Q1 a.How to implement Multi Arrays ADT in data structure.

1. Abstract Data Types (ADTs):

• ADTs are high-level descriptions of data structures that define a set of

operations without specifying the underlying implementation details.
• They allow us to encapsulate data and operations, providing a clear
interface for users while hiding the internal complexities.
• A single kind of data structure can serve as the basis for multiple
different ADTs, and a single ADT can be implemented using various
data structures with different trade-offs related to time and space
efficiency1.

2. Array Representation of ADTs:

• Arrays are a common choice for implementing ADTs because they can
hold contiguous elements in the same order.
• In the context of multi-arrays, we’ll consider arrays of arrays (i.e.,
matrices or multi-dimensional arrays).
• Here are some key points for implementing multi-arrays using arrays:

• Static Implementation:

• The simplest method is to use a linear or contiguous list

where elements are stored in contiguous array
positions.
• In this approach, we specify an array of a particular
maximum length, and all storage is allocated before
run-time.
• Each element in the array corresponds to an item in
the multi-array.
• Insertions and deletions involve shifting elements,
which can be inefficient (O(n)) if done frequently.
• For instance, if we want to insert an element at
position 0 (as the first element), we need to shift the
entire array to the right to make room for the new
element2.

• Dynamic Implementation:

• To overcome the limitations of static implementation,

dynamic arrays (also known as dynamic lists or vectors)
can be used.
• Dynamic arrays automatically resize themselves as
needed.
• When the array becomes full, a new larger array is
created, and the elements are copied over.
 • This approach allows for efficient insertions and
deletions, but it requires additional memory
management.
• Languages like Python provide dynamic arrays (e.g.,
lists) that handle resizing transparently.

3. Example in Python:

• Let’s create a simple Python class to represent a 2D multi-array

(matrix) using a dynamic array (list of lists):

4. Python

class MultiArray:
def __init__(self, rows, cols):
self.rows = rows
self.cols = cols
self.data = [[0] * cols for _ in range(rows)]
def get(self, row, col):
return self.data[row][col]
def set(self, row, col, value):
self.data[row][col] = value
# Example usage
matrix = MultiArray(3, 4)
matrix.set(0, 1, 42)
print(matrix.get(0, 1)) # Output: 42
In this example, MultiArray represents a 3x4 matrix, and we can set/get values at specific
positions.
Q1
b.What is a python set? Demonstrate union, intersection and
addition operations on set with example.
1. Python Sets:

• A set is a built-in data type in Python used to store collections

of unique elements.
• Sets are unordered, meaning they do not record the order of
insertion.
• They are mutable (you can add or remove elements), but the
elements themselves must be immutable (e.g., numbers, strings,
tuples).
• Sets are defined using curly braces {} or the set() constructor1.

2. Union Operation:

• The union of two sets contains all unique elements from both sets.
 • You can use the union() method or the | operator to perform the
union.
• Example:

3. Python

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}
union_set = set1.union(set2)
print(union_set) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

4.
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6. Intersection Operation:

• The intersection of two sets contains only the elements that exist in
both sets.
• You can use the intersection() method or the & operator for
intersection.
• Example:

7. Python

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {2, 3, 4}
intersection_set = set1.intersection(set2)
print(intersection_set) # Output: {2, 3}

8.
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10. Addition Operation:

• To add an element to a set, use the add() method.

• If the element is already present, it won’t be duplicated.
• Example:

11. Python

my_set = set()
my_set.add('apple')
my_set.add('banana')
my_set.add('apple') # Adding 'apple' again

12. print(my_set) # Output: {'banana', 'apple'}

C.Define Algorithm. List and explain different cases of

Algorithm analysis
What is an Algorithm?
An algorithm is a finite sequence of mathematically rigorous instructions designed to solve a
specific class of problems or perform computations. These instructions guide the process of
problem-solving, and algorithms play a crucial role in various fields. Here are some key
points about algorithms:

• Definition: An algorithm represents a sequence of finite steps to solve a

particular problem. It can be thought of as a recipe for solving a
computational task.
• Applications: Algorithms are used extensively in computer science,
mathematics, artificial intelligence, data science, and more.
• Language-Independent: Algorithms are expressed as plain instructions that
can be implemented in any programming language, yielding consistent
results.

Importance of Algorithm Analysis

Why do we analyze algorithms? Let’s explore the reasons:

1. Efficiency: Algorithms allow us to solve complex problems efficiently. By

analyzing their performance, we can choose the most efficient solution for a
given task.
2. Automation: Algorithms automate processes, making them reliable, faster,
and easier to perform. Computers execute algorithms, handling tasks that
would be challenging for humans.
3. Optimization: In fields like operations research, finance, and logistics,
algorithms optimize resource allocation and decision-making.
4. Insights: Data science relies on algorithms to analyze and extract insights
from large datasets.

Types of Algorithm Analysis

1. Worst-Case Analysis:

• Determines the maximum number of steps an algorithm takes on any input

of a given size.
• Provides an upper bound on the running time.
• Helps understand the worst-case behavior of an algorithm.

2. Best-Case Analysis:

• Identifies the minimum number of steps an algorithm takes on any input of a

given size.
• Calculates the lower bound of an algorithm.
 • Example: In linear search, the best case occurs when the search data is at the
first location in a large dataset.

3. Average-Case Analysis:

• Estimates the running time of an algorithm for random inputs.

• Provides insights into typical behavior.
• Useful when input data follows a specific distribution.

Asymptotic Notations
Asymptotic notations help express the efficiency of algorithms in terms of input size. Some
commonly used notations include:

• Big O (O): Represents the upper bound (worst-case) of an algorithm’s running

time.
• Big Omega (Ω): Represents the lower bound (best-case) of an algorithm’s
running time.
• Big Theta (Θ): Represents both upper and lower bounds (average-case) of an
algorithm’s running time.

d.Write a short note on Big O notation

• Definition: Big O notation, commonly referred to as “Order of,” expresses the
upper bound of an algorithm’s time complexity. It analyzes the worst-case
situation of an algorithm.
• Purpose: It provides an upper limit on the time taken by an algorithm in
terms of the input size.
• Representation: Denoted as O(f(n)), where f(n) represents the number of
operations (steps) that an algorithm performs to solve a problem of size n.
• Comparison: Big O notation allows us to compare the efficiency of different
algorithms or data structures.

Key Points:

1. Asymptotic Behavior: Big O notation describes the asymptotic behavior of a

function, not its exact value. It focuses on how the runtime or space
requirements grow as the input size increases.
2. Mathematical Definition:

• Given two functions f(n) and g(n), we say that f(n) is O(g(n)) if there
exist constants c > 0 and n₀ ≥ 0 such that f(n) ≤ c * g(n) for all n ≥ n₀.
• In simpler terms, f(n) is O(g(n)) if f(n) grows no faster than c * g(n) for
sufficiently large n.

3. Importance:
 • Big O notation helps analyze the efficiency of algorithms.
• It allows programmers to compare different algorithms and choose
the most efficient one for a specific problem.
• Understanding scalability and predicting performance as input size
grows are crucial aspects.

e.How to use List for maintaining sorted list

1. Insertion and Sorting:

• You can use a regular Python list and manually insert elements while
ensuring that the list remains sorted.
• Whenever you add a new element, insert it at the correct position to
maintain the sorted order.
• Here’s an example:

2. Python

def insert_sorted(my_list, new_element):

# Find the index where the new element should be inserted
index = 0
while index < len(my_list) and my_list[index] < new_element:
index += 1
# Insert the new element at the determined index
my_list.insert(index, new_element)
# Example usage
sorted_list = [10, 20, 30]
insert_sorted(sorted_list, 15)
print(sorted_list) # Output: [10, 15, 20, 30]

• Note that this approach requires linear search for insertion, which
may not be efficient for large lists.

3. Binary Search and Insertion:

• To improve efficiency, you can use binary search to find the correct
position for insertion.
• Binary search reduces the search time to logarithmic complexity.
• Here’s an example using the bisect module:

4. Python

import bisect
def insert_sorted_bisect(my_list, new_element):
bisect.insort(my_list, new_element)
# Example usage
sorted_list = [10, 20, 30]
insert_sorted_bisect(sorted_list, 15)
print(sorted_list) # Output: [10, 15, 20, 30]

• The bisect.insort() function automatically maintains the sorted order.

5. Custom SortedList Class:

• If you need more control, consider creating a custom class that

encapsulates a sorted list.
• You can override the add() method to insert elements in the correct
order.
• Here’s an example:

6. Python

class SortedList:
def __init__(self):
self.data = []
def add(self, new_element):
index = bisect.bisect_left(self.data, new_element)
self.data.insert(index, new_element)
# Example usage
my_sorted_list = SortedList()
my_sorted_list.add(30)
my_sorted_list.add(10)
my_sorted_list.add(20)

7. print(my_sorted_list.data) # Output: [10, 20, 30]

f.What is ADT? Explain the types of operation on ADT.

What is an Abstract Data Type (ADT)?

• An Abstract Data Type (ADT) is a mathematical model for data types. It
defines the behavior of a type of objects from the perspective of a user.
Specifically, it describes:

• The possible values that objects of this type can take.

• The operations that can be performed on data of this type.
• The behavior of these operations.

• ADTs provide an implementation-independent view, allowing users to

interact with data without knowing the underlying details of how it is
organized in memory or the algorithms used for its implementation

Common Operations on ADTs:

 1. Manipulation Procedures:

• These operations cause an ADT object to change its state.

• Examples:

• insert(): Adds an element to the ADT.

• remove(): Removes an element from the ADT.
• replace(): Updates an existing element.
• removeAt(): Removes an element at a specified location.
• clear(): Clears all elements from the ADT.

2. Access Functions:

• These operations return information about the ADT’s state without

altering it.
• Examples:

• get(): Retrieves an element from the ADT.

• size(): Returns the number of elements in the ADT.
• isEmpty(): Checks if the ADT is empty.
• isFull(): Checks if the ADT is full (if applicable).

3. Auxiliary Operations (Additional Functions):

• These operations are not strictly part of the core ADT but provide
useful functionality.
• Examples:

• create(): Creates a new instance of the ADT.

• compare(s, t): Tests whether two instances’ states are
equivalent.
• hash(s): Computes a standard hash function from the
instance’s state.

Example ADTs:
1. List ADT:

• Represents a collection of elements (e.g., an ordered list).

• Common
operations: get(), insert(), remove(), replace(), size(), isEmpty(), isFull()
.

2. Stack ADT:

• Follows the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle.

• Common operations: push(), pop(), peek(), isEmpty().
 3. Queue ADT:

• Follows the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle.

• Common operations: enqueue(), dequeue(), front(), isEmpty().

Q.2
a.What is linked list? Explain types of linked lists

Linked Lists
A linked list is a fundamental data structure where elements (nodes) are connected using
pointers. Unlike arrays, linked list elements are not stored in contiguous memory locations.
Instead, each node contains data and a reference (link) to the next node in the list. Linked
lists allow dynamic memory allocation and efficient insertions and deletions.

Types of Linked Lists

1. Singly Linked List:

• In a singly linked list, each node contains data and a pointer to the
next node.
• Traversal is possible only in one direction (from head to tail).
• Example:
• Python

class Node:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
self.next = None
# Creating a singly linked list: 1 -> 2 -> 3
head = Node(1)
head.next = Node(2)
head.next.next = Node(3)

2. Doubly Linked List:

• A doubly linked list has nodes with pointers to both the next and
previous nodes.
• Allows traversal in both forward and backward directions.
• Example:
• Python

class Node:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
self.next = None
 self.prev = None
# Creating a doubly linked list: 1 <-> 2 <-> 3
head = Node(1)
head.next = Node(2)
head.next.prev = head
head.next.next = Node(3)
head.next.next.prev = head.next

3. Circular Linked List:

• In a circular linked list, the last node points back to the first node
(forming a loop).
• Useful for applications like round-robin scheduling.

Example:
1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 1 (loop back)

4. Circular Doubly Linked List:

• Combines features of both circular and doubly linked lists.

• Each node has pointers to both the next and previous nodes, and the
last node points back to the first.
• Example:
1 <-> 2 <-> 3 <-> 1 (loop back)

b.Write a program to implement stack using python list with

required functionality.
Below is a Python program that implements a stack using a Python list. I’ve included the
basic stack operations: push, pop, top, isEmpty, and size.
Python
class Stack:
def __init__(self):
self.stack = []
def push(self, data):
self.stack.append(data)
def pop(self):
if not self.isEmpty():
return self.stack.pop()
else:
print("Stack is empty. Cannot pop.")
return None
def top(self):
if not self.isEmpty():
return self.stack[-1]
else:
 print("Stack is empty. No top element.")
return None
def isEmpty(self):
return len(self.stack) == 0
def size(self):
return len(self.stack)
# Example usage
my_stack = Stack()
my_stack.push(10)
my_stack.push(20)
my_stack.push(30)
print("Top element:", my_stack.top())
print("Stack size:", my_stack.size())
popped_element = my_stack.pop()
if popped_element:
print("Popped element:", popped_element)
print("Is stack empty?", my_stack.isEmpty())
c.What is doubly linked list? Define function to append node in
doubly linked list.
A doubly linked list (DLL) is a type of linked list where each node contains three
components: data, a pointer to the next node, and a pointer to the previous node. Unlike a
singly linked list, which only allows traversal in one direction (from head to tail), a doubly
linked list allows bidirectional navigation. This bidirectional feature makes it useful for
various applications, including web browsers for backward and forward navigation, LRU
(Least Recently Used) or MRU (Most Recently Used) caches, and maintaining undo and redo
functionalities12.
Here’s how you can append (add a new node to the end) in a doubly linked list:

1. Append (Add to the End):

• If the list is empty, create a new node and set both the head and tail
pointers to this new node.
• If the list is not empty, follow these steps:

1. Create a new node (let’s call it new_node).

2. Set the prev reference of new_node to the current tail.
3. Set the next reference of the current tail to new_node.
4. Update the tail pointer to point to new_node.
5. Increment the length of the list (if you’re tracking the length).

Below is an example implementation in Python:

Python
class Node:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
self.prev = None
 self.next = None
class DoublyLinkedList:
def __init__(self):
self.head = None
self.tail = None
self.length = 0
def append(self, data):
new_node = Node(data)
if self.head is None: # List is empty
self.head = new_node
self.tail = new_node
else:
new_node.prev = self.tail
self.tail.next = new_node
self.tail = new_node
self.length += 1
# Example usage
dll = DoublyLinkedList()
dll.append(10)
dll.append(20)
dll.append(30)
# Now the list contains: 10 <-> 20 <-> 30
—---------
d.How stack can be used to check parenthesis balancing?
1. Approach using a Stack:

• The idea is to put all the opening brackets (such as (, {, [) in the stack.
• Whenever you encounter a closing bracket (such as ), }, ]), check if the
top of the stack contains the corresponding opening bracket.
• If it does, pop the stack and continue the iteration.
• In the end, if the stack is empty, it means all brackets are balanced or
well-formed. Otherwise, they are not balanced1

2. Illustration:

• Let’s illustrate this approach step by step:

1. Declare a character stack (let’s call it temp).

2. Traverse the expression string.
3. If the current character is an opening bracket ((, {, [), push it
onto