I

Lesson-4 I
Lesson-1
Evaluation of soil fertility
Introduction to Heat and Mass Transfer and Their Analogous Behaviour
Content
Assignment
 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

Course Name Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and

Nutrient Management
Unit No. 1
Lesson 4 Evaluation of soil fertility
Content Creator Dr Dinesh Kumar
University Name IARI - Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Unit Reviewer Mr. Vinod kumar Singh
University Name IARI - Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Course Reviewer Dr Rajendra Singh Yadav

University Name Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural

University, Bikaner

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

Lecture 4. Evaluation of soil fertility

4.1 Learning objectives

After completion of this lecture, the students would be able to:
 Explain the meaning and need of soil fertility evaluation
 Describe the methods for evaluation of soil fertility

4.2 Glossary

Available : Form(s) of a plant nutrient in the soil, fertilizer or

nutrient organic materials that is immediately or potentially
available for plants.
Chlorophylls : The green pigments found in cyanobacteria,
chloroplasts of algae and green plants, being essential
for photosynthesis.
Control plot : It is a reference plot included in field or laboratory
experiments for comparing the relative performance of
treatments under study.
Element : A pure substance, which is composed of chemically
similar atoms. Characterized by its unique atomic
number.
F-test : The statistical test in which the test statistic has F-
distribution under the null hypothesis. Used for testing
equality of variances, equality of several means using
ANOVA and significance of regression models.
Leaf colour : A tool to optimize the use of N in cereal crops. It
chart provides a simple, easy-to-use and inexpensive tool for
efficient N management.
Plant : Collecting representative sample from the plant is
sampling plant sampling. It should be taken from specific plant
parts at a specified growth stage.

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Remote : The collection of information from an object or surface

sensing without any direct contact.
Soil testing : Soil analysis, usually conducted to estimate the plant-
available concentrations of nutrients in soil with
different objectives.
SPAD meter : The SPAD 502 model chlorophyll meter developed by
the soil-plant analysis department (SPAD) section of
Minolta Camera Company.

4.3 Methods for evaluation of soil fertility

For supplying the right quantity of nutrients through external sources, it is
important to see the status of available nutrients in soil. Thus evaluation of
soil fertility is carried out to provide the recommendation of various
nutrients. The soil fertility evaluation consists of estimating the available
nutrient status of a soil for crop production. The gap in nutrients required
by the crop and available from the soil is filled by the external application
of nutrients.A variety of tools and methods are used in evaluation of soil
fertility. The results of the soil fertility evaluation can facilitate the optimal
nutrient supply and minimum loss of soil fertility. There are number of
methods employed to evaluate the soil fertility (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1 Methods for Evaluation of soil fertility

1. Visual plant diagnosis (i) Symptoms (ii) Symptoms
first appear on first appear on
old leaves young leaves
2. Plant (i) Rapid tissue tests (ii) Total Interpretation
analysis analysis of by:
nutrients in a) Critical
plants (Plant concentration
sampling, of nutrients
processing b) Nutrient
and analysis, ratios (DRIS)

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

and c) Chlorophyll
Interpretation) meters and
LCC

3. Soil testing/ (i) Sampling, labelling and (ii) Extraction (iii)

analysis processing of soil samples of nutrients Interpretation
and chemical of results (rating
analysis of soil chart)
samples
4. (i) (ii) Aspergillus (iii)
Microbiological Azotobacterplaquetechnique nigertest Cunninghamella
methods plaque method
(iv) Carbon
dioxide
evolution
method

5. Remote NDVI - Normalized

sensing Difference
method Vegetation
Index

6. Field (i) Control test plot (ii) Complex

experiments experiments

4.3.1 Visual plant diagnosis

A dark-green colour of the leaf or plant parts is a good indicator of optimum
nutrient supply and plant health. The degree of “greenness” can be
specified in exact terms for each crop using Munsell’s Plant Colour Chart or
any other suitable charts (Roy et al., 2006). Any change from dark-green to
light yellow or greenish colour generally suggests a nutrient supply
problem if other factors are not responsible. Many external factors can also

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

result in yellow colour of leaves, such as, cold weather, plant diseases and
damage caused by chemical sprayings, air pollution, etc.
A change from the normal green colour can be easily judged.
However, it may not always happen due to the deficiency of nitrogen, as
people think normally. Furthermore, sometimes the leaf colour may be
appropriate, but there may be a hidden hunger (no apparent symptoms)
that is very difficult to establish from visual observations. Such hidden
hunger may cause the reduction in growth and yield of plants. Under such
situation, the chemical plant analysis would serve as a better alternative
(Roy et al., 2006). Nevertheless, the deficiency symptoms can serve a
means for detecting nutrient deficiencies. The deficiency symptoms are
more reliable when a single nutrient is deficient and all other growth
factors are at optimum level. Some broader guidelines for the visual
symptoms of nutrient deficiencies in cereals are described below:

4.3.1.1 Deficiency symptoms first appearing on older leaves

 Nitrogen deficiency- chlorosis generally starts from the leaf tips, later
leaves turn yellowish.
 Phosphorus deficiency - reddish discoloration on dark green leaves.
 Potassium deficiency - brown necrotic margins on leaves and wilted
appearance of plants.
 Magnesium deficiency - stripe chlorosis, mainly between veins, but vein
remain green.
 Chloride deficiency – yellow, necrotic spots, distinct boundary between
dead/ live tissues.
 Molybdenum deficiency – light green, necrotic spots, leaves scorched,
cupped and rolled.

4.3.1.2 Deficiencies symptoms first appearing on younger leaves

 Sulphur deficiency - completely yellowish-green leaves with yellowish
veins, no spots or strips.
 Iron deficiency - yellow or pale yellow to white leaves with green veins
 Copper deficiency - youngest leaf with white, withered and twisted tip.

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 Calcium deficiency - yellowish leaves with brownish spots, terminal bud

cupped down.
 Manganese deficiency - spot necrosis: greyish-brown stripe-form spots
in oats.
 Zinc deficiency – light green, yellow, or white areas between veins
 Boron deficiency – new leaves either light green at base, chlorotic,
twisted, brittle and necrotic new leaves

4.3.2 Plant analysis

4.3.2.1 Rapid tissue tests
Rapid tissue tests are employed to quickly identify the nutritional status of
the plants. It can tell us the apparentnutrient insufficiency and guide if
additional dose of nutrient to be added. Such tests are conducted directly
in the field on extracted sap or fresh tissues of leaves. The developmentof
a colour and its intensity are used to identify the presence of anelement.
The results are available in less time with low cost compared with the
quantitative plant chemical analysis. Tissue tests are not quantitative, but
provide the qualitative information about the status of nutrients in crop.
Such tests can only be considered as a guide rather than as the main stay
for nutrient recommendations.
For such tests, the conducting tissues of the most recently matured
leaves are used. Generally, leaf petioles are used for vegetable crops. All
leaf samples should be collected randomly at the common time, say in
middle of the day. In rapid tissue testing, specific portion of leaves is
chopped and certain extractants are used to get the nutrients in solution.
Later on, depending upon the nutrient, specific reagents are added to the
sap for colour development. The intensity of the developed colour is
matched against the colours given in a colour chart. Depending upon the
shades of the colour in chart, the nutrient content can be grouped into very
low, low, medium and high.

4.3.2.2 Total analysis of nutrients in plants

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The chemical analysis of plant parts gives exact concentration of different

nutrients. This quantitative analysis of nutrients in plants provides reliable
information on their nutritional status. It indicates the current status of
nutrient supply and helps in deciding the need for supplementary nutrient.
The maincomponents of plant analysis are (Roy et al., 2006):

(i) Plant sampling: Representative sampling is done for a specific plant

part at a defined growth stage. Such plant parts and growth stages
should be closely associated with the critical values of different
nutrients. All the necessary guidelines should be followed in
sampling the plants for chemical analysis.
(ii) Sample preparation: The sampled plant parts should be washed as
soon as possible first with clean water, followed by the distilled
water. Initially, it should be air dried followed by oven drying at 70
°C. At last, samples should be ground properly by a suitable machine.
The contamination of samples with any foreign materials should be
avoided. Samples should be mixed well before they are stored or
used for chemical analysis.
(iii) Analysis: After dry ashing or wet digestion and complete dissolution,
the nutrients are estimated by using suitable analytical methods. The
results are expressed as a concentrationon dry matter basis (percent
or mg/g for major nutrients; μg/g = mg/kg = ppm for micronutrients).
(iv) Interpretation: Interpretation of the results is based on the total
concentrations of nutrients in the dry matter in whole plant/ plant
parts, and then compared with standard values of “critical nutrient
concentrations”. Further, many nutrient interactions also happen in
the plant tissues. Thus, beside critical concentration of nutrients the
interpretation of “nutrient ratios” could also be helpful in deciding
the course of correcting the nutrient deficiency.

4.3.2.2.1 Critical concentration of nutrients (CCN)

The nutrient concentration between the deficiency and optimal supply
range is the critical nutrient range. Generally, the CCN is the concentration

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of a nutrient in the plant that is likely to result in 90 percent of the

maximum yields. Thus, if a nutrient is present below CCN, the yield or
quality of crops decline. If the supply of a deficient nutrient is increased in
soil, the crop growth or yield will increase till the CCN is exceeded.
However, CCN provides a yes or no type of information and exact nutrient
requirements cannot be made known. The values of CCNs at different
growth stages of crops are available in literature for most nutrients (Table
4.2).

Table 4.2. Critical nutrient concentrations for 90-percent yield for

interpretation of plant analysis data (Roy et al., 2006)
Element Wheat Oilseed Sugarca Alfalfa Grass* Citrus
& rice rape ne (Lucerne
)
(%)
N 3.00 3.50 1.50 3.50 3.00 2.50
P 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.25 0.40 0.15
K 2.50 2.50 1.50 2.00 2.50 1.00
Mg 0.15 0.20 0.12 0.25 0.20 0.20
S 0.15 0.50 0.15 0.30 0.20 0.15
(g/g)
Mn 30.0 30.0 20.0 30.00 60.00 25.00
Zn 20.0 20.0 15.0 15.00 50.00 20.00
Cu 5.00 5.00 3.00 5.00 8.00 5.00
B 6.00 25.00 1.50 25.00 6.00 25.00
Mo 0.30 0.30 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.20
Note: Growth stage and plant parts used: wheat/rice: 1 - 2 nodes, whole
shoots; oilseed rape: pre-flowering, youngest mature leaf; sugarcane: 5-7
months, third leaf blade from top; alfalfa(lucerne): pre-flowering, whole
shoots; grass: pre-flowering, whole shoots; citrus: 5-7 months old leaves
from mid of non-fruiting branch. *Not critical but optimal concentrations
for cows producing 15 litres of milk per day. (Roy et al., 2006)

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4.3.2.2.2 Nutrient ratios

After quantitative chemical analysis of plant tissues, different nutrient
ratios can be used to assess the crop nutrient balances. Such technique is
also known as the “Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System
(DRIS)”, first introduced by Beaufils (1973). This approach consists of
relationship between a pair of nutrients (N/P, P/N, N/K, K/N...) in place of
nutrient sufficiency or nutrient critical concentration. Ithelps to judge the
balance of nutrients in plants, ranking the levels of nutrients in sequence,
beginning with the severlydeficient to the highly sufficient. It determines
the nutrient needs of plants much before their deficiency or excess is able
to reduce the growth or crop yields.
In general, if a nutrient ratio is in optimal range, the optimal yield is
obtained if other factors are at sufficient level. If a ratio is low, a response
to the nutrient in the numerator may be realized. Further, when a nutrient
in the denominator is sufficiently high, yield response to the application of
the nutrient in the numerator may or may not be realized. If the ratio is too
high, the reverse will hold true. The values of optimum nutrient ratios at
different growth stages of crops are available in the literature for most
nutrients.

4.3.2.2.3 Chlorophyll meters and leaf colour charts

As a diagnostic tool, particularly for N in standing crops, the chlorophyll
meters and leafcolour charts (LCC) are finding use in rice, maize and some
other crops. These tools can be employed for regular monitoring of plant
N status up to the flowering stage. Chlorophyll meters measure the leaf
greenness, which is a measure of the chlorophyll content in plant leaves.
Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) chlorophyll meter is the most
commonly used to measure nitrogen status of plants (Figure 4.1). It is
established fact that leaf chlorophyll is highly correlated with nitrogen
content in leaf. Application of nitrogen increases nitrogen concentration
and chlorophyll content in leaves of nitrogen deficient plants. Further, the
chlorophyll content decreases with plant maturity. The major advantage of

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chlorophyll meter is its ability to detect nutrient stress before the

deficiency symptoms appear.
In case if chlorophyll meters are unavailable, the easy to use leaf
colour charts can be employed to assess the current status of nitrogen in
plants (Figure 4.2). It helps in better management of nitrogen, particularly
in cereal crops, like rice, wheat and maize. Crop nitrogen status is
monitored at a fixed interval by comparing the leaf colour with panels of
critical colours given in the chart. It will thus help in deciding the best time
of topdressing of nitrogenous fertilizers in nitrogen deficient crops.

Figure 4.1SPAD Figure 4.2Leaf colour chart

meter

4.3.3 Soil testing/ analysis

Soil testing is used to find the status of available and potentially available
nutrients in the soil. It is the most widely used for making balanced and
profit maximizing nutrientrecommendations for field crops. Soil testing is
useful only when the interpretation of test results is based on correlation
with crop response and economic considerations to arrive at practically
usable nutrient recommendation for a given soil–crop situation (Roy et al.,
2006).
Based on a high degree of correlation between the soil test value of
a nutrient and therefore the crop response to its application, the
probability of a response to nutrient input are often predicted. This is a

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basis for creating practical fertilizer recommendations.The important

objectives of the soil testing are:

ʘ To accurately determine the status of certain available nutrients in

soils. Fertilizer recommendation could be developed on this basis.
ʘ To clearly decide the seriousness of any deficiency or toxicity of
nutrients that may exist in different crops.
ʘ To determine the chemical forms of available nutrients in soils and
their mobility
ʘ To judge the general health and productivity of the soils for different
crops
ʘ To estimate the response of crops to rates and methods of fertilizer
application
ʘ To compare the effect of seasons on nutrient availability
ʘ To understand the interactions of a nutrient with moisture and other
nutrients.

The major steps in soil testing are:

4.3.3.1Representative soil sampling from the fields
4.3.3.2Proper identification and labelling of the soil samples
4.3.3.3Preparation/ processing of soil samples
4.3.3.4Extraction of available nutrients by an appropriate method
4.3.3.5Chemical analysis of extracted nutrients
For the above steps (from 4.31 to 4.3.5) please consult Prasad et al.
(2018) or any other study materials on the topics. However, interpretation
of soil analysis data is described below.

4.3.3.6 Interpretation of analytical data for fertilizer requirement

The results of soil testing should now be interpreted into ranges of nutrient
supply and then into the nutrient amounts required to reach a certain yield
level. In general, the lower the soil test value of a nutrient, higher is the
need for external nutrient application. Similarly, for a very high soil test
value, no external addition of the nutrient is usually required.

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For macronutrients, the data are generally classified into different

categories of supply, e.g.: low, medium and high. Under these categories,
the nutrient amounts required for an optimal yield level are worked out.
For micronutrients,a critical level is used to decide the need of the nutrient.
For a soil of medium CEC (10–20 cmol/kg), the relationship of available
nutrient status to the expected yields (without external application of
nutrients) is given in Table 4.3. The values in the last column of the table
provide the approximate yield level that the existing soil fertility could
support.

Table 4.3Interpretation of soil test data for some nutrients in soil with
medium CEC
Soil Available nutrient (mg/kg soil) Expected
fertility Phosphorus Potassium Magnesium relative yield
class (P) (K) (Mg) without fertilizer
(%)
Very low <5 < 50 < 20 < 50
Low 5–9 50 – 100 20 – 40 50 – 80
Medium 10 – 17 100 – 175 40 – 80 80 – 100
High 18 – 25 175 – 300 80 – 100 100
Very high > 25 > 300 > 180 100
FAO (1980)

Singh and Singh (2016) have summarized the probability of a yield

increase due to fertilizer application. They found such procedure to
develop fertilizer recommendations suitable, particularly for nutrients
such as P and K, generally considered immobile in the soil.
Nutrients’rating chart represent general norms but can vary widely
with the kind of soil, crop and method used in analysis. Therefore, only
locally developed fertility limits should be used for specific soils and crops,
even within a country or region. (Table 4.4).On the basis of soil testing,
nutrient supply maps can be drawn for farms, larger regions and countries.

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Such maps provide a useful generalized picture of the soil fertility of an

area.

Table 4.4Rating chart of essential nutrients in India

Nutrient low medium high
Organic carbon (as a
measure of available below 0.5% 0.5-0.75% above 0.75%
nitrogen)
below 280 above 560
Available nitrogen (N) 280-560 kg/ha
kg/ha kg/ha
above 24.6
Available phosphorus (P) below 10 kg/ha 10-24.6 kg/ha
kg/ha
below 110 above 280
Available potassium (K) 110-280 kg/ha
kg/ha kg/ha
(Subba Rao, 1995)

4.3.4 Microbiological methods

Certain microorganisms can be used to evaluate the fertility status of soils.
In fact, the response of certain microorganisms to the deficiency or excess
of a specific nutrient in a soil can be used to judge the nutrient status. Using
these methods, the soil can be rated from ‘very deficient’ to ‘not deficient’
in different nutrients, depending on the extent of colony growth. In
comparison with methods that utilize higher plants, microbiological
methods are rapid, simple, convenient, and less expensive. Some of these
methods are listed below.
(i) Azotobacter Plaque Technique: Used to study the phosphorus and
potassium status of soils.
(ii) Aspergillus niger test: Used to determine the status of phosphorus and
potassium in soils.
(iii) Cunninghamella Plaque Method: Used to assess the phosphorus
status of soils.
(iv) Carbon Dioxide Evolution Method: Used mainly to judge the soil
organic matter status.
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4.3.5 Remote sensing method

Certain visible and near-infrared sensors are employed to judge the biotic
and abiotic (nutrient deficiency) stresses of plants. If light energy (green,
blue, red, and near-infrared wavelengths) falls on a leaf, the blue and red
wavelengths are absorbed by the chlorophyll, and green and near-infrared
wavelengths are reflected. This reflected light can be monitored by a
sensor. This contrast of light reflectance and absorption by leaves can be
used to assess the quantity and quality of the vegetation. In general, the
nitrogen deficient leaves absorb less light energy. For evaluation of
vegetation cover, the following index is computed.

NIR –
PAR
NDVI (Normalized Difference = ------------
Vegetation Index) --
NIR +
PAR
The use of this index is based on the assumption that the growing
plants strongly absorb the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) or
visible light, and strongly reflecting the near-infrared radiation (NIR). This
index has been found to be highly correlated with nitrogen in plant. Thus
this index can be successfully used to decide the nitrogen need of crops
during their growth.

4.3.6 Field experiments

Field experimentation is a well-established andefficient technique to
assess the nutrient needs of crops. Further, such experiments are also
useful for the calibration of soil test and plant analysis results with crop
response (Roy et al., 2006). Such experiments provide direct information
on the amounts of nutrients required by a crop under specific soil condition
at a given yield level. Such experimentation does not suit in real farming
situations due to complexities and costs incurred. Thus, such experiments

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are conducted by the scientists for producing the background data

required to develop the practical recommendations for crop production.
Such experiments can generate the information on soil nutrient supply, on
optimal rates and combinations of nutrients, best timing, application
techniques, etc. Such experiments are generally conducted under field
conditions of research stations and farmers’ fields. In general, the
greenhouseexperiments are cost effective, but they generate very small
information of practical value. Field experiments can be of two types:
simple test plots or complex replicated experiments (Roy et al., 2006).

4.3.6.1 Control test plot

This is the simplest and basic field experiment mostly using strip technique.
Here, a small plot or section of the main field is treated differently. Further,
such strip can be used to demonstrate the fertilizer technologies. The strip
receives optimal balanced fertilizer and the remaining field is unfertilized
or treated as per the farmer’s practice. The technique can also be
employed to determine whether a particular nutrient is likely to be
deficient and should be included in the fertilizer programme. For example,
to determine the need for K, the strip is fertilized with NP+ K while the
remaining area receives NP only. By comparing the colour, growth and
yield of the crop in the strip and the remaining field, a decision can be made
about the changes required in the existing fertilization practices.

4.3.6.2 Complex experiments

The design and scope of fertilizer experiments in field varies from simple
studies of nutrient needs (e.g. whether crops respond to nitrogen,
phosphorus or potassium), to increasing nutrient rates for determining the
optimal rate and, finally, to complex experiments with several nutrients
and other factors. For successful experiments, variety of rules need to be
observed:(Roy et al., 2006):

ʘ The experimental field should be uniform in fertility.

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ʘ The experimental design should be chosen as per the standard

protocols and procedures.
ʘ The number of replications required depends on the purpose of the
experiment and the precision required.
ʘ The size of plots depends largely on the area available and the crop in
question. For most field crops an area of individual plot could be about
20–25 m2.
ʘ Rates of nutrient application should preferably be graded into equal
steps from zero (control plot) to the maximum yield (or above).
ʘ The total number of plots is determined by the number of different
treatments and the number of replications, e.g. five rates of N
application (say, 0–40–80–120–160 kg/ha) with four replications
requires 20 plots.
ʘ Good management practices including effective measures for soil, crop
and weed management should be adopted.
ʘ Special attention should be paid to the control plot so as to avoid any
contamination from the fertilizers applied in other plots.
ʘ The results must be analysed by appropriate statistical methods, e.g.
analysis of variance, and expressed with statistical significance of
differences in yield. A level of significance should also be declared.
ʘ Such field experiments usually have to run for at least three years in
order to obtain valid conclusions and eliminate season-to-season
variations.

If the results of fertilizer experiment are significant then response

curves may be fitted between fertilizer dose and economic (grain) yield. If
the linear relationship between the two variables (fertilizer dose and grain
yield) is found out to be non-significant (by F-test) then equation of higher
(second) order may be fitted in the data. If the quadratic equation is found
out to be significant by employing the F-test, then data should be fitted in
the quadratic equation using method of least squares. Further, it has
already been established through scores of studies that fertilizer doses and
grain yield normally follow the quadratic (curvilinear) relationship. This

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equation can be used to determine the optimum dose of fertilizer and

predicting the grain yields at unknown level of fertilizer within the range of
fertilizer doses used in the experiment.

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