-e-flf')=0.6093x 50X49.24(1- e-r149·24 )= 1500(1-e-r149·24 )
REINFORCEl>-CONCRETE SILOS 01
(a) (b)
4•
Node 2 /, ,
r2 ;
6
(c) (d)
Flgur. 21.27 NOIW forces eqamle.ot 10 a ~ted load OD the~ of an
u:UIJmmctrical finite dcmenl:: (a) actwll load on a. lb.ell wilh a. curved meridian;
(II) !deallzatlon u OOlllcal element.t loaded only at the nodea; and. (c, d) equMleut nodal
fu.n:ea In Joc:aJ. CQO?cllnatet.
For V"""' use thickness and vertical relDforce.ment of the silo walls acting as verti-
cal walls.
R=7.S~k=l-lin23"=0.6093,Ye=7.S/0.47X0.6093=26.19A Hoop reinforcement is dmnnined in Table 21.11, using the d«ign
V =(yY-4)R whereq=SDX26.19(1-e-r/2'.a)= 1310(1-e-rnu')
pressures of Table 21.10. Hoop t'ime1 T = Pc.s D/2 and T., l.7T. The =
req,uired sted area Is given by A,= TJ(0.9 x 60). Because two layus of
hoop reinfurcement are use4 spacing of die No. 4 ban (0.20 in.JI) may
Basic pre1S11R1 and rorces are shown in Table 21.10. Buie lateral be computed using s =2 X 0.20 x 12/A, (see Table 21.11). Placement of
pressurea are multiplied by the overpreuure factor, c.,= 1.5, to obtain the reinforcement is as mown in Fig. 21.13. Note that there are two lay-
design lateral pruaures, P.i...· The mults are given 1n Table 21.10. erc of hoop reinforcement and two layers of vertical steel ban. The sec-
Note that P.i. iJ 'IUed for calc:ulating hoop reinforcement of '110 walls, tion in Fig. 21.13 correspo.nds to the ICIWCI' portion of the walls, where
q.,,... is used for design of hoppers, and Vmu is used for checking wall the spa.cing of the hoop mnforament ii 5 in.
l!XAMPLE2 EIAMPLE4
Detennine the design crack width in the walls of the silo of Example 1. A 20-in.2 reinforced-concrete column with 4 No. 18 bars and No. 4
From the data of Table 21.10, obtain the basic (initial, filling) lateral ties at 12 in. is one of a group supporting a silo hopper as shown in
pressures and from Table 21.11 the hoop reinforcement along the height Fig. 21.2e. The column loads are D = 150 kips and L = 600 kips. f.= 3 ksi,
of the silo; see Fig. 21.13. Calculation of the required design crack is f 1 = 60 ksi, E, = 3000 ksi, and E, = 29,000 ksi. Unloading of the silo
accomplished using Table 21.12. The maximum value, w = 0.0067 in., may occur a long time after filling. Check the suitability of the design
is found at a distance Y = 30 ft below the top of the silo. The design is (Sec. 21.3.6).
acceptable because w < 0.010 in. through the height of the silo walls. The initial strain e, in the concrete is
l!XAMPLE3 D+L 150+600
Design a conical hopper for a 30-ft-diameter silo with design pressures e,
[A1 + (E,IE, - l)A,]E, [20 x 20+(29,000/3000-1)16]3000
as indicated in Table 21.13. Use ACI 313 provisions. The hopper is
8 in. thick and 20 ft high and has top and bottom diameters of 30 and =0.000464
3 ft, respectively.
The tangential and meridional forces are given by Eqs. (21.34), Assume the strain has trebled because of creep. Thus, ft= 3 x 0.000464 =
(21.35), and (21.36), with Wh and Wm by Eqs. (21.37) and (21.39). 0.0014. The streas in the steel is f, = £13, = 0.0014 x 29,000 = 40.6 ksi and
Values of q. are computed by Eq. (21.33). can support a load P, =f ,A, A,= 40.6x16 = 649.6 kipa. The load supported
Results are given in Table 21.13. Areas of reinforcement per unit by the concrete is P, = D + L - P, = 150 + 600 - 649.6 = 100.4 kips. The
length required for strength are given in the last two columns. Some stress in the concrete is P,l(i\- A,)= 100.41(20 x 20 - 16) = 0.261 kai.
adjustment upward was necessary to satisfy a crack width w < 0.010 in. Upon removal ofthe live load, elastic unloading occurs. The strain /J,£
This was easily accomplished by increasing the length ofthe meridional that is recovered is given by
bars and reducing the spacing of the hoop bars.
RING BEAM (Sec. 21.3.5). From Table 21.13, Pm•= 55.4 kips at the L 600
/J,£ = E ; - - = 0.000464 X - 0.000371
top of the hopper. From Fig. 21.28, the slope of the hopper wall is 56.7°. D+L 150+600
Therefore, the ring compression is
The stress in the concrete is reduced from 0.261 in compression to
P =(F...., cosa.)(D/2) = (55.4cos56.7°)(30/2) = 456 kips
0.261 - 0.000371 x 3000 = 0.852 ksi in tension. This exceeds the cracking
The ring shown in Fig. 21.25 is 15 x 20 in. with 8 No. 6 bars. Then, strength of the concrete, estimated at 4.5 .JI:
= 4.5 .J3000 = 246 psi. As
a result, concrete will crack during unloading of the silo. The stress in
P. ='[0.85.fc~A1 -A,)+ f 1 A,]=0.7[0.85 x 4(300-3.52)+60 x 3.52] the steel after unloading is given byf, =DIA,= 150/16 = 9.38 ksi.
= 853kips To avoid cracking, the amount of steel in the column should be lim-
ited to thesmallerof0.02A,, or Llfy This gives 0.02 x20x20 = 8in.2 and
Although P• is considerably larger than P, use of a smaller ring is 600/60 = 10 in.2• Thus, A, for this column should be instead of 16 in.2
questionable. The 15-in. width gives projections to facilitate forming, This reduction requires J; = 4000 psi instead of 3000 psi.
and the depth gives bending strength to bridge openings that might
EXAMPLES
later be cut into the bearing wall.
Instead of a fully suspended hopper, as above, the designer may (See Sec. 21.1.8) Determine the thermal reinforcement required for a
find a more economical solution is possible if another ring (column- concrete silo in a region where T0 = -20°F. The silo has doubly rein-
supported at an intermediate level between the top and the bottom of forced walls 8 in. thick and stores cement for which 7j = 400°F,.fc = 4000 psi,
the hopper) is provided. fy = 60,000 psi.
Janssen
Rcimbcn
DIN 1055:
filling.
Emptying Janssen
15' K" Reimbcn
DIN 1055
6. Reimbert, Marcel, and Andre Reimbcrt •silos-Traite Theoretique 25. Johnston, Tom, "How to Design Large-Diameter Silos the Last,"
et Practique,• Editions Eyrolles, Paris, 1961. Powder and Bulk Engineering, CSC Publishing, Minneapolis, May,
7. Jenike, A. W, and J. R. Johanson: •Bin Loads; J. Struct. Div. ASCE, 1990, pp. 43-53.
April 1968. 26. Safarian, S. S., and E. C. Harris: ~mpirical Method for Com-
8. Fischer, W: •silos und Bunker in Stahlbeton; VEB Verlag fir puting Bending Moments in Circular Silo Walls Due to Asymmetric
Bauwesen Berlin, DDR, 1966. Flow," Powder Handling and Processing, vol. 3, no. 3, September, 1991,
9. Llpnitski, M. E., and S. P. Abramovitsch: •Reinforced Concrete Germany.
Bunkers and Silos» (in Russian), Izdatelstvo Literaturi Po Stroitelstvu, 27. Gurfinkel, G. R. •Grain-Storage Tank for Zaire, West Africa:
Leningrad, 1967. Design, Construction and Repair," ACI Concrete Internationa~ vol 11,
10. Turitzin, A. M.: "Dynamic Pressure of Granular Material in Deep no. 3, March 1989, pp. 39-49.
Bins; J. Struct. Div. ASCE, April 1963. 28. ASCE/SEI 7-10-Minimu.m Design Loads for Buildings and
11. Homes, A. G.: "Lateral Pressures of Granular Materials in Silos; Other Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
ASME Pub!. 72-MH-30 New York 1972. 29. Gurfinkd, G. R.: "Thermal Effects in Walls of Nuclear Contain-
12. "Lastannahmen for Bauten. Lasten in Silozellen; DIN 1055 Sheet ments, Elastic and Inelastic Behavior,» Proc. lst Int. Conf Structural
6, May 1987. Mechanics in Reactor Technology, vol. 5, part J, Berlin, Germany,
13. ACI: Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete September 1972.
Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials, (ACI 313-91) 30. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Com-
and Co=entary-ACI 3 l 3R-91 American Concrete Institute, Detroit, mentary, ACI 318-11, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Ml, 1991. MI, 2011.
14. GurfiDkel, G. R.: "Simple Design ofConcrete Walls and Structural 31. FIP-Working Group Silo Design, •Recommendation for
Members under Combined Tension and Moment,• Structural Journal Concrete Silo Design," Draft, Karlsruhe, Germant, June 1990.
ACI, 1995. 32. Harris, E. C.: "Design of Members Subject to Combined Bending
15. ACI: Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete and Tension,» ACI Journal, Proceedings vol. 72, no. 9, September 1975,
Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials, (ACI 313- pp. 491-495.
16) and Commentary-AC! 313R-16 American Concrete Institute, 33. Safarian, S. S.: •Design of a Circular Concrete Ring-Beam and
Farmington Hills, Ml, 2016. Column System Supporting a Silo Hopper; J. ACI, February 1969.
16. Jenike, A. W: Storage and Flow of Solids, Bulletin no. 123, 34. Hunt, F. A., and F. T. Johnston: •solutions for Asymmetrical Flow
Engineering Experiment Station, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Problems; Coal Mining and Processing, January, 1984.
November 1964. 35. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI
17. Jenike, A. W: •Quantitative Design of Mass-Flow Bins,• Powder 318-83, American Concrete Institute, Detroit.
Techno!ogy(Lausanne),vol. 1. 1967,pp.237-244. 36. Ciesielski, R., et al.: Behalter, Bunker, Silos, Schornsteine, Fem-
18. Gaylord, E. H., and Gaylord, C. N.: Design ofSteel Binsfar Storage sehturme und Freileitungsmarte, Wilhelm Emst & Sohn KG, Berlin,
of Bulle Solids, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1984. 1970.
19. Sadler, John E., et al.: •Bins and Silos,• Chapter 29 of Handbook 37. Gurfinkel, G. R.: «investigation of Silos at Seneca, Illinois,• Report
ofStructural Concrete, edited by F. A. Kong, R. H. Evans, E. Cohen, and fur Continental Grain Co., Regional Office in Chicago, III., October 1974.
F. Roll, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1983, pp. 29-1 to 29-33. 38. Discussion of ACI 313-77, J. ACI, June 1976.
20. Blacker, M. J. and J. G. M.: Woods, Discussion on Technical 39. Gurfinkel, G. R.: •structural Adequacy of Reinforced Concrete
Note 490, "Eccentric Discharge in Circular Silos,• by H. M. Haydl, Pro- Silo Complex in Leverett, lliinois," Report for Thoma.sboro Grain Co.,
ceedings, Institute of Civil Engineers, Part 2, June, 1987, pp. 475-480. Thomasboro, Ill., December 1976.
21. Wood, Jonathan G. M.: "Analysis of Steel Bins Subject to Eccen- 40. Gurfinkel, G. R.: · collapse and Repair of Tall Concrete Silos with
tric Discharge,• Second International Conference on Design of Silos Suspended Steel Hopper," ASCE Journal of Performance of Constructed
for Strength of Flow, Stratford-on-Avon, England, November, 1983, Facilities, vol. 3, no. 4, November 1989, pp. 243-264.
pp. 132-144. 41. Theimer, 0. F.: •cause and Prevention of Dust Explosions in
22. Rotter, J. M .: •Analysis of Steel Bins Subject to Eccentric Dis- Grain Elevators and Flour Mills," ASME Puhl. 72-MH-25, New York,
charge; Second International Conference on Bulk Material Storage, 1972.
Handling, and Thmsportation, Institution of Engineers, Wollongoog, 42. Ghali, A., Circular Storage Tanks and Silos, CRC Press, Taylor &
NSW, Australia, July, 1986. Francis Group, 3rd Edition, 2014, 367 pp.
23. Jenike, Andrew W: •Denting of Circular Bins with Eccentric 43. Ghali, A., and Neville, A. M.: Structural Analysis: A Unified
Drawpoints; J. Struct. Div. ASCE, vol. 93, STI, February, 1967, pp. 27-35. Classical and Matrix Approach, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 7th
24. Johnston, F. Thomas, and Fred A. Hunt: "Solutions for Asym- Edition, 2017, 933 pp.
metrical Flow Problems," Second International Conference on Design of 44. Gurfinkel, G. R.: •Restoring an Impaired Concrete Silo,» ASCE
Silos for Strength of Flow, Stratford-on-Avon, England, November, 1983, Journal of Performance ofConstructed Facilities, vol. 3, no. 2, May 1989,
pp. 1-13. pp. 87-99.
Chapter22
Design of Steel Tanks
BY
LESLIE D. SCOTT Chief Engineer, Tank Industry Consultants, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
22.1 INTRODUCTION the same designations of atmospheric and low pressure. Because of the
nonuniformity of the application of these pressure classifications, the
This chapter is intended to provide general information about the selection
engineer should be diligent in identifying the pertinent requirements
and design of steel storage tanks. Basic theory of tank design is included
for designing a tank when pressure-related classifications are used to
for vertical, cylindrical, flat-bottom storage tanks with other tank types
specify the tank requirements.
covered but in less detail Because of the variety of tank types and storage
The second classification system relates to how the tank bottom is
applications, detailed information for each such instance is better left to
supported. The two types are (1) ground-supported tank and (2) ele-
industry standards or other technical documents dedicated to specific tank
vated tank. The ground-supported tank, also sometimes called the flat-
types or applications. This chapter provides the practicing engineer with
bottom tank, has a flexible membrane bottom that is supported either
some of the information needed to determine what documents, standards,
codes, or regulations should be incorporated in the design process.
on a concrete slab, on a tank pad of compacted materials through which
the water load is transmitted directly into the ground, or on grillage
The tank construction industry has not been exempt from the prob-
supported on the ground. It should be noted that even though the term
lem of deteriorating infrastructure. Discussion includes the use of good
"flat-bottom tanks" is used in the industry, this does not limit the tanks
structural detailing to allow complete application of high-performance
to only having a flat floor. Section 22.2.l of this chapter includes more
coating sy5tems for corrosive environments and the important role that
discussion on bottom shapes for ground-supported tanks. Occasionally
such detailing plays in asset preservation planning. A discussion of
tanks are partially buried into the ground. These tanks are included in
some of the critical areas requiring special detailing is included.
the ground-supported tank category. Elevated tanks consillt of a tank
Steel tanks come in a variety of types and configurations, each suited
container elevated above the ground and mounted on a 1upporting
to the product being stored. Liquid storage tanks may be used to store
structure. Elevated tanks may have a 1uspended bottom, a bottom sup-
water, oil, gasoline, chemicals, wine, molasses, juice, cooking oils, and a
ported by a concrete slab or dome at the top of the supporting 1tructure,
variety of other products. Water-storage tanks can be ground-supported,
or a conical bottom supported by pedestal or tower structure. Elevated
flat-bottom tanks or elevated tanks mounted on multiple legs or single
tanks may be further classified by the type of 1tructural tower or ped-
support pedestals. Structures for the storage of built solids materials are
estal on which they are mounted: multicolumn tank, fluted-pillar tank,
usually classified as bins or silos.
slender-pedestal tank, or concrete-pedestal tank.
Tanks may be classified based on the type of liquid they store. Tanks
22.1.1 ci.ssifications of Steel T.nks might be used to store a multitude liquids including water, wastewater,
Steel tanks are classffied differently among different industry sectors. demineralized water, industrial process water, petroleum producta,
A summary of some common classification strategies is included below. chemicals, dally and beverage products, and a variety of other products.
The first classification S}'5tem is pressure classification. Tanks are clas- Water tanks might be further classified as storing water for municipal
sffied into one of three groups: (I) atmospheric tanks, (2) low-pressure water distribution systems, wastewater facilities, industrial processes, fire
tanks, and (3) high-pressure tanks or pressure vessels. Generally, protection purposes, chilled or heated water for thermal energy storage,
atmospheric tanks are not part of a closed system and are vented to the or a combination of these uses. Tanks may also sometimes be classified
atmosphere above the design liquid level. Low-pressure tanks are tanks by the type of product being stored, either liquid or gas. Atmospheric
with internal pressure above the design liquid level but such pressures tanks storing liquid. are co=only vertical, cylindrical tanks. However,
not exceeding 15 psig. High-pressure tanks or pressure vessels are tanks if the tank is a low-pressure tank designed in accordance with API Stan-
with design pressure exceeding 15 psig and designed in accordance dard 620 (disClWed later in Sec. 22.1.2 of this chapter) or an elevated
with the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code. In some instances, such water tank, the tank may be of other axisymmetric shapes. Tanks storing
as with the International Fire Code (IFC), some low-pressure tanks are gas at high pressure (over 15 psig) are generally referred to as pressure
classified as atmospheric tanks because they are designed to operate vessels and required to be designed and constructed in accordance with
at pressures approximating atmospheric pressure. However, the IFC the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Design of pressure vessels is
addresses low-pressure tanks only in Chapter 55-Cryogenic Fluids. extensively covered in the ASME code and numerous other resources, so
The National Fire Protection Association has differing definitions for further discussion of ASME vessels is not included in this chapter.
697
8' CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
Many basi' tank dmp principles arc appliQlble to each tank type. are available: (I) the bas<! design requirements and (2) if allowe<l by
but there are also numerous special requirement.I that might also the pun:huer, Section 14 design. whidt inairporates higher allowahle
apply to each tank type. Although not an exhauative lilt of tank clat- ltre$ses and joint effidency in addition to more stringent requirements
dflcation methods, the discussion above dearly mows that there are a fur m.ateriala, welding, con1lguratlon, dealgn metal tempenture, lmpec-
large variety of tank iype. and •ometlmes conflic:ting definitions of the tton, and testing. The ttandard addresses fl.ve different options for foun •
dutmcatiom. It. u impmllive that the engineer obtain clear definition elations and tank pads for ground-supported tanb.
of the intended use and operational parameters of the tank to produce Muimum thicknes.t limib apply tD some components with a m.u:i-
a duign meeting the tank owners expemtiona, induatry standards, mum ahell thlclmm of 1.5 .In. for Sectlon 14 ground-supported tanks,
applicable codes and regulations. and 90\lllcl engineering princ:iples. and 2111.. for other tanks whe.11 ten&!on is the governing lt1'Us condition.
Addition.ally. the engineer must be cognizant of the properties of the Capacities are only limited by the design condition., material•. and
product to be stored and how those properties w:lll a8'ect. the loading maximum allOWllble component thickne.n.
conclitions and lnflue.nu design declsl.ons.
AWWA Dio3-&i'ANDAJU> FOJt FAcroar-CoATBo
22.1.2 lndu.*J St.ndllrd1 llllld Crttllrla BOI.TED CAlUION STlll!I. TANKS POil WATBll
Environmental loads applicable to the de1ign of tanb are generally STOllAGB (REP. 3)
1pedfied in the tank nandards by refe.re.nu to ASCE 1 (Re£ !)- 1hla atandard addtt.tlle8 ground-supported bolted water-storage tuib
Minimum Design Loads mcl AAodated Crlkrl& for Buildings and comtrw:ted ofcarbon 8teeland operate<1 at atmospheric pressure. Ground·
Other Structum, a standard publiahed by the AmeriQlll Society of suppaooi tanks are limOOi to vertical, cylindrical, aboveground tanb.
Civil Engineers (ASCB). At the time o( this printing. industry duign 'Illnb may be open top or fitted with a lteel. roofofone ofnumm:im posri·
atandard8 fur steel ww prescribe Allowable Strue Dealgn (ASD) meth- ble conBguratlons ar w.llh an aluminum. dome root: 1\mb staring potable
ods. Building codes and related codea/standards lpedfy stre.agth level water are required to ha~ a roof. Ground-supported tanks are constructed
load requiremen.13. Molt tank indultry standards have already been at or near grade levd and supported on a tank pad or foundation.
amended. to incorporate and adjmt strength level loads from ASCB 7 f'or All vertical shc:ll joint.I and joint.I in the tank bottom and roof are
use with ASD deaign procedure a, but the engineer mould verify that d1ls lap jo!lxb. For :flat-panel tanb, the horizontal d!ell jolnte are also
ls the case to enrure Chat designs are not overly co~ Espedally lap JoinU (Fig. 22.1). Figure 22.1 shows a typical horizontal lap joint
since.. in some cvu. ASCE 7 tms oceptlon to certain p.rovblons of the configuW!on with one embodiment of sealant tpplication. Sealant
tank rtandards and impOlel more stringent requirements. applic:at.ion procedures vary by tank manufacturer. For fanned-flange
Foundation de1igns generally fuilow Load and Res:tstance Factor tanb, the horizontal shell joints are tlanged (Fig. 22.1). Requirements
De'1gn (LRFD) methods for the concrete components, but slzlng of the fur design, material•, fiabrlcatlon, factory-applied coaling systems,
foundation footprint will follow ASD me1hodl for soll-bearingwlues. fuundatJon., construction. inspection, md te~ are covered. The
Tank mndards and the codes prescribing required load levels are standard a.d.drales six different foundation options for foundations and
continually changing with new edition• generally published every 3 to tank. padJ. Design requirements include loads from the stored product,
5 years. The e.ngineer should always check for updates to the codes and Che structure, snow, wind and sel4mic effe<:tc. and live load conclitions.
mndards prlor to commencing design fur & project Also. the latM edl·
tiom of nimmce standards might not be the applitable document in
so.me jurisdlctio.111. Sometimes the local jurisdiction has intentionally Shell
not allowed deslgna In accordanu with the latest edition• for specl1lc Optional
reuom. Accordingly, it behooves the eng!n«.r to determine ifthe local Gasket
Sealant
authority having juriadiaion OTCr the project will allow design for the Optional
project in accordance with the latest editions. sealant
1llnk standard8 have been developed by the American Water Works under
.Association (AWWA) fur skcl water-atorage tanb and by the American head
Petroleum Institute (API) for tanks for the petroleum indu.stry. These
standards apply to a luBe pe!Ulltage of the stec:I tanb built today,
although tome standards emt fur other apec.lflc appl!cationt. The gen-
eral scope of each of the.re mndards is aplained bc:low. Although new
water tank mndard8 are anticipated within & few years of this writing.
the following summarizes the tank 1tandard8 curnntly in place. Inside Outside
atmospheric pressure. A fixed steel roof is required but may be provided considerations for wind or seismic loading. The provisions do not cover
in a variety of configurations. requirements for tanks that require anchorage. Capacities are limited to
Shell joints may be lap joints within specified thickne3S and design the standard sizes specified in this document.
limitations; otherwise, all shell joints are butt joints. Roof and bottom
joints can be lap joints or butt joints. Requirements for design, materi- API SPEC 12F-SPBCIFICATION POii. SHOP
als, fabrication, construction, construction tolerances, foundations, WELDED TANKS FOR STORAGB OF PRODUCTION
inspection, and testing are covered. Design requirements include loads LIQUIDS (REP. 8)
from the stored product, the structure, snow, wind and seismic effects, This specification covers fixed standardized sizes of shop-fabricated,
and live load conditions. Maxi.mum thickne3S limits may apply depend- vertical, cylindrical, closed-top, ground-supported welded steel storage
ing on the stress level of the component being e=ined. Consult the tanks constructed of carbon steel and operating at internal pre311Ures
standard for specific requirements. Capacities are only limited by the approximating atmospheric pressure. This is primarily a fabrication
design conditions, materials, and maximum allowable component specification calling out specific sizes, configurations, and component
thickness. thicknesses for 10 standard tank geometries (eight different capacities).
All tank configurations are preestablished and designed for internal
NFPA 22-STANDARD FOR WATBR TANKS POR pressures varying between 3 oz/in.2 and 8 oz/in.2 depending on tank
PRIVATB FIRE PROTBCTION (RBF. 5) geometry. The tanks are rated for a 30 psf ground snow load per ASCE
This standard addresses water tanks used to store water for fire protec- 7-16 in addition to Y. oz/in.2 of vacuum. Thickness of the tank floor,
tion purposes. Compliance with this standard is sometimes required shell, and roof are predetermined and specified. The standard tank
by the local jurisdiction when tanks are constructed specifically for fire designs include basic wind loading considerations but might not meet
protection purposes. Water tanks that supply water for fire protection project specific wind load requirements. Wind design is based on a
through a community water distribution system are often not subject 3-second gust wind speed of 120 mph using wind Exposure C in accor-
to these requirements. It is recommended that the engineer verify dance with ASCE 7-16 Seismic loads are not included in the standard
applicability of this standard prior to beginning the tank design pro- designs. The provisions do not cover requirements for tanks that require
cess. NFPA 22 includes some provisions that exceed and are additive anchorage. Capacities are limited to the standard sizes specified in this
to the requirements of AWWA DlOO, AWWA 0103, or AWWA 0107, document.
whichever standard is applicable to the type of tank being designed.
Capacities are only limited by the design conditions, materials, and API STANDARD 620-DESIGN AND
maximum allowable component thickness based on the AWWA design CONSTRUCTION OP LAii.GE, WELDED, Low-
standard applicable to the selected tank type and the more restrictive PRESSURE STORAGB TANKS (REF. 9)
requirements imposed in NFPA 22. This standard addresses the design and construction of welded, carbon
steel aboveground storage tanks with a vertically axisymmetrical shape
API SPBC l2B-SPECIPICATION FOR BOLTED and operated at low internal pressures. The base requirements include
TANKS POii. STORAGE OF PRODUCTION LIQUIDS tanks designed for metal temperatures not greater than 250°F installed
(RBF. 6) in locations where the lowest recorded 1-day mean atmospheric tem-
This specification covers fixed standardized sizes ofvertical, cylindrical, perature is no less than -50°F. The tanks may be designed with internal
ground-supported bolted storage tanks constructed of carbon steel and gas pressures not exceeding 15 psig. The standard includes require-
operating at internal pressures approximating atmospheric pressure. ments for design, materials, fabrication, construction, construction
Tanks may include a roof or be open top. This is primarily a fabrication tolerances, inspection, and testing. The standard includes supplemental
specification calling out specific sizes, configurations, and component annexes that contain additional requirements for special features, alter-
thicknesses for 13 standard tank geometries ( 11 different capacities). nate materials, or specific operating conditions. Annex S covers stain-
All tank configurations are preestablished and designed for internal less steel low-pressure storage tanks in ambient temperature service in
pressures varying between 1 oz/in.2 and 3 oz/in.2 depending on the all areas, without limit on minimum design metal temperatures. Annex
tank geometry. The tanks are rated for a 20-psf roof live load in addi- R covers low-pressure storage tanks for refrigerated products at tem-
tion to ~ oz/in.' of vacuum. Thickness of the tank floor, shell, and roof peratures ranging from +40°F to -60°F. Annex Q covers low-pressure
are predetermined and specified. The standard tank designs include storage tanks for liquefied gases at temperatures not lower than -325°F.
basic wind loading considerations but might not meet project specific Capacities are only limited by the design conditions, materials, and
wind load requirements. Wind design is based on a 3-second gust wind maxi.mum allowable component thickness.
speed of 90 mph using an importance factor of 0.87 for wind Exposure
C in accordance with ASCE 7-05. Seismic loads are not included in the API STANDARD 650-WELDBD TANKS FOR
standard designs. The provisions do not cover requirements for tanks OIL STORAGE (RBP. 10)
that require anchorage or tanks that are subject to seismic loading or This standard addre3Ses vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, carbon steel
higher wind load parameters. Capacities are limited to the standard tanks of welded construction. Tanks may be open top, covered with a
sizes specified in this document. fixed root; fitted with a combination of fixed roof and internal floating
roof, or fitted with an external floating roof. The tanks are constructed
API SPEC l2D-SPECIFICATION POii. FIELD at or near grade level, and the entire tank bottom must be uniformly
WELDED TANKS FOR STORAGE OP PRODUCTION supported, either on a tank pad, slab foundation, or grillage.
LIQUIDS (RBP. 7) The standard includes requirements for design, materials, fabrica-
This specification covers fixed standardized sizes of field-erected, ver- tion, construction, construction tolerances, inspection, and testing of
tical, cylindrical, closed-top, ground-supported welded steel storage welded steel carbon steel storage tanks. Design requirements include
tanks constructed of carbon steel and operating at internal pressures loads from the stored product, hydrotest, operating conditions, snow,
approximating atmospheric pressure. This is primarily a fabrication rain, wind and seismic effects, and live load conditions. API 650 base
specification calling out specific sizes, configurations, and component requirements include tanks operated with internal pre3Sures from atmo-
thicknesses for 10 standard tank geometries (eight different capacities). spheric pressure up to internal pressures not exceeding the weight of the
All tank configurations are preestablished and designed for internal roof plate and with a design temperature not exceeding 200°F.
pressures varying between 3 oz/in.2 and 8 oz/in.2 depending on tank The standard includes supplemental annexes that contain additional
geometry. The tanks are rated for a 20-psf roof live load in addition requirements for special features, alternate materials, or specific operat-
to ~ oz/in.• of vacuum. Thickness of the tank floor, shell, and roof are ing conditions. By incorporating the supplemental rules from one of the
predetermined and specified. The standard tank designs do not include standard's annexes, internal pressures can be increased up to 2.5 psig.
700 CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
Supplemental requirements in other annexes allow deUgn for vacuum to the material of construction of each component) and standards appli-
up to 1 psig, higher deUgn temperatures up to 500°F, less stringent cable to other types of tanks and general structures. However, the engi-
requirements for small capacity tanks where the nominal thickness neer must be knowledgeable of the tank standards and design codes and
of the stressed components does not exceed 'n in., less stringent proceed with caution so as not to inadvertently misapply the provisions
requirements for tanks not over 20 ft in diameter and completely shop of any of the tank standards that are not appropriate for this type of
assembled, requirements for an optional aluminum dome roof, design application.
requirements for austenitic stainless steel tanks, and design require- Utt-Type, ar Piston-Type. Gu Holden For this type of tank, API 650
ments for duplex stainless steel tanks. does not include any requirements or guidance for the guides, counter-
This standard does not apply to tanks in refrigerated service. The weights, seals, or piston structures. However, it is recommended that
annexes also include recommendations for foundation design and con- the engineer follow the requirements of this standard for the other tank
struction. Capacities are only limited by the design conditions, materials, components to which the standard is applicable.
and maximum allowable component thickness. Liquefied Petroleum Gas Storage API, NFPA, and the federal
Department of Transportation have standards applicable to these
API STANDARD 653-TANK INSPECTION, tanks. Each of these standards and regulations covers a specific scope
REPAIR, ALTERATION AND RECONSTRUCTION and has limitations and exclusions regarding the types of tanks or
(REF. 11)
facilities to which the standards are applicable. The engineer should be
This standard is the only current standard that addresses repairs, altera- fully familiar with the applicable requirements for this type of tank
tions, and reconstruction of steel storage tanks. It addresses minimum before proceeding with the design.
requirements for maintaining the integrity of tanks initially designed and High-Temperature Tanks Tanks with a design temperature over
constructed in accordance with API 650 and its predecessor document, 500°F are beyond the scope of the API 650 standard. This type of tank
API Standard 12C. Rules for inspection, repair, alteration, reconstruc- requires many special considerations on material selection, welding,
tion, and even relocation are included. Repairs can include replacement configuration, metallurgy, and thermal differential movements. After
of tank components that are damaged or have suffered metal loss due selection of appropriate materials for the operating conditions, a
to corrosion, or they might include installation of patch plates over cor- detailed thermal/structural interaction analysis should be performed
roded sections. Tank modifications might include adding a new shdl ring for the selected materials at the design and ambient temperatures and
for increased capacity or installing new shdl nozzles, manways, or access other anticipated temperature ranges.
appurtenances. The rules cover design, materials, welding, construction, Pllrtlally Burled Tanks Although AWWA DlOO does not apply to
testing and inspection, and modification of the tank and its accessories. tanks partially buried in the ground, tanks can be designed for this con-
Although this standard is not explicitly applicable to other ground- figuration. The tanks must be designed to withstand the external soil and
supported liquid storage tanks, such as tanks designed in accordance groundwater pressures cirerted on the tank shdl when the tank is empty
with AWWA DlOO, the rules and principles contained in API 653 can in addition to hydrostatic pressures and dynamic loads under seismic
be aptly applied to those tanks as long as the engineer has an under- conditions. A comprehensive corrosion protection system for the buried
standing of the purpose and intent of the rules included in API 653 and portion of the tank shdl and the underside of the floor should be devel-
judiciously applies those requirements to fit the intent and spirit of the oped since the buried portion of the tank will not be accessible for
rules of the standard for the particular tank type under consideration. inspection and maintenance. Groundwater levels and their impact on
The engineer should carefully consider how the proposed repairs or structural loads and corrosion protection systems must be incorporated
modifications should be adapted to provide a structural capacity at into the design considerations for these tanks. A design procedure for
least as much as that of a tank newly constructed in accordance with determining the required shdl stiffeners is provided in Ref. 17.
the applicable standard. Reference 12 provides additional discussion of
CODE REQUIREMENTS
issues related to tank retrofits and upgrades.
ASCE 7 is the source document for seismic loads under the Interna-
OTHER TANKS tional Building Code (IBC) and has been incorporated into most of the
Bins and Silas For bins and silos storing bulk solid granular material, tank standards. For most tank installations, the IBC or one of its state
many design considerations differ signifu:antly from the design princi- adopted or locally adopted versions will apply. In the United States,
ples used for liquid storage tanks. Except for this paragraph and the most states have adopted the IBC as the required code for all structures
listing of some documents in the reference list, this handbook does not installed within their boundaries, some incorporating specific revisions
cover this topic. There is no American national standard applicable to for their state and others adopting it without revision. Additionally,
bins and silos. Designers of bins and silos should seek information from some local jurisdictions have adopted additional revisions to their
detailed references that focus on those structures. For these structures, state's version of the Building Code. Because of these variations, the
the engineer must apply detailed engineering principles and relevant engineer should review the version of the Building Code applicable to
portions of codes and standards using sound engineering judgment. The each specific project to determine if special requirements will apply.
Steel Plate Fabricators Association, in conjunction with the American ASCE 7 contains provisions applicable to tanks. It also contains specific
Iron and Steel Institute, published a manual for the design of steel bins detailing requirements for various types of tanks. For specific types of
and silos which covers recommended design procedures and discusses tanks where existing industry standards contain seismic design provi-
many bulk solids design theories (Ref 13). References 13 and 14 provide sions, ASCE 7 provides that deUgn may be in accordance with that
a convenient summary of design procedures incorporating various bin industry standard plus additional special requirements contained in
theories to create a practical design. References 15 and 16 provide a more ASCE 7. When there is no relevant industry standard applicable to a
detailed discussion of numerous bin and silo design considerations. particular tank, ASCE 7 requirements apply for the wind and seismic
Light-Gauge Stainless Steel Tanks Llght-gauge stainless steel tanks loads and detailing requirements. In those cases, the engineer should
are commonly used to store wine, juice, olive oil, and so on. No industry follow a reasonable and rational approach to develop a design protocol
design standard exists for these tanks. Some of these tanks are ground- for determining the tank's resistance to the ASCE 7 loads and additional
supported tanks, others are mounted on a stand consisting of joists dead, snow, rain, live, and other environmental loads.
(sometimes light-gauge, cold-formed members) mounted on a structural
frame, and still others are just mounted on legs similar to the configura- DESIGN REFERENCES
tion sometimes used for bins or vertical vessels. For these tanks, the Many technical references of interest to the engineer are available that
engineer must apply engineering principles and relevant procedures provide a detailed treatise on the design of steel tanks. Chapters 3 and
using sound engineering judgment to adequately address a combination 4 of Ref. 20 provide useful information and insightful discussion on the
of multiple codes (structural steel code, light-gauge steel code applicable design of flat bottom tanks. Two relevant books have been published
DESIGN OF STEEL TANK$ 701
sinc:e the fourth edition ofthis handbook (Re&. 18 and 19). Theae books ll.12 D111lmll1r Mll!tllll c:ami.lan
cover technical upecb of the d.ellign of ltm'age tanks and their oompo- As noti:d preriOU1ly, AWWA tank. standards DIOO, Dl03, and Dl07
ne.nbl a.nd accatOrles u well u ope.rattonaJ. .lnapectlon, a.nd repair co.n- addrm carbon steel tanb. However, it is 1ometime.t considered advan-
alderatlon•. Refe.rences 20 and 21 provide background and proo:dwa tageous to use ltainlea ~ or other metals possaslng improved cor-
on a variety ofImportant topics related to stor«ge tank de.ip. References rodon resistance properties for piping componenu or tank accesscr1es.
22 through 27 cover topics relmd to the design of a variety of tank. and Due to the geometric; c;omplemy of the.te c::omponents or obm:ucted
vessel structure.t, many of which. are intended fur or can be applied to a«as to them for proper application of protedive co:;itings, the practice
Che design of storage taDb. Refe.rence 28 Includes CU.cutdon of many ofualng ltainle.u steel in .minor piping or acceuory we.mblies 1' thought
important comlderations in the design. conmuction, maintenance. and to solve the corrosion problems often usoc.lated. with Chese .minor com-
operation of stul water storage tank.t. ponents. The engineer mould be I.wan! that while trying to 90Jvc one
problem, another potentially bigger problem may be created.
22.2 DESIGN CONSIDEAA110NS Dltalm.llar meta!B corrosion occun when two <llfferait types ofmetal
are elec:trically continuous and both in contact with an electrolyte.
This section include.1 a di11CU11ion of common detign comiderations for This would be the c::ue if stainlea steel components were welded to
water tanks. Tanlu storing other producb will likely require additional the carbon ateel tank and were also in comac:t. with the mired liquid.
consideration• baffd on the ch.aracter:lstlu of the stored product and In locations where pinhole• or holldayJ elist in the carbon steel tank's
Che operating conditions of the tank. interior coating• bdow the high liquid level a galwnic corrosion ceD.
would devdop causing corrosion of the carbon steel tank componenta.
22.2.1 Bonam c:onftful'lltlon1 The carbon steel cmnponents will com>de in this inltanc;e beca111e
For ground-mpported. tanb, the tank. bottam can be designed in several stainleu tted it higher on the galvmic series. and, thus, it is the more
diffuent configunt!om (Fig. 22.2). The configurations depleted are noble metal Because the carbon steel tank components wlD. generally
(a) crowned (cone up), (b) sloping. (c) flat. (d) cone down, (e) eccentric be the less noble metal and. therefore, Che metal that will COJ'l'Ode when
cone down, and (f) lrutterfiy bottom. The aowned bottom ii moat com- this galvanic cell i1 formed, the cum:ntedition of AWWA DIOO prohil>-
monly Wied for water tanks. The slope of the floor ii on the order of itt the we of dlss:imilar metals intlde the tank below the de.rign liquid
1-in. in 10 ft, or appromately 1 percent up from the shell to the c:enter. level unless the diaslm.llar m.etaJa are elec:trically Jsolated from the tank.
References 18 and 19 provide a dlscusaion ofsome of the conaderatlons In some a&8es, eve.11 thoughAWWADlOO requires theelectrkal.lsola-
fur use of the different floor configuration•. tion ofthe dissimilar metals. protective c::oatinp are applied to the more
noble metal to reduce the exposed calhodic area in lieu of providing
electrkal isolation.
Effective electrical Jsolation is generally preferred, lrut sometimes It
00
The design proceu for ground-supported. tanb ii predicated on the tank
type, the product being stored, Che design and operating condltion1, and
the tank ltandard to which the dmgn is carried out The fullow:ID.g list
provide1 the bulc ~ in die design pro<:eM fur a ground-wppomd
wata tank designed in accordance with AWWA 0100:
(1) Design method selection (base design or Section 14)
(d) (e) (f) (2) Roof type selection and design
Rgure ll.2 Varial:iom of tank botmm configunl:ion. a. For wppomd cone roo&. design of rafters and bracing. girders.
c;olumru, base plates. and all conneciions
b. For any of the self-mpporting roof types. design of the roof
membrane and wod.ated supporta, stiffeners, compre&tion rlngs,
When 111ing other than the crowned floor configuration, consider- and temion rings. If any
ation of the strwea induced in Che fioor plates due to differentJal 1ettle- (3) Selec::tionoijointtypesanddmgnjointdlicienc::icsf'ortankahdljoims
ment under the tloor Is warranted. For tanks without a crowned floor, (4) Determinalion of hydrostatic mell 1tresse1
when a concrete tlab-tTI>e foundation ii not used, the center of the (5) Determination of shell retlatance to wind loading
tank. tloor will settle more than the tan1t perimeter, creating membrane (6) Determination of 1hell wind stlfl'ening requlrementl
rtraaes in the floor and circumferential compraatve force• in the bue (7) Detennination of rcsinance to o'f'Cl'tlUllinB moment under wind
of the tank ahell. Because the tank bottom. is a flei!ble membrane on loading
a crowned floor, it can scnerally accommodate this diffcmltial 1ettle- (8) Determination ofhydrodynamlc shell atram
ment with the tloor experiencing some minor waviness due to the (9) Determination of shell buckling reslltaD.ce under Kismlc over-
additional settlement at the c.enter of the tank. Because of the potential turning compression loads
negatlYI: consequences of this ditfuentlal settlement, slab foundations (10) Determinalion of aloshing wave and freeboard requirement.I
are often considered necessuy when the crowned bottom conflgultl.- a. For tanks with inadequate freeboard, abo design the roof and
tion ii not selected. anchorage for sloshlng wave pressures
A sloping bottom or butterfiy bottom it used when it is ne~ to (11) Determination of resls1allc;e to overtulnlng moment under
accommodate se'lf-dralnlng of the product from the tank through the seismic loading
tank sheD. This type of floor Is sometimes used in conjunction with a. anchorage required, or
a S.ush-type shell amnection or a. flush-tTI>e cleanout 6.Uing designed b. self-anchored OK, no uplift oC<:UrS, or
and constructed in accordance with API 650 to facllitate full drainage c. Wf-anchored OK. design of annular ring for required hold-
at the low point down force1
702 CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
The <:ombinanon of th"e two featurea reaulted in a roof 81UW:e that this tank roof ii not expec;tecl to ~uire replacement again. An inno'n-
<:ould be effed:ivdy and efficiently c:oated on the inlide of the tank. and tive de.rign approach and comp.rehenlive plan with innovative good
a muctural. con1lgun.tton on the o\dilde of the tank that could be eaally comtruction detaile provided a sw:.c.easful aolution.
a~ and fully coated and 1.ncluded no inaccef&!'ble areu. The exter- Eltcrnal ttructural systems and re<:tangular layouta are not the aalu-
nal 8tl'Uctural system also has the advantage Chat it can be in~ at ti.o.n fur every tank. but thi8 inn~ approach produced a succeuful
any time, even maintained at any time, without taking the tank out of solution here. The case study is one eumple ofsucce.ufully II.ling a. ciitru--
•ervice. Figure 22.Sa mows the interior surface of thit tank after the ent approach to solve a recurring problem. The unique design developed
new roof was Instilled. F.lgure22.51' shows an a:terlorview(pr:lorto final for the case study tank .n:Nlted Jn the devdopment of a patent fur roof
coa1ings) of anodier tank built using 11. similar mena1 structural. symm strumre system• dulgned to l&llow fur filD application of prot«tive
with a rectangular layout. coaling IJ*mJ to the interior surface1 (Ref. 29). During the mearch for
this patent it became obvious that the problem of corrollon of the tank
surfaces above the liquid level wu not new. In fact, a patent on a diffur-
ent approach to the Ame problem wu i..ue<t by the U.S. Pmnt Office
in 1958 {Ref. 30). The backpound of that patent danomtratm diat the
problem of con:w:ion in tank. roo& has been known for I11U1f decade..,
but the Jndustry hu been slow to change. Altemative dea!gns Chat am
algnlBc:antly reduce the main.tenance and repair com moc:iab:d wilh the
tank metl operated by municipalitie., utilities, and indu.strial facilitie.
genenlly have a. higher initial cost, so when tank contractors submit com-
petitive bi.di they choose the option with the lawut coat to inttall but that
atlll meets the speclfl.e<l minimum requirement.. The IO'!Yat-lmtalled-
coat option rarely pro'rid.es Che bm solution (or lowe.t lifetime coat.
&temal ltrw:tural l)'ltems might be undesirable for certain locale.
based on local weather condruona and the nature of the region wr-
rounding the tank site. In areas .ubject to significant snowfall. the mer-
nal 8\l'Uct\l1'al system could inc:reue the amount of snow accumulati.on
and the OOIRsponding loads on the roo£ Ad.ditionalfy; if the tank is
situated in an area 1111rounded by tall trees, leavea and debrlt .may col-
lect on the rooftop, resulting in the need fur more frequent obsuvatl.on
Rgu,.. ll.SO- Qoof Interior with cztemaI ~framing and rettulglllar and pmonnel acceM for remowl of these accumulati.o111.
layout. This author belien:1 that the engineer ab.ould examine all options and
highlight the significant l.uue• and alternative tolutio.111 dltcuHed in
thit sectlon when presenting a design fur client approval.
Whenever corrodon of the interior roof components due to the prod-
uct being stored and the operating conditions of the tank ii of concern.
the fuilowing recommendation.t de1etVe consideration.
SBA.L W&LDDIO
SW welding ofintmor roof plate jomu c:an a.tend the life rpan ofa steel
ta.nk'1 roof pbtes, but more important are the point. of <:orrtad. between
the roof plates and the supporting rafters. Th"e polntt of coatact are
usually Che origin of structural deterioration. When components of the
roof mucture and roof pi• joints are not seal welded. the contact sur-
faca of roof plate lap joints and the contact surfaces between the roof
plates and raften, ln addition to tome other areu of the completed tank.
are termed ·1.na~le areas." Aft.er completion of the tank construc-
tion, these in~e ueu cannot be coakd or maintained. And even
intpection of these areas ii difficult, with the deteriorating <:ondilion
only apparent after •lgnlficant .metal loss has occurred.
Seal Mlding can protect these Inaccessible areu from the corroslve
atm.08phere In the Wik. but teal welding of au roof plate joints and aD
points of contact between the roof plates and the supporting raltus can
In the tank of the present case study. the original tank roof luted be difficult. This eHort ls etpecially difficult toward the center of the
leas than 6 yem. Aft.a the .new roof system was imtalled, the newly tank where the rafters are conve.rging when a radial rafter configuration
applied interior coatinp were again subjected to very har•h conditio111. is 111ed. Addi11onally. ab.rinbge due to let&l welding can produce d.lstor-
After nearly 15 yea.rt in sernce with the new roof; the intmor a>at- lio111 and und.eairable Dna1 roof shape. Formed roof panels discussed
.lngs had begun to deteriorate under the severe eervice condltiom. At later in thit article can signifi.cantly reduce roof distortion became of the
Chat time, inspection of the tank l'e'Yl:aled negllgl.ble metal Joa In the sub.ttant!al reduction Jn the amount of welding and the Jn.creased atJff-
locations where the coating• had deteriorated. All other areu of the neas of roof pmels prior to welding u compared with seal welding roof
roof were in sound condition. So, in 2001, the interior coaliil(ll were plate lap joints and let&l welding the rafters to the roof plates.
re.moved, and 11. new coatillg lyJtem was applied. The tank was placed The commentary in AWWA 0102-Sta.nda.rd. for Coating Steel Water-
back Jn service, and the tecond new coating system luted approll.- Storqe Tanks provide. a good summary of .lnacceulble areas and
mately another 15 years before the coating• «gain required rmora1io.n. the features and benefits of dlHerent roof options with respect to the
The exterior IUdacea were in good <:ondilion, bur. the decilion was ma.de performance of pl'OtectiY'e coating symm.s. It u rewmmended that the
to al.to recoat the exterior ofthe roof. In 2017, the interior roof surfaca engineer be familiar with that commentary when com:idering the roof
were recoeted for a 'econd time, and the roors ate.rlor surfaces were contlguration best 8Uited fur each project.
also recoated. The tank was then place<! back into savlce. With proper Seal welding by itself is only an Jncrcmental improvement to the
maintenance of the <:oalings and coating n:storation when needed, p.rotea:i.on ofthe roof symm. In order for Che benefiu ofseal welding of
704 CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
the roof component. to be fully realized. seal welding must be combined The drawba<:b to configuratiom "a• and •11• arc the following:
with the 1elect.ion of a roof sll'Ucture configuration and good conrtruc- (1) The relatively small diameter of the center support creates congu-
tion detailB that provide ample ac.c.ess to peifu.rm the teal welding and tlon of .memben around the c.enter support with very restrictive apace
allow protec:tiYI: coatlnga to be applied to all surfacu. between the rafters. inhibiting seal welding, bluting. and coating actlvl.•
ties performed &om S<:affold or lift equipment from below the rafters.
OPllN CENTER Sul'PollT (2) The space between the top of the center support and the und.er-
Column-supported roof structure configuralions utilitlng ndlal layout alde of the roof plate above it 1w only llmited acce.u from the top side
of the rafters generally include a support at the center of the tank. The through the center ve.11t and is further llml.ted by the depth of the rafters.
center support fur the roof raften lw been produced in a variety of con- This malces the seal welding. bluting. aid coating ofthe swfaces ofthese
figurations (Fig. 22.6a). Commonly. the u.nk manufa.cturu is respon- components atrmJ.ely difficult at belt.
sible to produce the engineering des:igD for the tank and so selects the (3) The ends of the rafters resting on the center support have the same
style of ce.nter support fur simplldty of fabrication and lowest instailed clisadnntages related to restricted access as noted in item (2) above.
cost in addition to size consideration for shipping logistics. These Open center supporu provide acce88 to the undmide of the center
cons:ideralions do not often line up with a goal of protecti'fe coating portion of the roof in addition to acce11 to the ends of the ~
application and asset preservation. The center support stylu depictecl in and their connect.ion to the center support The center support stylu
sketches •Ii' and •h• of Fig. 22.w repreaent the kinds of c:enter support depicted in eketches ·c- and ·r of Fig. 22.w represent open support
assemblies 8elected for the contractor's lowest 1n8tall.ed C08t. The two structures allowing such accen. The center support in sketc'h. •~utilize~
center support style11 in sketch« •a• and ·~ result in several problems a built-up box tube fabritated to the nquiml diameter. An advantage
when it comu to applica1ion of protective coal:inp, maintenance, and of this style is that the top o( the box tube can be sloped to match
C011'08ion protectJon or the components. the roof pitch providing a good joint for weldlng where the raftm land.
Center vent
base assembly
Roof plate
Rafters
Built-up tubular
Structural support ring
cone
Mult;pl:
~~
0 \ ~upport r?:ilt-up tubular
dng
support
columns
(b) (e)
Self-supporting cone
in t his sect ion
(f) (g)
Rgure 22.611' Variatiom of cemer ruppart rtructurea.
DESIGN OF STEEL TANK$ 705
The US<! of tubular support membm on thi• center support ~ main portiom of the roof in Older to aa as a self-rupporting roof with-
also reducet the number of hard-to-reach areu where the support out lliffenen. The larger support ring or girder system providu even
.memben attach to the tubular wpport ring or to the column cap plate. more spacing between. raften and aho p.rov:tdes umestrlcted ac:ceas for
The cerrter Rpport in tketch •tf' utilizes a rolled channel for the rup- blasting and coating the ends of the raften and the center of the root:
port ring and steel ansJes for the support.. Thi• atyle ls often •elected by
fabricators u a lower-colt option for an open center IUpp01t. However, FOll.MED ROOP PANELS
compared to the center support in sketch "c," thit style hat the disad- Roof systems co.nrtructed mlng formed roof paneb offer several advan-
vantage that the top flange of the chumel does not matd!. the roof tlope, tages. In this type of roof system, rafters a.re replaced with a structural
making seal welding of the rtdter-to-support ring conn«tion more s«tion, commonly a channel. that is formed along one edge of the roof
difficult. In addition, style "tf' also results in portions of the st:ructunl panel. Roof components in this synem a.re generally categorized u inte-
that are more difficult to acx:ess for blutlng and c:oa.tJng. For Chis reuo.a, gral formed-structure roof panels, but sometime• the manufacturer's
Jfan open style center support Is selected for a angle-column configura- Jazgon for this roof system u "be.nt plate roof" or "ptta brake roof" In
tion, style ..,. it preferred. An enmple of a tt&llk roofu.Ing this type of this d!JcwJsion, this type of roof it referenced as •rormed roof panels.·
center support is mown in Fig. 22.6b. Figure 22.7a ahoWJ a. sketch of a common configuration of a formed
roof panel with internal structural elemenb. Figun: 22.7b 1hoW1 a con-
ceptual rendering of a partial roof structure uang thla type of formed
roof panels and an open center ruppo.rt.
(a) (d) J
(b)
] (e) )
(c)
J
Rgure 22.7• Sampling of varlatlo11.1 of intemal formed roof panel geumdriea.
DESIGN OF $TEEL TANK$ 7'11
their diameter. They are 1J.S11ally of such heiabt that the upper portion
] have been built. Shell plate1 up to 2 in. thick have been used. Several trial
calculat!om are needed to determine the most economical d.im.enslom.
The dlme.aslom may be dete.rmlned by the following equttions:
H=_!_ (22.1)
62.-tg
D=0.4126,/% (22.2)
J Since tinb are gencnlly tutl!d with water, a specific gravityg le.a than 1
la not recommended for deaign purposes.
se~ between the floating roof and the inside of the shell or other For welded comtruction. E vllrie. from 0.75 to 1.0, depending on the
tanb with internal equipment requiring a consistent inside diameter type ofjoint wed and the requiRd welding inspection procedun. L'ap·
dlmeml.on, alignment "a" .IB the p.refe.rred option. For large taDb with welded joints, where used, are baled on fillet we1.d8 with leg size equal
lntemal coatings, alignment "tl' Is also prefemd to .reduce or eliminate co the fuD. thickness of the plates being joined. L'ap welds in the bottoms
the nposed plate edge~ by the thicker lower ahell plate thickness of flat·bouom tanb and in roof platC$ not In contact with water are
projecting inside the 6u:e of the shell ring above. Depending on con- only required. to be welded from the top side. L'ap welds in roo& and
struction techniques, tometlmet tank.DW1ufac:turen choose alignment lhell plates in conmct with water must be doubl&-welded lap joints, or
"b" so that the manufactured cl.n:umference of each ring is consistent butt jolnta must be used. Lap Joint construction for tUlk shell Jo!nts I•
bued on the centerllne redM being equal For small-diameter tanb. allowed under AWWA DIOO but is not allowed in IOID.e of the other
somelimu alignment "t! ii chosen such that the ouls:ide strap dimen- tank standards.
sion h c:omlrtent for all rings. Prom a. tank. de1lgn penpective, the d!o- The verticaJ. joinb for bolted. steel ta.nb are lap joints. The hor:b:ontal
sen alignment affects the dimensional requirements of roof structure joints for bolted ta.nb may be either formed &nge Joints or lap joints
components for Bud root's or seal space for floating roofs. Since all (Fig. 22.1). The type ofhorlzontal Joint used by the tank manufacturer
three alignmell1ll allow for tUll penetration welds at the horizo!ltal joint, depends on die equipment used in the manufacturing plant. and. in
the stzuctural design ill the same for all three. 1ome cases, the type of joint may also be predicated on the type of coat-
'Ihe aheD. plate Is made up of one or mare horizontal plate courses of ing to be applied. The mmmum allowable shell thickness for bolted
wkhh w (Fig. .22.!I). Shen ring widths are commonly between 6 and 10 ft. sted ta.nb Is limited by AWWA Dl03 bued on the type ofhor:b:ontal
but other widtN (commonly 8 ft) may be sdectccl. depending on shdl joint employed. Bolted tanb confonning to API 12.B are only available
height. awilabillty ofmateriab, a.nd am.druc:tion method. with a form.ed flange type joint.
The dealgn joint efficiency fa.ctora and allowable mess levels vary
with each tank de'1gn standard and. in some cases, add.ltlonally by Che
type of tank or design basis sel~ within each standard. These valuel
are bued on the matmal properties, level of quality c:on:trol, a.nd intpec·
I
tlon require.menta associated with the eel«ted de.tlgn approach.
I
I
For welded joints, only tUll·penetration butt Joints are permitted
' at joint effidenc:les greater di.an 0.75. And, the joint efficiency may
exued 0.85 only if extended radiographic examinalion ill provided and
more rutrlc:tive material and delign require.mew are imposed. Th0te
h inaeued requirements Include Chickness limitations, design metal tem·
perature limftatlons. and, in some caset. notch toughneM requirements.
H 'Illble 22.1 lists the joint efficiency facton in, T, AWWA DIOO for die
vuious joi.llt type1 listed. For AWWA DlOO WW, the joint efficiency
lw -
for shell joi11t11 may only be Increased to 1.0 whe.n all requ.lrements of
Section 14 of that standard are ln~d into the design. cons1ruc:-
tion, and testing ofdie tank.. For API 650 tanb, the joint efficiency ii 1.0
except for small tanks designed under the reduced rulet of Annex A of
Chat atandud. Each Wik standard baa lb own 8Jled.al requirements. 'Ihe
details of each standard should be thoroughly reviewed and understood
prior to commencing tank design activities. For water W1b, partial-pen·
etration butt-joint welds achieving at least a two-thirds effective throat
are permissible. wilh some limttatione, only in tank shell joll'rb rubjected
co secondary stress. sw:h as horizontal aeams of ground-supported
!at-bottom tanks and only when design in w:ord.ance with Section 14 is
not wed. However, when heavy vertical loads are supported by the ahell,
Che vertical rtreH .IB conaldered to be a principal mete, and the horizontal
seams could require butt joints with fuD.·penetratlon welding.
reduce the bearing pretllU'C to &n acceptable w.lue. With the bearing
pre11ure, P, at i1ll mu:imum acceptable nlue, the projection •tl" is given
by Bq. (22.Sa):
12W'
a=-2.P-.ij.
- (22.Sa)
p
where L = center to center lplClng of the rafters It their outer end, In.
Load d1agram of bottom prelNNS. c:h1me projectloD •,,: and
Agure 22.11 t = roof plate thiclmea. in.
~ ofbottom to WU plm. Wmi =roof dead load pl111 live (or 1naw) load, paf
710 CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
Column
Column
cap plate
Sacrificial
plate
Structural
base plate
arranged in a radial pai:tem (Pig. 2215, sketch •dj. The tnusea and the amtu rinp. ~eding the top-c.honi and bottom-c.honi c.enter
raften are supported by dips welded to the topmell ring.Due to theCOll- ringJ with a torsion tube provides roution stability; thm, torque induced
ce.ntnted loads at trws connections, mell '1iffunen or reinforcing platell by the top-chord compression forces is counteracted with torques gener-
might be requlre<1. The main raften or trwJse$ are connected to rings at ated by bottom-chord tension force~ (Fig. 22.15, sketch •cj.
the amtu of the tank.. The top chord.I af the trwllea arc connecti:d to a Self-supporting cone roofs without rafters or stiffencni are normally
compn:.lilion ring, the bottom chmds to a temion ring. A tom.on tube ill limited to tankdiametersleu than 35 ft and may have a slope of 30 degrees
provided at the ce.nter for tru&t atabllity. Eccentridt!a caused by rad1aJ. or greater. Tunks with a diameter less than about 75 ft can be provided
mlsallgnment of1l'IU& chord members pimite torques tending to rotate with umbrella. dome, elllpsoldal or torlspherkal. roofs without .rafters,
Compression ring
Truss
Tank shell
Moment
(o) Self-supporting rofter roof (c) Truss supported roof
Compression
Tension
ring~
Rafters
Shell R=C·D
(Bottom w w
but height of the roof will be large. Unruft'ened ummlla and dome
roofs (Fig. 22.16) may have a dl.th radius, R, rangl.llg from 0.8 to 1.2 w
time. the Wilt diameter. The umbrella roof Is a spherical cap, like the Fi9u.-22.17 Load and moment diagram for temton and compression ril!.gf.
dome roof; but the umbrdl& roof is formed with aegme!IU curved only
in the radial direction except where connected. to the tank ah.di.
Based on the de$ign rules ofAPI 650, the thicb.w ofsuch an umt:Uf. would be negative. The moments M, cimunfuential thrum T, and
ened ummlla or domeroof c:an bedete.rmined byd!efoilow.ingfonnule.: radial transvene shears V are d~ed by the following equa.tiom:
At load points,
t=0.0007SCD./W 0.8~C~l.2 (22.7)
s!Ies.t in the ring with the muimum 1tresse1 occuning at the load
polntt and at mldpolntt between loads. Connecting ring
Whe.a the value of W In Fig. 22.17 .Is positive, this diagram rep.resents
the load c:ase for a tension ring. For w.mpmsio.n rings. die value. for W
DESIGN OF $TEEL TANK$ 713
2:u.s ~.,. Acceptable anchor bolt i:naterial• are specified in the tank mndarcls.
Standpipes and reaervoirl mlllt be checbd for resistance to ovmuming As of this writing. the preferred anchor bolt specification is AST.M
momenb cauaed by wind or seilmic forces. The w:lnd overtuming load. FISS4. Thil ASTM spedflcation hu introduced the preferred te.rm. of
case governs when the Wik is empty, and the selamic overtumlng load "anchor .rods," but in thU c;hapter Chey are refe.re.nced u anchor bolta.
case govmlf when the tank is full to the muimum aeimili: deaip. water ASTM FIS54 is tpedfically fur anchor bolts and lndudea three grade..
level. Overturning anchorage «JNists of anchon that C:aI1 provide the High-strength bolts (P{ >SS bi) are nat permitti:d under AWWA DlOO
necemry resistance to uplift. Generally, the anchon an embedded in the unlw the diameter o mild steel boltt eu:eeds 3* in. If high-strength
rlngwa1l or concrete mat fowi.datton and c.onnected to the lower part of anchor bolts are u.ed. after tank comtructlon is completed, the anchor
the Wik me!!. 1\vo tJpe6 of anchors are normally 114ed: anchor bolts or bolta are required 10 be ~nsloned 10 80 percent of their design load.
anchor straps. When anchor bolu are used. they are generally attached WDID LoAI>ING
to the tank mell by meam of anchor bolt chain {Fig, 22.19). The design
pro«dure for anchor chain has been in practice for many decadea. The An approzlmate but practical solution fur anchor bolt wind loading is
deaign procedurei for other types of anchor bolt attachme.at assemblies W' 4M
should be wdl understood fur iU im~ on the tank mell prior to their T. =--+--"' (22.lS)
utilizalion in the design. Anchor attachmena other than anchor chain "' N ND.,
must be analy2ed for the flre$Ses Imparted into the shell and the ability where T,. =anchor bolt tension, lb
of the attachment to resist the ampllfied seismic load [see Eq. (22.18)). .M,.. =wind load overtumlng moment at the base of the tank, ft-lb
When anchor strap are 111ed. AWWA DlOO includes requirement. for D. =diameter of the mchor circle, ft
minimum thickness, common allowance. and geomeay. N =number of anchor bolu
Allchor bolts mould be provided with a lock nut or the threads must W' =total weight of mell and that portion of the roof dead load
be peened to prevent loosening of the nut. The engineer must consider supported by the shell
which option will be UJed when determining the anchor bolt projection. The wind loads are determlDed In accordance with .ASCE 7 for each
The AWWA DIOO standard requiml that anchor bolt inmllation shall height zone of the ttruc:t11re and applied according to the detailed proce-
be apedfied to include Z-ill. nominal projection of the threaded end of dure in AWWA DlOO. The~indudesmodi6carumoftheASCB7
the bolt above the top nut to allow for variations in the ringwall eleva- loach based on shape tiu:tors specified in AWWA DIOO fur the geometric
tions. When anchor stnp8 are uae<l, they must be configured to proYide conBguratton of each height zone. A quick appralimatlmi of the over-
a ductility zone, and the detailing should be thoughtfully planned to tlll'DiDg moment due co wind loads on a standpipe can be cakulated using
allowpropercorro1ion protection. ConrultAWW.A DlOO for additional Eq. (22.16). This equation is based on an estimated average wind~
requirements fur each type of anchor, including corrosion allowance
.requirements, mlDimum size. md mlDlmum quetity. M. =0.00005p-1CDH2 V2 (22.16)
For me<.:hanically anchond tanb. regardle" of whether anchor bolu
or anchor straps are used. the tank shell must be shimmed and sup- where Pai= estimated average wind pressure, plf, without shape factor,
ported on structural. grout aa mown Jn Fig. 22.19. taken u no less than 30 paf
Design of special anchor .reinforcement. if required, and anchor K = 0.6 for cyllndera and o.s fur doubly curved surfacea
cmbedment is completed in ac;cordance with the requirement• of V =wind velocity, mph
ACI 318, Appendix D. H =shell height. ft
Double nut or
peened threads
Tank cushion of
oiled sa nd, crushed
stone, clean sand, or
lime treated sand
SBISMIC LoAI>ING Spacing of anc:hor bolts shoukl not be le~ than 2 ft or greater than
An approximate solution for seiJmic anc:hor bolt loading baccl on a 10 ft; that ill, the number of anchor bolts, N, mu.rt faD with the range
rigid mus model of the tank. contents is u folloWJ: given by
0.31D<N<l.57D (22.21)
T. =-W' + 4M1 (22.17)
' N ND In any cau, N mu.rt not be le11 than 6 for welded steel water tanb.
60.0
50.0
40.0 0 x 0
x
.t:
...;- x
..c. x
0.0 x x
·a:;
:::i:::
30.0 x x x
.:,,!
c 0 00
co
I-
20.0 x 0 x Newha ll
OValencia
x San Fernando
~Simi Valley
10.0
• AWWA Basic
lli. AWWASec.14
0.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 180.0 200.()
Tank Diameter, ft
Flg1.1n122.20 Northridge earthquake~ to t&llka va. AWWA 0100 det4n limb. (Souru: 4111 Etlltiot1, Ch. 29, R.S. WoZISWk).
DESIGN OF $TEEL TANK$ 715
7
clamage, and pos.rible bottom tearing in a major earthquake. The clam-
age curve in that study did not account for doahing-wave clamage to the
roof due to lnNffident freeboard.
AWWA DlOO has Included the •elf-anchored design procedure since Slope to drain
1976. The original procedure, developed by R.S. Wozniak. in 1964 away from ch;me
from a study of tank-damage reporu, still form• the buis of the design
procedure In the tank ttandards today. Reference 32 includes teclmical
dua relewnt to the development of procedum for leismic: andysls of
qlindrical tanb. Reference 31 contain.I the background on the develop-
ment ofWO%.Dlak's procedure.
Types of Wik damage observe<) after the Northrldge earthquake In
1994 were reviewed for con.siderulon of possible new re<Iuirements 6 in. ' <>t>' '
in nMsions to the AWWA mndards. After review of tank damage
ruffered during the Northridge earthquake, &eeboard was suggested
min.
"
' '
- -
. ljj
as a nonmandatory AWWA optJon as a p.rotec:tion. Since that time,
freeboard, or structural mitigation of .lnsuffident freeboard, has been -
incorporated as a mandatory requirement in the IBC and ASCE 7. It is
anticipated that the tank standards will adopt similar Rquiremenb in
: !L
'<>t>' '
their nm revialon cycle. The magmtude of required &eeboard 18 depen-
dent on Wik geometry and location-spedtlc wmic: des!gn parameters.
The largen percenUge of <:Oillponent clamage reported from the
Northridge eardiquake wu to Che piping component!. In most cues,
" --lll.LJ
piping damage was coupled w.tth. elephant-foot buckling. Sel!-111chored
taDb that met AWWA uplift c:riteria did not appear to suffer as much
pip.Ing damage. However, the limited. database Information is inconc:lu-
live as to comimmcy of this oblcrvation. Since mon self-anchored tank.!
subjected to moderate or high sel.aml.c loads must W\ to resist sei&mic
force-. the current piping tlal.bllity requirements In AWWA should be
considered minimum values. AWWA DlOO and ASCE 7 require piping
ilaibility £-or aD tanb when 1eismic design parameters aceed specitied
Chre.thold values, even those tankJ that are mechanlcaily anchored.
AWWA DlOO requires the heisJit. e, ofthe ringwaD above grade to be
2:1.S.6 hundlltlans a1 least 0.5 fl h ii recommended. that the aposed top of the ringwall
Conc.reteringwlllls (Pig. 22.21) are used to provide reliable support under be sloped to drain away from the tank chJme. Figure 22.22 provide11 a
the thell, and ballut fur anchor bolt uplift loads. A minimum ringwal1 recommended detail. The bottom of the rlngwa1l should be at least 0.5 ft
width. b, of 12 Jn. i.t recommended to provide reasonable c<lllltruc:tion bdow the &ost line. A map of mmue &ost pene1ratlon in the United
tlllerancu. When the .r1ngwWl must be wider than 24 In. to get ac:c:eptable Stites is provided in Re£ 2. A portion of that map does not include &ost
bearing valu« or to provide mistance to uplift. an inverted. T-looting penetration depth due to the wide fluctuations in Vllluea within that
mould be investigated to allow the ringwllll width to be mluced This region. Although. other maps am. be obtU!led that include complete
~n ahould include both the atruc:tural efB.clency of the footing frost penetnlion depth c:urves for the entire United Sutes. lnc:ludlng
options as well as Che cost of construction usod.ab:d with each optJon. the region omitted from the map in AWWA DlOO, it i1 recommended
that local weather data be consulted for projecb in the omitted region.
Circumferential relnforc:lng steel must be provided in the concrete
w' ringwdl to develop the hoop stress produced by lateral soil Jn'C"UIC.
due to the weight of die stored water, within the ringwall. The required
t area. of circumferential steel. it determined by
T, =31.2K11 HDdg (22.224)
Wm/2
Xm
~
Ww /2~
I
Cc
d'
Ts
Xp Tension oreo
V;2
(o) (b)
(a) (b)
Rgure 2.2.26 {a) Slab and rlllp'all fuwldatlon and (b) slab-on-pile foandatlon.
22.A ELEVA11DTANKS
Modem elevated tanb are designed as membrane muctmea supported.
by eilher multiple columne attached direcily to the tank shell or a lingle
pedeml A multiple column tank conslsta of a roof. shell. and ~ded
bouom. A .ection of one form of a multicolumn tank is shown in
Fig. 22.27. There are endle11 ponibilities for other fonm and configura-
tions of multicolumn tanb. Flfun1 22..27 Section of mult!colWllll. deftted Wik.
71' CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
allowable Wlit stress and by the joint eflldency factor Jf the stress
ls tendon. Allowable tensile unit streues are gmremed by the wn.sile
properties of the material. Biaxial compression ii not covered in AWWA
DlOO but ill covered in Ref. 9. Section 3.4.3 of AWWA DlOO includes
extensive prorialons fur determining allowable compresalve streeses
dependent on the nature of the atmsed elements. construction toler-
anc;u, and veriftc::ation of as-built geometry of the mucture..
Note that the terms T1 and T1 in thh chapter are defined d!Herently
than In Ref. 9.
22.4.2. lottDm.l fcw EllMl'llHI Tlnu
The tank bottom may be suspended, as in a column-supported Wlk. ar it
may be a support cone, as In some angle-pedmal steel Wlk. or 1t may be
supported by a concrete dome as in 11. composite elevated tank. Design of
swpendedbottomsthatareformedbyanamymmetric;Nlfueiuimilar
to dengn of the roo.£ The bottom is 1eciio.11ed by a transverse plane, the
strases T1 and T2 are determined, and the required plate thlcb.ess .Is
cdculab:d. In heml.sphericd bottoms. where R1 = R2 = R, the mu:lmum
diltan~ h below the TCL will be balanced by a system of meridional tensile unit forc::e. T1, which oc;c;urf at the very bottom of the section
membrane unit Corea, Ti (Fig. 22.31). shown in Fig. 22.27, is given by
Thus,
7j=Ta= yHR (22.27)
(22.25) 2
The membrane unit forces at the spring line are
where D' =diameter of membrane at cut seciion
r=demtty ofstored product
6 =angle of meridional force as shown In Flg. 22.31 7i=YR( 2-3
A' R) (22.28)
Ww =weight ofllquid above cut sec:tion and below the TCL. lb
The weight of the mml should be included in the deten:nination of T1 •
To determine the other (latitudinal) membrane unit force, T1, equi-
librium of T1 and T2 wilh the hydrostatic pmrure p normal to the
Tz=1R(~+~) (22.29)
t
Wind
direction
Ti =__I.__E.(x
2cos9 2
+E.cote)
6
(22.32)
The retllting force TIOH In a bracing rod ii
T.- yDX
1 (22.33) T. - 2H .ma,. (22.38)
-2oose fill N
where e = apex uigle. where a,. = angle between line of action of H and DODIW. to hori2ontal
= =
At the ape. T1 T1 0. projectl.o.n ofbtadag rod being considered
N =number of co1umm or active rods in a tower panel
CompRtslon 1tre11ea mllllt allo be deti:rmlned at the cone-to-
cylinder junction, where a (:(Jlllpralion girder i1 required to resist the The Co.rte rymm on the bakony or ring girder of a tank having llop-
inward pull of the cone bottom. The wmpxession force C in the girder ii ing legs conaim of the mean 4 in the tank mell given by Bq. (22.31),
radial thrum produced by dead and vert1cal live load and by wind or
C=i(X +%cote)D tan9 1
(22.34)
seimlic load,, together with the resisting forca of the bracing aystem
(Fig. 22.34).
The radial thrulb P, from vertical loacla an1
Portions of cone and ah.ell act with the girder. The efrectlve width of
each mtp Is amimcd to be 0.78 ../ii but not to exceed 16t. Therefore, P. =sv (22.39)
, N
the effective area is the llllaller of
where S = slope of wlumn
A.a = 0.78(t,.Jifj;+t1Ni> (22.35) V = sum of vertical loacla at balcony or atrut line
The radial thrum P,,_clue to wind or •einnic:: load. are Towu. Roos
P. _ 2HaS ms9, (ll.4a) The bruing-rod load Tnlt in each panel ofa towerwithvertic;al c::olu.mns is
..a- R.'N
T. 2H ma, (22.43)
where a =distance from balcony to line of action of ho.r:tzoD.tal. loads n11 Ncoa.,,
S. =angle from line of action of H to radial line from c::enter to
c::olumn n For towen with. sloped columns (Fig. 22.36) the stresses are
The .resisting forc::e T,..H in a bndng rod le
T. (P11- PA) lina,, (22.44)
..a 2s1n+111 s1n(IBO"/N)
TKlll =
2
: ( 1- ~}ma,, (22.41)
where PA= !«Ward column load at strut line A
22.4.4 COlumM for EJ..mtd 'hnlls
P11 =leeward column load at strut line B
9,. =angle of bracing rod with homontal
Tower c::olumns DI.If be rolled struc:tural shapes or tubular aec:tlons.
Tubular columns permit u.e of longer unbraced length• uid are easier
to maintlin. Design of the supporting tower follows conventional pro-
cedure.t. The diameter of the tank. and height of Che tower influe.nce Che HA tA
choice betwee.n sloped and vertic:al colWW1s. Appearanc::e of the struc- ~c ~
ture may al!o be & deciding fw:ror. Column• must also be chec::ked for
uplift. The vertical c::omponent P, of the column loads in each panel is
P. =- V + 2M C0$9 (22.42)
T TnsA.,......
~c
Section C-C
" N R'N " (o)
where M = overturning moment of wind or •einnic; forc::es about the
ltrUt line.
The panel points on tubular c::olumns must be adequately stiffened
with 111ternal. transverse <11.apluagms to premit lor:al. buckling by
I
TnR
surface- or skin-applied loads (Fig. 22.35). This requirement applies
particularly to members acting normal to the axis ofthe c::olwnn1. When TnsB ~
~
rigid frame connections are used, full internal. tranavwe diaphragm•,
or the equivalent, must be provided in the column at bolh lhe tension
and compression ftanges of the connecting members.
nth panel
The length of contact af the column with the u.nk is chosen to kllep
thear buckling stresses in Che shell within acceptable limits. Because
the column-to-tank connection defle.i; aact ana1ym, deslgm have been
bued on raUo.nalizaUon. czpertence, and tests.
\ '
----- Tomr rods are made of either aquare or round steel bars. They must be
readily 'W'ddable. The ends are prorided wilh double dms plms and~
pim for attadimc:nt to gusset plates welded to the CXJlumns. Tumbucldes
provide fur adjustment of the rods and lining up of the tower. Turnbuckles
fur 1he rods of laige tmb may exceed prac:tical size limits and be dlflkult
to wJjust by manual methods. In such cases the rods may be welded dmdy
to the guuet pi.ales and a.djustmc:nt made by heating and upset shrinking of
----- the rods. Tumbuckles should be located. in 1he lower md of earh panel just
above 1he strut line for~ accas during adjustment.
Towu. STJ.UTS
, The strut load T.., is the horUorrtal component of the tower rod load:
I
I
I T. 2Hsina,.
"' N
Struts ma.y be rolled structural Jhapes or built-up members.
Figure 22.36, sketdJ. "a," shows a common type of built-up member.
(22.45)
Struts a.re frequently used to support vertic:al loadf. In which case they
mwt. be designed for combined. compmsion and bending. When the
722 CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
thrust is small. a maximum KL/r = 175 is pen:nissible. Struts may be a given sec:tion and. for seismic; forc::es, the natural period of vibration
pin-connected or rigidly conne<ted to the gusset plates. No ailowanc:e are U1UD1ed. The vertic::al-load eccartricity, e,,. a1 any intermediirte section
should be made for flzed·end condltl.ozu when ailn•Jat!ng KL/r. Strut can be assumed to V1l1'y paraboliailly u gMD. by
mu are sometimes determined byerection-loading conditions, In which
QIR they may appear ovm:ized. It is good pncti<:e to design the strW (22.48)
so that their ultimale lliength is sufficient to develop Che yield mmgth
of Che rods, dn<:e combined prete.Dalon and tenalon due to lateral forca
have on occuton stretcl!.ed rods, ~under se.lsm.!c:: loading. The moment u any section ls
22.4.5 Slngle-hdutal'1llnkl
M,.=Hx+hix1 +We,. (22.49)
Thh type of tank is designed from the top down. At\er the ball and where x= d!stan<:e from base ofpedestal to point under c::omlderatJon, ft
shaft diameters are utablisb.ed, the membrane forces and correspond· The shaft weight. W"" Is usually ignored in this calculation. The uial.
Ing required thic:kneues are determined lit intervals, beginning with unit forc::e. T2, in the shaft is
the 6m section below the top. Membrane &ll'Ce$ in the baD an be (22.50)
computed using Eq,s. (22.25) and (22.26) and Che required thic:knems
determined as aplained In ArtJcle 22.4.1.
The latitudiD.al Wislle membrane 'llDit force, T1 In the support cone
(Fig. 22.37, akmh "aj is giTen by Eq,. (22.26)with~=-andndutato A S0,000-gal pedestal tank (Fig. 22.37c) has the following properties:
L = 120.5 ft. length of shaft= 93.5 ft, R = 5 ft, W = 4,414,000 lb, wind
(22.46) = =
H 30,000 lb, and seismic H 110.800 lb. For the first iteration. UNme
e = 3.3 in. At the section x =3S ft. with h1 =250 lb, W., = 10,000 lb, and
The meridional unit forc.e, T:it in the rupport cone ii found from equi· X1 =4 ft. 'm get
llbrium. of the forces shown in Pig. 22.37, lketch "b~ With Tu known.
Tlll .ls given by w.., = 4,433,000+10,000 = 4,443,000 lb
1
1205 35
(22.47) e = [1-( - ) ] x 3.3=1.64 .ID.= 0.137 ft
" 120.S
M,. =110,SOOX 35+ 250X 4 +4,433,000X0.137= 4.470,000 ft-lb
The thic:knesses are detamined. as in Article 22.4.1. T. _ W,, _ M,. 4,443,000 4,470,000><12 =-ll, _
Design of the ropport pedestal for wind and &el.imic low usually 2 780 4740
- 21'R nl{2 377 11,310
requires several iteratlozu. For the first Iteration the deflection, e, of
the ball (Fig. 22.37, sketch "cj, the weight. w,,,, of shaft metal above =-16,5201b/in.
+
+
~
w,.
(a)
J. = 11,780 =-14,200pti
0.83
16,520
f.+ t.=---=-1!1,!IOOpsi
0.83
.!.= 0.83 =0.0138
R 60
~- 2)(93.5 -26
r ---sJl-
Determine the allowable me.es from AWWA DlOO, Section 3.4.3.
Compare that allo'Wllhle llmil to the actual calculated 1tress. If the
~umed thlclmess is adequate, then proceed with the design. Olh-
erwlse, revise the asS11D1ed thickness and check the straai:s again.
Continue this process until the stl'e$1es are within the ailowable levels.
After the thidmesset of the vario111 plate CO\ll11fl.1 ha.ve been deter-
mined, the detlectiom and the na.tuial period are calculated. The cycle
ls then repeated If the calculated values d1ffer from the wumed values
by m01e than. a&y, 2 percent.
The hue cone must be checked at the top and bottom since eidier
section may govern. The meridional unit force, T1 , ls given by
(22.51)
Flf'lre 22.31 Tank-colwnD pier.
where e=angle of meridian with vertical.
Anchor bolt loads Wl be found &om Eq. (22.17). The cue for a full
tmkwithearthquakeandanemptytankwithwindmlllt.bothbechec.lud. llA.7 Sladllng Caftlldlnt'-fllll'
Elavatlld Tina
22.4.CI Foundl11oN lolt Multllpl.-<olumft T1ftkt As of thil writl.llg, Jlosbi.ng wave analysis has not been included as
Prior to design and stut of conatruc:tion. the prop04ed tank site ahould mandatory for elevated tanks In AWWA DlOO. AWWA Dl07 pro-
be explored by a c.ompetent soils engineer to determine its suit:abili1y. vides a method for calculat.lng the theoretical tloshlng wa~ height for
Such illveltlgatiom avert costly delays and assist in selecting proper elevllled. tanks that uses an effective diameta" to account for the variety
foundation construc:tion. The lnvmigalion should determlne the bear- of container shapes used for elevated tanb. The AWWA DlOO standard
.Ing allowable. magnitude of apected ge.ae.ral settlement, and nature requires that if the e.ngineu hu not performed a detailed spec.lal analy-
and magnitude of dift'erential settlements. It lll'lm be mnembm:d that sis to determine the behmor of the sloshing liquid and the separate
multiple-column c:levaled tanb are continuous, not articulated, and Chat impulsive and conveai'fe reaponse <:0mpone.nu of the stored liquid.
they generally impoae suatained dea!gn load during the life of the struc- then the seismic design loads must be determined u if the stored liquid
ture. Only sm.all dlffi:renttal 8ettlements can be tolmlted and repeated iu&edmw.
:rdeveling or undeipinning ii expensive. It ii pn1dent to tat a site prior
to acqui.Ution. 22.5 ACCESSORIES
Foundatiom for elevated tanks are designed so that the column load
passes through. the centroids of the top and bottom of the pier In order An OYtrflow .Is an economical W:ea80tf that will protect the tank from
to obtain uniform soil prcmuc on the base. The pier mutt be founded overpressutt. overload, and possible catastrophic failure mould controls
6 in. below the greatest Cron penetration. Thi1 consideration can be &il to ahut off the pumps. A properly crperated tank mould not omflow
waived when the piers are founded on bedrock. The gross weight of during normal opmil.ion. An overflowing tank is considered to be an
the pier (which Include. concrete and earth directly above the bue) emergency, and the .malfunction causing the averilow should be deter-
must be e<tual to or greater than the mu.lmum calculated uplift at a mined and corr«ted as soon as poasl.ble. It is considered good practice
column baseplate. Maximum uplih. due to wind occurs when the tank for the owner to in8t1lll an overflow sensor on die tank. The sensor an be
is empty, while that due to selamic forces occun when the tank is full. settoactivaleanalannat.thepumphoweandat.localemergencyserrices
AWWA DIOO Section 13 includes a special design case to check soil ofiices in addition to the alarm at the water system Operalor's facilitiea.
preS1ure~ resulting from a lasenil selunic force sufficient to develop Overflow intakes may be configured u open pJpe, shell-slot weirs,
yield stn:u in the bracing rods. Under this special design case, the internal weir box. or Internal cone weir. Regardle• of the configuration.
soil-bearing prellSUl'et are allowed to go up to the ultimate soil-bearing the overflow intake and piping ahould be sized to handle the mu:imum
capacity. The pier Is commonly supported with a footing (Fig. 22.38). intl.ow pumping rate in the !yStem. Intemal weir-type overfll1W9 are sub-
For durability, the 28-day strength of the C0.11crete should be u least ject to Jee dam.age in regiom subject to Ice formation In the stored water.
3000 psi Deiign should comply with the AC[ 318. However, be<:au.se Ovmlow pip.Ing may be .ID.temal or atemal. However, .ID.temal piping Is
of the reduced load factor for dead load, water load should be consid- not rewmmmded in :iqions subject to ice formation in the mired water.
ered at live load except when loads are wed to reaist uplift, even JC it The tank should have an utemal ladder mending to the roof. Inter-
is defined u dead load In the code used for design. nal ladders are subject to ice damage and should be llVO!ded ill regions
The «nter pier for an el~ tank will vuy with piping and center- subject to ice furmation ill the 8tored water. Howev1:r, pedestal-type tanks
mer requirements. The pier should be designed to carry the water and have internal ladders for aesthetit: reuons. Such ladders are accept@le
.metal loads and be proportioned to have unJform. praaure under the since they are placed inside the pedestal or access tubes and are not
base. Large valve vaults and control pits are more economically deaiglled exposed to water or ice damage.
as sepuate units not attached to the center pier. Ifpossible. valve vau1u .A~ openings should be provided ill the roof to permit entrance
should be located oubide the tank foundation area. into the tank and to provide ventilationduringpaintingandmaintcnance
724 CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
(a) (b)
Flgun1 22.39 Shell manwa.y.
of the ru-ucture. AWWADIOO requirel two roof openings, one of which warm water doe.t not Bow Into the talllc to keep the average temperature
may be the tank's ce.ater ve.at Ifequipped with a removable aectlon that ~ 42"F, & heater must be 'IU!ed. The best method Is by means of a
allows for mounting a ventilation fan. heat w:hanger that tlW:s cold water out of the bas<! of the rilla' and dis-
For reservoirs and standpipes. two shell marrways should be pro- c.haq;es heated water into the tank. Such beaten are required by inrurmi
vided In the loweft ahell rlllg. and they mould be located a sufficient .In flre-p.rotectl.on tanb. Added heat Is recommended ill cold regions fur
distance above the bottom to permit reinforcement of the s'heD. cutout ovmiud mllDidpal tanb which do .not c.lr<:ulate the tank capacity at
(Fig. 22.39). The tank standard. include limitatiom on the location of least once per day. During cold spell.s in atremely cold dimatei it may
shell openings, including manwap and noulea. Depmding on the tank be admable to waste water during periods oflow usage. to draw down
type and apedfic de.tip procedure used, additional limitation• .may Che tank. and to reflll. the talllc with warmer well water• .Alternatively,
apply. Those adclitlonal llmltations .may include mlDimum clearance to if the munldpal tank is operated at a reduced capacity eiiual to dally
shell plate joint. or limftatiom on the dlmnce &om the tank floor to demand. the minimum temperature :mtsht be malnt11ined soldyth.roush
the bottom edge of the shell cutout or to the nearest edge ofreinforcing the turnover during draw and fill cydes. The waler·lf*m designer
plates or insert plate.t. mould determine the most economical winter operation for the owner.
Adequate air vents must be provided in tank roofs to pl'e'ftnt Internal Where local climate conditions are such that water In abovegroWJ.d
pressure or vacuum build up. The &ee area for airflow through the piping could freeze, the tank piping for ground supported tanb mould
vent should exceed the larger of the aru of the oudet pipe and the enter the tank th.roush the bottom (Fig. 22.41) or be provided with
area of the inlet pipe, preferably by at leut 50 percent This will gener- adequate imulati011 to prevent freeilng. If the water source h a lab o.r
ally permJt the muimum water discharge rate to not curt Qgnlilc:ant stream, heating of water may be required to prevent &eezlng of the inlet
nepti~ p~ on the tank Scr«ning mialler than 4-mesh on tank and discharge piping.
venb c.an be subject to clogging up with &ollt and ice. making the vent The water-symm designer should rmew the system operaling
inoperative. Clogged vents can cauae collapae of the tank roof during usumptiona and advise the system owner (operator) of minimum
withdrawal and <:an also cause internal ove.rprmure that may rupture water circulation requireme.ntt to prevent Ice formation. The foll.ow:lng
the Wik. For potable water taDb. m.my states require ~ finer 1haD. e:umple illustrates the heat loss calculation.
4-mW., and 24-meth saeai has been idm.1i&ed bythe US. l!nvllonmmtal
Protection Agency a the size r:equired. to preclude in.secU (Re£ 37). llXAHl'U\~
AWWA standards require fall-safe ,pre&rure-vacuum vents, which can The foll.ow:lng values are gi.vell:
lift a relief pallet If the saeen becomes dogged. Such vaita req,llire
maintenance to ensure trouble-&ee opermon. Elevated-tank capacity= 200,000 gill
Floai-type water-level gauges are practical only in wum climates. If Surface area= 4470 ft2
LODM temperature=-lO"F (Fig. 22.40)
p.rmure gauge.tare deaired, they mould be of the mercury-manometer
or bourdon·tube dial-gauge type and located in areas not subject to Entering water temperatunl =S5°P (wdl water)
freezing. From NPPA 22, heat loss rate= 190.7 Btu/ftl/hr.
HltATBRS Total heat loss, Q0 =heat loss rate x 8\11'Dce uea x 24 hrs
Wab:.r·illdustry practice assumes 42°F as the minimum water cmi- =20,458,300 Btu/day
perature and no ii:e furmatlon in the tank. Refurences 38, 39, and Water heu capacity, (4 = (55° - 42°) x 200,000 pi x 8.33 lb/pl
40 contain heat-Ion tables and other relevant data that be wred. for =21,658,000 Btu
calculating tank. heater requirements. In areas where the low 1-day Req,uind circulation= QJQ1 x200,000=180,000 gal/day
mean (WDM) temperature (Fig. 22.40) may be +5"F or colder, frost
protection must be conddered. Freezing of the circulation piping and/or So, on the coldest day, Om" 90 percent of the tank QIPUity must be
ice formation in die tank can occur. Ice up to S ft thick hu been circulated to kllq> the water tmi:perature at the recommended 42°P
observed in tanb which failed due to ice loadt. Ifa aufficient quantity of minimum.
Rgure 22.AO :r..othermal llna. lowett I-clay mean tempelW\U'e.
7H CHAPTERTWENTY·TWO
22.6 MATERIALS
and sped1l.c Umltgtkms and requlmDents as to when and how It Is tpplled
and what Ind ofinspection ofthe as-built~ is n:q,uired to verify the
Pltztes. The plate material most commonly uxd for comtruction of design l7asil after c:onllluction is complete. With certain daign methods,
atmospheric and low-prenure storage tanb lJ ASTM .A36. .ASTM A131 modill.catJ.ons to Che structure might be required Ifthe u-built shape doa
Grades A and Band ASTM .AS73 Grade 58 are also used, partkularly for not conform to the theoreticd ahape within allowable tolennca.
more Km"e service condltiOlls. Shell plates of A36 ahould be limite<l to (3) Allowable ltRS!ea for roof suppon structural cmoponents and
2 in. for tension-contmlled design and should be normalized. in thick- stiffenen are designed in accordance with AISC 360 ASD provisions
nes.1eS over 2 in. for comp.reuion-cont:rolled detlgn. A36 plate.t over 1 in. with specific acepttons. Each tank standard contains slightly different
through 1.5 In. should be ordered to silicon-killed fine-grain practice. provi&lons, so the engineer should conNlt the standard when develop-
Rekr to Che appropriate tank design stuidard fur detailed requirements. ing the dmgn for the roof structural "fltCID·
Maximum permissible shell-plate thic.knella for~ tanb is 1.5 to (4) The slendeme11 ratio KI/r must not exceed 120 for compn:11ion
2 in., depending on whirl!. indllltry standard. and which design mediod memben carrying weight or prasure of tank contenb and 175 fur
will be utilized. AWWA DlOO, Seciion 14, proride.t dealgn require- columns supporting roofs and other members carryiDg wind and/or
ments with higher allowable stresse6 than the hue design, but the sheD. seianic load.
thic.kness is limited to 1.5 in.. and additiOllal material rcquircmenta.
design requirements. wc:lding requiremenb, and testing and impection
requireme.ntt apply. 22.7 COMME.RCIAU.Y AVAILAILE
COMPllTER PROGRAMS
Bau Plates. A36 may be used for bue platu, regardleas of thickness
or ambient temperature. Other steelJ arc dso ae«ptible. Rcfer to indu.s- The awilability of c:mnmercial programs for tank design and analysis
try standards for other acceptable mc:I grade.. appear to reduce the need for the tlmplified method. presented in thiJ
Structural Shiapa. Structural shapes are generally either ASTM .A36 section, However, the vilue of a computer program depe.llds on the
or ASTM A.992 steel. Although Am is most commonly found In wide- de&!gn aperience of Che user. When a program Is used to lnaeue pro-
flange beam sectioN. other structural shapes are al•o available under ductiYity, it is a valuable tool. However, in the hands of a. technician or
thit specificalion. Forginp for tumbuckles and cleviJe1 are generally engineer with no experience, designs may be IUJPeCl Code guidance in
ASTM A668 Cius D. Pins should be specltled to one of the acceptable .lmerpret:lllg output has not caught up with technology. Where the user
materials listed in AWWA DlOO. is an aperienced engineer, it is easy to separate out meaningful stresse6
Andtur Bolb. In the late 1990s. ASTM produced a new material specl- to <:e>mpare to code~owable nn:.-. However, where output producel
6.cation, ASTM F1554, 1pecitically for carbon m:d anchor bolt.I. That an ovenll stJUctural stability Vlllue in place of stresses, an inexperienced
specification includes three strength levels: 36 bi. 55 lul. and 105 bi. dealgller may be tempted to ignore code-all.oW11ble buckling atre&m.
The revised term "anchor rod'" was Jntroduced with the release ofF1554. For example, the Boardman formula has been reduced by a factor of 10
Also, wilh Che Jntroduction of .Pl554. the ASTM A307 speclflcatl.on from the theoretical buclcling nre11 to account fur realistic: construction
dropped Grade B materiah, which previou.aly covered anchor bolts. tolerance.1. The danger in a compum--bued IUbility analysis a>me.1 from
AISC has adopted ASTM Fl554 as the preferred material rpecificstion soluilom that permit the user to input tolerances which may not be real-
for anchor bolts. AWWA DIOO spedfie• Fl554 and other acceptable istic and may reduce the historical, aperienced-drtvl:n reduction factors
anchor bolt mate.rials. incorpo~ into the tank mmdard.s.
Welding Electrodes. Welding electrodet should conform to the Al of this writing, the author is familiar with three programs that an
requirements of the applicable AWS Specifi.cation1, the welding proces1 aVllilable for design of ground-wpported storage tanks conforming to
being used, and the applicable tank standard. They should be any suit- AWWA and API standards, with each offurlllg a dlffi:re.nt set of reature11
able electrode widi merlian!cal propertlet appropriate for the mate.rials and capabilities.
being joined and. fur the elec:tric-cu.mnt characteristia. the p01iti.on of (1) ITSDllSign.,,. by lnnO'Ylll.ive Tank Solutions LLC
welding and other condiliom of intend.ed use. The selected electzocle nm program produces calculations for storage tanks in accordance
must be properly quallfled for the materials and design metal tem- with API 650 (lnclud!ng annexes}. AWWA D100, and FM Global
perature Ill accordance with the procedura spedded .In the applicable 4020/4021. The program can be uttl1zed to design new tanks or analyze
tulk standard. Some tulk s1andards permit welding proced.ures to be o:Uting tanks for confo.rmance to current standards. The program
developed and quali6ed in accordance with either ASMB Section IX. produca a detailed calculation report including a listing of any design
AWS B2.1, or AWS DU, while others permit welding procedures .In erron or nonco.mpllance conditions and a summary of commentt
accordance with ASME Section IX only. The engineer should contlrm. .regvding 8everal. design ~ and member utllizatlon f'actors of
which rules apply before spedfying 'M:lding requirements. intereat to the engineer.
Allowoble Stresses. Allowable stn:ues and joint efficiencies £-or tanks (2) AMBTonkTM by TechnollOft Inc.
vary collllderably wilh the govemlng industry standard. and project This program. produces calculation• for storage tank dutgn .In
specific dmgn criteria. The following are typical: accordance with AWWA DlOO, API 620, API 650, and EN 14015.
DESIGN OF STEEL TANKS 727
The software builds a 3D model of the tank to augment the engineer's 2. Standard for Welded Carbon Steel Tanks for Water Storage, AWWA
understanding of the final structure. The 3D model is also used to cre- DlOO. American Water Works Association.
ate a complete bill of materials, CNC patterns for tank components, 3. Standard for Factory-Coated Bolted Carbon Steel Tanks for Water
and detailed manufacturing and construction drawings and other sup- Storage, AWWA D103. American Water Works Association.
porting documents. One module produces remaining life calculations 4. Standard for Composite Elevated Tanks for Water Storage, AWWA
according to API 653. The program can be utilized to design new tanks Dl07. American Water Works Association.
or analyze existing tanks for conformance to current standards. The 5. Standard for Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection: NFPA 22.
program produces a detailed calculation report. The program is offered National Fire Protection Association.
in several different configurations with different levels of capability. 6. Specification for Bolted Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids,
(3) TANI(T" by Intergraph Corporation API Specification 12B. American Petroleum Institute.
This program produces calculations for storage tanks in accordance 7. Specification for Field Welded Tanks for Storage of Production
with API 620, API 650, and API 653. The program can be utilized to Liquids, API Specification 12D. American Petroleum Institute.
design new tanks or analyze existing tanks for conformance to current 8. Specification for Shop Welded Tanks for Storage of Production
standards. A module also performs fitness for service ratings of existing Liquids, API Specification 12F. American Petroleum Institute.
tanks in accordance with API 579. The program produces a detailed calcu- 51. Standard for Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-
lations report including a listing ofany design errors or warning messages. Pressure Storage Tanks, API Standard 620. American Petrolewn
This author believes that any tank design software should be consid- Institute.
ered a tool and not a replacement for knowledge of the numerous special 10. Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, API Standard 650.
requirements in the applicable tank standards. The engineer should always American Petroleum Institute.
review and verify all input data and the resulting output from such software 11. Standard for Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration and Reconstruc-
systems to confirm the results are reasonable and rational Also, the engi- tion, API Standard 653. American Petroleum Institute.
neer should be familiar with the latest updates to the design procedures and 12. Lieb, J.M., Engineering Considerations in Retrofitting and
technical requirements in the tank standards to verify that the software is Upgrading Aboveground Storage Tanks, International Liquid Terminals
producing results compliant with the applicable edition of the standards. Association Conference, 1990.
13. Buzek, J.R., Useful Information on the Design of Steel Bins and
22.1 THE ENGINEER'S ROLE
Silos. American Iron and Steel Institute and Steel Plate Fabricators Asso-
ciation, Inc., 1989.
Experience has shown that certain factors seem to be repeated whenever 14. Kaups, T., and Lieb, J., uDesign of Quality Bulk Storage Bins and
a tank failure is investigated In general, failures fall into five categories. Silos," Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, Tech. Paper No. CB15460 15185.
The first three will usually occur after the tank has been in service for (Also, in International Journal of Bulk Solids Storage in Silos, May 1986.)
some period of time. These categories of failures not under the control 15. Gaylord, E.H., and Gaylord, C.N., UOesign of Steel Bins for Storage
of the engineer. The primary cause is operation related-someone of Bulk Solids," Prentice Hall, 1984.
turned the wrong valve, bypassed a safety device, covered a tank vent, 16. K£tchum, M.S., The Design of Walls, Bins and Grain Elevators, 3rd
or otherwise deviated from normal procedures. The second is related to Edn., McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., 1919.
maintenance. This could be a clogged vent, corrosion, or other avoidable 17. Steel Plate Engineering Data, Volume 2-Useful Information on
form of deterioration. Third is overload from wind or earthquake loads the Design of Steel Plate Structures, Part III, American Iron and Steel
beyond design levels. The fourth category is also not under control of Institute and Steel Plate Fabricators Association, 15185.
the engineer. This case results when an owner or a contractor copies a 18. Meyers, P.E., Aboveground Storage Tanks, McGraw-Hill, 1997.
design from a previous project and applies it to a new project without 19. Long, B., and Gardner, B., Guide to Storage Tanks and Equipment,
the benefit of an engineering review. Finally, there are design-related John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
failures that occur during first filling or shortly thereafter. Certain fac- 20. Steel Plate Engineering Data, Volume 1-Steel Tanks for Liquid
tors are common in design failures. The tank may contain a product Storage, American Iron and Steel Institute and Steel Plate Fabricators
that is not specifically covered or addressed by industry standards. As Association, 2011.
a result, the owner/engineer concludes that the tank is uexempt" from 21. Steel Plate Engineering Data, Volume 2-Useful Information on
code rules and ignores tank industry standards that should have been the Design of Steel Plate Structures, American Iron and Steel Institute
tailored to the special product for that project. In other situations, an and Steel Plate Fabricators Association, 2011.
inexperienced designer may choose a stress level from a tank standard 22. Brownell, L.E., and Young, E.H., Process Equtpment Design, John
but omit the associated inspection, material testing, welder certification, Wiley & Sons, 1959.
and other technical requirements of the standard. 23. Megyesy, E.F., Pressure Vessel Handbook, 14th ed., Pressure Vessel
As with the structures discussed in many other chapters of this Publishing, Inc., 2008.
book, steel tanks are unique and complex structures. Given some of 24. Bednar, H.H., Pressure Vessel Design Handbook, Krieger Publishing
the dangers of improper design highlighted in the preceding paragraph Company, 1991.
and other special considerations addressed in this chapter, it should be 25. Mahajan, K.K., Design of Process Equipment - Selected Topics,
apparent that the design of these structures should not be considered a 3rd Edn., Pressure Vessel Publishing, Inc., 1990.
menial task. It is incumbent on the engineer to know and understand 26. Jawad, M.H ., and Farr, J.R., Structural Ana(ysis and Design of
the requirements contained in the relevant tank standards. Additionally, Process Equipment, John W:dey and Sons, 1984.
when designing tanks for applications that are not covered by industry 27. Moss, D.R., Pressure Vessel Design Manual, Elsevier Inc., 2013.
standards, the engineer should diligently apply portions of industry 28. Meier, S.W. (tech. ed.), Steel Water Storage Tanks: Design, Con-
standards where appropriate and develop a comprehensive plan for struction, Maintenance, and Repair, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
analysis of the unique tank configuration and operating conditions that 29. Scott, L.D., United States Patent 4,714,170, Large Storage Tank
includes judicious application of relevant structural theories and appro- Structures, 1987.
priate methods of analysis. 30. Roeske, A.E., United States Patent 2,849,143, Tank Design,
1958.
REFERENCES
31. Wozniak, R.S., ~Lateral Seismic Loads on Flat Bottomed Tanks,"
Chicago Bridge & Iron Company, Water Tower, November 1971.
1. Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and 32. Nuclear Reactors and Earthquakes, U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
Other Structures, ASCE 7. American Society of Civil Engineers. sion, Technical Information Document (TID) 7024, August 1963.
721 CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
33. Boberg. I.E., •oil Storage Tank Foundations,• Water Tower; Chicago 38. Fire Protection Handbook, National Fire Protection Association
Bridge & Iron Company, March 1951. (NFPA), Boston, 2008.
34. Guidelines for Tank Foundation Designs (STE03020), PIP Stan- 39. Smith, D.W, (ed.), Cold Climate Utilities Manual, Canadian
dards. University of Texas at Austin, Construction Industry Institute. Society of Civil Engineers, Montreal, 1986.
35. Anchor Bolt Design Guide (STE05121), PIP Standards. University 40. Factory Mutual Research Corporation, Water Tanks for Fire
of Texas at Austin, Construction Industry Institute. Protection, Norwood, Mass., 1917.
36. Manual of Water Supply Practice, Steel Water-Storage Tanks,
AWWA Manual M42. American Water Works Association, 2013.
37. U.S. EPA, MSanitary Protection of Drinking Water Storage Tanks:
#24 Mesh Non-Corrodible Screen,» EPA Region 8 Drinking Water Unit
Tech Tips, June 2016.
Chapter23
Electrical Transmission and
Substation Structures
BY
MICHAEL D. MILLER, PE, P.Eng. VP Engineering, SAE Towers
ROBERT E. NICKERSON, PE Consultant
Electrical transml&sion systems, typically defined as those systems oper- Overhead transmission lines are a complex structural system comprised
ating at high and ultrahigh nominal operating voltages of 69,000 volts of foundations, structures, insulators, and conductors. The conductors,
and above, utilize transmission line, substation, and communication or wire system, impose the majority ofthe load on the structure and are
structures. These structures are inherently different from buildings and concentrated at specific attachment points on the structure through the
most other structure types. The functionality is first and foremost that insulators (isolating the electrical system from the grounded structures).
of structural support, and as such, their dominant features of support- The conductors are subjected to tension variations from temperature
ing configurations are similar to truss bridges for lattice structures and extremes, wind, ice, and other phenomena not typical to other structures
single or multiple poles. Outside of the general structure configuration, types. These variations, along with operating voltage and code defined
for example, tower (designed as a space truss) and pole (designed as a clearances, provide the basis for the line tensions, structure heights,
moment resisting frame) structures are designed for electrical function- phase spacing, position of shield wire, and other electrical considerations
ality for operating clearances and structural load. A performance-based such as electric and magnetic fields and their proximity to the edge
deaign methodology is utilized with a foCW1 on electrical grid function- of the transmission line rights-of-way. The resulting tensiona in these
ality and a targeted reliability-based loading. Industry standard. and conductors change with temperature, wind, and ice accumulations and
manuab of practice provide the reliability hierarchy such that commu- when energized are significantly higher than those tensions at ambient
nication structures are most reliable, followed by substation structures, temperature. The1e structures support loaded conductor• that are rela-
followed by overhead transmission line structures. The electrical grid tively long linear systems in which the performance of each structure
regularly contains degrees of grid system redundancy, and this is taken within a line segment can influence the adjacent structures. Because of
into account in the performance-based targets, and functionality. In these line system interaction phenomena, security loading and resistance
this section we examine the design of each of these structure types in capability is needed to avoid cascading failures. This type of failure can
more detail; however, equations utilized for the design of the specific occur when the longitudinal strength (parallel to the line) of a struc-
structure types are not included herein, and the reader is directed to the ture is exceeded due to the line tension energy released from an initial
Standard or Manual of Practice, which provides relevant design details triggering structure failure or line break. The resulting domino effi:ct
for such 1tructures. Summaries are provided with general explanation propagates and many structures can fail as a result. In rare instances,
as to why electrical industry approaches in deaign often vary from the transverse cascadea can alao occur. Therefore, the performance of the
approaches for building-type 1tructures. system is dependent on the performance of the structure and vice versa.
23.3.1 Materl•ls
23.2 REFERENCED STANDARDS AND
Table 23.2 provides the materiab typically utilized for the most common
MANUALS OF PRACTICE
structure types in transmission line design.
Table 23.1 provides the needed reference documents for design or
analy..ts of electrical transmis8ion, 1ubstation, and communication 23.3.2 Loading and Methodology
structures. This list is not intended to be all-inclusive; however, the most A significant difference between overhead line structures and other
commonly utilized reference1 are provided. types of structures is the minimum loading requirements used in design.
730 CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE
,..ble 23,1 Referenced 0..lgn Documents Icing on transmission structures is typically ignored unless the structure
Topic in de1ign or is supporting a line disconnect switc:h or other moving equipment in
structure type Reference document whic:h ice accumulation would impede its operation or if the geographic
location of the line has severe ic:ing events.
Structural loading ASCH 74 Manual of Practice; The ultimate limit state methodology is used in the design of trans-
Guidelines for Electrical Tra1111nission Llne mission structures. This method is often referred to as "limit state
Structural Loading. Third Edition, 2009
design; •ultimate strength design," or •performance-base design."
NHSC IEEE-Cl-2017 Code
The approach is similar to Load and Resistance Factored Design
2017 National Electric Safety Code. 2017
(LRFD) without inclusion of the resistance factors. However, some
Latticed tower design ASCE 10-15 Standard;
international design requirements do include resistance fa'tors suc:h
Design of Latticed Steel Tran1tnil&ion Structurea,
as International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60826. The
2015
probabilistic: model of ASCE/SEI-7 is used to determine the wind and
Tubular steel pole design ASCH 48-19 Standard
ice loading. The wind velocities and ice thicknesses from ASCE/SEI-7
Design of Steel Pole TraDlllli11ion Structures,
2019 are considered adequate for use at their respe,tive Mean Rec:urrenc:e
Interval (MRI), typically 100 years. Often load factors of 1.0 are used
Prestressed conacte pole ASCE 123 Manual of Practice;
design Preltreosed Concrete Transmission Pole in c:onjunc:tion with these wind loads. In c:ases when increased reli-
Structures, 2012 ability is considered, the MRI is increased and the load factor remains
Fiber-reinforced polymer ASCH 104 Manual of Practice; 1.0. Lines are both directionally dependent and traverse long distances
polede1ign Recommended Practice for Fiber-Reinforced so the synoptic windstorms that typically control their design have
Polymer Products for Overhead Utility Line some degree of reduced maximum load probability from both wind
Structure11, Second Edition, 2019 direction and wind front pressure distribution. This reduced maxi.-
G~ ltructure design ASCE 91 Manual of Practice; mum load probability is generally not taken into account in loading.
Design of Gu~ Electrical Transmbsion Typically, the wind front producing applied loads onto the line will
Structures, 1997 not produce the maximum forc:es used in design. And the shape of
Wood pole design ASCH 141, Manual of Practice the wind front with gusts will most likely not oc:cur at the same time
Wood Pole Structures for Electrical TraDllllission to apply maximum load on the entire line span. The two concepts of
Lines: Recommended Practice for Design and wind directionality and time-dependent wind pressure span distribu-
Use, 2019 tion provide inherent load reduction as compared to the probabilistic:
Subltation structure ASCH 113 Manual of Practice MRI wind speeds for most transmission line applications. Extreme
design Subltation Structure Design Guide, 2008 wind conditions are evaluated using the terrain classifications of
ASCE/SEI-7 with applicable topographic effects (wind speed-up
effects, funneling, etc:.) and appropriate factors derived. Additional
load factors can be used to account for these and other uncertainties
in load effects along the transmission line.
The extreme wind speeds are determined based on the wind maps
,..ble 23.3 Typical Materlals Spectned far Most Common of ASCE/SEI 7 and the 100-year MRI map or based on wind studies in
Structure Types the region specific to the line location. Extreme icing thicknesses with
moderate wind are determined using 100-year icing maps for glaze ic:e.
Structure type Materiab utilized Lines of more importance or radial feed lines without grid redundancy
Latticed steel towerl Steel angle: may require higher MRis for structural reliability. The controlling king
ASTM A36, A529, A572 Gr. 50, 60 condition may occ:ur with glaze ice (57 lb/ft3) or rime ice (15 lb/ft3)
CSA G40.20/G40.21 depending on the geographic: location of the line. Other less common
BS EN 10025 Gr. S355 icing types (hoar frost, wet snow) may also be used in the design for
Fasteners: areas prone to those environmental conditions. The most c:ommon con-
ASTM A394 Type o and 1,
trolling loading conditions are extreme wind, extreme ic:e, construction
ASTM F3125 Type 1
Galvanizing: ASTM A123
and maintenance, and security loading. While safety code minimUlllll
are also required by most states in the United States, they rarely control
Tubular steel poles Steel Plate:
ASTM A572 Gr. 50, 65, the design unless in areas of no ice and/or lower ASCE/SEI 7 100-year
A421, A882, A242, A588 with supplemen- MRI extreme wind speeds.
tal Charpy rated 1teel requirement. Additional loading conditions suc:h as tmequal icing on 'onductor or
Fasteners: ASTM A3125 shield wire are utilized; however, they are not generally combined with
Galvanizing: ASTM A123 the extreme weather c:ases that are derived from probabilistic: weather
Reinforced-COllCl'cte llpllD poJe1 High strength concrete: 8-12,000 p1i events. Structure designs are normally standardized for relatively longer
Prc-stresling strandl lines and a set of structure strengths are defined based on load demand
Wood poles Western Red Cedar, Southern Pine, to encompass the needs of the entire line and without the necessity to
Douglas Fir design a unique struc:ture for every location.
Steel attaclunent hardware The structure resistance in LRFD terminology is based on strength
Fiber-reinforced polymer Polymer resin matrix with fibers resistance factors of 1.0 for most controlling loading 'onditions. Steel
Steel attachment hardware structures utilize a strength limit on yield strength. The justification on
the use of a strength reduction factor of tmity is based on thousands of
component tests on steel angles used in latticed steel structures, tubular
steel poles, wood poles, prestressed c:oncrete, and fiber-reinforc:ed poly-
Wmd and i'e combinations on the wires directly affect the line tensions, mer structures. The standards and manuals of practice utilized in the
which dominate the loads supported by the line dead-end structures. design of these structures have been developed using the results of these
The wind and ic:e 'ombinations on the vertic:al and transverse spans component tests. ~ a performance-based structure, often designed
dominate the loads supported by the line suspension structures. Ice without load fa'tors or strength redu,tion factors, new designs are rou-
a"umulation or wind pressure onto stru,tures contributes a small tinely full-scale tested to verify and validate the results of the designs. In
(often less than 10 percent) amount of the design load on the structure. the United States, the national safety 'ode (IBEE-C2, National Electric:
ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND SUBSTATION STRUCTURES 731
Safety Code) is also adopted by most states to require minimum safety In cases where relatively large displacements occur that can contrib-
considerations for electrical clearances and structure strengths. ute to P-delta amplification or other effects, nonlinear, or second-order
Table 23.3 provides the load types that are considered for the design analysis techniques are employed to include these effects in design.
of transmission structures. In cases where multiple materials are utilized such aa reinforced-
concrete or fiber-reinforced polymers, then specific industry-accepted
23.3.3 Strudure Type ci.ulflcation or manufacturer-developed analysis techniques are used to analyze
Transmission lines consist of a family of structure types within the the structure types. Any new or uncommon structure types are typi-
transmission line. These types are defined by their relative support cally full-scale tested to verify the adequacy of the design and analysis
strengths as derived by span lengths, line angles, suspension or method utilized.
dead-end support, failure containment, and other characteristics.
23.3.& Dnlgn Protas
The structures supporting a transmission line have different strength
demands due to the line directional angle and span lengths associ- The design processes for structures supporting high-voltage transmis-
ated with the line. Longer span lengths require more structural sup- sion lines vary depending on the specific structure configuration;
port strength, and the strength demand increases with increasing however, there are approaches that are common to all structure con-
changes in line directionality (line angles). The increase in structural figurations used to gain efficiencies by grouping structure strengths
support strength, is due to the transverse component of line tension associated by function into a family.
as it increases with the sin of half of the line angle. Structure types The most cost-efficient number of structure types for design is
are grouped into support strengths corresponding to line angle and based on the line terrain and the specific local line weather conditions,
span ranges to take advantage of structure standardization. A typical design spans, and line angle ranges. The conductor utilized in the line
family of types for any given transmission line may consist of four to has an impact on the most optimum span lengths for the line design.
six structure types. There are two subtypes of structures within each Longer spans will require fewer structures; however, the longer spans
family: suspension and dead-end. Suspension structures suspend the will require taller structures due to the squared relationship with the
transmission line, and therefore structures do not feel the effects of conductor sag:
the line tension except for the transverse component of line tension
for structures at line angles. Dead ends are anchoring structures that
have full tension resistance capability such that if any one phase or (23.1)
multiple phases were to be •broken," or •dead-ended,~ the structure
could withstand all resulting tensions corresponding to the defined where
climatic conditions. w = wire unit weight
Each structure type within a family is designed for multiple clearance S =straight-line span length
heights above the ground to accommodate varying sloped ground ter- TH= horizontal component of tension
rain along the spans adjacent and supported by the structure. Higher conductor sag requires taller structures to keep adequate midspan
clearances to ground.
23,3.4 Strudunil Geometrit Conflgur•tlon As cost efficiencies drive this family selection, much thought needs
There are a wide variety of geometries that are utilized for supporting to go into this decision. These costs efficiencies are derived from
transmission lines. The selections of these are based on many factors; fabrication economies of scale offset by the costs and time schedules
however, most often these factors are a result of minimizing the line associated with design of structure types. For example, the develop-
total installed costs, structure costs, or effects of structure and line aes- ment of a family of 12 structure types for a transmission line might
thetics and/or line resiliency. Figure 23.2 shows the general categories of achieve the most optimized line cost; however, this will simply take
structure types utilized and the corresponding method of analysis used too long in development time to be a reasonable design choice (for
for design. While other analysis methods can be employed for some of latticed structures). A family of five to six types is typically used for
these types, the general categories are consistently used. lines of typical transmission length (over 20 miles). Poles structures can
be designed more quickly than lattice structures; however, for higher
23,3,5 An•lysls Methodology voltages where loads are larger, the latticed structure is typically most
The majority of structures designed in the transmission line industry economical due to its inherent geometric efficiencies.
utilize linear and nonlinear analysis methods using techniques and An equally important design choice is the amount of standardization
methods derived from small displacement theory. Overall structure that is selected for structure design. Since a structure type will group
displacements are rarely a controlling design consideration except all structures within the specific category of strength required for the
when large displacements implead clearances or when structures have type, standardization becomes another important aspect of design to
aesthetic deflection considerations, for example, unguyed pole-type take advantage of economies of scale. An important concept in the
structures under everyday service loads. selection of standardization is that, taken individually, structures that
732 CHAPTERTWENTY·lltREE
Tangent, 0°
Small Angle
1-5°
Suspension ..c::
c:
.Vi
Running ra
Angle, 15-30° QJ
i..
Structural u
support type .....c:
0° Dead End
Dead End
60-90° Dead
End
Increasing Strength
110° Dead
End
Structural
geome1ric
\J configuration
I
I
Tubular steel
poles
Reinfon:ed-
concrete
poles
Fiber·
reinforced
polymer poles
tower
-
Latticed steel
ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND SUBSTATION STRUCTURES 733
arc designed for site-specific loading can be optimized as an individual The steps in the design process are as follows:
structure. However, when taken as a type within a line, the individual Design:
optimization negatively impacts the design time and fabrication costs
1. Create three-dimensional geometry based on allowable clearances
associated with the line. It is therefore often better to standardize key and required heights above ground.
aspects of the structure types to take advantage of fabrication econo-
2. Model basic structure for design.
mies of scale. Items of design that can be considered for standardization 3. Apply loading and design multiple structure heights within the
consist of the following:
same structure type. Ten to 20 height configurations using standard
1. Structure type strength with height. It is usually more cost effective intervals is common depending on the terrain.
to limit the structure heights within a type. Examining the height dis-
4. Design for differential foundation elevations (multiple-legged
tribution for a specific structure type will allow judicious choices to be structures). Structure types need to accommodate slopes from any ori-
made to determine the maxi.mum heights that should be used in design.
entation relative to the transmission line. This is needed to minimize the
2. Fastener diameter. For structures requiring multiple fastener con- excavation reducing excavation spoilll and decreasing environmental
nections, a single consistent diameter is chosen for each structure type.
impacts dues to construction.
This achieves both economies of scale in fabrication and reduces errors 5. Verify clearances in three dimensions or by projections. The clear-
in assembly and erection on site.
ance to steel to the energized conductor must be maintained as the wires
3. Foundation system. Efficiencies are gained by grouping founda- approach, suspend, and exit the structure. Special attention must be
tions into categories based on reaction load demand and soil type.
made with insulator strings that can swing, such as I-strings, for man-
4. Insulator configuration. Efficiencies are gained by developing mum and minimum span lengths and the slope of the wire as it enters
standard assemblies that are associated with each structure type. Con-
and exits the conductor shoes (typically 7 to 8 degrees for suspension
sistent lengths and hardware strengths are common to gain economies structures) must be accommodated in the clearance evaluation.
of scale.
6. Create design drawings.
5. Maintenance and fall protection. Efficiencies are gained by visu-
alizing safe maintenance practices prior to designing the structure Detailing:
geometry so that these considerations can be incorporated into the 1. Develop detailed three-dimensional geometry based in design
design. Items such as helicopter touch-and-go points and fall protection geometry.
anchorages need to be planned in advance of finalizing the design. 2. Develop connections.
3. Develop erection drawings.
The following items are related to line design and are typically deter- 4. Develop detail drawings.
mined in advance of the structure design and are required to start the
5. Develop bill of materials.
design process:
1. Line vohage (nominal and IIlllldmum operating) and line elevation. Testing:
This determines the allowable energized conductor clearances (distances) Test the structure type full scale by selecting either the tallest height struc-
to steel ture within the type or the most common height for the line. The result
2. Insulation length and arrangement (I string, V-string, post). This of the testing for one height is considered adequate for all of the heights
helps determine the amount of conductor swing along with the maxi- within that type.
mum and minimum span lengths under climatic conditions.
3. Clearance to ground and to structure. A function of line voltage, 23.3.7 Lmttlc•d Shllll Tow.rs
elevation, and the electrical surge impedance loading of the line. Design for latticed steel structures is based on typical strength equations for
4. Conductor size and bundle. The conductor size, typically provided sizing members using the process and equations in ASCE-10. The support
in units ofcircular mils, with the voltage, phase configuration, and bundle members typically resist both tension and compression and are designed
size defines the electrical power transfer capability of the line. From this, as trusses as long as they are geometrically oriented to ensure that the
the conductor unit weight, diameter, and drag coefficient are known. truss approximation is valid, which is no less than 15 degrees of incidence
5. Shield wire size. The shield wire provides electrical cirtuit protec- between any two adjacent support members connecting at the same joint
tion from lightning-induced transients. Typical sizes are 7/16 in. and These structures are inherently nondeterministic and usually have mul-
Y. in. or may carry fiber-optic filaments for communications in an opti- tiple redundancies allowing multiple load paths. The members typically
cal ground wire (OPGW). utilize steel angle sections to accommodate bolted connections with their
6. Line route, terrain, ground slope, and soil information. From flanges. Tension capacities are calculated based on the net area, number of
the line route and clearance to ground data, the structure types can bolts in shear, and rupture. Bearing capacities are calculated based on the
be developed. The ground slope provides insights to the maximum maximum load, number of bolts in a connection, and the thickness of the
leg extension differentials to use in the structure design (for multi-leg bearing surface. Compression capacities are determined based on compact
structures). The soil information is used for foundation design. section requirements to prevent local budding and yield strength and
7. Position of shield wire relative to conductor (shielding angle). This slenderness to prevent flexural/tlexural-torsional buckling. The compres-
is used to determine the geometric position of the shield wire relative sion capacities are a function of the member slenderness (kL/r), which is
the conductor. modified depending on the end conditions of the member connection. Six
8. Phase-to-phase geometry and separation (horizontal or delta). separate end conditions determine the capacity equation (or c:urve) that is
This is used to determine the structure geometry. Horizontal geom- used to modify the slenderness in the compression capacity calculation.
etries typically require a transposition structure at periodic intervals to These six equations were developed during the 1920s and 1930s from
break up the electrical fields associated with high voltage lines at length. compression angle testing varying the end conditions to replicate typical
Transposing structures, transpose the phase positions. Delta geometries connections used in practice. These single-member tests have been further
tend to cancel electrical fields and therefore do not normally require verified under thousands of full-scale testing to verify their capacities and
transposition structures. assumptions used in design. Connections in lattice structures are bearing-
9. Allowance of phase-to-phase differential spacing from dissimilar type bolted connections. Bolts are typically installed to mug-tight condi-
structure types. Decisions are made during the line design process that tion. The snug-tight condition is the tightness that is attained with a few
define the allowable spacing from structure type to type taking into impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of an ironworker using an
account phase-to-phase clearances, midspan conductor motions, and ordinary spud wrench to bring the plies into firm contact but not neces-
susceptibility to galloping. sarily into continuous contact Truss geometric stability is also a design
10. Right-of-way width and any foundation location restrictions. consideration and must be appropriately addressed. Combined stresses are
Existing land use, property owner desires, and general line routing taken into account when relatively higher moments exist compared to axial
issues are considered to determine the type of foundation and general loads. Member torsional loading is rare on these structure types. Typical
geometries of structures. framing for latticed structures is shown in Fig. 23.3.
734 CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE
SHIELD
WIRE
PEAK
BRIDGE
INSULATORS
IC-FRAME
""--sue-CONDUCTORS
COMMON BODY
~
MINIMUM ANGLE Of" INCIDENCE BETVl'EEN
ANY TWO MEMBERS IS 15 DEGREES
TO ASSURE 'TRUSS ACTION AND
MINIMIZE BENDING MOMENTS.
23.3.1 Tubul•r SWel Pol• There are three most common species of wood poles utilized for
Tubular steel structures are designed based on the requirementll of wood pole structures: western red cedar, southern pine, and Douglas fir.
ASCE-48. The applied loading on polygonal sections onto cantilever-type Natural wood has an inherently higher coefficient of variation in material
geometries produces both moments and axial stresses; therefore, combined strengths as compared to steel poles, and for consistent design across the
stress equations are used. Structural members are made by cutting trap- industry, the wood pole strengths must be based on a 5 percent lower
ezoidal plates and longitudinally bending this plate into multisided half- exclusion limit (LEL) of the probability density function for the wood
shells, which are longitudinally welded together with a partial penetration species used. Although only applicable to the elastic range loading up to
wcld Pole sections are either slip-jointed (installed by hydraulic jacking) this value, the 5 percent LEL value is considered the MOR. Many wood
or flange connected typically using F3125 bolts. Pole arms are connected publications, such as ANSI 05.1, report wood pole strengths based on a
to the main vertical pole shaft by vertical flanges (through-plates) bolted 50 percent LEL, so an adjustment must be made to the strength to convert
to arm flanges. These connections are made using F3125 bolts. The main from the 50 percent LEL to 5 percent LEL. This adjustment is defined as
vertical shaft is welded (complete penetration) to a base plate that accepts a MORs11 = MORso,. (1 - 1.645 X COV).
ring of anchor bolts, which are embedded into reinforced concrete. A typi-
2.J.3.10 Founchltlon1
cal tangent suspension steel pole structure is shown in Fig. 23.4.
There are a wide variety of foundation types utilized with transmission
ZJ.J.t Wood Polu structures. The selection of type depends on the soil conditions, prox-
The vast majority of high-voltage transmission lines at relatively lower imity to local materials (concrete). and general economies of fabrication
voltages, and distribution lines are constructed on round wood poles. and installation. Types typically used for these structures are provided
Wood poles use the modulus of rupture (MOR) as a basis of calculating below with geometries indicated in Fig. 23.5.
strength and the modulus of elasticity (MOE) as a basis for calculating Pyramid Grillage (a): This foundation system consists of steel beams
deflections. to create a surface for soil resistance. The truss geometry is utilized to
(c)
(o) (b)
pefSSED PLATE
PDAM'P QR!! I tVE
ql!UAGES WI™ SDJB ANGLE • SHEM PLATES (d)
SilJB LEG I: PAP FQQDNG
YELL COMPACTED
BACICFlll. MATERIAL
SHEAR
CONNECTOR
{I)
i
CORROSION PROTECTION CORROSION PROTECTION CORROSION PllOTECTION CORROSION PROTECTION
GROUND LI GROUND LINE GROUND LINE GROUND .LINE
\'ERll~ Pll£ ~ ~ATTERED Pl.E VER1ICAI. PIL£t ~ ,TlE~D Pl.E ~11CAI. Pl.E ~ STEEL CASliG
(n)
minimize bending moments and therefore provide an efficient founda- the transmission line to the substation or carry wire conductors from
tion that is consistent with the truss above grade. Overturning of the areas within the substation; Category 2: structures supporting equipment
beam grillage is a design consideration. that requires vertical clearance above ground; Category 3: structures
Grillage Foundation with Shear Plate (b): This foundation and its use supporting the electrical connections or bus between equipment; and
Category 4: structures that need no supporting structure that can be
of a shear plate to resist the transverse loading from the leg diagonal
requires the intersection of diagonal to the main leg to be below grade installed at ground level but need to be structurally designed for proper
interaction with adjacent equipment or connections.
elevation. This is to provide adequate bearing resistance from passive
pressures ofthe soil at depth. The grillage base, which collects negligible The following is a list of electrical equipment that is typically located
(installed) within a substation:
moments, resists uplift loads by backfill (typically native) and compres-
sion loads by soil at depth. Structures with highly elevated electrical wire connections
(Category 1): dead end, multiple-dead end, and multiple gantries.
Pressed Plate (c): This foundation system is utilized for lightly loaded Structures with equipment installed elevated (Category 2): current
suspension towers. It uses the same concepts of resistance as the other limiting inductor or air core reactor, line trap, coupling capacitor voltage
grillage types; however, the base is replaced with a plate that is pressed transformer, disconnect switch, circuit switcher, potential and current
into a shallow frustum and installed over a layer of sand to evenly dis- transformers, capacitor bank, shunt capacitor, series capacitor, surge
tribute the load. Native backfill is typical unless additional uplift capac- arrestor, neutral grounding resistor, and cable terminator.
ity is required, upon which crushed rock is used. Installed on a structure supporting an electrical connection
Stub Leg and Pad Footing (d): This foundation extends the stub angle to (Category 3): insulators, bus duct, and bus run.
depth by reinforcing and thereby increasing its capacity while increasing Installed at or near ground level (Category 4): power transformers
its unsupported length. The grillage of (a) or (b) is substituted with a fix- and autotransformers, shunt reactors, circuit breakers, fire barriers, and
ture embedded in concrete which provides the compression capacity and control enclosures.
with the backfill provides the uplift capacity. Any additive shear loads due ll.4.1 M11111rl•ls
to the diagonal member need to be resisted by the reinforced stub angle
and its passive pressure of the stub surface areas against the soil. Table 23.4 provides the materials typically utilized for the most common
structure types in substation design. Many of the materials are same or
Concrete Piers (e-h): These foundations and their variations use rein- similar to those used in transmission line design.
forced concrete. The connections to the structure are either by embed-
ded straight or bent stub angle or base plate with anchor bolts. The pier ll.A.2 l.Ncllng mnd Methodology
may be vertical or angled along the direction of the main leg to lower Substation structures are designed to resist the forces generated by
the transverse shear reactions. dead loads, wind, ice, line tensions, seismic, short-circuit, construction,
Concrete Footing (i): This foundation system uses a concrete pad with maintenance, and electrical equipment operational loads. For substation
pedestal. The pedestals may be angles matching the main leg slope or structural loading. the wind and ice loading are determined from ASCE/
vertical. SEl-7-16 using the 100-year MRI. Controlling loads are highly dependent
on substation location and relative size (voltage) of the electrical equip-
Helical Piles (j-k): This foundation system uses the driven helical pile ment Higher voltages require increased clearance heights, which increase
connected at an above-grade pile cap. Multiple piles are utilized when load demands on the support structures. The seismic ground motion
additional shear and uplift and compression capacity is required. The parameters are determined from United States Geological Survey (USGS)
individual piles are cut after driving to a predetermined torque corre- website: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/designmaps/us/application.php.
lated to soils. This foundation type is typically avoided in rocky soils but The design maps that are developed by USGS are based on Risk Tar-
is utilized in areas of rugged terrain where traditional equipment cannot geted Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE), parameter values of
be provided easily on-site. which are based on a 1 percent probability of collapse fur buildings, which
Driven Pile (1): Typically used in poor soils, this foundation uses piles is considered appropriate for substation design. Load factors are used to
driven by either hammer or vibratory head. account for uncertainties in the loads, and the combinations are used as
appropriate applications of loads consistent with an operating substation.
Micro-piles (m): This foundation system uses a series of prefabricated Electrical equipment in seismic areas is to be qualified by IEEE-693.
deformed bars encased in a steel pipe. Grout is injected to form the
Specific guidance for design level loads is provided in ASCE 113, the load
bond between the bar and the soil. The piles are contained above grade combinations of which are summarized in Tables 23.5 and 23.6:
by way of an adjusting shoe plate.
D =structure and wire dead load
Rock Footing (n): This foundation is used in suitable rock and is drilled, W300 =extreme wind load from the 300-year MRI wind map
and deformed bars are inserted and grouted in place. 1100 =extreme ice load from the 100-year MRI ice map
Wwi_100 =concurrent wind load in combination with ice from the
23.4 SUBSTATION STRUCTURES
100-year MRI ice map
TWI-loo= wire tension corresponding to the wind speed and concur-
There are wide variety of substation (or switchyard) support structures rent ice thickness from the 100-year MRI ice map
used for these electrical facilities that switch, transform, disconnect, E =seismic load
or provide power quality to the electrical circuits used for power
transmission. The majority of substations are designed as air-insulated. ~ble 23.4 M.Wrl•ls for Substmtlon Support Stnidures
Gas-insulated substations are also used but less often. There are multiple
types of overhead bus (conductor system) configurations for substation Structure type Materiah utilized
structures: single bus, double bus double breaker, double bus single Latticed .reel otructure11 Steel angle: ASTM A36, A529, A572
breaker, main and transfer bus, breaker and half; and ring bus. The layout Futenen: ASTM F3125 or A394 Type 0 or l
and general configuration of the structures directly depend on the bus Galvanizing: ASTM Al23
configuration of the substation. The bus type can be either rigid bus or Tubular steel poles Steel plate: ASTM A572
strain bus, which directly affect the type and magnitude of the applied Faatenera: ASTM F3125
loading on the equipment and subsequent support structures. The Galvanizing: ASTM Al23
equipment requiring structural support in a substation varies but can Aluminum structures Shapes, plate, fastenen: Alloy 6061-T6, 6063-T6,
2024-T4
be categorized into one of three categories. Category 1: structures that
Nutt: ASTM F467
are highly elevated that transition or connect the electrical circuit from
731 CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE
,..ble 2J,5 'l)plail Combln.tlont for Ultlm.te t.o.d r is 1.0 for phase-to-phase and 0.866 (middle c.:onductor) or 0.808
illtimate limit state load combinations
(outer conductors) for three-phase faults
Tio = 47t x 10-1 N/A2 = 2.825 x 10-7 lb/A2 (magnetic constant-
Case Combinations (all may not apply) magnetic permeability in a classical vacuum}
1' 1.1 D + 1.0 W 300 + 0.75 SC+ 1.1 Tw.,. 0 The basic maximum fault force from Eq. a(23.2) is modified to obtain
2' 1.1 D + 1.0 I,oo + 1.0 w WI-loo+ 0.75 SC+ 1.1 TWI-loo
the peak force by multiplying by the square of the half-cycle decrement
3 1.1 D + 1.0 SC+ 1.1 TAPP
factor, DI' as given in IEEE 605-2008:
4' 1.1 D + 1.0 E + 0.75 SC+ 1.1 TEA (23.3}
5' 0.9 D + 1.0W ;aa + 0.75 SC + 1.1 Tw.300
l
6' 0.9 D + 1.0 I, 00 + 1.0 WWI.10o + 0.75 SC+ 1.1 TWI.1oo
7 0.9 D + 1.0 SC+ 1.1 TAPP l+e 2 fr.
where D1 = - --
8' 0.9 D + 1.0 E + 0.75 SC+ 1.1 TEA 2
'The combination of SC loacb with utreme evenlJ U.ted abo.e llhould be dotorminod by 2J.4.J Deflection Criterie
the Owner.
'Rofennce ASCE/SEI 7-16 C2.4.l fox explanation uf 0.6 dad load factor. Dedections due to loading may control the design. When evaluating deflec-
Tho1e loacb combinatiom uc intended fur founcbiion de.ign.
tion, an important concept to consider is the gross versus net dedection.
Gross deflection is the overall deflection of the structure and is used to
verify the clearances, whereas net deflection is the deflection in the local
Teble 2J.6 'l)plail Comblnetlon1 far Service Loads
support area that affeclll the performance of the equipment Table 23.7 is
Allowable mength deoign {ASD) load combinations {aervice-level loads) used to define the dedection limits for three different structure classes:
Cue Combinations (all may not apply)
Class A-structures sensitive to deflections for operation.
Class B-structures sensitive to deflections for clearances (phase-
1' 1.0 D + 1.0 W 100 + 0.5 SC+ l.O Tw.1aa to-phase or phase-to-ground}.
2' 1.0 D + 1.0 150 + 1.0 WWI_50 + 0.5 SC+ 1.0 TWI-sa Class C-structures insensitive to deflections
3 l.OD+0.7SC+ l.OTAPP Special deflection considerations should be made to those structures
4' 1.0 D + 0.7 E + 0.5 SC+ 1.0 TED supporting multiple use, such as those structures supporting several
pieces of equipment having different functionality or for structures sup-
5'·• 0.6 D + 1.0 w,00 + 0.5 SC+ l.O Tw-100
porting equipment with rotational deflection sensitivity.
6'·' 0.6D+1.0150 + l.OWWI-sa + 0.5SC+1.0 TWI-5<1 Bus midspan span deflection should be limited to 1/200 of the span
7t 0.6 D + 0.7 SC+ 1.0 TAPP under self-weight-only conditions. Cantilevered bus deflection should
8'" 0.6 D + 0.7 E+ 0.5 SC+ 1.0 TEB be limited to 1/100 of the cantilevered distance.
'The combinalion of SC loacb with ostreme ovenlJ listed ab""" ahould be determined by
the Owner. ,..ble 2J,7 Deflection Limits of Member Spans for Submltlon
'Row.nee ASCE/SEI 7-16 C2.4.l for explanation uf 0.6 dad load factor.
Tho1e loacb combinatiom ue intended for fonndalion de.ign. Structun11
Cius A Clasa B Clau C
Vertical deflection-horizontal members 1/200 1/200 l/100
Tw_300 =wire tension corresponding to the wind speed from the 300- Horizontal deflection-horizontal members 1/200 1/100 l/100
year MRI wind map; Horizontal deflection-vertical members 1/100 1/100 l/50
SC= short-circuit load
TAPP =wire tension corresponding to the appropriate temperature
and ice as determined by the Owner (everyday or normal 2J.4.4 Analysis Methodology
operational conditions)
Truss, frame, and finite-element model types are utilized for substa-
TBA= wire tension c.:orresponding to wire dead load and seismic
tion structural analysis. First- and second-order elastic static analysis
loading
is utilized for most structural supports. Inelastic static or elastic (or
where
inelastic} dynamic analysis is also used depending on many factors.
• W 100 = extreme wind load from the 100-year MRI wind map
See Table 23.8 for guidance on specific structure categories and their
• Tw_100 = wire tension corresponding to the wind speed from the
typical model and analysis methods.
100-year MRI wind map
• I50 =extreme ice load from the 50-year MRI ice map
• Wwi_50 =concurrent wind load in combination with ice from the Tllble 2J.I Model l)pe end Method of Analysis
SO-year MRI ice map
• Twi_50 =wire tension corresponding to the wind speed and concur- Structure categories
rent ice thickness from the 50-year MRI ice map Model type 2 3 4
• T l!.B = wire tension c.:orresponding to wire dead load concurrent
Tru.s
with 70 percent of the seismic loading
Frame
Simplified Approach to Determine Short-Circuit Forces: Finite element: plate, shell, or brick elements
The equation for the basic maximum distributed force between two
Analysis method 2 3 4
parallel infinitely long conductors is
Static analysis: approximate analysis
&_•I'•(2•./2 •I,,f Static analysis: first order elastic
P. = ...,2,,'lt'---~--- (23.2} Static analysis: :k!cond-order elastic
:rc 107 •D Static analysis: first-order inelaatic
where Dynamic analyst&: steady state
F" is the fault force in pounds per foot Dynamic analysis: eigennlue
I" is the RMS fault current in amps
Dynamic analysia: response 1pectrwn
D is the conductor center to center spacing in feet
ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND SUBSTATION STRUCTURES 739
Short-circuit analysis methods wry; however, the following methods r.ble23.9 Design Procemi• by Structure ~i.1
are referenced and often used: Structure Structure
• IEEE-605 Guide for Bus Design in Air Insulated Substations matma1 Structure type category Design proce.1 Method
• CIGRB 105 The Mechanical Effects of Short-Circuit Currents in
Open Air Substations, CIGRE, WG 23.11, 1996 Steel Latticed 1, 2 ASCE 10-15 LRFD,l'ORA
• CIGRB 214 The Mechanical Effects of Short-Circuit Currents in Multi-sided tubular 1, 2 ASCE48-19 LRFD,SORA
Open Air Substations, Part II. WG 23.03, Oct. 2002 HSS and all other 2,3 ASCE 360-16 LRFD,SORA
• IEC 60865-1:2011, Short-Circuit Currents - Calculation of Effects - hot-rolled shapes
Part 1: Definitions and Calculation Methods except angles
• IEC 60909-0:2001, Short-Circuit CUtTents in Three-Phase AC Systems - Concrete Reinforced concrete 2 ACI 318-14 LRFD,SOF.A
Part 0: Calculation of Currents Pn:lltretsed 2 PCI MNL 120-10 LRFD,SOF.A
23A.5 Design Process Pn:lltretsed pole 1, 2 ASCE 123-12 LRFD,SOF.A
Aluminum Variow lhapc 2,3 Aluminum LRFD,SOF.A
These structures are designed using either Ultimate Limit State (LRFD) extruaiona Aaaodation
or Allowable Stress (or Strength) Design (ASD) methodologies. The Deaign
ASD (stress) 1989, 9th edition, AISC manual, and the ASD (strength) Manual,
2005, 13th edition, AISC manual, are still used. Table 23.9 provides the lOth ed., 2015
design process categorized by structure material and type. POBA, flnt-order elutic anal]llU; SOBA, aecond-orda eladlc analylil.
Seismic design of structures that support electrical equipment should
be designed using the assumptions of natural frequencies and damping of
23.4.6 Foun~lon5
the equipment seismic qualifications of IEEE Standard 693-2005. In addi-
tion, adequate electrical connection slack should be specified such that The types of foundations within substations are often limited to rein-
the assumptions used in the dynamic analysis of the support structure is forced concrete cast-in-place spread footings, combined spread foot-
specified and used in the installation of the equipment. The amount of ings, and mat foundations. In areas of poor soils, piles or drilled piers
slack typically provided for temperature compensation is usually inad- (caisson) may be utilized. In high seismic areas, large equipment on mat
equate to isolate equipment from seismic displacements. If considered foundations, such as power transformers, may utilize base isolation to
a dedicated support, the structure may require seismic qualification in lower the load demands on the equipment. Figure 23.6 shows the typical
conjunction with the piece of equipment per IEEE Standard 693-2005. substation foundations used.
Spread footing
(Cat. 2,3)
Embedded anchorage
Met foundation
(Cat. 4)
Figure 23.6 'fypical submtion foundal:ion1.
740 CHAPTER TW!NTY·THREE
REFER!NCES Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCFJ
SEI-7, American Society of Civil Engineers, 2016.
Guidelines for Electrical Transmission Line Structural Loading, Guide for Bus Design in Air Insulated Substations, IBEE-605.
ASCE 74 Manual of Practice, Third Edition, American Society of Civil
Engineen, 2009. The Mechanical Effects of Short-Circuit Cu"ents in Open Air
Substations, CIGRE 105, WG 23.11, 1996.
National Electrical Safety Code, ANSI-C2, IEEE, New York, 2017.
The Mechanical Effects of Short-Circuit Currents in Open Air
Design of Latticed Steel Transmission Structures, ASCE 1O Standard, Substations, CIGRE 214, Part ll. WG 23.03, Oct. 2002.
American Society of Civil Engineen, 2015.
Short-Circuit Currents - Calculation of Effects - Part 1: Definitions
Design of Steel Pole Transmission Structures, ASCE 48 Standard, and Calcvlation Methods. me 60865-1:2011.
American Society of Civil Engineen, 2019.
Short-Circuit Currents in Three-Phase AC Systems - Part O: Calcvla-
Prestressed Concrete Transmission Pole Structures, ASCE 123 Manual tion ofCurrents. IEC 60909-0:2001.
of Practice, American Society of Civil Engineers, 2012.
Design of Guyed Electrical Transmission Structures, ASCE 104 Manual Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318-14.
Manual of Practice for Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Products for
of Practice, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1997.
Overhead Utility Line Structures ASCB 104, American Society of Civil
ASCE 141, Manual of Practice Wood Pole Structures for Electrical Engineers, 2019
Transmission Lines: Recommended Practice for Design and Use, 2019.
Substation Structure Design Guide, ASCE 113 Manual of Practice,
American Society of Civil Engineen, 2008.
Chapter24
Chimneys
BY
SHU-JIN FANG Consultant, and Former Associate and Senior Manager; Sargent & Lundy,
Chicago, nlinois
VICTOR BOCHICCHIO Executivii Vice President, Hamon Custodis, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey
Chimneys are a common component of power plants and many indus- 24.2.1 Genenil
trial facilities. Although they may appear to be fairly simple structures, The chimney and its supporting aystem should be designed to resiat
their design involves some unique elements which will be addressed in stresses resulting from dead load, wind loads, earthquake loada, stack
this chapter. This chapter will focus on structural aspects of chimney draft, and temperature gradients. Furthermore, resonant vibrations due
design. to dynamic wind should be considered. However, the design need not
be limited to these loadings.
24.1.1 Materlals
24.2.2 Ded l..a.ds
Moat chimne}" in the United States are built with outer walls of
reinforced concrete or steel. Some older chimneys are constructed of Dead loads should include the weight of all permanent comtruction and
radial brick. The use of fiberglasa-reinforced plastics (FRP) ia increaa- fittings, insulation, fly ash, and other materials. Weighta of liners, roofs,
ing in highly corroaive applications and for flue linen following flue and/or platforms supported by the chimney wall should be included.
gaa deaulfurization systems. The deciaion to build a chimney of con-
crete or steel (the latter are frequently called stacks) is largely based 24.2.3 Wind I.Neis
on cost. The economic comparison must include the cost of linings, Chimne}" and stacks should be designed to resist the wind forces
foundations, painting, lighting, access provi8ion1, maintenance, and in both the along-wind and across-wind directions. In addition, the
plant outages. variation of pressure along the circumference of the shell should be
considered.
24, 1,2 Sizing: Dl•meter •nd Height
Chimneys are comtructed for the dispersion of flue gas from combus- ALONG-WIND LOADS
tion processes. The height and top flue diameter depend on the gas The most recent provisions for determination of the along-wind loads
temperature, volume, stack draft requirements, and environmental per- (drag loads) in the United States are given in ACI 307-083 for concrete
mitting requirements. The selection of the stack/chimney configuration chimne}" and ASMB STS-1-2016 for steel stacks. For many years,
should be based on considerations of plant layout, flue gas composition, ACl-307 and the Uniform Building Code (UBC) specified horizontal
construction C08t, aesthetics, and regulatory requirements. These top- wind loada as uniform pressures acting on the projected area. Pressure
ics are beyond the scope of this document, and it is presumed that the magnitudes depended on the height abcm: ground and on the geo-
height and top diameter are known. graphic area as specified in the wind-pressure map. Current wind-
loading provisions of ASCB 74 require consideration of wind-gust effects
24, 1.3 The Role of the Strllttur•I Engln"r on chimney1 and stacks and do not use the traditional wind-pressure
Although the design of chimney1 is sometimes performed by multiple values. Both ACl-307-08 and ASMB STS-1-2016 require that wind loads
engineering disciplines (i.e., process, mechanical, structural, etc.), it is on chimne}" be calculated as the sum of two components, one caused
more common, especially for large chimneys, that the design is executed by a mean wind speed and the other caused by fluctuating wind gusts.
by a specialty design-supply or design, supply, and erect firm. In these The mean wind load contribution is proportional to the square of the
organizations the structural engineer is usually the lead engineer and wind speed. The dynamic component on concrete chimney1 is evalu-
also commonly performs the thermofluodynamic design of the chim- ated using a modified gust-factor approach as described by Vickery and
ney given the process flow data from the client. Information on the Basu5 that depends on the natural frequency and the geometric prop-
thermofluodynamic design of chimneys can be found in the CICIND erties of the chimney. A similar along-wind approach is employed in
Manual1 and ASMB STS-1-2016.2 the ASMB STS-1-2016 standard on steel stacks. However, the dynamic
741
742 CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
c;omponmt is cal~ated u.1iDf a conventional pt effect faaor method H = height of chimney from hue, ft
&om ASCE 7, dew.loped for flmble buildings and ltructures, which q.,.= dynamic wind pl'Ullft at aitical wind ve1oc:ity; psf [Eq. (24.2)]
tench to give lower wind momenta than the approach of ACI 307-08. C1= coefficient givm by Eq1. (.24.4a)
Both gun ef£ect f'lctor approachCf arc intended to account for addlt:J.onal C,, =coefficient givm by Eqs. (lUb)
along-wind loading effecb due to wind turbulen«-muctural Interaction The dynamic wind pmNJe q., U given by
and the dynamic; ampl.i6cation of the ltnictme. Note that the along-wind
loadt detamilled per ASMB STS-1 cormpODd to asG-year return willd. In q., = o.0012s v; (24.2)
contrut, ACI 307--08 requlra that the along-wind loads be akulated on where V.,. = allial wind velodty for tt.IOl!anl trantvel'le 'Yilm.tion,
the buts of a 100-ycu mum wind tlhn from ASCE 7--02 wind maps given by the following equa!ionl:
with Risk Category IV. Further ~opmenm are naw being undertaken
by ACI 307 to dnelop wind load provision• utilizing even larger return
periods, such u 700-}'W' return wind or 1700-year return wind. The
v., .liP..
s for Di 1?:05
~ (24.3)
main reuon for eeleding larger return period wind by ACI 'M1l is to
be conliltmt with newer ASCB 7 practice in establWring ltR:Dgth-buia V.,.= 2.9/A for D1 <0.5
wind loads fur daign of concrete chimneyt, while the alaog-wind loads
ofSTS-1 are pre1aibed u working but. loads for allowable ttrea design
v.
where D1 = oumde diameter of chimnl!J' at top, ft
of steel rtacb. Where the applicable building code requltt.s the uae of D• = outalde diameter of chimney 11 bue, ft
ASCE 7-10, dmgnen arc .required to w.nvcrt the larger return period ft= natural frequency of first fundamental mode of tramvtrse
wind to SO-year retwn wind in calculalion of the along-wind fur steel
vibration of chimney, CPI
ataclca and 100-year mum period wind for concrete chimneya. S = Strouhal number, varying from 0.17 to 0.23. For delign
ACROlll-WIND LOADS DUJI TO VOKTl!X
purpotet, It may be taken u 0.2.2,.t
SHBDDINO The coefficient C1 in Bq. (24.1) is glven by
When the chimney i.111Ubjected to a steady wind, the periodic shedding
of vortica Will cauae awaying OfdllatlOD& in a direction tl'al!.n'a'5e to C1 = .J::,D forD1 /V. 0!:0.5andH/D~l6
(24.4a)
that of the wind (Fig. 24.la). If the vorta shedding frequency 18 mo-
nant with the mtw:al frequency of the drimney, it may mult in large C1 = 0.63 for D,/~ <!: 0.5 and HID <16
vibntion1.~ Aa:o11-wind loading and the induced dynamic rapome 29
C1 · for D11V. <0.S
are due primarily to regular aheddlng of vorticea. This lw long been - (I - D1 /D.'f5(1+5 (D1 /D.))13 JHID
recognized u a fignlfl.cmt delign CO!llidentlon for dender ttructures
with a bluff u oppoled to atreamlined cro" ffetion. There have been The coefficient for C:z In Eq. (.24.1) ii given by
numerowi W1ura of unlined .teel stada due to wrta shed.ding. The
current Jnclllltry practl.oe requlra .mandatory conal.clerationa of vortu C:z •0.6 Cm D,IV. 0!:05
1heddlng vibration effectl in the de1lgo of both chimneys and ltacb. (.24.4b)
The vorta-indlleed acro11-wind load. are dependent upon stack
C:z • 0.36 +0.48 (D1tn.l for D1/Di <0.5
dimemiom; modal propertie1 for the vibration modes being comid- In-1ngthe dynun1c influence ofwrta dieAdlng. the equi~
ered; the structural damping, IS; and aerodynamic damping. p•.5 ltatic force Pi need not be con1idered if V., > 1.3 V . For V., between V
One simple and comerntln apprmlmatlon bued on ACl-307-887
and 1.3 V, Pi may be reduad by muhipl:ying it by 1-S[(V.,. - V)IV']2
mggeltl acro11-wind loads In the vtdnlty of critial wind speed may
where V I.II the de1lgn mean hourly wind tpeed at :ftve-sixths of the
be rqiresented by an equinlent lta!ic force PL per foot of height u
chimne(s height if D/D~ ~ O.S, or at the height where the chimney'•
determined by Equation (24.la) or (24.lb), acting in the direction of
outer diuneter .Is 0.580., if D/Dh < 0.5.
01c:illation1 due to wrta: shedding of the fundamental mode
If the aerodynamic damping ratio, JJ, exceed. the inherent struc-
tural damping ratio, p,. the value of PL will become negative, and
12 C,.D,g(Z/H)u Eq. (.24.1) is no longer va.!!d. This meam that large-amplitude re&0nant
(24.la)
~i <P. - P.>°'s vibrations exceeding 0.30 ue probable. For e:wnple. due to very low
rtru.ctural clamping ratio• in 1teel mcb (particularly unlined stacks),
=
where p, st:rw:tural damping ratio of chimney; 0.015 for concrete aerodynamic damping may aubitantially reduce the effective damp-
chimney, 0.002 to 0.004 for unlined steel stack. and 0.003 to ing and reault in aceuively vibratlon1. A• such, the proportions of
0.006 for l.IJled steel lt.acicl unle11 otherwbe substantlaled. the chimney are inadequate and should be revised. Altemativdy,
Higher damping up 1D 0.015 wu reported fur some Unecl vibration supp.radon devic:e1 1hould be considered (1ee Sec. 24.3.8).
stacb.• Abo, structural damping rati~ up to 0.04 ls permit- Convenely, the aerodynamic damping ratio is seldom larger than
ted fur concrete chimney when V.,. > V; Re! 3 rtru.ctural damping ratio for concrete chimneya. The across-wind
P. = c,,y 01;;;, =aerodynamic damping ratio load alculatlom u presented in Eqs. {24.la-24.4) are conservative,
D= mean outlide diameter of upper third of chimney, ft and the acro•-wi.nd loadl uti!IJ thi1 approacli could be substantially
iii = ~weight per unit length of top third of chimney, lb/ft higher (40 to 60 percent) than what ii predicted by ACI 307-08 for
y= air unit weight. 0.08 lb/ft' concrete chlmneym!.10 where Va typically aceecb 54 mph. Wlnd tendl
Z = diltaDce from bue af chimney to polition under comider- to be more turbulent at higher wind vclodties. The variation of wind
atloD. ft 1peed with height and turbulence of the wind at higher critiCll speed
~0.o
_. ,
I
... - ,
\
·...--....0' OOOQ
d
\ \ I
_,/
Fltlurm :M.1 Olc:lll8lioD due to vorta shedding:{•) ttannene l.Dll (b) cm1llng.
CHIMNEYS 70
The validity of Eq. (24.lb) require• that two conditions be met: the
mu:lmum vibration dJ&placementl are lea than O.lD, and the m.clr. where VJ! ia the reference design wind 1peed {3-1econd gust wind) :u
dWneter in the top ~ of stack height does not vvy by more than +l()')(, tpecl&ed in ASCE 7-02, in mph, and Z b the heigh1. in feet, at level am-
{for 1uga variations a reduction can be made). lidered. The wind pressure mould be increued by so percent near the
Since 1988, the subject ofl.CJ'Olf-wind 10lde or vor=-.heddingvilm- chimney top for a dlll:ance 1.5 ttmu the top outalde diameter.
tion e:ffea. continuinglyattraaedattention ofACI ~07 andASME STS-1. 24.ZA l'Al1ttq..- Lud1
Both standard.t have 111bstanti.ally modi&ed their earlier p~ in
their latest editions. Acrou-wind loacb in the 1econd mode of rellOIWlt Chimneys and atacltl In earthquake areu lhould be dmgned for
vibratiom u well as the amplifu::ttion ofac:ro11-wind loads due to closely •ebmi' retittance. Provido~ (or determining earthquake load.
q>aced adjaceat chimneys are abo included. Designers thould follow have been 1ignifu:antly changed in ACI 307-08 to be 'on1iatcnt
the1e newat aaou-wind load detlgn provWou In their final dealgn of with ASCE 7-02. It now requira the we of the dynamic response
c:hlmneyliatacb per the applicable building code, namely. Appendilt E spectrum analysil method to determine loads, thear1, moments,
of ASMB STS-12 for steel mcb and Section 4.2.3 of ACI 307-08 for and deflections of a chimney due to earthquake. A design respo111e
concrete dllmneys. spectrum should be developed &om the aeiamlc map valuea of
ASCE 7 fur the project site. The dc.lgn respo.Dfe spectrum will
CRITICAL 'WnlD VELOCIT1' 1101. provide the design spectral responte acceleration, s.., at any period
OVAI.l.ING VIDRA:rIONS and c;an be c;onstructed in accordance with the general procedure of
In addition to tnmvene 11Waying o.allatiom, an unlined ~ stack Se,tion 4.3.2 of ACI 307-08 bued on the 1ebmicity of project me,
may aho be subject to maJllng te1011.U1ce due to fl.miral 'Vibration in the aite clu1 (aoU c::oefficients). and aeilmic risk c;ategory (importance
drcular ao11-ledional plane u a result of vortu lheddlng (Fig. 24.lb). facto.r, I.). Similarly, the site-aped.fie; procedure of Section 4.3.2
The &equency of the l.owat mode of ovalliDg vibration in a circular can be uted to develop tlle-tpec:tfk design apectrum. A generic
thell u computed by deaip response spectrum bued 011 ASCE 7-05 is shown 111
Fig. 24.3 for illu1tration of typ1al relatiomhlp between 1pectral
t./B t respon1e acc;deratlon. s•. and atructunl period, T. Seismic: forcu
/0 = 0.1261)2 = 6'78.SD 2 (24.5) (1hean and moments} obtained by re1po11.te tpectrum analyal1
mould be multiplied by a factor of Ia/R for tebmlc design, where
where lo = Bnt-mode availing frequency, cp1 R 11 the reaponae modification factor, whic;h tan be taken as 1.5 for
t = ehell-plate thh:knea1, In concrete dtimneys.3•12 Since 2010, ASCE 7 permit.I R = 2 for both
B = modulus of elasticity, pci concrete chimneys and steel 1taclr.s. However, for Seismic Design
D = shell diameter at position Ullder consideration, ft Category D, B, or F concrete c.bimney1, the design seilmlc forces in
A resonant condill.on occun when the flm-mode ovalling frequency !Al the breeching region should be increued by 50 percent, and ductile
nearly twice the vortex-.hedding frequency. Thus, from Eq. (24.3), the detailing per Section 15.6.2 of ASCE 7-10 must be provided.
critical wind wlocity V0 for ovalling vibration of the staclr. ii (fps) lntuactlon ofthe stack or chimney with the linen shall be comidered.
A milllmum 1eparttlo11 lhall be provided between the liner and
v. = hE. (24.6a) chimney equal to c~ times the calculated differential lateral drift. The
25 value o( C~ mould be tahn u 2 when R = 2 u U1ed.
In genenl, the dynami, interaction effect on the chimney mell ii
Then withlo from Eq. (24.5) and S = 0.2,
negligible far Rinfora:d-conc:rete c:himneyii with independent ateel
t l.inlng." However, It is important to determine the aeismlc force exerted
V0 =1696D (24.6b) on the mel lining as a retult of thia interaction.
For ateel stacb, ASME STS-1 also recommenda that earthquake
Clt.ctlMJIBRllNTIAL WIND MOMENT load1 and telamic: responae be detum.lned udng the respOll.lle spectrum
method Howner, designers should be c::tutioned that the design spec-
The variation In wind premire along the c:ircumference of a chimney tnun included in STS-1 Table D-2 u nonm&n.datary and inc;onsbtent
thell (Fig. 24.2) prod~ cimlmlerential moments which should be with ASCE 7. If Table D-2 u incompati"ble with the building code. the
accounted for. The lllllimum momellb are
procedue in Section 11.4 o( ASCH 7-10 ill 1uggelted for establiabing
Mm.u:= 0.314.qR2 (tennon on 1Ds1de) (24.7a) the deaign spectrum.
744 CHAPTERTWENTY·FOUR
Sv1
Sa = -
T
1.0
Period, T (sec)
Figlll'8 243 Generic •elsmlc detlgn ~ tpectmm per ASCI! 7-0S.
24.2.5 flNlalll'8 DfffilNn'tilJI differential along the circumfe:rmce and its vertical profile is disawed
When a chimney CO!lVe}'S hot flue gu of a sped1lc weight le~s than the .lnASCE.14
aurrounding atmosphere, the preaure on the inside of the liner Is less 24.2.7 Ndunil Fniqu91c:yolVllntlon
than on the outside. This negative p.remue at the flue-gas entranc:e.
ofum called stack draft, can be detamined from The natural frequency of vibration ofa stack or chimney with a comtant
diameter, uniform thickness, and flzed base .Is gl.ven by
D =0.52.HP(.!__.!_) (24.9) .ft=.!_=3.52R_ /]i=3.9D IX (24.10)
• T. T 1 t T 4't Hz "Jlw, H2 VW.
where D, =stack draft, inchu of water where ft= fundamental frequency, cps
H =stack. height above gu entrance, ft T =fundamental. period, seconds (s)
P =atmospheric preiNre at plant level, psla w, =unit weight of shell. Ib/ill.1
T., T1 =tempmltUle$ of wnosphere aid gu. mpectively, 0 P ab.o- g= gravity accderalion =386 in./11-
lute (0 P + 460°) B =modulus of elasticity, psi
The c:urvu in Pig. 24.4 can be used to determine the negative pres- D =diameter, in.
sure at the Bue-gas entrance fur most chimneys without app.reclable H =height, ill.
error. Negative pressure varies linearly with height aid reaches zero at Reinforced-concrete chimney! are lllUally built with a unifon:n taper
the flue-gu c:xit. and with the thlcknm varying from a minimum at the top to the
For cases where an induced-draft fan forces gu through the chimney Chlckne.s required for strength at the bottom. Steel stacks are built
the negative pmsure .Is .reduced and the chimney may operate under a with or without Npe? or with a Npe?ed lower section md with several
net podtlve pressure. Th.ls pl'l:INre may also be urwned to vary linearly
with height
The pres.'llU'e differential ill resirted by circumferential ll:resKli in the
D, H,
thickneues of plalel (Fig. 24.S). Several formulas for an effective
diameter and effective height have been developed to enable the
.natural frequencies of these types to be determl.ned by Eq. (24.10). The
liner it.sellifthe liner is independent and by composl.te action ifit .Is built fullowlng formulas are suggested by Chu and Park:15
integrally with the shell Chimneys with straight taper or straight top and ftared bottom:
24.2.6 'Tilm,a.ture Cindl.m Loed1
All chimneya/stacb mould be lnvertigated for thermal atreHe& rmilt- D,=D,(~)U7 (24.11)
lng from temperature d!tferentials. A proc::ed.ure to calculate the tem.-
perwre gradient a~s the concrete chimney shell. air tpUe (if any), Chimney• with uniform. taper:
H,=H(D~~)
inllllation, and liner ii discusud in ACI 307-08.
Nonunlform distribution ofBue gas across a rteel rtack. or steel chim- (24.12)
ney liner may cause temperature <llffi:re.otials. For instance, a chimney
liner or tied mu:k with two or more Inlet breeching opening$ wlD Chimneys with straight top and flared bottom:
develop an uneven tempera1:unl di.m:ibulion around the circumference
of the liner. The.te dliferentials produce an unequal apamion which
causes lateral deflection of the liner. Significantlongitudinal stresses wlD
develop when the liner ls rettnined. Th.ls muimum differential occurs
H• =H[H,H + H•(-3.._)
H D,+~
2
f (24.13)
at the level of the breeching opening and exponentially decays along In these equations D,. D6 = mean diameter at top, bouom; t,. t& =
the chimney height. A method to e.ttmate the muimum. temperature diirl:neu :.rt top, bottom; H, =height ofstraight segment; and H• =height
CHIMNEYS 745
t4r--~~-.-~~--.~~~.,....-~~-..-~~--.~~~.,....-~~--.
(35.56)
Curves ore bosed oo otmosphere
<-
ot - 20°F 29°C l ond seo level
12t--~~-t-~~~~~~-t--~~-+
(30.48 )
0 8t-~~-+-~~.-'t-,"--~+::;.,....i=.'---t-~-::::::;o.....,::.....~
; (20.33)
.~
t
....."
~
6
(t 5.24)
.....g..
t
4
(10.16) 300ft (92ml
2 200 f t (61 ml
(5.08)
0 '-~~-'-~~--1.~~~~~~-'-~~-'-~~~'--~~-'
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
(38) (93) (1 49) (204) (260) (316) (3711 (427)
Averooe oostemperature,°F (°Cl
of bottom (tapered.) sepent (Fig. 24.5). Frequencle.t calculated by If a chimney ii lined and the weight of die lining ill carried by the
Eq. (24.10) ua1ng these effective dimenalona are in good agr«.ment with shell. Chere is an increued mus to be set in vibration. Since there
computer determination of the frequencies of chimneys with a wide l8 no rtgntAcmt increase in moment of inertia, such. a chimney will
range of proportions. hive a lower .natural frequency than an unlined chimney of the same
dimemio!IJ. An approximate natural frcq,uency can be detennined. from
Bq. (24.10) by using for w, the weight of the shell pl111 lining, divided by
0 Dt the thicl<lless of the plate. The weight and thiclcnea mould be taken at
i1 ....--..---1:..:1~g about one-fourth the height above the base.
Base tlexibility may need to be <:onsidm<I in deten:nining frequenq:
t<l For example, when stadu are supported on a roof slru.ci:ure or a steel
t<l frame, the ttanslational and rotational apring constanta of the support
v must be takm Into account. A flnlte-element analysis is r«ommended
N
.. --~ t
.. ..
.;
CJ)
for determining the frequency in such. cam.
t :r
t 24.3 STEEL STACKS
,.._
There are many typea of steel stacl<.e, includ.Ulg eelf-supported.
t<l
v guyed, and braced. The choice of a particular type should be based
N on the evaluation of its comparuive costs and the site conditions.
..
.; The three profile types commonly used are lb.own in Pig. 24.5.
CJ)
-· Short stacb, lea• than 100 ft high. may be straight cylinden. For
taller stacks a bell base may be used to reduce plate thickness and
anclior-bolt size. The bell height is usually between one-fourth and
one-third. of the total stack height. The diameter of the flazed bare Db
:r"' is utually about 1Y. to 1% time• the cylinder diameter D11 although
in some cam it may be beneficial to limit the base diameter to a
dimension shippable by truck.
I Most steel stacks are built from plate conforming to ASTM A36.
In so.me caset, A242, A.588, A283C, or other gradea of steel, includ-
~ ing stainlea steela, have been wied as dictated by ape.rlence and
(a) (b) (c) specific m;iuirements. Stiffeners ue normally A36. St«! for stacks in
cold climates should have adequate toughneu with a low transition
Rglll'.:24.S Steehtacb. temperature.2
746 CHAPTERTWENTY·FOUR
24.3.1 Gtlne111l and Dellgft Code min1mum shell thickness requ!Jemen1J based on diameter; however, fur
A ~ mck and its anchorage should be designed for the loads most mcb it is ncommended that the shell thickneu, including the
dlscus1ed in the preceding article. When aubjected to wind and/or corrotlon allawuce, be not leu than 14 in.
earthquake loads, the stadc may be treated u a beam ca'lumn and 24.S.S ~ll'Mllr J1111dl1111
analyzed by conventional. betim theory. Except in guyed and b.raced
stub, nonu.nifonn temperature differentials will not induce bending A stiffening ring is nonn.ally required at the junction of the cone and
moments. Particular attention is required in the de1ign of reinforcing at the straight cylinder 1ections of sta.cb. h ls typically designed to l'e$lsl
the cone-to-cylinder junction and at the breeching opening. the d.rcumf'erential compression that ruults from the vertical loads
To reduce heat ICM, inlulation of the ate.rlor surface of unlined sted and bending momenta at the junction. Where external preuure due to
stub, including the projeaing flanges of all auachmentt. ill recom- stack draft is significant. the n.rulting additional circumferential fcm:et
mended. A suitable lining may be applied to the interior surf.ace of the should also be co.n1ldered.
ahell to protect the bare steel from high temperature, abruton. and cor- The mu:lmum vertical force N,. per unit length of circumference In
ro&!on from the flue gases. The weight of insulation and lining should the cylinder at the junction Is
be t<lken into ucount in the frequency c:akulation for resonance under
the lined condition. Unless an integral motcrm or bric:k lining ill used, N =..!!._+~2 (24.15}
no credit mould be given to the lln1ng in calculating stack stiffna,,. " 2nR 1tR
.ASTM STs-1-2016 provides the requirements and guidellne11 for where W = uial load at junction
design, fabl'ICU!on, erection, and maintenance of sted stack5 and their M =wind or other moment at juncti.on
~ances. In other countries the appropriate nalional code or the R=D/2
CICIND Model Code16 are typically wed. The towc;in;umf'erential compmsion Qin the ring ill
[ ~-.!.]
should not ezued the area of the ring itlelf to ensure a nominal-size
K - .E D sWfener. The .muimum permlaslble longitudinal compresstve fl:res.1e.t
.- 7.1.F.
l
.:=:i. in the cone may be determined by Eq. (24.14) with the diameter D
B replaced by two times the <Xllle radius Rm: e.
24.).4 Ol'Clllllftrtn'dal Stfff'tnen
1 for.!:.:!::60andP
, 1 ~SOksi In addition to the stiffener at the cone-qllnder Junction a stlfftner Is
requlre<l at the top of the stadc. Intermediate ring stlffenen may also be
Y=
j[ 21
~
18,000+ L/r)2
L
Cor->60andP
r 1 ~SOkal.
requimi The purpose of mch stift'ening ii to prevent exceuive defor-
mations of the stack Jhell under wind pre.uure and to pro'Yid.e adequate
structural mlatance to negative draft. The circumferential stre•ses In
Che sheD. plate and the intermediate stiffeners should be checked and
P. =yield strength at mean ahell temperature, psi d«igned following the requirements of STS-1. The maximum stiifener
B=modulus of elasticity at mean sheD. temperature, psi rpa.cing should follow the n:quirementa of STS-1. In the calculalion of
t =diell-plate thickness. at the section under consldmition, in. stiffener section properties, an area of the shell equal to 16t, l.56Jii, or
D =diameter of shell, at elevation under consideration, in. Che amr. of the stiffener, whichever is smaller, may be Included.
=
L length of stadc between points of lateral support. For a self-
cupporting stac:b, L should be taken as the effective length,
that 1.s. L =2 x stack height. in.
r =weighted mean ra.diwi of gyration for level under consider-
ation, in.
P.S. =factor of safety
The factor Yin Eq. (24.14) is Intended to account for a possible inter-
action of qlind.rical shell buckling. which depends on t/D, and column
buckling. which depends on L/r.
The P.S. ls dependent upon the load combination being considered
as gtve.n In STS-1.
Because of po8$ible com>Sion the computed req~d thickneas
should U1Ually be increued. The a110W11Dce is typically from 1/16 to See Fig. 24.Sb
~ in., depending on the propertlee of Bue gasea, the typee of insulation
and lining provided, and Che operating gu temperature. STS-1 Includes FltuM 24.6 StifftDlDg rillg at ~cyllndcr junciion.
OllMNEYS 747
:114..1.5 la• 111"1 arMl Anct.r ..... cone, in addition to the bending stretees due to the bearing load. The
Thete ahould be designed to rum the net tmaion rmil:ting from the allowable tall.ion in the hue angle dioulct be limited to 10 bi or less to
dead load w. and the wind or earthquake moment Mt at the stack bue. keep tec:ondary bending ltretael in the cone within safe limits.
The bolt tmaioll P can be determined from
24.3.. Gu,ied SUCb
P= 4Mt _ ~ (24.19) For most plant sites the space required for guys 111d their anchors makes
ND' N the wie of guyed mcb (Fig. 24.8) undmrable exi::ept where the guys
can be anchored to adequately braced plmt muctura 10 as to proride
where D' =diameter of bolt circle, in., and N =number of anchor bolb. ample ground clearance. Generally, one set of guys tpaeed 120" apart
Shlce the elongation ofthe anchor bollt CO!ltributea to the lateral deflec- around the stack circwnfuence with an angle ~ of 45° to 50° between
tion of the ctack. it Is advisable to llm1t the allowable bolt tension at the the guy and the vertical W. of the stack u satisfac:tory. The vertical
root of the thread to 15,000 pd even if high-1trength bolts are uml. componeJIU of the guy tensions must be tabn into aa:owrt when com-
Alto, the boh spacing ahou1d not ezceed 5~ ft. and at least eight bolb puting me.ea In the &hell.
lhould be 111ecl In detc:nnlnlng moment• for the design of the shell, it should be
Anch.or-bolt tension b eccentric with mpect to the chimney theD, noted that the atack. hi not held rtgl.clly at the guy ring but moves
and an unstlfi"med bue angle la nol'llltlly inauffid.ent to take the lllterally owing to the decreue under l.a.tmal fon:e1 in the initial ug
bending. Ddlection of the bue angle will inc:reue lateral m09eD!enta of of the windward guy. Wlth adequate .111.itial wwon. this movement b
the stack and will cause large vertical secondary bending stre11e1 Ill the au.all The height of the guy ring can be chosen 10 that the moment
chimney shell, and in many cases It Is nec:aaary to provide a COlltinuoua of the cantilever aectlon at the guy ring Is approximately the same u
stiffaied bue ring u the location shown in Plg. 24.7. Alternatively, a the moment at the base. The latter ia based on an emmated partial
tepuate chair for each anchor bolt may be uaed. lbity of the bue. It is not good practice to use a thinner shell between
Circumferential coinprellive rt:resses In the c:ontinuo111 base ring may the guy ring and the base, even where the computed streuu might
be calculated as though It wue loaded with equaDy spaced C011c:entrated permit a decrease.
loads Q = Pelht in the plane of the ring (Pig. 24.7). The .mulmum dr- An evaluati.on of the true mu:imum 'lenlion in the windward guy
c:umfermtial bending moment, which oc:c:un at the windward anchor dependa on the wind force, the oomponenta in line with the windward
boh and pmduce1 wmpreaion in the ouWde of the ring, ii given by guy of the residual illltlal tenlion in the two leeward guys, the wind
force 0.11 and the weight of the guys themte!Yes, and other f.acton. Sec
(24.20) Rowe,1• Pang.1' and ASME STS-1 for further di.tcuuion on the daign
ofgup.
where C = c:oeffkient from 1ible 24.1
The height of the shell acting u a flangt of the ring can be determined
rc = rWWI of bolt circle. in.
The portion of the chimney ahell within 0.7&./Rt on either side of the u for stl1faiing ringl (Fig. 24.6). Vertical sttffencn should be provided
on each side of each guy.
rttached ring plate may be counted u put of the ring. If the calcu-
lated size of the ring I• acemve, 1U height should be Increased, or the
eccentricity e mould be reduced if pomOle. Vertical stifkner11hould be 24.JJ Bnic:M 5tlldcl
placed on both sides of each anchor boll Where a nee! stack u adjaunt to a properly braced building or
Suggetted dealgns of anchor-bolt chain are given in AISI 1992.17 structure, lt is economical to provide a brace from the stuk to the struc-
For a stack with a bell bue, the base angle mu.t be dcaigned for the ture at a substantial distance abaft the bue (Fig. 24.5a). The dea!gn
rlng tenlion camed by the hor17.ontal component of forces In the bue of the shell ls similar to that of a gu~ stack except that the m.ck la
a.uumed to be rigidly held al die braa. Figure 2U mOWI one type of
braclng arrangemenl
0 .78 v'1tt;
24.lA ""-'t:Ylbmlont
Steel m.cb are more susceptible to wind-induced vibratiom than other
types of c:himnqs. There are numero\11 r8'0nl.s of steel stacks. CONer-
vatively deaigned for muimum probable wind ar earthquake forces.
It. stiffeners. which have ~enced seriowi vibrallonJ from steady-state wlnm of
2R both sidH velocltle1 of the order of I 0 to 40 mph. >.. a c:onaequenc:e, lt ls gener-
eochbolt
ally neceseary to invm:lgate them fur dynamic wind action. Most of the
serious low-wind vibration problmns have been with unlined swh.
The wind velocity at which the natural frequency of vortex sheddlng
1. 56 v.'ltt, +lz equals the natural frequency of the stack b given by Eq. (24.3). With
s= 0.2, this formula gives
3600
V.,= Df, x • 3.1'4.Df, (24.21)
0.2 5280
Tlbi. 24.1 Coetl'lc:llllll far - In Eq. 24.:llD with V.,. ill mile1 per hour and D In feet. The Vllue of D for ltacka of
No. of bolte, N C No. of bolt.1, N c the profile In Fig. 24.S' may be tabn u the mean diameter of the top
one-third of the stack.
8 0.191 36 0.510
Research5.' shO"WJ that if the aitic:al wind velocity eu:eedt 1.3 times
12 0.217 40 0.563
the design mean hourly wind velocity, the effect of vortex shedding on
16 o.258 44 0.616 stub may be ignored.
20 0.~5 48 0.670 ASME STS.1 provide1 a procedure for c:alculating the loads due to
:u 0.355 Sl 0.724
wind vibration. Equation (24.1b) provides a timplifted. app.roaclt. Past
28 Cl.Ml6 S6 0.778
aperiellce shows that unlined atacb haw very low damping 111d are
32 OAS7 60 0.832
autceptible to large-amplitude acroa-wlnd vibrations. It can be shown
741 CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
Guy
A
Wind
. - .Guy
I Guy
I
'
I
I
I
1
Stiffener plcJtes eoch
side at eoeh guy
h,
hp
Turnbuckle
Design a ground-wpported A36 met .tack 160 ft high with the profile
of Fig. 24.Sb. Given H11 = 40ft.H, = 120ft.Dt=10ft.~=15 ft, operat-
ing gas temperature = 350°F, 2-ln. sbotaete lining, weight of lbotaete
from Eq. (24.la) that the aerodynamic damping. p.,. would exceed 110 pd. Delfgn wind loada should conform to ASME. STS-1-2016 with
atructural dampl.ng, P.., for moat of the unlined stack proportion•. Use a bulc wind speed of 90 mph, exposure category C. importance factor
of 1, and a directionality factor of I.
of refractory llnlng or other type of linings would be beneficid because
they inaeue rtructural damping. Along-wind loads are calculated per ASMB STS-1-2016 and
lncreulng the diameter of the stack, u in the tlared-bottom stack, ASCE. 'J-05. For aimpllclty. only the total design moments along the stack
height including mean and ftuctuating wind are shown in 1\ble 24.2.
will alwsys rault in higher natural frequency and higher critical
wind velocity and possibly l.esa cyclic bending stress. Other meam
for incru1ing stack ftiffnen to preclude or mitigate vortex-shedding
vibration effects are Ille of guy wires, providing late.ral suppora w
nearby etrw:ture1, and Installation of vut1cal llt!1knen. Other than 1!lcftlion (ft:) Dmgn wind momcntl (kipe-ft}
these sttfi'nesa methodt, aaodyJwnic metho<k using helial makes, 160 (top of ltad;) 0
cylindrical ahrwda. 'POilen. or damping methoda may be utilized in 130 9t
the prevention of acessive vibratiom. The damping methods cum:ntly
100 371
anllable ln the Industry are the Ille of tuned-mua dampen. placement
80 636
of preformed &.bric pW at the bue of the stack, and iDstallation of a
70 791
Mgle hangjng dWn or multiple hanging chaim.2
60 959
Stacia which are to be lined mould be inveltipted for vibration in
the unlined condition. They may need to be guyed or braced temporar- •o 1332
20 17"5
ily during these periods. Alie, to pRftllt ovalllng of the lin!Jlg during
0 219.5
erection, it ii advUahle to lnftal1 temponry •piden.
CHIMNEYS 749
PLATE THICKNESS AND STRESS DETERMINATION T.mble 24,4 Example 1-c.alailatlon fur Design of Ring Stiffener
Calculations are shown in Table 24.3. at Cone-to-Cylinder Junction
W=894x90+976x30=109,710lb
M =1,332,000ft-lb
r..ble .24.3 Example 1-Stress C..lculatlon .nd Plate Thickness
Determination N = 109,710 + l,332,000xl2 lb/in.
1705
• 2icx60 icx60 2
'frial Jtdion 90 ft below top (or at 70-ft &vdtion)
Assume external pressure = 2 in water
.AMume lf4-in. ste.!l plate= 10.2 psf
P4 =2X62.4/12 3 =0.0722 psi
183 25
Lin' 110pcix2.= psf tan0= =0.0625 0=3.58° secB=l.002
mg 12 28.5 psf 40
From Eq. (24.16), with t 1 = t2 = 5116 in. = 0.3125 In.
Weight per foot of height= 28.5 x 101t = 895 lb/ft. Q = 60[1705 x 0.0625 + 0.78 x 0.0722 ("60x0.3125+1.002"60x0.3125x1.002 )]
Deducting 1/16 in. from the plate thickness for corrosion allowance, =6423lb
f= W + M = 895X90 + 791,000X12 5617 psi Try 3 x 3 x 1' angle: A= 1.44 in.2 I= 1.24 in.4 x = 0.842 in.
A S 70.7 2120
Effective flange (Fig. 24.6) = 0.3125 (t.56"60 X0.3125 +0.25)
Determine the allowable stress from Eq. (24.14): = 2.19 in. 2 > l.44 in.2 ; use l.44 in.2
Ring area A,= 1.44 + 1.44 = 2.88 in.2 > 0.357 in.2
L 320
L=2Xl60=320 ft 85.2
r 0.707x((5)(120)+(6.25)(40))1160 l.44X 0.842+0.72X 3.16+0.72(3.16-1.69 tan3.58°)
Ring ~ ~ ~in.
y 21,600 -0.855
Ring I,= 1.24 + 1.44(1.97 - 0.842)2 + 0.72(3.16- 1.97)2
18,000+85.22
+ o.72(3.16 - 1.69 tan(3.ss0 ) - 1.97)2 = 4.94 1n.• > uo in.•
2.8Fy = 2.8X36 =0.0036 >..!._ Thadorc, the 3 x 3 x 14 angle Is OK.
E 28,000 D
P.S.=1.5
INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS IN UPPER 120 FT.
X =0.25 X 28X 10' X 0.00156.25/1.5= 7292 psi Design of intermediate stiffeners are shown in Table 24.5.
F=0.855 X7292 =6234 psi>5617 OK. T.mble 24.5 Example 1-Dllslgn of Intermediate Stiffeners and
Anchor Bolts
'frial Jtdion at 120 ft below top
Intermed.l.ak Stlffeneq
Assume t = 5/16 in, including 1/16-in. COI'JOsion allowance.
Muimum allowable spacing for 10-ft stack diameter= 2D =20 ft.
Weight per ft of height = (12.76 + 18.3) x 10 1t = 976 lbtft Try 3 x 3 x 1' angles spaced 10 ft. per ASME STS-1 Eq. 4-17, the required sec-
tion m odulua is
!... = 0•25 = 0.002083 2 3
S = 29 x l0xl0 x l2 xl.5 l .l in.,
D 120 4
1830X36,000
A= 2ic x 60 x 0.25 =94.2 in.' The effective section modulus provided is 2.39 in.3 Additional check on
required I, and A, are found adequate. Since stack draft la smaller than wind
S=ltX602 X 0.25=2827in.3 pressure, no check is needed.
Anchor Bolta
= 894X90+976X30 + l ,332,000Xl2 .AMume radius of bolt circle= 92 in.
! 94.2 2827
6819
psi For 20 anchor bolta the required net area, A, per bolt is, from Eq. (24.19),
X =0.25 X 28,000,000X 0.002083/1.5= 9721 psi F= 4 X2,195,000Xl2 159,000 =20 6801b
20X92X 2 20 '
F=0.855 X9721=83llpsi> f OK. A= 20,680 =l.38in.2
15,000
By 1imilar stre..1 calculation, a 5/16-in. plate will be able to withstand the Use l %-in. bolta, for which the area at the root of the thread is 1.78 in.2
dead loads and design wind momenta In the base cone (the bottom 40-ft
section). ThU1, uae 14-in. plate for the top 90-ft section and 5/16-in. plate
ANCHOR BOLTS
for remaining of the atad: with a total stack weight indudJng lining of
15!1,000lb.
Design of the anchor bolts are also shown in Table 24.5.
l!XAMPLB:r.
Investigate the stack of Example 1 for resonant wind vibration.
RING AT CONE-TO-CYLINDER JUNCTION
Calculation for design of ring stiffener at cone-to-cylinder junction is TRANSVERSE VIBRATION
presented in Table 24.4. Calculations for transverse wind vibrations check are shown in Table 24.6.
750 CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
,..ble 24.6 Example 2-Checkfor Resonant Wind Vibrations construction details. The base diameter results from optimizing the
costs of concrete, forms, and reinforcing steel for various shapes. It is com-
From Bq. (24.11) and (24.13), the equivalent height H, and equivalent diameter
mon to use a variable rather than a straight taper for aesthetic reasons.
D,an!
24.4.2 Design Codes: ACI 307-08
H =160[120
•
+~(2Xl0
160 160 10+15
J'J• =147ft The latest code requirements for material, construction, and strength
design of reinforced-concrete chimney shells are given in ACI 307-08.
The code sets forth recommended loadings and methods for determin-
3125 IU7 ing the design strength. It also provides criteria for thermal effects
D, =10 ( o. =10.6ft
0.25 ) evaluation. Concrete chimneys should be designed and constructed to
meet ACI 307 and local building regulations.
The equivalent unit weight of the shell, including the shotcrete lining at 18.3 psf
and computed at one-fourth the height abovi: the base (Sec. 24.2.7), is 24.4.3 Design Process
A design process flowchart for the structural analysis and design of
Shell= 0.3125 x 0.283 = 0.089
concrete chimneys is presented in Flowchart 24.1.
Lining= 18.3/144 = Jl.llZ
0.216/0.3125 = 0.691 lb/in.3
~ = 3.9Xl0.6Xl2
6
Then,fromEq. (24.lO), 28Xl0 =l.02 FLOWCHART1
Jt (147Xl2)2 0.691 ql6
Concrete Chimney Design Process*
The critical wind velocitybyEq. (24.21) is V..,=3.41x10 x 1.02=34.8 mph=
51.1 fps
The equivalent static wind force is determined by Eq. (24.la), with
Given the height and top diameter of the chimney, flue gas
D, =~=0.67>0.5 D=lOft
D 6 15 temperature and flow, and wind and seismic design load
criteria, design the chimney per ACI 307-08
160
.!!.=
D 10
=16 G =0.63 c, =0.6
Jl=0.006 y=0.08lb/ft3 Select trial geometcy of diameter and thickness along the
height considering the minimum thickness requirements of
iii =lt(l0)(18.3+ 101)= 895.4 lb/ft
Section 4.1.3
qa =0.00128(51.1)2 = 3.34 Jb/ft2
Thua,Fz. 0.63(10)(3.34) (~)1.3 =832(~)1.3 lb/ft Calculate the mean hourly design wind speed along the
[0.006-0.6(0.08)(10)21(895.4)1°.s H H height, V (Z), by Equation 4-1
The calculated dynamic aao11&-wind forus and the design along-wind forces at
various heights an! as follows:
Calculate the mean along-wind load per Equations 4-2 through 4-5
Height above the base, ft Across-wind forces, lb/ft Along-wind forces, lb/ft
160 832 225
100 452 166 Apply the mean along-wind load to the chimney and
40 137 100 calculate the base bending moment
20 56 88
The across-wind forces calculated abovi: are 2 to 3 times larger than the along-
wind forces in the upper 60 ft of the stack but are mW1er in the remainder of Calculate the natural period by Equation 4-18 (preliminary
the stadc. Consequently. the bending moments resulting from the aaoas-wind analysis) or by dynamic analysis (final design)
forces will gov=i the design. The shell plate thickness will need to be increased
llignificantly in the lower 100 ft of the stadc. .Alternatively, a more effective and
ttODOmical solution is to equip the Example l stack wtth a tuned mass damper
that provides a minimum of2% damping, in which case FL would reduce to Calculate the gust factor by Equation 4-7
174 (.Zill)"' and across-wind forces will not govern the design.
Calculate Ver for the first mode by Equations 4-15 through 4-17
24.4 REIN FORCED-CONCRETE CHIMNEYS
24.4.1 General
Construction costs of steel stacks are generally lower than rcinforced-
concrete chimneys up to a height of about 200 ft. At greater heights,
reinforced-concrete chimneys are usually more economical. Reinforced- A
concrete chimneys also cost less to maintain than steel chimneys because
they are free from atmospheric corrosion.
It is generally economical to taper tall concrete chimneys, with •All references to sections and equations in the flowchart are
the top diameter determined by gas exit requirements and liner to those in ACI 307-08.
CHIMNEYS 751
FLOWCHART1 FLOWCHART1
Concrete Chimney Design Process* Concrete Chimney Design Process•
(continued) (continued)
Calculate across-wind
loads by Sections 4.2.3.2
Across-wind loads through 4.2.3.4 Modify the diameters and/or
need not be considered thicknesses as required and
repeat wind analysis
Calculate the combined
along-wind and across-wind
design moments along the
height by Equations 4-27 and 4-28 Calculate the circumferential bending moments along the
height (inside and outside faces) by Section 4.2.4
FLOWCHART1 FLOWCHART1
Concrete Chimney Design Process* Concrete Chimney Design Process*
(continued) (continued)
c D
Calculate the thermal gradients and thermal stresses along the Calculate the circumferential design strength and nominal
height by Section 6.2 for vertical stress and Section 6.3 for moment strength along the height per Section 5.4 and gcncral
circumferential stress concrete beam theory (inside and outside faces), selecting the
circumferential reinforcement ratio for each face such that
the design strength is greater than the required strength
Determine the required vertical strength along the height per
Section 5.3.1
Calculate the vertical design strength and nominal moment Review wall thickncsscs and reinforcement ratios for
strength along the height for each load case per Sections 5.4 constructability, in particular in the area of openings. If
and 5.5, determining the vertical reinforcement ratio ll8ing desired, adjust diameters and/or wall tbicknesses and
the calculation procedure outlined in Section 5.5.6 start over
(a) (b)
f''"" C-Oplng
~, 4 :::,~;"'•'•'~
Steel slack~
1" lumnlte cement mortar
c.-•• Brick lining laid lumnite
Brick lining Structural T at cement mortar
Joint at eortet welded joints 1•
"' ""~- 2 mastic
Concrete corbel : M - - - - Brick lining laidin
. chemical mortar
(c) (d)
Rgure24.10 Lining comlgllratiOM for chlmneyltltacb.
Later operation of some of these symma without reheating of the gu dcm:loped to al:tach the thin alloy sheeta (1/16 in. or less) to the carbon
above the waur dew point, aeatlng "wet rtack.t~ re•ulted in poor per- steel liner to reduce ma.tmal and erection costs.lf.29 An alloy liner is
formance of tho.1e bril:k linen.12.23 Detailed dlscusaons of the design more costly than bric:k liners or FRP liners but may offer long-term sav-
and construction of brick chimney liners are given in ASTM Cl298.» ing• In maintenance md repain.
Corbel wppom:d brick liners (Pig. 24.lOc), which for eamomic n:uons
were quite common in the put, ha.ve been a large source ofproblem.a fur 24.5.6 lot a•mt.a Block Unlnp
concrete chlmneye owing to gu leakage and add attadc resultlng from Boroailica.te block. ii a. lining system which wes urethane-uphalt mastic
cracking and d!tferential vertical apanaion. a.a an adhesive membrane to attach closed cell foamed borolllllcate glass
blocks to the subetrate.30 The adhetive membrane is used on the back
K.5.4 FR.PUllllll'll and sid« of the block to bond them to the subatrase and each other. It iJ
Independent, self-supporting tlberglu1-n:infcm:ed pl.uti.c {PRP) linen mually applied to the inside surface of a irtec:l. liner or shell but can also
ha.ve become a. common choice for new wet stadc installations. Several be applied to bril:k or concrete. The aubatrate must be auitably prepared
polyester and vln)'l ester resin• are used, but the most prevalent are a.nd primed. The block protects the membrane from d1rect aposure to
ftame-retardant epoxy vln)'l esters. They provide excdlent chemic:a.l the flue gu. The thickness of the bloc;k iJ establiJhed to maintain the
n:siltance, but temperatuni resinance ii typically limited to use below membrane below itJ m.u:imum aerrice temperature al the rubatrate and
212oP with eu:U1'lllon1 to 250°F. Detailed. dl1cu1tlons of the de.tign and u commonly 1.5 to 2 in.
constructlon of FRP chimney linen are gtve.n Jn ASTM D536425 and
Ret: 26. 24.S.7 G1111tt. (Sll01a'll1e) linings
Gunlte llninp anchored with "r type mchors or applied. ova mesh
24.5.S Alloy Un1r1 reinforcement attached by welded studs have been wed extensively
Independent, 1elf-1Upporting alloy !Jneu a.re often wed for chimneyt for steel mcb and for tome steel linen. B:Jperlence indicates that
operated downstream of FGD systems, In putlc:ular where higb.- caklum-aluminate cement gives better protection aplnst col'l'OOon
Wllperature bypw or ocurdon co.nditio.ns al.st. An alloy liner may than portland cement. Por lncreued acid remtance. potassium silicate-
be made of solid corrolion-ruiltant alloy or carbon steel plate clad bonded materials are available which should generally be applied cn"er
with a. thin layer of alloy. Typical allo}'9 used are Allo}'9 C276, C22, and a. chemical-res:llWrt membrane. The maurials should be applied and
625. In addition to bonded clad,27 wallpapering techniques have been cured ill accordance with. the manufacturer's instructions.
754 CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
25. ASTM D5364-14, Standard Guide for Design, Fabrication, and Process Equipment (SP0292-2012)." National Association of Corrosion
Erection of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Chimney Liners with Engineers, Houston, TX, 2012.
Coal-Fired Units, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014. 30. Luke, B., and DeKreij, A.: "Borosilicate Glass Block Lin-
26. Bochicchio, V. A.: FRP Chimney Liners for Power Plant Flue ings at Work in Wet FGD Chimneys," Power Eng, Vol. 112, No. 1,
Gas Desulfurization-A Chimney Supplier's Perspective, NACE p. 74, January 2008.
International CORROSION 2011, Houston, TX, 2011. 31. Chimney Coatings Manual for Concrete and Steel Chimneys,
27. NACE Standard SP0199-2009, MStandard Practice: Installation of International Committee on Industrial Chimneys (CICIND). Zurich,
Stainless Chromium-Nickel Steel and Nickel-Alloy Roll-Bonded and Switzerland, 1996.
Explosion-Bonded Clad Plate in Air Pollution Control Equipment," 32. Smith, D. T.: •The Design and Construction of a lOOm Tall
NACE International, Houston, TX, 2009. Double-Skin, Free-Standing Chimney," CICIND Report, Vol 17, No. 1,
28. Wtlbur,R.,Sowizal,J.,andCerny,N.X.:~ewOptionsforCorrosion pp. 31-35, 2001.
Resistant Metal Cladding for Wet Scrubber Service; Proceedings of the 33. Turner, J. G.: ·chapter 8-Industrial Chimney Foundations;
American Power Conference, Chicago, Vol 52, 1990, pp. 21-24. revised on July 7, 2015, as a part of book entitled Design Applications
29. NACE International 2012, MStandard Practice-Installation of of Raft Foundations, edited by J. A. Hemsley, 2000, Thomas Telford Ltd,
Thin Metallic Wallpaper Lining in Air Pollution Control and Other London.
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter25
Health Monitoring and
Nondestructive Testing
BY
DIDEM OZEVIN Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of
nlinois at Chicago
FARHAD ANSARI Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University ofminois
at Chicago
25.1 INTRODUCTION output signals to understand the presence of defects (e.g., fatigue crack,
delamination, corrosion) are presented.
Health monitoring of structures can be quantitatively measured with
periodic assessment known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of
25.2.1 NDE Senson
structures or continuous monitoring known as Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM). NDE methods a.re defined as "the development and A aensor converts a signal from one form of energy to another
applica.tion of technical methods to examine materials or components uling a transduction principle, which is the modifier that transforms
in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in order a mechanical/environmental/thermal disturbance into an electrical
to detect, locate, measure, and evaluate flaws; to assess integrity, prop· signal. A variety of tranaduction principles can be uaed to design
erties, and composition; and to measure geometrical characteristics sensora for NDE methoda. The important characteristics of sensors
9
(ASTME1316-17a). SHM methods are the processes of implementing needed for NDE are sensitivity (input-output relations), frequency
damage identification strategies over time and extracting damage- range, linearity, and hysteresis. The three most common types of
sensitive features by means of statistical methods (Farrar and Worden transduction principlea used in NDE ofcivil structures a.re piezoelectric,
2007). This chapter presents waveform-based NDE/SHM methods capacitive, and fiber optic. Figure 25.1 shows the principles of sensors,
including vibration method (VM), impact echo (IE), acoustic emission and Fig. 25.2 shows the examplea of their applications to steel and
(AE), and ultrasonics, which provide quantitative information about the concrete structures. Piezoelectric sensors can be used as transmitter or
state of structural components. The methods presented in this chapter receiver where the conversions of mechanical to electrical or electrical
encompass the entire frequency spectrum of0-20 MHz to find defects to mechanical signals are achieved by the generation of current or force
in structural systems. within the piezoelectric element due to dynamic force or electrical volt-
The organization of this chapter is as follows. Section 25.2 is dedi- age. The main advantages are high rigidity, high natural frequency, wide
cated to the description of measurement components including sen- measuring range, stability, reproducibility, and wide operating range
sors, electronics, and signal processing tools. Section 25.3 describes the of temperature (Gautschi 2002). Capacitive sensors are based on the
principles of NDE methods and their applications for the inspection change in gap or overlap area of capacitive layers. They can be designed
of structural synems. The comparison of NDE methods is presented and built using Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), which
in Section 25.4. References are provided in last section of this chapter. reduce the cost and size of the sensors (Saboonchi and Ozevin 2013).
Fiber-optic sensors (FOSs) can be classified as intensity sensor, interfer-
ometric sensor, or fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors (Kim et al. 2016).
25.2 COMPONENTS OF NDE METHODS
FBG sensor is based on the change of periodic refractive index under
The major hardware components of NDE methods include sensors the external strain where the change in wavelength is correlated with the
(transmitter or receiver) and data acquisition systems (function genera- applied strain. The FOSs can be utilized to measure the physical prop-
tor, amplifier, oscilloscope). Sensors play significant role in applying the erties by localized, multiplexed, or distributed sensor method (Ansari
selected NDE method for a specific problem. Once the output signal is 1997). Detailed description involved in fiber-optic sensing of stress
collected, various signal processing tools are applied to understand the waves and acoustical signals a.re provided in Giallorenzi et al. (1982).
presence of defects in structural components. In this section, state-of- Interferometric techniques have provided means fur high-resolution
the-art NDE sensors are described, and then the methods applied to detection of damage within diffurent types of materials (Llm et al. 1999).
757
751 CHAPTER TWENTY·FIVE
'b_
1npm•$ ! e:,;.; ij 1 l/\n
- Capacitive layer - stationary
'IL_A__
I Opllcal ftber ~ l
Tnlnllmlttllld Signal
(a) (b)
Figure 25.2 Field testing of (o) piezocledrk type AE ""30?1 to aHeA the perlorman" of 9tr1l.d:\ual rdn>fit (Koo>ik et al.. 2011), (b) c:apaciti.Vll!-type
dearomagnetk 8eD.on ~ et al. 2013) to diarKteriu grouting materia4 of~ poattensionecl dud.. and c~> fiber-optic strain 8ell5lm to c!ekd c:radc: at
.Jab-cohlma wl!Dedion (lli2k et al 2012).
The selection of sensor frequency ill dependent upon the NDB TF analysis Is currently used fur evaluating the output s1gnals at
method. Table 25.1 lists the frequency ranges of NDE methods where dispersive environmentl. There are several TF methods in literature. Short
the selected se.naor type lhould be tuned. Time Fourier Transform (STFI'). Wagner-Ville Distribution (WVD). and
Wavelet Transform (WT) are wmmonly wed methods. ~T splits a
25.2.2 Signal Proallllng Medlods signal into overlapping seciiorul with a specified window (Pruell et al
The waveform-baaed NDE methods depend on detecting transient 2009). The Fourier transfunn ofeath section is computed to produc:e an
signals in different frequency spectnun8. Once transient signals are estimate of the short-term frequency content of the windowed signal
detected, various signal processing methods are applied to wrrelate The transform. equation ii
with defects. The major signal processing methods are parameter
emactlon from time domain Bignala (shown in Fig. 25.3), frequency 1 -t-
analysis, and time-frequency (TF) analysit.
2:n;_
J
P(m,b)=- y(t)W(t-b)e-•dt (25.1)
A wt Fourier tramfonn (FFI') decomposes the transient signal Into
its frequency components. whicli involve multipk: sinuaoidal oscilla-
tions at distinct frequencies depending on the content of the transient where y(t) ill the Bignal in the time domain, W(t - b) Is the windowing
signal Figure 25.411 and h show examplea of time domain signal and its function, and b is a parameter characterizing time wlnd.aw width. The
frequency spectrum. The frequency spectrum provides the frequency continuous WT of a s.lgnal y(t) Is
content of time domain signal. which can be affected 'by the presence of
defect for active NOE methods or varied 'by different defect sources for
pulive NDE methods. .Ry(11,b) = ./i
1 _-J y(t)"P(t-b)
--;- dt (25.2)
Tllllle 2s.1 Th• Required Freq-CJ lhlndwlddl of sensen for where 'P represents the wavelet functlrui, b is time variable, and /1
w..form-bMd NDE Melhocb 11 scale variable. The difference between STFf and WT is the scale
variable a. The scale variable makes It possible to change the window
NDEmethod
size for different frequencies such that the window ii large fur low fre-
Vibration 0-SOHzrange quencies while the window is small for high frequencies. Thill property
Flat rapcmsc ID the frquency range of WT provides high l'elalutions in time and frequency. n ia shown that
Impact echo Up to 20 kHz frequency Gabor Wavdet for 'P provides small windOWI in the time and frequency
Flat response In the frequency range domains, which augment the multiresolution of the WT (IWhirnoto
20-SOO kHz range 1995). Figure 25.4c shows the spectrogram oftime domain signal While
Opentins at the n:soaattl freque:ncy or wideband frequency the frequency spectrum cannot provide information about the arrivals
Ultruonia SOO kHz-10 Mlh range of each frequency component. the spectrogram provides the density,
OpcratiDg at the raonam nquaiq
width, and arrival ofeach frequency component.
HEALTH MONITORING ANP NONEl£$TRU(TIVETUTING 759
2500
2000
SOO
400 . ' .. . . ..
--------------------------------··--------------------------------·-·
300
... . .
200
100
60 80 100 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Amplitude [dB] Duration (ms)
(a) (b)
Time[&] 16'37.6
0.7
Amplitude 74
0.5 [dB]
0.3 Counts 182
~
CD 0.1 Duration [ps] 2221
~
~~.1 Energy 102
i ~.3
Abs Energy
(aJ] 92.699E+03
~.5
~.7 0
Avg. Freq. 81.9
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 [kHz)
Tlme[ms]
C-Freq. (kHz] 142
(c)
P-Freq. [kHz) 58
(d)
FlfuM 25.3 .Ewilplea of futum utracted. from trall.llellt llp&la: (4) hlatopm pi~ (&) corrdalion plot.t, (c) twlaliellt W&Ydorm, a.od (d) waveform. fealurea.
70 3 0 o.8
2.014MHz Iii' 0.7
60 ;-g.
0.5 m Q.
o.6
&so 2 ~ ¥
~ ~2
Q.
~ 40
ac
!
I
0
l;' 3 0.4
~
0 4.028MHz
~
l ~.s
r::
=>
30
20 1 1 14
:i;
03
0.2
"' 10 5 0.1
-1 0 0
10
0 6
nme(lls)
10 16 0 2
"
Frequericy (MHz)
2
" 6
Time(µa)
8 12
25.J WAVEFORMilASEDNDEMETHODSAND the peak frequency 11.11d amplitude are related to transient resonance
APPUCATIONS of the teat structure.
The operational frequenq ~of fuur wavdonn-based NDE meth- FiguR 25.7 shows the principle ofIE method. The pmpagaiing wave
ods are shown in Fig. 25.5. While the resolution of NDE method excited by the impactor bcu.nce. bad: &om the bad: surface (travel
lnaeaset w11h the inaease of frequency. the effective volume and the distance is 2h1) or any free surface within the test structuR cawed by
depth of penetrat!Dn decrease with the Increase of frequenq. The prin- crack or delamination (travel distance is 2112). For the wave velocity V,
ciple of each method is described below. Then, their appllcation1 for different wave rdlectlons are observed In the frequenq spectrum. of
structural engineering problems are presented. the receiver as / 1 = Vl2h1 and.h = V/2h;,.. The 1pectrum of the Impactor
(highlighted &I the red dashed line on the frequency curve) mould be
sufficiently broad to detect the frequency reflected from free surface at
25.J.1 Vlbrmlan Mlldlad (VM) any depth through the test 1tructure.
The VM is based on measuring the dynamic retponSe of structural. The method hu been su'"ssfully implemented in detecting flaws
system& emted by ambient loads such as traffic. wind. or external (delamination, o-ack, pOI011ity) in ~te (KraU1e et al 1997, Hill
adtatlon such u sham and drop-weight l}'ltem. Figure 25.6 lhaw1 et al. 2000). slab th!cknese (Sansal011e and Streett 1997, Villain et al.
an example of accelerometer inttalled on a multi-girder steel bridge. 2012, Li et al. 2016), and dynamic modulus of concrete (Lu et al
The development of defects CW1es a reduction in local/global lliffnes11 2013). Two ezamplea on lnapecting delamlnatlon In concrete pave-
ruulting in chanp in dynamk respOl!le ~Cl, sudi u mode ment and bridge and timber pole are mown In Fig. 25.8.
shapes and modal frequencies (Samman and Biswas 1994).
2.1.3.J Amulltlc Eml•lon (AE) Me4had
The method has been used in 1everal structural Sf8tem8 11Uch u
tower structures (Bongiovanni et al. 2017), bridges (Peeters et al 200 I, The AE method is a pualve NDE method where the transient signal
Oliveira and Camacho 2016), and dams (Patjawl1andChlnnarasri2013). released by active flaws Is detected by the sensors attached to the
The main challenge of this method ls the Influence of environmental structural surface, a direct way of Identifying the damage u1lng
facton (e.g., temperature, humidity) on the vibration propertie.1 of the noninvuive sensan, and can be implemented for evaluating the
structural systems. localized condition of structural wmponenu or the global condi-
tion of structural systems (Miller and Moore 2005). The structural
component should be under loading and flaws should be active. The
25.J.2 lmpmct Ed!a PE)
method C&DDot detect dormant flaw1. Typically, an array ofsensors is
The IE method .I& 11.11 active NDE method 1111d based Oil exciting struc- utilized u shown In Fig. 25.Sl such that the location of defect In planar
tural surface with a.n impactor to generate and tranamlt stre1a WllVell or space structures can be determined utlng arrival time differences
through materialt at frequencies up to 20 to 30 kHz 11.11d measure the (Oh:Uu 1986, Maji et al. 1997, Kundu et al. 2008, Ozevin 2011). The
response by a receiving trantducer. While multiple wave modes are AE method hu b~n applied for damage detection in variety of
genented [dilational (P), distortional (S), and Rayleigh (R) wa~]. structure• including steel and contrete bridges (Nair and Cai 2010).
the dilational waves are the primary wave mode due to higher ampli- As presented by Holford et al. (2001), the AE method provi.de1 a good
tude mpon1e (Hsiao et al. 2008). The short-time transient 1ignal measure of structural Integrity and the ability for local and global
detected by the receiver II tramformed into frequenq domain where monitoring of structures.
Frequency in Hz
0 10
Vibration
lmpact-Eaho
AE • II
Ultrasonics
Figure 25.5 Th£ wo.mimn-baxd NOE methoda and th£ir opmi1ional frequmci<ll.
200
X:.R.1112
§ 0.05 150 Y:127.7
.§ •
li! 0 100
J• -0.05 50
--0.10 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
1000 2000 3000
Tlme(aec) Frequency (Hz)
(a) (b) (c)
Flg11~25.6 An eumple ofVM applied to monitor multi-girder ot<!d briclgl.' (a) aazlaammr, (&) u:al.aaticm rnpo-. and (c) freqw:ncy ~-
HEAUH MONrTORING AND NONDISTRUCTIVE TESTING 761
CD
-g ..
""
a.
Output signal l!
-,I ~ r, 12 Frequency
h,
!I *!•i '" cm
Flgur. 25.1 P.rlnclple of Impact echo method.
Flgur. 25.9 Prindple of AE method. shown on a bolted. gulfft plate.
AE pmrida infmma1ion about growing micmcrac:b and adverse developed for differentiation of AE signw during AE events u mown
chemical reacticm, sud!. as corro&lon from within the structural ma1:erials. ill SWl et al (2004).
The appllcabili1y ofAE method enoompaaaes a broad range ofmateriala that The reference and sensing arms of the Interferometer are formed
include cemeDl:ltlous, metallic, flhrous matma1s, such as 11ber-rdn1iJrced by two couplers as shown in Fig. 25.10. Luer diodes (LD) and photo
polymer (FRP) composites (Ouyang et al 1993, Mlrmiran et al 1999). diodes (PD) are the light emitting and avalanche photo dlode1 for
The component materials empw,.:d furfabrlcat1on ofAE sensors have been transmlnion and detection of optical 1ignals, re.pectlvdy. An optical
pk7.oeiedric, fiber-optic, and magnetostriction based. isolator ii 118ed for reduction of reflected 1ource noi1e. The 1eming
arm of the sen1or i1 1ensitized at two locations to create two high-
AB DETECTION USING PlBBll-0PTIC SBNSOB.S R10lution sensing regions along the length of the fiber. Sensitized
Practical application of AB 1D actual stru.ctunl1 such u bridge1 requires regions are created by wrapping the fiben into coilii to precile diam-
multitudes of lell30r&. This inCRue.1 the number of data acquiaition eters to achieve the frequency range of interest. The two sensitized
channels and inhibits real-time monitoring of damage formation within regions at the semlng arm of the Interferometer receive the AE events,
the entire structure. Optical films provide an alternative approach fur and the hlgh-predsion motorized stepper motors at the reference arm
the detection of AE signall through distributed and serial multiple:J:- translate to match the AH-generated perturbations at the sensitized
ing methodologies. Chen and Ansari (2000) developed a novel optical regions. This matching of the AE evenbl is realized by the fringes, and
fiber tensor with capability !or making diltributed meuuremenu. The the signals FJlerated in time domain a.re employed for the character-
1ensor design involved development of AB sensing regions along the ization of the AE signals. The time domain signal• generated in the
length of an optical fiber. A white light Mid.ehon intemrometer was inerferom.eter due tD the AE events are described u (Sun et al 2004)
wed for inerrogation of the AE evenbl at their qua.dratun points to
achieve maximum 1emitivity. This work demomtraed that a single
lo=lf+I'o2 (25.3)
optical fiber with two sensitized regions is capable oflocating the 10urce where 10 = inteJWty of the detected signal
of an AE event In a rod-like element Th1a Interferometer wu further ro
1
= intensity at S1, Jg1 = intentlty at ~
Impact Hammer
Sensor _ __
~
Pil8
Soll
The time domain signal intmlities pertain to the phase c:hangei, q>,. in
the interferometer, which are phyalcallyrelaud to the length differe.am,
2xl coupler
~
:::.ii•'-=..,..~.....L..L.-6-..U..=<>-...U.---f.
I d,. shown in Fig. 25.lOb, by
<"'i ~ ~ 21t
J I '' =-r &,(n, "6> (25.4)
: : Sensing segmmit
J I =
where n refractive index of the optical 6ber
r--~--- - -- -r-----------------~ A=wavdengtb. at the source
I I &,Cn. di) =efl'eaive opdall pith dlffi:mice
J
I
I
I
i =0,1,2 (the time domain output contains s:ignals from S1 and
J I S,. separated in time)
I I
n will not be possible to separate a.ad distinguish two signals without
any further modification• to the system. Differentiation of the 8ignals Is
I
I ncceasary in order to discern the sequenu of signal anivals from 51 and
I
It ____________________________ _ S,,. Therefore, the interferometric syrtem al.to includes a biuing circuit
to dlffemltiate the a1gnab (Sun et al. 2~).
Ref~ segment Evaluulon of the system wu ucompllshed by comparing the dlsttib-
(a) O\lerall view of Che interferometer uted optical fiber AE 11e11sor with «1nventi.ona1 lead.-zirconium-ti.taniwn
oxide (PZT) semon. A 12-ft-long ~el beam was instrumented with
s. two PZT aeneora, 10 ft apart. An optical 6ber wu adhered to Che surface
of the steel beam. AE signals were generate<l at dlffi:rent loartions along
the length of the beam. The generation of AE «ipa1J was acc:ompliahed
by breaking pencil lea.di at pndete.rmined locations along the length
------1 Ri di <I, of the beam u mown in Fig. 25.11. F.lgure 25.12 correaponda to the
•I• •I
~
';>c
0 comparison of the detected AE signals between the PZT and FOS. Data
do=d1 +<I, pertain to the comparl•on of the meuured urival time differences
:>c
R1
;t employed for the computation of AE event locations. The.1e ruults
indlc:a.ted the auffidency of the optical 6ber system for monitoring of
ho.moge.neous structural. materials, Chat Is sted.
(b) Relation between sensingann S1 and die nrli!:rmce ami.s, Rj andR1 Liang et al. (2004} devdoped a hybrid FRP rod for use as
posttemi.oning rods in posttmlioned «111aete beams. The.1e hybrid
Figure 25.10 Ovuall.$Chemat1cofthe serially multiplc:r.cd AE lllter:feromcter PRP roda were de1lgned of a core-shell strueture ccmbinlng the strength
(S- et al. 2004). and ductility attributes of carbon and glass flbers. The objective of their
1200 ...,..
--o- Theoretjcal data
j 1000
_. - 0 - PZTdata
g G>
800
600
-~ FOSdsta
iE
"O
G>
400
E
I= 200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Acoustic emission point
Flful'lt25.12 Comparison of the detected time of arrival dlfl'uezi.ce.t ~the PZT and FOS.
HEALTH MONITORING ANP NONEl£$TRU(TIVETUTING 7Q
work ~ to produc:e an PRP rocl with paeucloyielding capabilitiet. To (for cross-cheamg the LVDT mutts) and two for tranncrse stnm..
study the fracturing process in these rods, Liang et al. (2004) performed In addition to the FOS, two PZT sensors u shown in Pig. 25.13 were
direct tenalon tesb en the rode. In addition to Che tensile 8tft&9-main employed for the detection of AE evenb.
.response of the rod, they also employed the seriaily multlplezed optical Figure 25.13 shows typical time domain AE events det«ted by two
ftber sen•or for characterization of the ftber breakage during the 6illu.re PZT pqe~ and single single optical flber seNOr (Liang et al. 2004). The
process of the rods. The experimental program included uniuial t1:n1Ue lingle-cbanncl signal for the POS contain• two AB events u shown in
tem of the instrumented hybrid rode in a servo-hydraulic dosed-loop thii figure. Figure 25.14 correspondt to the streas-strain respome and
materials te~ syttem with. a load capacity of 667.2 kN (150-klps). All the detected AEa during the splintering of the ftbers In the hybrid FRP
the rod. In the e:xperimenu poggmed a nominal diameter of 9.5 mm rod. A• shown In this figure. the FOS was also Q!Pable of differentiating
(0.375 in.). Schemalic diagram of the tl:lt setup ii shown in Fig. 25.13. the fracture of carbon and glass fibera for which die detaih are given in
The 63.5-cm (25 in.) no.min.al. distance between two anchorages in Liang et aL (2004).
Che test .nw:hine In eac:b. specimen corresponded to the gauge le.ngth In another study, the hybrid FRP rods were employed for
for the linear variable displacement transformer (LVDT). LVDT with pMtensioning of a concrete beam (Uang et al. 2011). The bet&mJ were
a displaame!lt range of ±12.7 mm (i0.5 in.) was employed for mea- 12 h (3.66 m) in length and 6.0 x 12.0 in. (15.2 X 30.5 an) in emu
ruring the axial deformation. Pow- strain gauges were glued. at the section. Monitoring of the tendon slJains during the posttensioning
mid-height of the hybrid rod, two for meuurement of amJ. nratne p.ro«&11 was accomplished by long-gauge lnter:fero.metr:lc: optical flber
30
25
20
PZT-2
15
~
i
'li.
10
~ 5
-.5
-10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1 39 77 115 158 191 229 267 305 843 381 419 467 496 633 671 609 647 685
Time (micr-tee0nde)
Figure 25.1S {a) Schematic diagram of the hybrid PRP rod I.II the temile tettlllg m&cblne (ltjt) lllld. (Ii) oo:mpulioll. of the time dODllln data for the two PZT and
the •lll,llle POS •ent0n (right) (Liq et d 2004).
Fracture of
200 Fracture of Glass Fibers
Carbon Fibers
150
Fracture of Carbon or
Glass Fibers
50 --cGFRProd
• Acoustic event
0 11--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CA
Configurable
Connector S 1 - S8
D1,D2.Da
3'
sentors. The gauge lengths of the optical Bber tenson were telec:ted constant moment region of Che beam indicating apllntering of the fiben
to cover the entire le.ngths of the tendons. The serially multtpl.eud AE during the various stages of the failure.
Knsor wu also «dheml to the posttemloniDg rod and routed out of
the tendon d.uc:t.s just prior to entering the anc:Jioragea. The beam wu 2UA UltlUGlllCll Tllltfng (UT)
loaded under the four-point bend load. telltl in a tuting machine. UT it an a.ctive NDB method where a perturbation ii introduced to muc-
Figure 25.15 shows the ec:he.malic d1agram of the specimen and load- ture and reflected wavea are monitored to &d the illtemal defecta. The
ing aystem deails. Figure .25.16 pertains to the typ.lcal. .results obtained method can be applied using pulse-echo (alngle transducer u receiver
from AE evcnu captuml by the optiw fiber •ensor (Liang et al. 2011). and transmiUer) or through-tranmiis8io.n (two different traruducen
As shown in this figun, most of the AE evenb occurred within the tuned to the aame fn<iumcy wed u reaiver and lnnmlilter) modet
Figure 25.16 AB evem:a due tn the m.cturillg of fibaa in !he FRP rad during the mlll'·point bend
tell> (Liatlg et al 2011).
HEALTH MONITORING ANP NONEl£$TRU(TIVETUTING 7f5
Time
(a) (b) (c)
as 8hown in Fig. 25.17. A dngle trtw<lucer is used in pulae-echo mode. In metals (Kino et aL 1978. Alle.11 and Sayen 1984, Kato et al. 1995)
and the travel path of the time ofilight (TOF-.6tin Fig. 2S.17c) ii twice and in welds (Kobayaahi et al 1992, Leon-Salamanca and Bray 1996,
Che sample thlckne.u. If there ii en.ck in Che tn.veJ. pa1h, wave reflectt Lu et al. 2008). Abbui and Ouvin {2016) applied the acouJto-c:lamc
and Is determined with smaller TOF than llt. Two transdw:.ers are u.ed method for atreu analya18 to thick steel plates (9-12 mm) of the type
in through-truu1mlssl.on mode u transmitter and .receiver twied co Che commonly used for gusset platea of sted tru" bridges, where shear
same mqucnq (fJ, and the travel path ofTOF is the sample thicknen. ~iJ~cant
If there is c.rac:k in Che travel palh. the signal reflectJ back. and no signal Figure 25.18 shows the schematic of stR.n meuurmi.ent with ultra-
reac:he• the receiving tramdw:e.r. 1YP!cal. ultruonic ftt.quend.e.t to &d sonic pulser and rece.lver, operating in througb.-trananiaslon mode on
ddi:cu In struc:tural systems are in Che range of 1-20 MHz depending Oii AS7.2 Grade 50 sted typically used in sted. b.ridges. Figure 25.19 shows
Che required. molution aid penetration depth. the time domain wavefOnm ancl their frcq,uency 8}l«tra (amplitude
and phue) at four different loa.d. leveb when the I-MHz ulb:uonic
STIUISI MEASUIUIMl!KT UsncG NoKLINBAB. UT tn.naducer .18 Wied and angled to the slrall direction. The arrival time
lnaeue In traffic and additlonal modification• on brldgu Increase the deaet.Ses when the mess lnaeasa; the peak frequency lnc.reases when
cumulative nms in criti<:al bridge components. The coDapse of the the nm• inc.rease. as exp«tcd.
I-35W ii an example that an increue of the dead. load by 30 percent
over the original dealgn from concrete deck overlay, plUi additional
25.A THE APPUCATIONS OFWAVEFORM·IASED
comtructiOil-.rdated J.oW on the day of the collapse located above the NPE METHOPS TO INFRASTRUCTURE SYSTEMS
weakest point of the structure. a pair of gu..et platet, wu one of the
triggers leading to &ilure (Liao et al. 2011) NDE meehoda fi>r measur- The common defccta found in different materials and structural
ing AAH in stJ:ucture• include hole-drilling (Withers and Bhadeabla co.mponentt are summarized in Table 25.2. Depending on the struc-
2001, Steinzlg and Pomlet 2003), X-ray dl1fnction (Prevey 1996), and tural material and the defect mode and size targeted. the proper
magneto-elutlc methods {Ruud 1982, Fitzpatrick et al. 2005). The NDE method is •elected. For Instance, IE method worb very well in
hole-drilling method introduud by Mathar in 1933 is widely used for detecting clelamination in concrete, UT method is not prefened fi>r
re1idual stre.ues in concrete structures. The acollltO~utic effect it concrete as the penetration depth of high frequency signal is low. As
defined u the sttta dependence of ultruoDlc wave velocity. Acousto- bridge deck inspection requires more localized meuureme.nt, VM is
elastidty ls applied to measure stms u premeued sted struids (Scalet. not common In inspecting bridge decks. Table 25.3 provides e:umples
et al. 2003, Chaki and Baune 2009, Salamone et al 2009), lo.ngitu.d.inal of NDE methods applied in realistic teat conditions for different
ltmll in nib {Gokhale2007,Szelazek2013), and uniuial residual stJ:ut structural S}'Jtem1.
'\)/
Pulser Receiver CH1 CH2
r-....._ c!:>000
e
Oscilloscope
UTDev!ce = r ))) ))) )))
w-----------------~
&12. L .6L/2.
F19ure25.18 ~c ~ fromlltt'eiUs plate (Abbui and Ozmn 2016).
7ef CHAPTERTWENTY·FIVE
15. 0.5
.!i
-g
.Si!
c 0
~
-~
.s:: -0.5
::I
-1
l.
-1.5
5.35 5.4 5.45 5.5 5.55 5.6 5.65 5.7
Elapsed1ime (s) x 1r
(a)
0.6
- - SMPa
-1&MPa
-20MPa
o[ -
-
- SMPa
1sMPa
-20MPa
0.5 ! -6[
CD
'D
~ 0.4
; -10 ·
s:.
a.
E
Ii:al 0.3
:-15 ·
i-20 ....
~
lL
0.2 1-25
0.5 1 1.5 2
:::,~[~~---'0:~5~~__.1~~~1~:-5~~~2
Frequency (Hz) x 1<>6 Frequency (Hz) x 1<>6
(b) (c)
Figure 25.19 Wavmrma recanhd wlingfour diff~m- mtnan.d the I MHzultruonictnrudacer anp.I. (30°) to the11n .. dim:tion:
(a) time dom.aill hlitories and (II) amplllllde and phue of ftequenc:y apectn. (Ahbul and Or.evin 2016).
'lllllfa 25.2. DllfiH:tl Dnlc:tM In Different Materlll1 Utlng Wlrnform·a...d NDE Mathodll
Steel Concme
Failutt Corro.!OD, fatigue aadt, Wlre break. concrete aa.cl:lns. Vo:ldt, mo:latme,
mode global damagoe rdDiiordllg tied CAlnotlon morphology.
delaminatinn, dynamic modulua indwiiana
HEALTH MONITORING AND NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING 767
Method
Structure type VM IE AE UT
Concrete Concrete bridge girder Durability parameten Acoustic embsion mo.Wtoring Concrete craclc:
damage identification of concrete beam of bridges (Nair and detection in
(Morsy et al. 2017) (Villain et al. 2012), Cai 2010), reinforcing buildings
concrete repair steel corrosion detection (Park et al. 2000)
inspection (Garbacz (Abouhussien and Hassan
et al. 2017) 2015), craclc: mo.Wtoring at
concrete wall
(Farhidzadeh et al 2013)
Pre.messed Progressive damage Thickness and position Diagnostics damage in Void detection
postt.!mioned detection of duck (Colla and pre1tre11ed concrete using ultrasonic
concrete bridge (Unger et al 2006) Lausch 2003) beam1 (Golaili et al. 2002) tomography
(Martin et al 2001)
Truss bridge Damage detection of Section loss detection Hanger connection monitoring Stress measurement
cantilever truss bridge (Can et al 2018) (Hay et al 2009) with acoulto-
(Shama et al 2001) elasticity (Abbasi
and Ozevin 2016)
Steel structures Load rating (Catbu and AE mo.Wtoring of fracture Wavefield imaging to
Aktan 2002), damage critical bridge1 (Schultz 2015) find damage in lteel
identification in steel bQlC girders (An et
frame (Park et al 2006) al 2014)
Masonry/timber Crack opening measure- Timber pole monitor- Crack detection in masonry Void detection in
structllre$ ment (Talebinejad ing with impact echo arch bridge (De Santis and masonry wall
et al 2011), monitor- (Krause et al 2015) Tomor2013} (Cotlc et al 2013)
Ing repair of masonry
pagoda (Ll et al 2009),
timber beam damage
diagnosi.I
(Petenon et al 2001)
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·on the evaluation of interface quality in concrete repair system by Structural Health Monitoring, 5, 221-249.
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Materials, 134, 311-323. of impact in anisotropic fiber reinforced composite plates; Ultrasonics,
Grosse, C., Reinhardt, H., Kriiger, M . and Beutel, R. (2013). 48, 193-201.
•Application of impact-echo techniques for crack detection and crack Liang, Y., Sun, C., and Ansari, F. (2004). •Acoustic emission charac-
parameter estimation in concrete; ICFll, Italy. terization of damage in hybrid fiber reinforced polymer rods; ASCE
Gucunski, N., Yan, M., Wang, Z., Fang, T. and Maher, A. (2012). «Rapid Journal ofComposites for Construction, 8(1 ), 70-78.
Bridge deck condition assessment using three-dimensional visualization Maji, A.K., Satapathi, D. and Kratochvil, T. ( 1997). "Acoustic emission
of impact echo data," Journal ofInfrastructure Systems, 18(1). source location using lamb wave modes," ASCE Journal of Engineering
Hill, M., McHugh, J. and Turner, J.D. (2000). •cross-sectional modes Mechanics, 123(2), 154-161.
in impact-echo testing of concrete structures," Journal of Structural Miller R., Hill E. and Moore, P.O. (2005). Nondestructive Testing
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Hsiao, C., Cheng, C-C., Liou, T. and Juang, Y. (2008). "Detecting Mirmiran, A., Shahawy, M. and El. Echary, H. (1999). •Acoustic
flaws in concrete blocks UJ1ing the impact-echo method," NDT&E emission monitoring of hybrid FRP-concrete columns," ASCE Journal
Internationa~ 41, 98-107. of Engineering Mechanics, 125(8), 899-905.
Kee, S.H., Oh, T., Popovics, J.S., Arndt, R.W. and Zhu, J. (2012). Morsy, R., Marzouk, H., Haddara, M. and Gu, X. (2017). "Multi-channel
~ondestructive bridge deck testing with air-coupled impact-echo and random decrement smart sensing system for concrete bridge girders
infrared thermography;" Journal of Bridge Engineering, 17(6). damage location identification," Engineering Structures, 143, 469-476.
KraUJ1e, M., Bamwm, M., Frielinghaus, R., Kret7.schmar, F., Kroggel. 0 ., Nair, A. and Cai, C.S. (2010). «Acoustic emission monitoring
Langenberg, K.J., Meierhofer, C., Muller, W., Neisecke, J., Schickert, M., of bridges: Review and case studies; Engineering Structures, 32,
Schmitz, V., WiggenhaUJ1er, H . and Wollbold, F. (1997}. -Comparison of 1704-1714.
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Ohtsu, M. (1986). •Determination of crack orientation by acoustic Kobayashi, H., Arai, Y., Ohsawa, H., Nakamura, H. and Todorolti, A.
emission», Materials Evaluation, 45, 1070-1075. (1992). "Nondestructive measurement of welding residual stresses by
Ouyang, C., Landis, E. and Shah, S.P. (1993). -Oamage assessment in acoustoelastic technique and prediction of fatigue crack growth,• ASME
concrete using acoustic emission in nondestructive testing of concrete Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, 114, 417-421.
elements and structures; ASCH SP, 13-24. Lanza di Scalea, F., Rizzo, P. and Seible, F. (2003). •stress measure-
Ozevin, D. (2011). •Geometry-based spatial acoustic source location ment and defect detection in steel strands by guided stress waves,•
for spaced structures; International Journal of Structural Health Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 15(3), 219-227.
Monitoring, 10(5), 503-510. Leon-Salamanca, T. and Bray, D.E. (1996). "Residual stress measure-
Peterson, S.T., McLean, D.I., Symans, M.D., Pollock, D.G., Cofer, WF., ment in steel plates and welds using critically refracted longitudinal
Emerson, R.N. and Fridley, K.J. (2001). •Application of dynamic system (LCR) waves,» Research in Nondestructive Evaluation, 7, 169-184.
identification to timber beams, 11,n Journal of Structural Engineering, Li, M., Anderson, N., Sneed, L. and Maerz, N. (2016). •Application of
127(4), 426-432. ultrasonic surface wave techniques for concrete bridge deck condition
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Chapter26
Building Information
Modeling (BIM) for
Structural Engineering
BY
NAWARI O. NAWARI, Ph.D., PE School of Architec:lure, University of Florida
771
772 CHAPTERTWENTY·SIX
-----------,
included ill the model obJecie. Regarding terminology, Level of Detail downstream model coDSumera to recogniu the sult11bllity and the
cm be thought of as an input to the element. while I.OD defines reliable .restrktloos of models they are re«iving. This specltkation intends to
out«imea. aplain the LOD framework and ttandardizes ib use'° that it be«>mel
The American Institute of ArchitectJI (AIA) define11 LOD in a BrM moni nluable as a communication tool. I1 does not recommend what
process aa ".miD.lmum. d!memtoml. apctial, quantibttive, qualitative, and I.ODs are to be reached at what phate in a project but leaves the q>edfl-
other data included in a Model element to support the authorlze<l 114es cat!0.11 of the model to Che project team to decide. A brief description of
asociated 'With such I.OD" (AIA. 2013a). The firtt I.OD was developed diese LOD is given in Table 26.1.
in 2008 by the AIA Document B20ZU'-2008 BuiUling Infomumrm
Modtlbtg Protocol. Because of the increued use of BIM in practi«. 26.2.3 ThmrJofMadl!lllf
the AIA evaluated the E202-2008, Including the LOD de<ions. The
result is the updated md reconfipml Digital Plutlce documents BASICS
AIA B20J'D'-2013, Building Infamumrm Modtlling orul Digital Dllta A traditional CAD 3D model is just another representation of a build-
BxhJlnt. AIA G201™-2013, Proj«t Digital Data Protocol Form, AIA ing model with the same incompletenes.'1 u a plan or section. A full 3D
G20ZN-2013, Projtd Building Information Modiling Protoccl Form, model can be cut to reveal the baalc outlines fur sections and plane, but
which ue accompanied by a detailed guide document titled Guide tmd Che.re are drawing C0.11vent1oos usoc:l.ated with these representations that
bulnu:tions kl the AIA Digittll Practice Documents (AIA. 2013b). cannot be <:aptured this way. For instanc;e. how will the swing line for a
Other efforts in LOD is repmemed by the wodt of BlMPorum door be encoded intD a. 3D model? F<>r a system to intelligently place
(2015}. The BIMForwn developed the LOD spec11icatio11, which is a door swing into a plan but .not Jnto a 3D mode). one .needB a high.-
defined as a reference that permits designers In the AEC Industry to level duc:rlptl0.11 of Che door building model elements separate from Che
specify and define with a high level of clari1y the a>ntcnt and reliabilil")' geomettic; 3D description of their Conn. This digital dca intelligence of
of BIM at several phues in the design and c:onsll'Uction process. This rtoring and retrieving dala.1ets ii what describet die BIM environment.
specification alms to uslat in oplaiD.lng the LOD framework and stan- BIM model e.ncode.t more than geometric forms; it encodes high.-
dardize Its applkattoo ao that the LODs become more lmplement11ble level design in.tent. Within the model, beams, columna, walls, and .room
in collaborative BIM environment The I.OD Specification utilizes the are modeled not u a seriea of 3D solids but as beams, column•, walls,
buic I.OD definitiom developed by the AIA for the AIA G202-2013 and roo& that have all the properties and charactm.stics of physical
Building Information Modellng Protocol Form and is organized by the objects (~ee Fig. 26.2). That wa}'J if a level cha.ngea height, all of the
Construction SpedflcatloD.S Institute, CSI Ulliformat 2010. It deKrlbes objects automatically adjust to the new criteria. If the wall moves, any
and illustrati:s the charactcristica of model objects of different building roof that has a relationship to that wall adj\W automatically.
systemJ to vuying LOD. This preci.le definition penniU BIM model The object in a. BIM environment have parameters-beams,
authors to define what their modeh can be .relied upon for and allow• columns, trusses, doors, wlndoWJ, walls, eeilings. roofs, floors. even
BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING (BIM) FOR STllUCT\JRAL ENGINEERING 77J
LOD200 The imll generally repreaenta the detlp altena phaae. 'l1le model flemem: 1a
graphkally reptesented wlthln the model u a paerk syltem. object, or usem-
bly with appmzlmate quantltiet, alze, ~. loW!on, and orlentation. Addition
nongmmmic infurmaticm may abo be d£mt£d.
Steel c:o1amn
LOD350 The model dcmellt is graphially n:pmen1"'1. within the BIM model 11 a opecific
syswn, object, or aasemhly in terml of qaalll:ltJI size, shape, location, orie:ata-
tlon, and interface. with other buildJDg ~· Addll:ional. DOD-pphlc data.
mq also be adhered to the model clement.
LOD4.00 The BIM element is graphically rq..reaenta1. within the modd u a opecific .,.um.
object, or uaemb1y in term1 of &lze, lhape, location, quantity, and orientation
with det:alllng. fabrlcal:lon, U&embly. and IDlt3llatJo.n lnfurmal:lon. Addltlonally;
non-gnphk lnfurmatlonmq also be atadiecl to the model clement. At th1I
LOO. elanem ia .lllOdeI.d at llllfficient detail and a.c:r:uracy for the fabricalion of
the rcpraenU:d component.
Steel colmml
LODSOO Rach BIM element ii 1. fii:ld 'Rrifted rqm:si:titailol l.n terms af alze, ohapc, loca-
tion, qualll:I~ and orlem:atlon. NJy additional DOD-graphic lnfurmatlon may
also be attached to the element.
774 CHAPTERTWENTY·SIX
"
W..1(1)
Con$CtWIU
Loc..-tJOn t.itlt:
lts.e:Constrlint Lcvdl
o· o·
S.s.e: 1$ Att6c htd
S.scEid-O.S..- o·o·
Top Comtr•int Up to~ ltvd 2
lJn<OMC<t<d Hco9ht II o·
TopOffset -1 · 0~
TopesAn.uhed
top bttn"°"' Oeu61Ke-. o· o·
Ro«n-ong ~~]
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StNCI....., • I
StNCIU<ol 0
Enol>lcM~olMo- ..,
r;J
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'""'""""
......
~
Phtsc Crc.ttd New Construction
~
"""•°""°""'«! """° A"9't
drawmgs the.maelvea. The objecta uaed in BlM deaign encode much panun.etm may vary, the placed objeciJ retain their fundame.atal !d.e.atttie$.
more data than Just pure geometry, .uch u the abWty to have much A waD. lhllt one mahs wider remains a wall no m.attn what As Che deQgn
more information about the objcc:ts diemadve1 and their usociated proc;ess pro~ mon! parameters and values will be~ to the model
objecu. Parameters are quantities that are tixed under a given set of In these pn>ceue!i, information in a BIM model ill produced while
conditlo.na but may be dliferent under other circumstances. Thus. some details in the actual space are being established. Co.ac:eptual design
of these parameter• have constant values, and some are modiflable. To .Information becomes concrete over some time as the duign proceeds
allow flexibility in objectt. they are created with & set of parameters that forward. toward construc:tion and operation•. Dau in a BIM procm
can take on arbitrary values. If you want to create a 1rWll that ii 5 m grow in a. pyramid-lib form, expanding conlinuolllly from the ablltnlet
high. it ii OJ1ly neces.tary to modify the height parameter of an emting to detailed informa.tlo.n in a coherent manner to ensure efftdenc:y and
trua. Then all members of the trua will adjust according to the new quality of the construction and opera.tlon procea of a fadllty. The
height of the truss. In «dvanced modeling. one also can create custom objectJ used in BIM de'1gn encode much more data than pure geometry.
object type! with parameten of one's choosing. The theoretical schema. of BIM objectl will be di.tcuned in refer-
BlM design proceecb by "placing" objeciJ into a model and then a.cfJust- ence to Autodea Re-rit application u an example of a BIM platform.
lng their parameten. Thae objects are fully developed building elements Each object in Rev1t belongs to a hierarchy that helps crpnlze the
~ walls, beams, aiumns, trusses, footing. and SO OIL Al1hougb. !heir objecta In the building model {Fig. 26.3). The terms used to describe
-
MODEL. ANNOTATION DATUM VIEW
CATEGORY CATEGORY CATEGORY CATEGORY
·Structural walls
· Structural ·Dimensions
· Floors •Text •Structura l floor
·Beams •Tags ·Grids
·Columns •Symbols •Levels •Elevations
· Braces • Be8DI ·Reference •3Dviews
·Foundation IDDOtatioa planes ~OllHt••
Ag... 26.3 Main categorlef In Rev!t p~rm {Nawari md Kllemtle, 2015).
BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING (BIM) FOR STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 775
this hierarchical classification from broad to specific are categories, 26.2.4 Sottw.re Allthoring Tools
families, types, and instances. This is the fundamental organization of Currently, there are several software platforms that support BIM concepts
the building model database. Most of the aspects of the building model, and principles. These include Autodesk Revit, ArchiCAD, Bentley Build-
including the views, have this organizational structure. This concept is ing Design. and Telda Structure. A brief description of these systems is
important because each of the objects has parametric control at these given below.
different levels of organizations.
AUTODESK REVIT
MODEL MAKING
The Revit platform for BIM is a design and documentation system
One starts madding by insertion objects. When one places an object that supports the design, drawings, and schedules required for a build-
into a model, one is making an instance of a family. Most families ing project (Autodesk, 2014). BIM delivers information about project
have multiple types. A type defines typically default values for family's design, scope, quantities, and phases when you need il It is a software
parameters. A type of column has a particular geometry. In many occa- platform with multidimensional capabilities (nD) with tools to plan and
sions, types can be exchanged. For example, one column type can easily track various stages in the building's life cycle, from concept to construc-
be swapped for another column once the object has been created. For tion and later demolition. Thus, Revit provides a practical collaborative
example, a wide-flange steel column type can easily be exchanged for a environment between different disciplines in the building construction
column of a different family, such as a wood or concrete column. Revit industry.
handles all necessary graphical representations. The platform also offers cloud integration that helps users create and
You can easily start with a specific concrete column and change its find the custom objects and components they need to make their BIM
various properties later. You cannot, however, change one object type to models complete. Revit also supports integrated model exchange man-
a unrelated type because there is no internal mapping of properties and agement using neutral data forms such as IFC, gbXML, and DXF/DWG
functionality for the platform to track. You cannot, for instance, make a round-trip conversion solutions between different applications. It also
wide-flange beam and then change it into a structural wall or column. offer extension engines that support structural and energy analysis.
Structural engineers deal normally with the concept of types and
instances but not always explicitly. For example, when they create AacmCAD
columns schedule, they must list every instance grouped by its type
ArchiCAD is a BIM software system offered by GraphiSoft Inc.
(e.g., 18 x 24-ft reinforced-concrete column). Traditional CAD plat-
forms have no notion of type versus instance; thus, it has no mechanism ArchiCAD creates a 3D BIM and all the necessary documentation and
visualization. Based on a profound knowledge of the architectural pro-
to assist with this issue. Conversely, BIM platforms have a full object-
cess, ArchiCAD's BIM simulates the way a real building is constructed.
oriented database in which each object uses and retains the element
ArchiCAD's BIM tools cover from town planning to intricate details,
category, family, type, and instance information that can be efficiently
from functional studies to complex designs (GraphiSoft Inc., 2014).
utilized to generate graphical column schedule based on the instance
ArchiCAD enables one to combine architectural freedom with the
or type. Similar schedule should be generated for any other type or
instance of building elements, such as doors, windows, and so on. BIM with a comprehensive set of tools that support the design process.
It has direct madding capabilities in the native BIM environment with
BIM platforms have the intelligence to realize the various relation-
its end-to-end BIM work flow using priority-based connections and
ships between building elements. For instance, when you move one
intelligent building materials as well as improved analysis tools. The
end point of a wall, you would like both sides of the wall to move. You
might also like objects embedded in the wall-like windows and doors platform also offers cloud integration that helps users create and find
the custom objects and components they need to make their BIM models
to move with the wall as you edit il That is exactly what BIM platform
software does. However, in traditional CAD you may have drawn a wall complete.
ArchiCAD supports integrated model exchange management using
as a long. skinny rectangle. In summary, traditional CAD drawings lack
the intelligence and content that BIM platforms possess in encoding neutral data forms such as IFC and DXF/DWG roundtrip conversion
solutions between different applications. The platform offers also energy
engineers' intention.
Regarding the work flow in a BIM design environment, one begins evaluation engine that supports multiple thermal blocks.
with specifying what type of object one is about to place into the BENTLBY BUILDING DESIGN
model. Then the engineer identifies the necessary information about
that structural object so that it can be established properly. What that Building Design is a BIM application offered by Bentley Systems Inc.
information is depends in large part on what kind of object is being The software provides architects and engineers with the tools to explore
established. For a wall, one must at a minimum specify its height, start, design options, to make better-informed design decisions, and to predict
and end points. The engineer also have to select ahead of time what costs and performance. Design and construction documents are auto-
sort of wall it is (structural, architectural, partition, exterior, etc.) and matically coordinated, eliminating errors and omissions. It supports all
its type (masonry brick, concrete, wood stud, etc.); however, one can phases of the architectural work flow, from conceptual design to con-
change these at any later time. struction documentation, and integrates design, visualization, drawing
Thus, there is no ambiguity. Anytime you are creating a building production, and reporting of quantities and costs (Bentley Inc., 2017).
model, you are actually specifying some parameter of an object that The software has a full range of advanced solids modding tools, which
you are establishing into the model. A floor would be a floor, and a allow the creation of virtually any fealiible form.
wall would be a wall from its inception. Notice that this methodology
releases designers from unnecessary work. You don't have to draw four TEKLA STllUCTUll.ES
lines to create a wall in a plan view; picking two points for a straight wall Telda Structures is a software platform for BIM. The software enables
or three points for a curved wall now is usually sufficient. You always users to create and manage 30 structural models in concrete, wood, or
have the opportunity to change parameter values of any object you steel, from concept to fabrication. The platform supports the automatic
placed into the model, such as the arc's center or diameter of a wall, later. process of producing shop drawings along with the creation of CNC
In summary, building models are made of design objects-columns, files for controlling fabrication machines. Telda Structures is available
beams, walls, trusses, footing. braces, stairs, and so forth. Not only just in different configurations and localized environments to suit different
physical building elements that are "objects• in Revit platform, but segment- and culture-specific needs.
also anything with properties that can vary is a Revit object, and that Tekla offers a free tool known as Tekla BIMsight, which is a software
includes visual objects such as views. A view has properties that specify application for a BIM model-based construction project collaboration.
what is visible. The object-oriented approach is a powerful concept that It can import models from other BIM software applications using the
has made its way from information technology to building design in the IFC data format and other formats such as DWG and DGN. With
form of BIM design process. this free tool, you can perform spatial coordination, such as clash
77f CHAPTERTWENTY·SIX
detection or conflict che<.:king to avoid dmgn and c;onstructability 26.S BIM PROCESSES IN PRACnCE
issuet, and communicate with othen in their construction project by 26.3.1 Trlll9tlaft.lll Wolk flaw
aharing .models and review notes. Thie enable. project participant&
to identify and •olve problems already In the dwgn phue before The traditional structural design process begins with the architectural
construction. document set. be it paper or CAD based. The structural engineer-
.Ing team. then interpreta the arcllilectural dea!gn to create an overall
26.2.5 BIMS~ structural. symm and then develops a specialized analyttcd model
The national and International BIM atandard• utabl.lsh mndard U4ing dif£erent software applitation.s for the multiple types of structural
definitions for building information achanges to support crl1lcd analysis required, such u gravity. seimlic, and wind. In parallel, the
busineu contata using 1tandard semantia and ontologies. The.1e nructural. engineer creates yet another analyticd repreeeatation of the
standards form the foundation for accurate and efficient communica- building in the construction document process, c.reatlng multiple draw-
tion and comme.rce that are needed by the AEC industry. Natio~ ings of the same infonnation. This co1IVCI1tional wo.rk flow results in
the builclingSMART alllance11 is the North American organlzatlon that multiple models (including the drawing sm) that are not coo.rdimted,
is leading the creal:ion of tools and 1tandards that allow project.t to be requlrlng manual efforu to keep them in synchronization. which quite
built electronically befun: they are built phy!ically Uling Bl.M. It is a often are error prone. Figure 26.4 depicts this traditional ruuctural
part of the National Imtl.tute of Building Sdences. The latest venl.on design proms.
of .BIM standard ls the N.BIMS-US'I" V3. ll is available from h.ttps:I/ The original design typically goes through a llimplitication process to
www.nationalbimstand.ard..org. The 4Cope of the NBIMS-USN V3 is preserve the structural. .meaning. such u loading component and joinbl
built around the concept of ever-increuing levds of importance with and connections, for the related structural analy1es. Once the model
International Standarda at the center. NBIMS-usno: prorlda cometl.8\1&- conver'1on process hu been completed by engineers. structural engi-
based standards through. n:ferendng e:a:l.stlng lnternatlonal and national neer analysts will perform structural computaliom and polltproceuing
standard., documenting information adianget. and d.elmring beat steps of the structural detign. The structural engineer will communicate
business practices for the entire built environment. with architects and owneri about any design confllcts found during the
Internationally, buildlngSMART International le the organlzation structural. analym processes. The results of the muctural design solu-
authoring the open BIM standards. The purpose of the standard .Is to tion1 will need to be intnprmd and conveyed to the architect or owners
ailow the sharing of information throughout the life cycle of any project. to make them aware of any adjurtments or cbanget in cue the re1ulta do
between all the participants. regardless of which 1oft:ware application .not flt into their requirements (ace F.lg. 26.4).
they are using. The standard is referred to u Industry Foundation
Classes (IFC). It provides machine-readable, useful quality data that 2&3.2 Modtll-8aMcl Wollt flow
should be available for use diroughout the design. procurement con- In BIM procm. rather than using a computer to usist producing a
struction, maintenance, and operation phases. series of drawingl that together describe a building. the compum- is
According to the National BIM SW1dard (NBIM, 2007), a BIM is wed to create a single, unifi.ed representation of the e.ntire bulldlng so
a digital repraen~on of physlul and functional chancter.lstics of a content comprehe.ns!ve that all disciplines collaborate 1.n developing it,
facility md IU related projectJllfc cycle information and i• intended to and thus It can generue all neceuary model views md construction
be a repository of information for the facility owner/operaror to use and document.men. The basic parameten from which the BIM softwanl
maintain throughout the lifetime of the structure. In other wonb, BIM develops these models are not the same ones utiliud. in the traditional
provides a collaboration environment for divme stakeholders at dUrera!t CAD (poinb, line., curves}. In contrast to CAD. BIM application mod-
~ of the life cycle of a project to add, extract. update, or change the els with virtual building components that hold attributed information
information in the BIM P~" to Npport and rdle<.:t the roles of that about actual elements and systems are the main primitives ofBIM mod-
stakeholder. Therefore, BIM is a univenal digital representation of a els. Eumples include tnuses. columns. beams, Wll11s. doors. windoWJ,
facility founded on open etandarde for practlcd interoperabillty. ce.!ling\I, a.nd floors. BlM tools recognb:e Che furm and behavior of theae
jPro\'ideCADorpdf
design concepl in r C\"CIOping analylica l model. lmpro,·ing model and
and leclutical documents
' necessary adjustments
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Owner. Stn1ctural Concept. . Preliminary Stn1ctura ll Detailed Stnicrural
Arcl1itect 30 Model An la~ sis f Analysis
Requesting J lmplcmcnting
I l
design changes new changes
'
Building owner
objects 10 that they can ease muc.h of the complexity of their coordina- for an efficient collaborative arrironment. Im.wings in sw:h work proc.ess
tion. For amiple, walls join automatlcally, connecting structure layen become a by-product or report.
co structure layers and finish layerc to flnlm layers.
Many ofthe benefits are tpparent-for lnstt&nce, change~ made in one
view propagate automatially to every other elevation, section, callout. 26.3.3 lllWclpll'llblllty .nd ProcflldlvltJ
and rendering of the project. Other ad.vantages include the ability to use Interoperability is the ability to use the same model acros.1 vari-
the same model to interact with other tpplications, auch as atrw:tuntl out structural engineering analyats software appllcationa, auch u
and energy analym software (Nawarl and Kuellsde, 2015). SAP2000, ETABS, SAFS, RISA 3D, RAMS, Robot Structural Analyds,
In the full implcmentmon of a BJM proteM across all of the AEC and so on. Currently. each software program hu its own link to a. spe-
memben of the project, structural. engineers will start wading on one cific BlM authoring tool to allow for bidirectional data exchanges. For
BIM model delivered by the arcllltect. Ms.y changes prompted by the example, SAP2000 1w !ta link to Autodesk Revit that enable.t data to
structural. anaJym will be reflected In the model that is shared betmen be transferred between the two applicatlona without major data !<>Mes.
internal and other a:tanal d.esignen: architecu, mechanical. ele<:trical. Figure 26.6 shows how Computer and Stn1'tures Inc. (CSI) solved
and plumbing engineen (Fig. 26.5). In such a wodt flow, engineen will the interoperability between Autodesk Revit and SAP2000, ETABS.
work in a ID data-driven deatgn d!sooune that 18 shared or oollabo- SAFS.
rated between multiple users at the ume time and ofte.11 aC1'05I great However, what the AEC Industry seeks is the abWty to combine
distancu. The work flow utilized the power of pm.meterized dm.- sevml component models &om dlffmnt softwve packages Into one
bue, visualization and interactive mod.cling, oommunic:ation and data ~hens:ive model which can then represent the complete struc-
exchange, and susWnabillty evaluations and code-checking algorithms tural product. This comprehensive model would then be exported to
Software Application 3
retrieve BlM model.
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I
IFC import
rSoftware Application
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retrieve BTM model.
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BlM model saved
in lFC format
a neuttal format (IFC) fur woe by Che project team (see Fig. 26.7). The The SAS framework alm8 for developing atructural knowledge
Industry wowd ne«aitate the c;apadty to do thls without doubling or assoc:late<l with the relationship to architecture. In other wo.rds. the
tripling their eiforta in aealing multiple models and wut:ing time and interd.epend.cnc;e of architec:tural Conn and structure i• accentuated for
resoun:es looping through different software applications. optimum design outcomes.
Unfortunately, most of the structural. engineering aoftwue pacbges The SAS framewoit is founded on three main co.ncepta, namely. the
currently don't support the mndud BIM neutral data fo.rmat. which concepts of "Structural Melody." "Structural Poetry,' and finally •struc-
is known as the DIC. Ideally. engineers ahould be able to u.se only IFC tu.ral Andysls.~ The.e are the underlining princ;lples of the SAS frame-
to exchange dllta between different softwue applicatiom. Figure 26.7 work. along with BlM as the &am.ework enabler (Fig. 26.8). StlUGtural
illustrates the concept of interoperabWty in structural engineering melody eqilol'e$ how linear. nonliD.eu, planar, and volumetric struc-
design praai.ce. tu.ral elements can be orcheruated to 'reate spatial order in architecture
udng BlM tools (Fig. 26.9). Structural poetry is a creati~ exercise to
provide structural systems wing structural vocabulary and melodiu
26.4 STRUCTURE AND ARCHl'llCTURE SYNERGY (SAS)
FRAMEWORK to o.rganize and stabilize architectural. JPIKlll. In a more general sense,
structural poetry sign!&$ structural creativity and spattal thinking to
The Struc:ture uid Architecture Synergy (SAS) framework 1Ue$ BlM u develop a complete structural solution. It membles the natural growth
a platt\mn to facilitm the inteiplay between architecture and rtruct:uies process of living objecb. For aample, biological patterns are hierarchi-
and emphuizet a structural design proces,, that la highly creative and cal structures, made of materials with elusive propertle1 that are c:apahle
Inspirational in nature (Nawart, 2015a. 201Sb). In this framewo.rt, the of change In respo111e to varlatlom In local conditions. Theae system•
form of the structure is COllstrained not only by its function. the site. are self-usembled. using small primary units (cells} to make varloWI
and the designer vision but also by how it will work as a whole and spatial growth apress:ions (Nawari and Kuenstle, 201Sb). Structural
by the need to provide a rational argument and calculatlom to justify poetry is thus an art that ls an es.1e.11tlal part ofbllildlng dealgn. which
ezpectatton• before the structure I• being built In this framework. e.mbel!Uhes with. engineering knowledge.
nature i. ~ utilized u an lnqlration for discovmes and the model Aftt:r condudlng structural melody and poetry phases, BIM models
of learning from natural shapes and proc.ase1 to design innontive are subjected to ltrllctural analysia. Various analym tools within BIM
structural. systems. platforms can be utili2:ed for this purpose. The BIM tool used in the