Received: 9 September 2015 | Revised: 18 December 2016 | Accepted: 19 January 2017

DOI 10.1002/ajpa.23184

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Reconstructing diet in Napoleon’s Grand Army using stable

carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis

Sammantha Holder1 | Tosha L. Dupras2 | Rimantas Jankauskas3 |

Lana Williams2 | John Schultz2,4

1
Department of Anthropology, University of
Georgia, Athens, GA 30602
Abstract
2
Department of Anthropology, University of Objectives: Historical evidence has provided information regarding disease and mortality in Napo-
Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816
leon Bonaparte’s Grand Army, but dietary information beyond individual soldier accounts remains
3
Department of Anatomy, Histology, &
scarce. The purpose of this research is to reconstruct the diets of Napoleon’s multiethnic army
Anthropology, Vilnius University, Vilnius
LT2009, Lithuania who were associated with the Russian Campaign of 1812.
4
National Center for Forensic Science, Materials and Methods: We conducted stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratio analysis on fem-
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL
oral bone collagen of 78 individuals recovered from a salvage excavation at the mass gravesite of
32816


Siaur _ miestelis in Vilnius, Lithuania. These individuals were later discovered to be Napoleonic
es
Correspondence
Sammantha Holder, Department of soldiers and camp followers who participated in the 1812 Russian Campaign.
Anthropology, University of Georgia, 250A
Results: Stable carbon isotope ratios range from 219.2& to 211.8&, with a mean of 217.8& 6
Baldwin Hall, Jackson St., Athens, GA
30602. 1.5& (1 r). Stable nitrogen isotope ratios range from 7.1& to 13.6&, with a mean of 10.5& 6
Email: sammholder@uga.edu 1.4& (1 r). Both d13C and d15N values show a wide range of variation.
Funding Information
Discussion: Stable isotope data indicate considerable dietary variation in this population associ-
Grant sponsorship: UCF College of
Sciences Seed Research Grant ated with a multiethnic and socially stratified military population. Diets ranged from predominantly
C3-based to predominantly C4-based, with varying inputs of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ani-
mal protein. Comparison with other European populations further denotes the exceptional range
of dietary variation of soldiers and camp followers in Napoleon’s army.

KEYWORDS
bioarchaeology, military diet, stable isotopes, Napoleonic Wars

1 | INTRODUCTION Cartwright, 1972; Peterson, 1995; Riley, 2007; Rothenberg, 1981).

Early 19th century Europe was marked by sociopolitical turmoil, not
the least of which were the military campaigns of the Napoleonic
Wars. Napoleon’s Grand Army mobilized hundreds of thousands of
individuals for his numerous campaigns that extended across Europe
into parts of Africa and Eurasia (Esdaile, 2008; Rogers, 1974). The army
consisted of individuals from all across Europe and was made up of
conscripts, mercenaries, soldiers, officers, and camp followers (herein
referred to collectively as soldiers and camp followers) (Blanton, 2009;
Dempsey, 2002; Elting, 1988; Gould, 1995). These individuals embod-
ied a wide range of socioeconomic statuses (Bertaud, 1986). A plethora
of historic documentation exists regarding Napoleonic war strategies,
disease outbreaks, and nonbattle related mortality (Bray, 1996;
Despite considerable historic documentation, direct dietary information
is lacking. The current study aims to address this gap in current knowl-
edge by reconstructing the diet of Napoleonic soldiers and camp fol-


lowers discovered at the mass gravesite of Siaur _ miestelis in Vilnius,
es
Lithuania, through stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratio analysis.
2 | HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of military conflicts between Napo-
leon’s French Empire and other European nations that took place from
1803 to 1815 (Esdaile, 2008; Gates, 1997). Alliances with different
countries led to the deployment of Napoleonic troops throughout
Europe including Poland, Prussia, Austria, Portugal, Italy, and Spain

Am J Phys Anthropol. 2017;1–11 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ajpa V

C 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1
2 |
T A B LE 1 Daily food rations for Napoleonic soldiers in October 1759. Adapted and translated from Filippini (1965, p. 1159, Table 2).
Wine Bread Bacon or Salted Beef
Lunch 3/4 pt 18 oz 4 oz
Dinner – – – –
a
Cheese substituted when no fire for cooking other food rations.
(Esdaile, 2008; Gould, 1995; Oliver & Partridge, 2002). In 1812, Napo-
leon’s Grand Army invaded Russia in an attempt to prevent the inva-
sion of Poland by Russian Emperor Alexander I. While the Russian
Campaign began with approximately 675,000 soldiers, less than half
were French soldiers (Nicolson, 1985). Upon entering Moscow, Napo-
leon’s army lacked supplies because the city was largely abandoned
and burnt down by retreating Russian soldiers. The Grand Army
retreated from Moscow in October of 1812, 35 days after entering the
city when the Russian czar did not surrender. The retreat turned into a
disaster due to the extreme cold and supply shortages (Bourgogne,
gur, 2012). Surviving soldiers arrived in Vilnius,
2002; Everatt, 2011; Se
Lithuania, in December 1812. Vilnius contained enough “flour and
meat to feed 100,000 men for forty days” (Nicolson, 1985, p. 168).
However, a lack of organization in food distribution and exhaustion
during the long march led to chaos. Historical records indicate that no
fewer than 20,000 soldiers died of hypothermia, starvation, and typhus
in Lithuania during the retreat (Austin, 2000; Lobell, 2002). Initially,
remains were burned, however, the stench and large numbers of the
dead and dying led to disposal of bodies in mass graves (Frank, 2001).
In times of plenty, dietary staples for Napoleonic soldiers con-
sisted mainly of bread, meat, rice, and alcohol (Elting, 1988; Forrest,
2002). An example of daily rations and portion sizes from the 18th
century for Napoleonic soldiers is listed in Table 1. Lunch rations were
often consumed in the form of soup (Elting, 1988). Troops carried four
days worth of rations on their person and were followed by battalions
containing flour for bread, hauled by oxen that were, in turn, intended
to supply fresh meat (Riehn, 1990). Supplying a large army with
enough food during distant campaigns proved problematic. Numerous
instances of hungry soldiers waiting two weeks or more for supplies
to arrive have been documented throughout Napoleon’s military cam-
paigns (Nafziger, 1988). To supplement their rations and avoid starva-
tion, soldiers were expected to forage, requisition, and purchase
goods from locals and female sutlers (civilian merchants) travelling
with the army during extended and geographically distant campaigns
(Riehn, 1990; Riley, 2007). Requisitioning and foraging strategies, fre-
quently referred to as “living off the land,” entailed organized and sys-
tematic extraction of local resources by soldiers (Rothenberg, 1981).
These organized systems broke down during the Russian Campaign,
especially amongst non-French allied regiments who were less skilled
foragers (Nafziger, 1988).
3 | STABLE ISOTOPE RATIO ANALYSIS
IN ANTHROPOLOGY
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of archaeological bone colla-
gen is an established method of ascertaining diet in past populations
HOLDER ET AL.
Rice Cheesea Vegetables Salt Oil
2 oz 3 oz –
1/2 oz 1/6 oz
3 oz 4 oz
(DeNiro & Epstein, 1978; DeNiro & Epstein, 1981). The use of this
method stems from the relationship between dietary resources and
resulting isotopic ratios of consumer tissues. Stable isotope ratios are
denoted as delta (d) values and are reported in parts per mil (&) compara-
tive to international standards (Atmospheric nitrogen (AIR) and Vienna
Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB)) (Katzenberg, 2008; Schoeninger, 2011).
Carbon isotope ratios provide insight into the types of plants
directly consumed and whether the plants originate from marine or ter-
restrial ecosystems, largely due to differences in photosynthesis and
carbon source (O’Leary, 1981; Smith & Epstein, 1971). During photo-
synthesis, less 13
C is incorporated into plants than the lighter isotope
12
C (O’Leary, 1981), with C4 plants incorporating more 13
C than their
temperate C3 counterparts (Katzenberg, 2008). Consequently, C4
plants typically exhibit d13C values between 29& and 214&, while
C3 herbaceous vegetation typically exhibits values between 220& and
235& (Deines, 1980). Marine consumer values characteristically
range from 210 to 215& (Katzenberg, 1992; Katzenberg, 2008;
Schoeninger, DeNiro, & Tauber, 1983; Ubelaker, Katzenberg, & Doyon,
1995). The diet-tissue spacing between plants and consumer bone col-
lagen in terrestrial environments has been argued to be as high as 5&
(Krueger & Sullivan, 1984) and the tissue–tissue spacing between her-
bivore and carnivore bone collagen as low as 0& and 2& (Bocherens
& Drucker, 2003). Humans, as omnivores, exhibit d13C values closer to
carnivores rather than intermediate values.
Stable nitrogen isotope values reflect trophic level, an organism’s
position in the food chain (DeNiro & Epstein, 1981; Minagawa &
Wada, 1984; Schoeninger & DeNiro, 1984). Consumer tissue d15N
values are higher than the tissue values of their dietary sources due to
14
the preferential loss of N through urea excretion following ingestion
(Minagawa & Wada, 1984; Schoeninger & DeNiro, 1984). A diet-tissue
spacing of up to 6& has been argued for human bone collagen d15N
values by O’Connell, Kneale, Tasevska, and Kuhnle (2012), but signifi-
cant error ranges exist in this study as a result of offsets between tis-
sues that were used to calculate bone collagen values. Environmental
€ldner, & Bell, 2008; Heaton, 1987; Schwarcz, Dupras, &
(Britton, Mu
Fairgrieve, 1999), physiological (Fuller et al., 2005; Hatch et al., 2006;
Hobson, Alisauskas, & Clark, 1993; Mekota, Grupe, Ufer, & Cuntz,
2006; Robertson, Rowland, & Krigbaum, 2014), and cultural processes
(Bogaard et al., 2013; Bogaard, Heaton, Poulton, & Merbach, 2007;
Commisso & Nelson, 2010; Fraser et al., 2011) may confound dietary
interpretations of d15N values in past populations.
3.1 | Stable isotope trends in historic Europe
Most of Europe is characterized by a temperate climate with C3 plants
dominating edible vegetation (van Klinken, Richards, & Hedges, 2000).
HOLDER ET AL.
Wheat and barley consumed in various foodstuffs are staple C3 plants
€ ldner & Richards, 2005). Millets are the dominant
in European diets (Mu
C4 plant consumed in Europe historically and prehistorically (Tafuri,
Craig, & Canci, 2009), and were most often consumed in the form of
porridge and unleavened bread. Millet consumption has been associ-
ated with low social status in Medieval Italy (Reitsema & Vercellotti,
2012) and as an alternative to certain C3 grains in southern Europe
(Andrews, 2000). Consumption of terrestrial animal protein also varied
in historic Europe, largely in relation to socioeconomic class (Knapp,
1997). Increases in fish consumption in Medieval and post-Medieval
Europe resulted from improvements in technology and the commoditi-
zation of fish, although access was generally a privilege of religious and
upper classes (Hoffmann, 2004; Pitcher & Lam, 2015). Given the varia-
tion in distribution of vegetal and aquatic resources across Europe, diet
varied both within and among regions across the continent.
3.2 | Diet in Napoleon’s Army:
Stable isotope hypotheses
Historic information on the provisioning of Napoleon’s army and sub-
sistence in historic Europe aid in the establishment of hypotheses
regarding diet and stable isotope ratios of soldiers and camp followers.
A wide range of carbon and nitrogen isotope values was expected for
individuals associated with Napoleon’s army. While a majority of indi-
viduals were expected to exhibit d13C values characteristic of C3-based
diet, conscripts with low social status and individuals from southern
Europe were expected to exhibit d13C values characteristic of a C4-
based or mixed diet. Similarly, d15N values were expected to vary rela-
tive to geographic origin, social status prior to service, and military
rank. The expected difference is based on unequal access to animal
protein and types of animal protein locally available (e.g., terrestrial,
marine, freshwater).
4 | BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT

A U R ES
O F SI _ MIESTELIS
A mass gravesite was exposed in the Fall of 2001 during a construction
project in the location of a former Soviet Army barracks positioned


north of downtown Vilnius at the site of Siaur _ miestelis (Signoli et al.,
es
2004) (See Figure 1). An examination of buttons from uniform frag-
ments indicated the presence of at least 40 regiments, signifying pre-
dominantly infantry and cavalry (Signoli et al., 2004). Although there
may be others, buttons and uniforms from French, Italian, Polish, and
Bavarian regiments were represented in the mass grave.
Anthropologists conducted a salvage excavation to clear the site
for construction. The mass grave was situated in a L-shaped trench
approximately 10 m wide and 40 m long (Jankauskas, 2012). Anthro-
pologists excavated a minimum number of 3,269 individuals (based
upon the number of left femoral diaphyses), with a concentration of
2
seven corpses/m . The high density of corpses within the burial trench
indicated a single burial event, and the positioning of the bodies led to
the conclusion that the individuals were buried shortly after death, pos-
sibly prior to rigor mortis (Jankauskas, 2012; Raoult et al., 2006).
| 3
A team of French and Lithuanian anthropologists conducted osteo-
logical and paleopathological analyses of this skeletal population. Pelvic
and skull morphology was assessed to estimate sex, and standard
methods (e.g., epiphyseal fusion, cranial suture closure, etc.) were
employed to determine age at death, all following Buikstra and Ube-
laker (1994). The total number of individuals identified as female was
29 (18 probable females, 11 definite females), 1,883 males (22 proba-
ble males, 1,861 definite males), and 1,317 individuals of indeterminate
sex (Signoli et al., 2004). Based on osteological evidence, a majority of
the individuals excavated were estimated to be between 20 and 30
years of age at the time of death.
Previous bioarchaeological studies with this sample provide insight
into childhood stress, adult diet, and infectious disease experienced by
Napoleon’s Army. Low rates of dental attrition, antemortem tooth loss,
and low prevalence of calculus and abscesses indicated good dental
health in Napoleon’s young soldiers (Palubeckaite_ et al., 2006). A
majority of individuals analyzed had one-to-two hypoplasias of mild to
moderate degree, occurring between the third and fourth years of life
(Palubeckaite_ et al., 2006). Although the overall rate of carious lesions
was low, the location (i.e., pulp caries) and number of carious lesions in
various individuals indicates an increased susceptibility to dental dis-
ease and points to high carbohydrate diet, consistent with war rations
(Palubeckaite_ et al., 2006). Ancient DNA analysis of lice discovered in
the mass grave and dental pulp of Napoleonic soldiers confirmed his-
toric accounts of the presence of trench fever (Bartonella quintana) and
epidemic typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii) (Raoult et al., 2006).
5 | MATERIALS AND METHODS
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis was performed on the fem-


oral bone collagen of 78 of the 3,269 individuals excavated at Siaur _
es
miestelis to reconstruct diet. The sample size is limited by circum-
stance; only a limited number of femora were retained for further
investigation during this salvage excavation (Signoli et al., 2004), while
the remaining skeletons were interred in a large mass grave in the
local Antakalnis military cemetery. A majority of the individuals were
selected due to perceived macroscopic preservation and skeletal com-
pleteness that enabled sex and age diagnostics. Seventy-two individu-
als were identified as male, three as female, one as a probable male,
and two were of unknown sex. Due to the small female sample, inter-
pretations of females are subsumed into the general discussion of this
sample and not addressed separately. Estimated age at death ranged in
this sample from 16 to 50 years, and the age of each individual was
reported using age ranges (Supporting Information Table S2).
During initial sampling, up to 20 g of cortical bone was removed
from each left femoral diaphysis using a hand-held rotary tool with
fiberglass reinforced cutoff wheels; 4–6 g were extracted and crushed
into small pieces for this analysis. Each sample was cleaned, dried,
weighed, and recorded prior to undergoing collagen extraction. Bone
collagen preparation for isotopic analysis was completed in UCF’s Lab-
oratory for Bioarchaeological Sciences following a modified version of
Longin’s collagen extraction protocol (1971). Although archaeological
4 | HOLDER ET AL.

FIGURE 1

Map of the location of Lithuania (inset) with the study site of Siaur _ miestelis noted by a red circle
es

FIGURE 2

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of bone collagen from the Siaur _ miestelis mass gravesite separated by sex
es
HOLDER ET AL.
samples rarely contain lipids, lipid extraction (after Jim, Ambrose, &
Evershed, 2004) was performed due to the relatively recent age of the
sample (ca. 200 years), and the presumed high level of preservation.
Approximately 15 mL of 2:1 chloroform:methanol was added to each
sample, stored in the fume hood for 20 min, and then spun down in
the centrifuge. Next, the inorganic portion of the bone was dissolved
using 0.5 M HCl for 4–6 weeks, followed by the removal of soil con-
taminating acids (e.g., humic and fulvic) through multiple 20 min
rinses in 0.1 M NaOH. The collagen-containing liquid was placed back
in the oven at 908C in an uncapped glass dram vial for 2–4 days to
break down collagen bonds. After, the vial was removed and weighed,
and collagen yields were calculated. All samples were placed into 3.5 3
5 mm tin capsules with weights ranging from 0.4 to 0.7 mg.
All samples were sent to the Colorado Plateau Stable Isotope Lab-
oratory (CPSIL) at Northern Arizona University for stable isotope ratio
analysis. Stable isotopes were measured through isotope ratio mass
spectrometry using a Delta V Advantage Mass Spectrometer with a
13
Carlo Erba NC2100 Elemental Analyzer. CPSIL reported d C (&) and
d15N (&) values, %C and %N values, and C:N. C:N was then converted
to atomic C:N. Precision of 60.2& for d13C and 60.08& for d15N is
reported based on 25 peach leaves standards analyzed during bone
collagen sample analysis. Accuracy is better than 60.1& for both d C 13
and d15N based on duplicate measurements of eight individual bone
collagen samples.
6 | RESULTS
Isotopic data collected for each individual sampled are presented in
13 15
Figure 2 and Supporting Information Table S2; both d C and d N val-
ues show a wide range of variation. The d13C values range from
219.2& to 211.8& with a mean of 217.2& 6 1.5& (1r). The d15N
values range from 7.1& to 13.6& with a mean of 10.5& 6 1.4& (1r).
There is no linear relationship between d13C and d15N for this sample
(R2 5 0.0156). All 78 samples fall within the range of well-preserved C:
N range of 2.9 to 3.6 (DeNiro, 1985).
7 | DISCUSSION
The interpretations presented here are predicated on the assumption
that all of the male individuals in the mass grave were soldiers, but it
should be noted that nonsoldiers may be represented in the mass
grave. Although historical and archaeological evidence demonstrates
that this mass grave contains the skeletal remains of soldiers from
Napoleon’s Grand Army (Signoli et al., 2004), reports indicate that con-
voys of nonsoldiers (e.g., foreigners formerly living in Moscow, officer’s
wives) followed the Grand Army during their retreat from Moscow
(Everatt, 2011; Nicolson, 1985) and may have also been buried in this
mass grave. This is supported by the presence of females in the mass
grave, who most likely were civilians that provided services to the sol-
diers (Cardoza, 2010; Elting, 1988). Presence of local individuals in the
mass grave is unlikely given the associated artifacts (Signoli et al.,
2004), only a brief disruption of social life and food supply to Vilnius,
| 5
and no spread of epidemics that would increase mortality among locals
(Frank, 2001). The period of turmoil related to the retreat lasted less
than a week with Russian troops quickly overtaking Vilnius without
major combat and quickly reestablishing civil order. A well-organized
removal of corpses from the town took place under the auspices of a
professor of “medical police,” again making it highly unlikely that locals
were inhumed into mass graves with foreign soldiers (Frank, 2001;
Pugačiauskas, 2004).
Further support for the assumption that the mass grave does not
contain local Lithuanians can be found in Figure 3, displaying d13C and


d15N values from the Siaur _ miestelis sample, townspeople from Aly-
es
tus (Whitmore, 2014), and elite burials from four churches in Vilnius
(Reitsema, Kozłowski, Jankauskas, Drąz_ kowska, & Krajewska, 2015).
While there is considerable overlap in d15N values among these groups,


the Siaur _ miestelis sample overlaps with only one of the 72 d13C val-
es
ues from the other Lithuanian sites. It is clear that historic Lithuanian
populations consumed more of a C3-based diet than individuals associ-
ated with Napoleon’s Army. Dietary differences between these groups,
as reflected in d13C values, support the claim that the mass grave at


Siaur _ miestelis did not contain local townspeople.
es
The isotopic variation exhibited in Napoleon’s Army can be
explained by a number of factors. First, Napoleon’s Army was multieth-
nic, with soldiers originating from all over Europe (Esdaile, 2008; Gould,
1995; Oliver & Partridge, 2002; Signoli et al., 2004). Given that femoral
bone collagen reflects the average diet over the past 110 years
(Hedges, Clement, Thomas, & O’connell, 2007), the range of isotope
values is partially explained by differences in diet prior to military serv-
ice. Second, French and allied military campaigns took place in Italy and
Egypt during the late 1700s and throughout Europe during the early
1800s (Esdaile, 2008; Gates, 1997). Foraging and resource requisition
is well documented throughout these campaigns (Riehn, 1990; Riley,
2007). Therefore, where individuals served further contribute to the
high degree of isotopic variation. Third, rank and status differences
may also contribute to dietary variation through unequal access to
resources, such as terrestrial animal protein. For example, Imperial
guardsmen had the only permanent supply train in the French army
resulting in better and more consistent rations than their counterparts
(Rothenberg, 1981). Additionally, officers drew larger rations than the
average French soldier (Elting, 1988). Lastly, nondietary factors could
be contributing to the variation in d15N values in this sample. Nutri-
tional stress experienced prior to military service in low-status individu-
als (Knapp, 1988; Komlos, 1998), and throughout military service
associated with food shortage issues during military campaigns
(Nafziger, 1988; Rothenberg, 1981), could lead to elevated d15N values
in some of these individuals.
7.1 | Interpretation of isotopic trends
in Napoleon’s Army
Stable carbon isotope values for human bone collagen in a temperate
environment with little to no marine or C4 resources are typically
between 219& and 222& (van Klinken, 1999). Only two individuals
in this sample exhibit d13C values within that range. Higher d13C values
6 | HOLDER ET AL.

FIGURE 3

Comparative stable isotope data for three Lithuanian sites: Siaur _ miestelis, Alytus (Whitmore, 2014), and elite burials from
es
four churches (Church of Our Lady of Assumption, Church of St. Francis and St. Bernard, The Cathedral of Vilnius, and Church of St.
Catherine) in Vilnius (Reitsema et al., 2015)

in the remainder of the sample indicate varying amounts of marine
13
and/or C4 protein input. Ten individuals exhibit d C values greater
than 216& (see Supporting Information Table S2). A significant marine
15
dietary component can likely be eliminated because d N values are


relatively low (Lightfoot, Slaus, & O’Connell, 2012; Reitsema & Vercel-
lotti, 2012). Therefore, C4 protein consumed directly, and possibly indi-
rectly through animal protein foddered on C4 vegetation, was likely a
13
major source of dietary protein and the cause of C-enrichment in
these individuals. Individuals with C4-based diets may have originated
from Italy or Poland. Stable isotope evidence from archaeological

FIGURE 4

Siaur _ miestelis and previously published continental European terrestrial fauna, marine fish, and freshwater fish stable isotope
es
€ldner, Van Neer, Ervynck, and Richards, 2012; Herrscher et al., 2001; Quintelier
data (Alexander et al., 2015; Barrett et al., 2011; Fuller, Mu
et al., 2014; Reitsema et al., 2010)
HOLDER ET AL.
FIGURE 5 Femoral isotope data for Royal Navy servicemen from the site of Haslar, Gosport, UK published in Roberts et al. (2012) and


Napoleonic soldiers and camp followers from the site of Siaur _ miestelis
es
samples with evidence of C4 plant consumption from Italy and Poland
(Killgrove & Tykot, 2013; Reitsema & Kozlowski, 2013; Reitsema &
Vercellotti, 2012; Reitsema, Kozlowski, & Makowiecki, 2012; Tafuri
et al., 2009), historic documentation of regiments from these regions in
the Grand Army (Esdaile, 2008; Gould, 1995; Oliver & Partridge, 2002;
Schneid, 1995), and the presence Italian and Polish regiment buttons in
the mass grave support this interpretation (Signoli et al., 2004).
Three individuals exhibit d13C values between 219& and 217&
and d15N values greater than 13& (see Supporting Information Table
S2). There are a number of plausible explanations for these values,
which include: high terrestrial protein consumption, freshwater fish
consumption, heavy manuring of crops, and nutritional stress. Determi-
nation of the most likely cause(s) of these elevated d15N values in these
individuals will be the subject of future research.
Seventy-five individuals exhibit d13C values between 215& and
220&, forming two visually distinct clusters based on their d15N val-
ues: 7–10& (n 5 20) and 10–13& (n 5 45) (see Figure 2). The first
cluster (i.e., 7–10&) likely consumed a C3-based vegetal diet with
some C4 inputs and limited amounts of terrestrial animal protein. These
individuals may have been lower ranking individuals or conscripts that
had limited access to meat protein prior to and during military service
(Elting, 1988; Knapp, 1988, 1997). The second cluster of individuals
also likely consumed a C3-based vegetal diet with some C4 inputs but
with more contribution of d15N values from terrestrial animal protein.
This latter group may reflect high-ranking soldiers and/or individuals
with higher status and greater access to animal protein prior to and
during military service. Individuals serving in the Imperial Guard, cav-
alry, and high-ranking officers may fall into this latter group (Elting,
1988; Rothenberg, 1981). All three females fall into this group, indicat-
| 7
ing access to protein prior to and during their time travelling with
Napoleon’s Army. Because faunal remains used to create an isotopic


food web were lacking for this sample, individuals from Siaur _ mieste-
es
lis were compared to faunal stable isotope data from other sites and
time periods in Europe (see Figure 4). If a tissue–tissue spacing of 1&
for carbon and of 3–6& for nitrogen is added to the terrestrial faunal
rrez, & Millard, 2015;
values in Figure 4 (Alexander, Gerrard, Gutie
Herrscher, Bocherens, Valentin, & Colardelle, 2001; Quintelier et al.,
2014; Reitsema, Crews, & Polcyn, 2010), these values overlap with the
Napoleonic sample, demonstrating that terrestrial animal protein pro-
vided a major dietary contribution to this group and likely accounts for
some of the variation.
7.2 | Isotopic comparison with other
European populations
For comparison, stable isotope data from a contemporaneous military
population are displayed in Figure 5. Stable isotope values of individu-
als in Napoleon’s Grand Army (including females) were compared with
servicemen in Britain’s Royal Navy from a cemetery linked to the
Royal Hospital at Haslar, Gosport (1753–1826), published by Roberts
et al. (2012) (see Figure 5). Napoleon’s army and the British Royal
Navy share characteristics that make comparison amenable: both
were mobile military populations that participated in campaigns inside
and outside of Europe, both were composed of individuals from vary-
ing geographic and dietary origins, and both were prescribed rations
that were supplemented with local resources (Roberts et al., 2012).
Dietary variation was compared using Levene’s test for equality of
variances, with individuals from Gosport randomly resampled via
8 | HOLDER ET AL.

F I G U R E 6 Stable isotope ratios from Siaur _ miestelis compared to four continental European populations from previously published
es
dietary studies: Kaldus, Poland (Reitsema et al., 2012), Koksiide, Belgium (Polet and Katzenberg, 2003), Grenoble, France (Herrscher et al.,
2001), and Benipeixcar, Spain (Alexander et al., 2015)

bootstrapping to establish equal sample sizes for these two groups.
Results from Levene’s test indicate that there are statistically signifi-
cant differences in variance for both d C (p < .001) and d N
13 15
(p < .001) values between these two military samples. The significantly
greater variance in stable isotope values of individuals from the site of


Siaur _ miestelis compared to Gosport attests to the high degree of
es
dietary variation in Napoleon’s Grand Army.
Comparative continental European populations are displayed in
Figure 6. The absence of a predominantly C3-based diet in Napoleon’s
army is underscored by comparison with a sample from the Medieval
French Alps (Herrscher et al., 2001) that exhibits d13C values indica-


tive of a C3 diet. The overlap of individuals from Siaur _ miestelis with
es
three European populations demonstrates the dietary breadth of
jares
Napoleonic soldiers and camp followers: Medieval Spanish Mude
that consumed a mixed C3 and C4 diet with some marine consumption
(Alexander et al., 2015), a Medieval Polish sample that consumed vari-
able amounts of C4 plants (Reitsema et al., 2012), and a Medieval Bel-
gian sample that consumed a predominantly terrestrial diet with a
minor contribution of marine protein (Polet & Katzenberg, 2003). The
overlap with Medieval populations also suggests that marine resour-
ces may have served as a minor dietary component for many individu-
als in this study. Comparison with other European populations has
reaffirmed and expanded our interpretations for Napoleon’s Army in
regards to significant dietary variation and marine contribution.
7.3 | Future research
The dietary interpretations presented would benefit from additional
analyses and methods. While the present study focused on dietary pro-
tein, isotopic analysis of bone apatite provides insight into whole diet
(Ambrose & Norr, 1993; Jim et al., 2004; Tieszen & Fagre, 1993). Sta-
tistical models that use stable isotope data from bone collagen and apa-
tite for dietary reconstruction offer an avenue to refine current dietary
interpretations (Fernandes, Millard, Brabec, Nardeau, & Grootes, 2014;
Froehle, Kellner, & Schoeninger, 2012). The analysis of compound spe-
cific amino acids may be useful in disentangling potential causes of ele-
vated d15N values discovered in three individuals in the current study
(Hare, Fogel, Stafford, Mitchell, & Hoering, 1991; Naito, Chikaraishi,
Ohkouchi, Drucker, & Bocherens, 2013; Styring et al., 2015; Styring,
Fraser, Bogaard, & Evershed, 2014). Lastly, a life history approach to
diet reconstruction, which incorporates the analysis of multiple skeletal
elements with different collagen turnover times (e.g., femora and ribs),
offers the opportunity to explore changes in diet associated with mili-
tary service (Beaumont & Montgomery, 2016; Jørkov, Heinemeier, &
Lynnerup, 2009; Lamb, Evans, Buckley, & Appleby, 2014; Pollard et al.,
2012; Sealy, Armstrong, & Schrire, 1995).
8 | CONCLUSIONS
This research provides insight into dietary variation of individuals exca-

_ miestelis. The considerable variation in
vated from the site of Siaur es
d13C and d15N values in Napoleonic soldiers and camp followers is
indicative of dietary variation associated with a multiethnic and socially
stratified military population. Dietary variation was significantly higher
in this sample compared to a contemporaneous military population
from England. Diets ranged from predominantly C3-based to predomi-
nantly C4-based, with varying inputs of terrestrial, freshwater, and
HOLDER ET AL.
marine animal protein. The range of diets likely stems from a combina-
tion of dietary differences associated with soldiers and camp followers
originating from different parts of Europe and the extraction of local
resources during war campaigns. Future isotopic research may be use-
ful in refining the dietary interpretations of the present study.
ACKNOWLE DGMENTS
We wish to thank archaeologists Prof. A. Kuncevičius and Dr. J.
Po
skiene_ for their support during archaeological excavations, and Drs.
A. Urbanavičius, V. Suncovas and J. Kozakaite_ for assistance in bone
sample collection. We thank Dr. J. Marla Toyne for her valuable com-
ments on this work, and Dr. Laurie J. Reitsema for graciously sharing
unpublished data with the authors. We also thank the editor, Dr. Peter
T. Ellison, and the anonymous reviewers whose suggestions made this
a much stronger manuscript. This project was funded by a UCF Col-
lege of Sciences Seed Research Grant to T. Dupras.
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S UPPORTING INF ORMATION
Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online ver-
sion of this article.
How to cite this article: Holder S, Dupras TL, Jankauskas R,
William L, Schultz J. Reconstructing diet in Napoleon’s Grand
Army using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis. Am J
Phys Anthropol. 2017;00:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.
23184