Electrical Circuits

Resistivity is a fundamental property of materials that describes their resistance to the current
flow of an electrical circuit. The resistivity of materials is important in comparing various
materials and enabling the right materials can be used in the correct places based on their
ability to conduct electricity. Determining the resistivity is calculated by finding the resistance of
𝑅𝐴
the wire, the cross-sectional area, and the length of the wire, using the formula: 𝜌 = 𝑙
. This
experiment aims to design an experiment to accurately measure a material’s resistivity by
employing the principles of the resistance formula.

Hypothesis
As the cross-sectional area of the nichrome wire decreases, the resistance will increase,
presenting an inversely proportional relationship.

Variables
Variables Justification

Independent Sectional Area of the The formula consists of two factors that can change the
Wire resistance, the length of the wire and the sectional area.
Discussing lead to changing the cross-sectional area

Dependent Resistance To find the resistivity of nichrome wire, the resistance of

each wire needs to measured. Depending on each cross-
sectional area, the resistance will change and therefore be
the measurement of this experiment.

Controlled Variables Justification How will it be controlled

Length of Wire Since the experiment’s Through measuring the

independent variable is wires length and confirming
based around the cross- each wire’s length.
sectional area, the length
must be controlled in order
to prove the effects of
changing cross-sectional
area.

Amount of Voltage If the wire receives a By checking the power

different amount of voltage,
then the measurements of
amps, resistance and the
final resistivity will be
different
supply’s voltage is kept to a
low volt and does not
change during the
experiment.
Variables Justification

Material of Wire Since the experiment is to Nichrome wires will be

design an experiment to test provided in the experiment
resistivity of a material,
keeping the type of material
controlled will help in
finding its resistivity.

Equipment:

Material Quantity Uncertainty

Alligator clips 2

Conducting wires 6

Multimeters 2 ±(0.2% + 2
counts)

Power Supply 1

Wooden board with 5 nichrome wires of 1

different thickness

Digital calliper 1 ± 0.01mm

Methodology:
1. Collect all the equipment
2. Using a calliper, measure the diameter of each nichrome wire on the board and calculate
the cross-sectional area of the wires
3. Set up conducting wires and alligator clips to the power supply and the first nichrome
wire on the board to create a circuit
4. Set up an ammeter, connected in series, and a voltmeter, connected in parallel
5. Read and record the current and voltage through the ammeter and voltmeter
6. Turn off the power supply and record data in a table
7. Unclip the alligator clips and connect to the next wire on the board before repeating
steps 5-6 until all data is recorded for each nichrome wire
8. Repeat trial 5 times
9. Calculate the average result for voltage over the 5 trials
10. Calculate the average result for current over the 5 trials
11. In a separate table, calculate and record the resistance using the average voltage and
average current for the respective wires, using Ohm's law (Ω)
12. Calculate the resistivity of the nichrome wires
 Figure 1: Physical set up of the
resistivity experiment. Consists of Figure 2: A digital diagram of the
the power source hooked up to a experiment set up

Risk Assessment
Hazards Precautions Taken

Electricity/Volt Keeping the voltage low and turning the power source off the
(Electrical shock to moment the voltage and amps are recorded
testers)

Heat/Fire/Explosion Keeping the power source on to a minimal amount of time as well

(Burns from wires or as moving down the wires to allow other wires to cool. Turning the
materials touching powersource off when measuring is not taking place. Making sure
them, hazard to testers all equipment is not faulty and that wires do not start burning the
and people around) wood by keeping an eye

Results
Length of nichrome wire = 50cm
Theoretical Voltage = 2V

Table 1: Current
Width of Current (Amps)
Wire
(mm)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average 1/A

0.21 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.14 7.14

0.28 0.25 0.25 0.20 0.25 0.21 0.23 4.35

0.29 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.25 0.23 0.24 4.17

 Width of Current (Amps)
Wire
(mm)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average 1/A

0.54 1.02 1.00 0.97 1.00 0.95 0.99 1.01

1.33 2.35 2.21 2.49 2.31 2.45 2.36 0.42

Table 2: Voltage
Thickness of Voltage (Volts)
Wire (mm)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average

0.21 1.92 1.88 1.86 1.90 1.80 1.87

0.28 1.68 1.70 1.77 1.73 1.66 1.71

0.29 1.77 1.73 1.70 1.77 1.65 1.72

0.54 1.25 1.23 1.22 1.28 1.25 1.25

1.33 0.75 0.67 0.80 0.87 0.85 0.79

Table 3: Calculated Resistance and Resistivity

Thickness of Wire Cross- Resistance (Ω) Resistivity (μΩ–m)

2
(mm) Sectional Area (mm )

0.21 0.035 1.87/0.14 = 13.36 9.35 x 10-7

0.28 0.062 1.71/0.23 = 7.43 9.2 x 10-7

0.29 0.066 1.72/0.24 = 7.17 9.46 x 10-7

 0.54 0.23 1.25/0.99 = 1.26 5.8 x 10-7

1.33 1.39 0.79/2.36 = 0.33 9.2 x 10-7

Average Resistivity (Without outliers) = 9.30 x 10-7

Graph 1: Resistance vs Thickness of Wire

Graph 2: 1/A against R, resulting in a slope that will be the resistivity and length of the wire
10

Resistivity Percentage Error

(9.30 𝑥 10−7 ) − (1.10 𝑥 10−6 )
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 100
1.10 𝑥 10−6
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 15.45%

Discussion
Analysis of Data
In the data shown above, there is a clear relationship between the cross-sectional area
and
resistance, exhibiting an exponential decay as displayed in Graph 1. Tables 1 and 2 provide
quite consistent measurements of voltage and amps. The averaged raw data is used to find the
resistance and the resistivity of the nichrome wire. The data in Table 1 shows that the current is
larger when the cross-sectional area is larger, and Table 2’s data shows that the voltage is
smaller when the cross-sectional area is larger.

Examining Table 3 and Graph 1 reveals the notable trend that as the cross-sectional area
increases, resistance decreases and vice versa. This situation aligns with expectations, as a
larger cross-sectional area allows for more pathways for current to flow, reducing resistance.

1/Cross-sectional Area ∝ Resistance

Graph 2 further illustrates this relationship, displaying a proportional linear correlation between
resistance and the reciprocal of cross-sectional area (1/A). The slope of Graph 2 represents the
product of the length of the wire and the resistivity, indicating the nichrome wire’s consistent
resistivity throughout the experiment, with length controlled.

The percentage error of the resistivity is 15.45%, which infers that one or more errors occurred
during the experiment design and execution.

Wire Overload
After completing the experiment and calculating the wire’s resistivity, we encountered an
outlier in the results, which prompted an investigation into the corresponding wire. Upon
examination, the wood demonstrated scorch marks in the area of the wire. Prior testers
using the same board may have caused the wire to overload. The heat from the
electrical current possibly alters the resistance of the material and variations in the
diameter of the wire from melting. Due to it being a damaged material, this error can be
considered a random error, which could be simply fixed by checking the materials prior.

Estimation Error
Throughout the duration of the experiment, fluctuations in the voltage and current
readers were observed, especially the voltmeter. These quick fluctuations made it
challenging to obtain accurate readings, contributing to data inconsistencies. To keep it
as controlled as possible, there was only one tester reading the voltmeter, the error is
random. To reduce this random error, conducting more trials and adhering to a
standardised measurement procedure with a fixed time for reading may help improve
data reliability.

Calibration Error
Issues with the lack of multimeter calibration may have resulted in inaccurate voltage
and ampere readings, affecting the reliability of the data collected. This calibration error
is a systematic error and carries out the same values, therefore it is constant and
provides a minimal error. However, a calibration error can still significantly impact the
accuracy of resistance and resistivity calculations. Ensuring proper calibration of
instruments correctly and verifying calibration accuracy are essential steps to minimise
systematic errors.

Unaccounted Resistance
 With the understanding of resistivity, the resistivity of some equipment, for example, the
conducting wires, nails and alligator clips was not considered during the experiment.
Since the resistance from the equipment was not accounted for, this was not considered
for the experiment nor the calculation. This systematic error prevented the true value of
the data from being accurately measured or recorded. Using higher-quality equipment
with lower inherent resistance and implementing correction to account for equipment
resistance are strategies that could be used to improve the accuracy of the data.

Power Supply Stability

At the onset of the experiment, the stability of the power supply was not verified,
potentially leading to fluctuations in voltage output. This uncertainty in power supply
stability could result in deviations from the theoretical voltage and could be considered a
systematic and random error. To prevent such errors in the future, thorough calibration
and testing of the power supply prior to the experiment are crucial in ensuring consistent
and reliable results.

Conclusion
The experiment above tests the resistance of nichrome wires and calculates their resistivity. As
shown in the results and the discussion, the data shown above supports the hypothesis that ‘As
the cross-sectional area of the nichrome wire decreases, the resistance will increase’. The
experiment has achieved its purpose of exploring and further understanding the resistivity
formula, and designing a methodology to test the formula’s principles. By analysing and
discussing the data collected, there were valuable insights into the electrical conductivity and
material behaviour. Although the experiment follows the general trend of resistance and cross-
sectional area, it does not exclude the idea of other affecting variables. The errors and
suggestive improvements, briefly analysed in the discussion section, could be taken into
consideration and implemented in future assessments.

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