Mine Survey QueStion Bank anSwerS

Q.1.A) Define surveying and explain in details the classification of surveying?

Ans. Surveying is the science and art of making measurements to establish the relative positions of points
on, above, or beneath the Earth's surface. It involves determining the three-dimensional positions of natural
and man-made features and recording them in a systematic manner for various purposes such as mapping,
construction, land development, and resource management.
Classification of Surveying: Surveying can be classified into various types based on different criteria, including
the purpose of the survey, the methods employed, the instruments used, and the nature of the survey area.
Here are the main classifications:
1. Based on Purpose:
- Geodetic Surveying: This type of surveying takes into account the curvature of the Earth's surface and
involves high-precision measurements over large areas. It's used for establishing control networks and
mapping large regions.
- Plane Surveying: In plane surveying, the curvature of the Earth is ignored, and measurements are treated
as taking place on a flat surface. This method is suitable for smaller areas where the Earth's curvature is
negligible.
2. Based on Nature of Survey Area:
- Land Surveying: This type of surveying is conducted on land to determine boundaries, prepare maps, and
establish land ownership.
- Astronomical Surveying: Astronomical observations are used to determine the positions of survey points.
This is particularly useful in geodetic surveying.
- Marine Surveying: Surveying conducted underwater or along the coast to determine shorelines, water
depths, and other marine features.
3. Based on Instruments and Methods:
- Chain Surveying: Measurements are made using a chain or tape. It's suitable for small and flat areas.
- Compass Surveying: Compasses are used to determine directions and angles in this method.
- Theodolite Surveying: Theodolites are used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
- GPS Surveying: Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites are used to determine accurate positions on
Earth’s surface.
4. Based on Method of Measurement:
- Direct Surveying: Measurements are taken directly between survey points using instruments.
- Indirect Surveying: Measurements are obtained indirectly, such as by measuring angles and distances
from a baseline.
5. Based on Instruments Used:
- Conventional Surveying: Relies on traditional instruments like chains, compasses, theodolites, and levels.
- Modern Surveying: Utilizes advanced equipment such as total stations, GPS receivers, and laser scanners
for more accurate and efficient measurements.
6. Based on Field of Application:
- Topographic Surveying: Surveys aimed at representing the natural and man-made features of an area in
detail.
- Engineering Surveying: Surveys conducted for the design and construction of engineering projects like
roads, bridges, and buildings.
- Mining Surveying: Surveys related to the exploration and extraction of minerals.
Each type of surveying has its own specialized techniques, instruments, and applications. The choice of
survey method depends on the specific requirements of the project, the accuracy needed, and the terrain
and environmental conditions of the survey area.

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Q.2.A) Explain in brief temporary adjustment of level also define line of collimation and levelling?
Ans. Temporary Adjustment of Level:
Temporary adjustments are essential before using a level instrument to ensure its accuracy during a survey.
These adjustments are made in the field and are not meant to be permanent but are necessary for each
setup of the instrument. The main temporary adjustments for a level instrument typically include:
1. Leveling the Instrument:
- Ensuring the level bubble is centered by adjusting the leveling screws until the bubble is perfectly within
the target.
2. Setting the Line of Collimation:
- Aligning the line of sight (line of collimation) of the level instrument parallel to the horizontal plane. This
ensures that when the instrument is leveled, the line of sight is perfectly horizontal.
3. Focusing the Eyepiece:
- Adjusting the focus of the eyepiece to ensure the reticle (crosshairs) is sharp and clearly visible.
Line of Collimation:
The line of collimation is the line formed by the intersection of the optical axis of the instrument (such as a
level or theodolite) with the crosshairs or reticle in the instrument’s telescope. It represents the line of sight
from the instrument to the point being observed. The line of collimation should be parallel to the horizontal
axis of the instrument when the instrument is properly leveled.
Leveling:
Leveling refers to the process of determining the elevation of points relative to a reference plane (usually the
mean sea level or a benchmark). It involves using a level instrument to establish a horizontal line of sight and
measuring height differences between points of interest.
Types of Leveling:
1. Differential Leveling:
- Involves measuring the difference in elevation between two or more points along a line of sight. This
method is used to establish precise height differences over short to moderate distances.
2. Profile Leveling:
- Used to determine the elevation profile along a specific alignment (such as a road or pipeline). It provides
elevation data at regular intervals along the route.
3. Cross-Sectional Leveling:
- Similar to profile leveling but involves taking readings perpendicular to the alignment to obtain a cross-
sectional view of the terrain.
Leveling is crucial in construction, civil engineering, and land surveying projects to ensure accurate
measurements and proper alignment of structures.

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Q2.B) Define contur interval also write uses and characteristics of contor?
Ans. Contour Interval:
A contour interval is the vertical distance or elevation difference between adjacent contour lines on a
topographic map or a representation of the Earth's surface. It is a constant value that represents the
difference in elevation between each contour line. For example, if a contour map has a contour interval of
10 meters, each contour line represents a change in elevation of 10 meters.
Uses and Characteristics of Contours:
1. Visual Representation of Terrain:
- Contour lines depict the shape and steepness of the land surface. Closely spaced contours indicate steep
slopes, while widely spaced contours indicate gentle slopes or flat areas.
2. Identification of Topographic Features:
- Contours help in identifying features such as hills, valleys, ridges, and depressions on a map. They provide
a clear representation of the land's relief.
3. Estimation of Slope and Gradient:
- By examining the spacing and pattern of contour lines, the slope and gradient of the terrain can be
estimated. Steep slopes have closely spaced contours, while gentle slopes have widely spaced contours.
4. Visualization for Planning and Design:
- Engineers, urban planners, and architects use contour maps for planning infrastructure, roads, drainage
systems, and other developments. Contours help in understanding the terrain's characteristics and suitability
for construction.
5. Calculation of Cut and Fill Volumes:
- Contour maps are used in earthwork calculations to estimate cut and fill volumes during excavation and
grading activities. The difference in elevation between contours helps in determining the volume of material
to be moved.
6. Navigation and Orientation:
- Contour lines aid in navigation and orientation in unfamiliar terrain. By following contour lines, hikers and
mountaineers can assess the terrain's difficulty and plan routes accordingly.
7. Representation of Flood Zones:
- Contour maps are used to delineate floodplains and identify areas susceptible to flooding. Contour lines
help in visualizing the elevation of land relative to nearby bodies of water.

Characteristics of Contours:
- Closed Contours: Represent hilltops or depressions, depending on the context of the surrounding contour
lines.
-Uniform Contour Interval:Contours are spaced uniformly based on the chosen contour interval, providing a
consistent representation of elevation changes.
-Index Contours: Heavier contour lines labeled with elevation values, typically every fifth contour line, aiding
in elevation identification and interpretation.
-Depression Contours:Represented with hachures (short lines inside the contour), indicating a closed
depression or basin.
-Interpolation of Elevation:Contours help interpolate elevation between surveyed points, providing a
continuous representation of the land surface.
Overall, contour maps and lines are fundamental tools in cartography and terrain analysis, facilitating
visualization and interpretation of the Earth's surface features and characteristics.
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Q2.C) What are the different sources of errors in levelling , Explain in details?
Ans.In levelling, which is the process of measuring height differences between points on the Earth’s surface,
various sources of errors can affect the accuracy of the measurements. These errors can arise from different
factors during the fieldwork, instrument calibration, or environmental conditions. Understanding these
sources of errors is crucial for conducting precise and reliable levelling surveys. Here are the main sources of
errors in levelling:
1. Instrumental Errors:
- Collimation Error: This occurs when the line of sight of the instrument’s telescope is not perfectly
horizontal (i.e., not parallel to the level bubble). It can lead to systematic errors in height measurements.
- Index Error:An error in reading due to incorrect calibration or zero adjustment of the levelling instrument’s
vertical circle.
- Graduation Error:Errors in the scale markings of the levelling staff or the instrument’s level bubble.
- Instrument Defects: Faulty or damaged components of the levelling instrument, such as a misaligned
telescope or worn-out leveling screws, can introduce errors.
2. Personal Errors:
-Reading Parallax:Incorrect readings caused by not aligning the eye properly with the levelling staff or the
instrument’s crosshairs.
- Mistakes in Focusing: Errors due to improper focusing of the telescope or misinterpretation of staff
readings.
- Misidentifying Points: Choosing incorrect points or misinterpreting benchmarks or reference marks can
lead to errors in levelling.
3. Natural Factors:
- Atmospheric Refraction:Light bending through the atmosphere can cause the apparent position of the
levelling staff to shift slightly, affecting the accuracy of readings.
- Temperature and Pressure Changes: Variations in temperature and atmospheric pressure can influence
the performance of the levelling instrument, particularly optical instruments like the level and theodolite.
4. Environmental Conditions:
- Instrument Setup: Errors due to improper setup of the instrument, such as not ensuring a stable tripod
or setting up on unstable ground.
- Ground Conditions: Uneven or unstable ground surfaces can lead to incorrect staff readings or instrument
movements during measurements.
- Local Disturbances:Vibrations from nearby traffic, machinery, or people moving around the instrument
can affect levelling measurements.
5. Systematic Errors:
- Instrument Calibration: Inaccuracies resulting from improper calibration or adjustments of the levelling
instrument.
- Data Recording: Errors in recording measurements or notes during the surveying process.
6. Random Errors:
- Human Variability: Inconsistencies in the observer’s ability to precisely read the levelling staff or interpret
instrument readings.
- Environmental Fluctuations:Random fluctuations in atmospheric conditions or ground movements that
affect measurements unpredictably.

To minimize these errors and ensure accurate levelling results, surveyors should follow proper field
procedures, regularly calibrate and maintain their instruments, and take multiple readings to assess and
reduce measurement uncertainties. Post-processing techniques such as statistical analysis and error
propagation can also be used to quantify and mitigate errors in levelling surveys.

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Q.3) A) Draw line diagram of theodolite and also write essential parts and its uses?

Ans. A theodolite is a precision instrument used for measuring angles in horizontal and vertical planes. It
consists of several essential parts:
1. Telescope : The main component used for sighting. It can rotate in a vertical plane (vertical circle)
and a horizontal plane (horizontal circle).
2. Vertical Circle : This is attached to the telescope and measures vertical angles. It is graduated in
degrees, and sometimes also in minutes and seconds.
3. Horizontal Circle : Attached to the telescope or the base, it measures horizontal angles. Similar to
the vertical circle, it’s graduated in degrees.
4. Vernier Scale : A finely divided scale that allows for more precise reading of angles on the circles.
5. Leveling Screws : Used for leveling the theodolite. These are adjusted to ensure the instrument is
perfectly horizontal.
6. Tribrach : This is the base to which the theodolite is mounted. It can be attached to a tripod for
stability.
7. Base Plate or Tribach Adapter : Provides a stable base for the theodolite and allows for precise
mounting on a tripod.

Uses of a theodolite:
- Surveying : The primary use is in surveying for measuring angles, which is essential for establishing
boundaries, mapping, and construction layout.
- Engineering : Used in civil engineering and construction projects for tasks like setting out building
foundations, aligning structures, and checking alignments.
- Geological Surveys : Theodolites are used in geological surveys for mapping and analyzing geological
formations.
- Astronomical Applications : Although less common today, theodolites were historically used in astronomy
for measuring celestial angles.
Theodolites are critical tools in modern surveying and engineering due to
their precision in angle measurement, making them invaluable for accurate construction and mapping
projects.

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Q3.B) Discuss in brief about E.D.M ?
Ans.In Surveying, EDM stands for Electronic Distance Measurement. It’s a technology used for accurately
measuring distances between points using electromagnetic waves or infrared signals. EDM instruments are
commonly used in land surveying, construction, and civil engineering.
Here are some key points about EDM in surveying:
1. Technology : EDM instruments use electromagnetic waves (microwaves or infrared) to measure
distances. They emit a signal towards a target and measure the time it takes for the signal to bounce
back, calculating the distance based on the speed of light.
2. Accuracy : EDM provides high accuracy in distance measurements, often within millimeters or
centimeters depending on the instrument and conditions. This level of precision is crucial for
surveying applications.
3. Applications : EDM is used for various surveying tasks such as measuring distances between survey
control points, determining heights and elevations, establishing baselines for mapping, and
monitoring structural deformations.
4. Instruments : EDM instruments range from handheld devices for shorter distances to sophisticated
total stations equipped with EDM technology for longer-range measurements. These instruments are
integrated with electronic data collectors for efficient data recording and processing.
5. Advantages : EDM technology offers several advantages over traditional surveying methods like
chain or tape measurements. It allows for rapid data collection, reduces human error, and can be
used in challenging terrains or weather conditions.
6. Integration : Modern EDM instruments are often integrated with Global Navigation Satellite
Systems (GNSS) and other technologies for comprehensive surveying and mapping projects,
providing a holistic approach to spatial data collection and analysis.
Overall, EDM has revolutionized the field of surveying by enabling accurate, efficient, and reliable distance
measurements essential for construction, infrastructure development, land management, and other
applications requiring precise spatial data.

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Q3.C) what are the various method of theodolite traversing , Expalain any one of them in details?
Ans. Theodolite traversing is a surveying technique used to determine the relative positions of points on the
Earth's surface by measuring horizontal and vertical angles. There are several methods of theodolite
traversing, each suitable for different surveying applications and terrain conditions. Some common methods
include:
1. Open Traverse : In an open traverse, survey stations are established sequentially along the survey line,
and angles and distances between consecutive stations are measured using a theodolite and a tape or EDM
(Electronic Distance Measurement). The traverse starts at a known point (usually a benchmark) and ends at
a designated point, with additional points determined along the way. This method is suitable for linear
surveying over moderate distances.
2. Closed Traverse : A closed traverse is similar to an open traverse but forms a closed polygonal loop by
connecting the last point back to the starting point. This allows for error checking and adjustment of the
survey measurements. The angles are measured continuously around the loop, and the internal angles of
the polygon are computed. This method is useful for accurately determining the positions of points and
detecting errors in the measurements.
3. Resection : Resection involves determining the position of an unknown point by measuring angles to
visible, known reference points from the unknown point's location. Using a theodolite, the surveyor
measures horizontal angles to at least two known points with known coordinates. By trigonometrically
calculating the angles and distances, the unknown point's position can be established. This method is useful
for locating inaccessible or remote points.
4. Traverse by Intersection : This method involves setting up the theodolite at a known point (e.g., a
benchmark) and sighting towards another known point to measure the angle between them. Then, the
theodolite is moved to a new station, and the angle is measured to the same reference point. By calculating
the intersection of sight lines from multiple stations, the relative positions of points can be determined.

one method in detail: Open Traverse Method .

The open traverse method is used when surveying linear features or irregularly spaced points along a straight
or curved path. Here's how it works:
1. Establish Stations : Begin by setting up the theodolite at a known starting point (e.g., a benchmark)
and identify the first station of the traverse line.
2. Measure Angles : Use the theodolite to measure the horizontal angles between consecutive stations
along the traverse. Sight the theodolite on a target at the next station and record the angle reading.
3. Record Distances : Measure the distances between consecutive stations using a tape measure or EDM.
Accurate distance measurements are crucial for plotting the traverse accurately.
4. Repeat for Each Station : Continue measuring angles and distances from each station to the next until
reaching the end of the traverse line.
5. Calculate Coordinates : After completing the fieldwork, calculate the coordinates (northing and easting)
of each traverse station relative to the starting point. This involves applying trigonometric calculations based
on the measured angles and distances.
6. Adjustments and Error Checking : Perform necessary adjustments such as closing errors (if the traverse
is closed) and check for blunders or inconsistencies in the measurements.
The open traverse method is versatile and can be adapted to
various surveying scenarios, providing a systematic way to determine the positions of survey points along a
linear path. However, care must be taken to minimize errors in angle and distance measurements to ensure
the accuracy of the final survey data.

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Q.4) A Explain in detail the accessories used in plane table surveying with neat sketch.

Ans. Plane table surveying is a traditional method of surveying where a drawing board (plane table) is used
in the field to directly plot and measure survey data. Several accessories are used with a plane table to
facilitate accurate and efficient survey work. Let’s discuss these accessories along with a neat sketch
illustrating their setup:
1. Plane Table: The plane table itself is the primary tool in plane table surveying. It is a flat drawing board
mounted on a sturdy tripod. The board can be rotated and leveled to ensure that it remains horizontal during
surveying.
2. Tripod:A tripod is used to support and stabilize the plane table. The tripod legs can be adjusted to
different heights to ensure that the plane table is positioned at a comfortable working height for the surveyor.
3. Alidade:The alidade is a straightedge with a telescopic sight mounted on it. This accessory is used for
sighting and measuring angles in plane table surveying. The alidade can rotate freely around a pivot point on
the plane table.
4. Spirit Level:A spirit level is attached to the plane table to ensure that it is perfectly horizontal (level)
during the survey. This is essential for accurate plotting and measurement of survey points.
5. Drawing Instruments:Various drawing instruments such as pencils, pens, erasers, and scale rulers are
used to draw and annotate the survey map directly on the plane table.
6. Trough Compass:A trough compass or a magnetic compass is used to orient the plane table to true
north. This helps in aligning the survey map with the actual geographic directions on the ground.
7. Plumbing Fork:A plumbing fork is used to ensure that the plane table remains vertically aligned over a
survey point. This accessory is particularly useful when working on sloping or uneven terrain.
8. Pins and Nails: Pins or nails are used to mark and secure the corners of the drawing paper on the plane
table. They prevent the paper from shifting or moving during survey work.
9. Chain or Tape Measure: A chain or tape measure is used to measure distances between survey points
on the ground. The measured distances are then accurately transferred and plotted on the plane table.

Below is a sketch illustrating the setup of a plane table with its accessories:
In the sketch:-
The plane table is mounted on a tripod.
- The alidade with a telescopic sight is attached to the plane table for angle measurement.
- A spirit level is used to ensure the plane table is level.
- A trough compass is used for orientation.
- Various drawing instruments and accessories are used for plotting and measurement.

These accessories collectively enable the surveyor to accurately record field

observations, measure angles and distances, and produce a detailed and scaled survey map directly on the
plane table. Proper setup and use of these accessories are essential for the success of plane table surveying.

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Q4.B) Define :-

a) Celestial- The term “celestial” generally refers to things related to the sky or outer space, particularly
objects and phenomena observed in the heavens. Celestial can describe celestial bodies such as stars,
planets, moons, comets, and asteroids that exist in outer space. It also encompasses celestial events
like eclipses, meteor showers, and planetary alignments.In a broader sense, “celestial” can refer to
concepts associated with the universe, cosmology, and astronomy. For example, celestial navigation
involves using celestial bodies (such as the Sun, Moon, stars) to determine directions and positions
on Earth. Celestial mechanics deals with the motion and interactions of celestial objects based on
principles of physics.In summary, celestial pertains to all things related to the sky, space, and the
universe beyond Earth’s atmosphere.

b) Zenith-The zenith is a term used in astronomy and navigation to refer to the point directly overhead
an observer. It is the highest point in the sky that can be seen from a specific location at any given
time. The zenith is opposite to the nadir, which is the point directly below the observer.In terms of
celestial navigation, the concept of zenith is important for determining the position of celestial bodies
like stars and planets relative to an observer’s location on Earth. The altitude of a celestial body is
measured from the horizon to its position in the sky, with the zenith being the reference point directly
above the observer.In a broader sense, the zenith can also refer to the peak or highest point of
something metaphorically, such as the zenith of one’s career or achievement. However, in the context
of astronomy and navigation, zenith specifically denotes the point in the sky directly overhead from
an observer’s perspective.

c) Nadir-The nadir is the point on the celestial sphere directly below an observer, exactly opposite the
zenith. It is the lowest point in the sky relative to the observer’s position. In celestial navigation and
astronomy, the nadir represents the direction pointing directly downwards from the observer’s
location towards the center of the Earth. This concept is important for understanding the positions of
celestial bodies relative to the observer’s horizon and zenith.
Metaphorically, the term “nadir” is also used to describe the lowest or most unfavorable point in a
situation or a person’s fortunes.

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Q4C) Define plane table survey And state the advantage and disadvantages of plane tabling.
Ans. Plane Table Surveying:Plane table surveying is a method of graphical surveying in which a detailed
map of the area under survey is prepared directly in the field. This technique involves setting up a plane table
at one of the survey stations and then plotting the positions of various points directly onto a sheet of paper
mounted on the table. The positions of these points are determined by measuring angles and distances from
the instrument to the points of interest.
Advantages of Plane Table Surveying:

1. Simultaneous Plotting: One of the key advantages of plane table surveying is that survey data can be
plotted directly onto the map while in the field. This allows for immediate visualization and
verification of survey results.
2. No Need for Post-Processing: Plane table surveying eliminates the need for post-processing of
survey data, such as calculations and adjustments, which are typically required in other surveying
methods like traverse or triangulation.
3. Flexibility in Field Work: The method is adaptable to various terrains and can be used effectively
in areas with irregular boundaries or complex features. It allows the surveyor to work directly with
the landscape and make adjustments on-site.
4. Relatively Simple Equipment: Plane table surveying requires basic surveying instruments such as
a plane table, alidade, and measuring tools. Compared to other surveying methods that may require
advanced equipment like total stations or GPS, plane table surveying is relatively simple and cost-
effective.
5. Accurate Mapping: When properly executed, plane table surveying can result in accurate and
detailed maps of the surveyed area. The method is particularly useful for small-scale surveys or
preliminary mapping.

Disadvantages of Plane Table Surveying:

1. Labor Intensive: Plane table surveying can be labor-intensive, especially for large-scale surveys or
surveys covering extensive areas. It requires the surveyor to physically move the equipment and plot
points at multiple stations.
2. Subject to Human Errors: The accuracy of plane table surveying heavily relies on the skill and
precision of the surveyor. Errors in angle measurements, distance measurements, or plotting can
affect the quality of the survey results.
3. Time-Consuming:Compared to modern surveying techniques that use electronic instruments for
rapid data collection, plane table surveying can be time-consuming. It may require more time and
effort to complete a survey project using this method.
4. Limited Precision: Plane table surveying may have limitations in terms of precision and accuracy,
especially when compared to advanced surveying methods that utilize high-tech instruments like
total stations or GPS.
5. Weather Conditions: Weather conditions such as wind or rain can impact the accuracy and
effectiveness of plane table surveying, particularly when working with paper maps and drawing
instruments in outdoor settings.

In summary, plane table surveying offers certain advantages such as real-time plotting, simplicity of
equipment, and flexibility in field work, but it also has limitations related to labor intensity, potential for
human errors, and precision compared to modern surveying technologies. The suitability of plane table
surveying depends on the specific requirements and constraints of the survey project.
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Q.5 A.Explain the different type of horizontal curve.

Ans.Horizontal curves are used to smoothly transition the direction of a road or railway track. There are
several types of horizontal curves, each designed to accommodate specific conditions and requirements. The
main types of horizontal curves include simple curves, compound curves, reverse curves, and spiral curves.
Let’s explore each type in detail:
1. Simple Curve:
- A simple curve is the most basic type of horizontal curve and consists of a single arc connecting two
straight lines. It is used to change the alignment of a road or railway gradually. Simple curves are defined by
their radius ® and length (L) or central angle (θ).
- Types of simple curves include:
- Circular Curve: This is a simple curve that forms a part of a circle. The curvature is constant along
the entire curve length.
- Non-Circular Curve: This refers to a curve that does not form a perfect circle and may have varying
radii along its length, resulting in non-uniform curvature.

2. Compound Curve:
- A compound curve consists of two or more simple curves of different radii connected together to form a
continuous curve. Compound curves are used to achieve a smoother transition between different
alignments, such as changing from a tangent (straight) roadway to a circular curve.
- Compound curves are often used in situations where a single simple curve is insufficient to achieve the
desired transition or where complex geometries are required.

3. Reverse Curve:
- A reverse curve is formed when two circular curves of opposite directions (left and right) are connected
by a short tangent (straight) section. Reverse curves are used to reverse the direction of a road or railway
alignment abruptly while maintaining a smooth transition between curves.
- Reverse curves are typically employed in mountainous terrain or areas with constrained right-of-way,
where abrupt changes in alignment are necessary.

4. Spiral Curve:
- A spiral curve (or transition curve) is a type of curve that gradually increases in curvature from zero to a
designed radius, allowing for a smooth transition between a tangent section and a circular curve. Spiral
curves are used to reduce abrupt changes in curvature and provide comfort and safety to drivers or train
passengers.
- Types of spiral curves include:
- Clothoid Spiral: This is a specific type of spiral curve that has a linearly increasing curvature with
respect to arc length. Clothoid spirals are commonly used in railway engineering and highway design due to
their mathematical properties that facilitate smooth transitions.
Each type of horizontal curve serves a specific purpose and is selected
based on factors such as design speed, terrain conditions, vehicle dynamics, and geometric design standards.
Properly designed horizontal curves enhance safety, comfort, and efficiency in transportation systems by
minimizing abrupt changes in alignment and curvature.

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Q5.B) Write down the procedure of field work conducted in tacheometry survey?
Ans. Tacheometry is a surveying technique used to determine horizontal and vertical distances and angles
directly in the field, often without the need for chaining. The procedure of field work conducted in
tacheometry survey typically involves the following steps:

1. Setting Up the Instrument: Choose a suitable location for setting up the tacheometer (also known as a
theodolite with stadia hairs or an electronic total station). Ensure that the instrument is placed on stable
ground and leveled using the built-in leveling screws and spirit level.

2. Establishing Control Points: Identify and mark control points (known points with coordinates) around
the survey area. These points should be visible from the instrument setup locations and should form a
network of known positions to reference during the survey.

3. Selecting Survey Stations: Determine the survey stations where observations will be made. These
stations should provide clear lines of sight to the features or points of interest being surveyed.

4. Taking Horizontal Angles: Aim the tacheometer at each survey station and measure horizontal angles
between consecutive survey stations. Record these angles accurately using the instrument’s horizontal circle.

5. Measuring Slope Distances: Use the stadia method (if using a traditional theodolite with stadia hairs) or
electronic distance measurement (EDM) function (if using an electronic total station) to measure slope
distances to the target points from each survey station. Ensure proper focusing and target alignment for
accurate distance readings.

6. Recording Instrument Readings: Record the observed horizontal angles and slope distances in a field
notebook or data collector. Include details such as the station number, target point description, observed
angles, and measured distances.

7. Calculating Reduced Levels (RLs): If vertical distances (elevations) are required, measure the height
difference between the survey instrument and the target points using the stadia method or EDM. Calculate
the reduced levels (RLs) of the target points relative to the instrument setup point.

8. Checking and Adjusting Observations: Check for blunders or inconsistencies in the observed data. Re-
measure critical observations if necessary to ensure accuracy and reliability of the survey data.

9. Plotting the Survey: After completing field observations, transfer the recorded data onto a drawing sheet
or planimeter. Use the measured angles, distances, and elevations to plot the surveyed features, contours,
or layout.

10. Field Checks and Quality Assurance: Conduct field checks to verify the accuracy and completeness of
the plotted survey data. Make necessary adjustments or corrections to ensure that the survey plan accurately
represents the field conditions.

11. Generating Survey Report: Prepare a survey report documenting the field work procedures, observed
data, calculations, and plotted results. Include any relevant notes or observations made during the survey.

Throughout the tacheometry survey, it is important to maintain precision in instrument handling, data
recording, and calculation processes to achieve reliable and accurate survey results suitable for subsequent
engineering or mapping applications. Regular calibration and maintenance of survey instruments also
contribute to the overall quality of tacheometry survey work.
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Q5.C) What are the methods of tacheometry explain any one in detail?

Ans.Tacheometry is a surveying method used to determine distances, elevations, and coordinates of points
in the field using a tacheometer (theodolite with stadia hairs) or an electronic total station. The primary
methods of tacheometry include the stadia method and the subtense bar (or tangential) method. Let’s
explain the stadia method in detail:

Stadia Method: The stadia method is a popular technique used in tacheometry for measuring distances
directly using a theodolite equipped with stadia hairs. This method utilizes the principle of tangents to
determine distances based on the vertical angle observed through the theodolite’s telescope.

Procedure:

1. Set Up the Theodolite: - Choose a stable and level ground for setting up the theodolite. Ensure that
the instrument is properly leveled using the built-in leveling screws and spirit level.

2. Target Point Selection: - Identify the target point (such as a prism or staff) whose distance is to be
measured. The target should be clearly visible and accessible from the theodolite station.

3. Aiming and Focusing: - Aim the theodolite telescope at the target point and focus the crosshairs on
the staff or prism held vertically at the target location.

4. Measure Vertical Angle (θ): - Read the vertical angle (θ) shown on the theodolite’s vertical circle. This
angle is the angular elevation from the horizontal line of sight to the target point.

5. Calculate Stadia Intercept (s): - The stadia method relies on the relationship between the vertical
angle (θ) and the stadia intercept (s), which is the distance between the stadia hairs in the theodolite’s
telescope.

6. Calculate Distance (D): - Once the stadia intercept (s) is measured on the staff, the distance (D) to
the target point can be calculated using the stadia formula:

\[ D = (s \times 100) / m \]

Where:- \( m \) = Staff graduation (measured distance corresponding to one unit on the staff, usually in
meters)

Advantages of Stadia Method:

- Direct Distance Measurement: The stadia method allows for direct measurement of distances without
the need for chaining or tape measures.

- Speed and Efficiency: Survey work can be conducted more quickly compared to traditional methods,
especially for measuring large distances.

- Suitable for Rough Terrain: The stadia method is suitable for use in rough or inaccessible terrain where
other methods may be impractical.

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 Limitations of Stadia Method:

- Accuracy Dependent on Instrument Calibration: Accuracy of measurements depends on the accurate

calibration of the theodolite and knowledge of instrument constants (focusing constant and stadia constant).

- Limited Range: The stadia method may have limitations in range due to the precision required in reading
small stadia intercepts at longer distances.

- Influence of Atmospheric Conditions: Atmospheric conditions such as haze, dust, or glare can affect
the accuracy of vertical angle readings and distance measurements.

In summary, the stadia method of tacheometry is a versatile

technique for direct distance measurement using a theodolite equipped with stadia hairs. It provides a
practical and efficient means of surveying distances in the field, particularly in situations where accurate and
rapid measurements are required.

By_ER.MINING

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