I Content

Lesson-3 I
Lesson-1
Soil fertility decline and its restoration
Introduction to Heat and Mass Transfer and Their Analogous Behaviour
Assignment
 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

Course Name Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and

Nutrient Management
Unit No. 1
Lesson 3 Soil fertility decline and its restoration
Content Creator Dr Dinesh Kumar
University Name IARI - Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Unit Reviewer Mr. Vinod kumar Singh
University Name IARI - Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Course Reviewer Dr Rajendra Singh Yadav

University Name Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural

University, Bikaner

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

Lecture 3. Soil fertility decline and its restoration

3.1 Learning objectives

After completion of this lecture, the students would be able to:
 Explain the reasons for decline of soil fertility
 Describe the strategies for restoring the soil fertility

3.2 Glossary

Acidification : Process of becoming more acid.

Alkalization : Process of becoming more alkaline.
Ammonia : The gaseous loss of N as ammonia from the soil or
volatilization other materials.
Crop rotation : Crop rotation is a planned sequence of growing
different crops in the same field over a fixed period of
time. Crop rotations are the opposite to the
continuous cropping (monoculture), which is growing
the same crop in the same field year after year.
Denitrification : An anaerobic process in which soil nitrates are
converted into gaseous compounds (NO, N2O) and
escape from the soil.
Minimum : The minimum amount of cultivation to prepare a
tillage suitable seedbed. The main purpose is to reduce
energy consumption, conserve moisture, and retain
plant cover to minimize soil erosion.
Stubble : Part of the mature crop such as base of stem, roots
(but not leaves) left on the field after harvest.
Salinization : Accumulation of soluble salts at the surface or below
the surface of soil profile to levels that have negative
effects on plant growth.

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

Soil erosion : The detachment and transport of soil particles from

one place and their deposition at another place is soil
erosion.
Soil pollution : The presence or introduction of a certain pollutants
into the soil environment.

The fertility of Indian soils is on decline at a fast rate. More and more soils
are getting deficient in nitrogen, potassium, sulphur and many
micronutrients. The declining level of soil organic matter in many soils of
the country is a matter of worry. The main reason behind the reduced
fertility is intensification of land-use and an expansion of crop cultivation
onto marginal soils. As a result, soil fertility has declined and it is perceived
to be widespread in India. There are many reasons which are responsible
for the decline in soil fertility. To achieve sustainable crop production and
food security, the restoration of soil fertility appears to be indispensable.

3.3 Soil Fertility Decline

Under intensive crop production, large quantities of nutrients are removed
from the soil through the agricultural produce (food, fibre, fodder etc.) and
crop residues. The removal of nutrients may cause the decline of soil
fertility if the corresponding amount of nutrients is not added back into the
soil. A decline in soil fertility indicates a reduction in the quality of the soil.
The soil fertility decline is considered as the decline in chemical soil fertility
or a decrease in the levels of soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity
(CEC) and plant nutrients, and adverse soil pH. The soil fertility decline may,
in general, include:
(i) Loss of top soil by erosion
(ii) Mining/ depletion of nutrients (larger removal than their addition)
(iii) Acidification, salinization or alkalization
(iv) The reduced levels of soil organic matter
(v) Severe toxicity or deficiency of essential nutrients
(vi) Imbalance of nutrients in soil

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

3.4 Reasons for decline in soil fertility

A number of causes are responsible for the decline in soil fertility, e.g., soil
erosion, nutrient mining (removal or output greater than input), loss of
organic matter, acidification, salinization, water logging, and soil
compaction, etc. The important reasons for decline in soil fertility are
discussed below.

3.4.1 Loss of top soil by erosion

The erosion of soils is usual phenomena in many parts of the country. The
top soil is rich in nutrients, microbes and organic matter. Thus, the soil
fertility decreases substantially as the top soil lost by water or wind. This is
in fact an economic loss of essential plant nutrients and a potential
environmental hazard. If nutrients in eroded soils are transported to water
resources, they can create problems such as algal blooms and
eutrophication. Soil erosion chiefly results from undesirable human
activities, for example, cutting of forest, uncontrolled grazing of animals
and inefficient management of soil.

3.4.2 Nutrient mining

Uptake of more nutrients by crop plants than added by different sources
called as nutrient mining or depletion of nutrients. It is a more serious
issue, particularly under low to medium input crop production. Presently,
the nutrient mining as becoming an important limitation in intensive crop
production also. Nutrient mining is actually accelerated by imbalanced
fertilization. The mining of plant nutrients may be more pronounced in the
case of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. However, it would
depend upon the quantity of these nutrients stored in soil or applied from
the outside. The problem is more prominent in the areas where high
yielding varieties of crops are being grown (Figure 3.1).

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

(A)

(B)
Figure 3.1 Major reason for decline in soil fertility (A) and nutrient mining
from the soil (B)

3.4.3 Physical degradation of soil

The deterioration of soil physical properties, e.g. broken soil structure,
induced compaction, surface crusting and undesirable waterlogging
reduces soil fertility tremendously. Soil structure may change with
management practices. It can be changed for the better or worse,
depending upon the soil and crop management practices adopted. A
significant amount of nitrate-nitrogen may be lost by denitrification
process under waterlogging condition – the anaerobic environment. The
excessive soil tillage may be responsible for deterioration of soil structure.

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

However, with proper soil and crop management practices it can be

improved back. The compaction of soil reduces large pores, and adversely
affects aeration of soil and root growth.

3.4.4 Decrease in organic matter content and soil bioactivity

The reduced organic matter in soil causes a severe decline in fertility of
soils as it plays many key roles. The declined levels of soil organic matter
cause a decline in different soil properties. The organic matter of soil can
decline due to erosion or accelerated decomposition by high temperature
and moisture. When soils are tilled, organic matter decomposes faster than
no-till conditions because of changes in water, aeration, and temperature.
In addition, the activities of soil microbes decline if soil organic matter
declines. Microbes are primarily responsible for increasing the nutrient
availability. They take active part in cycling of several nutrients. The inputs
(gains) and outputs (losses) in an agroecosystem are detailed in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Gains and losses of soil organic matter in agroecosystems

3.4.5 Loss of nutrients through various routes

The plant nutrients can be lost from soil by different means, e.g. erosion of
soil, leaching and percolation, crop harvests or gaseous losses. Nutrient
removal by crop harvests compared with external nutrient inputs can be
similar, higher or lower. A Negative balance of plant nutrients can occur if
nutrient removals are larger than their additions. Excessive rainfall, or
excessive irrigation, resulting in the transport of water through the soil
profile by deep percolation will carry with it soluble nutrients (nitrate,
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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

sulphate and boron, etc.). The nitrogen can be lost by the denitrification
process under waterlogged conditions. The ammonia volatilization can
happen from urea and the ammonium-containing chemical fertilizers,
causing loss of N from the soil medium.

3.4.6 Soil acidification, salinization and alkalinisation

The process of salinization, alkalinization or acidification (Figure 3.3) may
reduce the fertility of soil, and these problems will cause nutrient
deficiencies, toxicities or imbalances. In general, the factors of soil
degradation are interactive in nature. The cation exchange capacity (CEC)
is usually saturated with alkali ions, most frequently by the excess sodium.
In these soils the structure deteriorates and impedes crop production
many times. Overall, such chemical degradation of soil reduces their
fertility.

Figure 3.3 Development of soil salinity in Jhajjar district of Haryana

3.4.7 Soil pollution

Soil fertility can be reduced substantially due to the injudicious application
of chemicals or entry of heavy metals into the soil. These chemicals and
heavy metals reduce the activity of soil organisms, which eventually causes
a decline in soil biological fertility.

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

3.4.8 Inefficient soil/ crop management: Poor or inefficient soil

management results in decreased soil fertility. The imperfect crop
rotations may usually decrease the fertility of soils substantially. Excessive
tillage usually results in soil erosion, which reduces soil fertility severely.

3.5 Restoration of soil fertility

A number of strategies can be employed to restore the reduced fertility of
soil. Some of the such measures are discussed below.

3.5.1 Preventing soil erosion

The detachment, transport, and deposition of soil particles by the action of
water or wind is called as soil erosion. Besides losses of nutrients, organic
matter and microbes, the soil structure can be deteriorated to a greater
extent. It also results in decreased soil depth which restricts the root
growth and hence restricted access to plant nutrients by the roots. The
improper crop, soil and tillage management can result in excessive soil
erosion. The eroded soils are very low in fertility.
Depending upon the soil erosion problem, practices like use of
windbreaks, terraces, mulching and deep-rooted plants may be adopted.
Windbreaks reduce the soil erosion by reducing the wind speed. Terraces
can be used to prevent the soil erosion on cultivated steep lands. Growing
of cover crops is also suggested to conserve the soil. Similarly, legume
crops should be included in the rotations to prevent the soil erosion and
for increasing the organic matter in soil. Crop residues should be recycled
regularly. Similarly, organic manures should be added continuously in the
soil. Furthermore, mulching is also a useful practice that prevents soil
erosion, improves infiltration of water, reduces evaporation of water, and
controls weeds.

3.5.2 Enhancing soil organic matter (SOM)

It is now a well-established fact that long term application of organic
manures and chemical fertilizers help to improve and maintain soil fertility/
productivity and soil physical conditions. Therefore, soil

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

fertility/productivity can be sustainably managed by efficient management

of nutrient additions to the soil through external sources. This includes
application of organic manures, biofertilizers and chemical fertilizers in the
right combination. Besides efficient nutrient management, thrust should
also be given to reduce the losses of SOM and conserve it in the soil. The
following practices may help in enhancing the SOM:
ʘ Add organic matter as stubble mulching, green manuring, compost, or
crop residues.
ʘ Adopt efficient crops and cropping system that add sufficient organic
matter in the soil. The deep rooted cover crops may be included in the
rotations. These crops help in improving the soil structure which
eventually prevents soil erosion.
ʘ Thrust should be given to conserve the soil and water by adopting the
appropriate measures, such as, minimum tillage and mulching, etc.
ʘ Balanced fertilization would help in adding extra organic matter in the
soil through enhanced root growth and exudation.
ʘ Animal manures (like FYM) should be regularly added in the soil.
ʘ Addition of composted municipal solid wastes and biochar may help
in increasing the organic matter in the soil.
ʘ Necessary steps should be taken to preserve the soil organisms by
practices, viz. minimum use of harmful chemicals.

3.5.3 Correction of soil pH, salinity and alkalinity

The low soil pH reduces fertility by decreasing the availability of essential
plant nutrients such as Ca, Mg, Mo, and increases the solubility of
aluminium, which can interfere with the plant root growth and
development. Soil acidity also affects the growth and activity of many
organisms responsible for organic matter decomposition and its chemical
transformations in the soil. Thus soil acidity must be corrected by adding
the adequate lime.
Salinization decreases the ability of plants to take up water. It
primarily happens in response to the practices that affect the soil–water
balance and allow water-soluble salts to be deposited in soil. Restoring soil

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

fertility/productivity in saline areas is done primarily through water

management practices. Sufficient irrigation water should be applied to
leach these salts below the root zone. However, care should be taken that
water logging does not happen during the leaching of salts.
The productivity of such soils can be restored back by employing
efficient tillage practices and adopting good cropping systems that improve
the infiltration and permeability of the water. It may include the
enhancement of soil organic matter for good soil aggregation and
preventing the soil compaction. Planting salt-tolerant crops is also
necessary. The correction of soil pH through application of soil
amendments and buffering seems to be an effective management
practice. Several methods of correcting soil acidity and alkalinity are
available.

3.5.4 Efficient crop management

It is very well known for a long time that the leguminous crops fix the
atmospheric nitrogen symbiotically, and this nitrogen can increase the
yield of the succeeding crop grown in the same soil. The above idea
suggests the benefit of including legume crops in the rotations. A rigorous
appraisal, in fact, of the influence of cropping system on the dynamics of
soil fertility requires a fairly long period of trials, because of native soil
fertility, residual effect of previous crops and nutrient application, etc.
Adoption of right crop rotations is necessary to improve soil fertility.
The advantages of a good crop rotation are – the increased soil organic
matter, better nitrogen supply and good structure of the soil. These effects
are more pronounced with deep rooted legumes or crops capable of
bringing plant nutrients from the deeper soil layers. Finally, these nutrients
are incorporated by certain legume crops in the upper layers of soil in the
form of litter fall and stubbles. Nutrients so fetched can be utilized by the
following shallow rooted crops. Deep rooted crops also contribute to the
increased permeability of soil at lower depth.

3.5.5 Adopting proper tillage practices

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

Wrong tillage practices expose soil to different kinds of erosions, leading

to reduced soil fertility. This can be prevented by adopting the right kind of
tillage practices suitable for a certain set of soil and climatic conditions. In
the conventional tillage practices, number of harrowing/ploughing are
carried out, generally after removing the all kinds of crop residues (clean
cultivation). Further, the decomposition rates of soil organic matter are
also high in conventional tillage. A field in this condition may lose great
amount of soil by erosion. Thus, number of tillage operations can be
minimized and residues mulched to prevent the soil loss.
The use of reduced tillage or no till systems can maintain or enhance
soil organic matter as compared to the conventional tillage system. The
decreased soil disturbance under reduced tillage slows the oxidation rate
(decomposition) of organic matter and helps maintain a better soil
structure. The improved soil structure helps in better intake of rainfall
water and thus reduces soil erosion.

3.5.6 Efficient management of weeds

Weeds compete with the crop plants for water, nutrients, air and light.
They remove a large amount of nutrients and water from the soil. They also
act as alternate hosts for different insect-pests and diseases causing
microbes. Thus, efficient weed management is crucial to preserve the soil
fertility. Weeds can be managed by sowing weed-free seeds, manual
uprooting of weeds, smothering weeds through mulching, applying
herbicides and also employing biological agents to manage them.

3.5.7 Preventing soil pollution

Efforts should be made to prevent the injudicious use and entry of the
pesticides/ heavy metals in soils. The care should be taken to prevent the
heavy metals reaching the soil through irrigation water, certain natural
fertilizers and city composts.

3.5.8 Restoring soil biology

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 Principles and Practices of Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management

Soil organisms basically like the same conditions they are ideal for crop as
plants. The improvement in physical and chemical conditions of soil would
bring a significant improvement in biological properties of soil. The
important practices that enhance biological activities in soil are:
Right amount of moisture should be maintained in soil. Too dry or wet
conditions are unsuitable for most soil organisms.
ʘ Too acidic or alkaline pH reduced the biological activities in soil. Thus,

soil pH ideally needs to be close to the neutral range, say between

pH 6.0 to pH 7.5.
ʘ Sufficient supply of organic matter is required to enhance the growth

and diversity of useful soil organisms.

ʘ There should be minimum use of chemicals and pesticides in soil as

these can reduce the activities of soil organisms.

ʘ Practice of minimum tillage enhances microbial activities in soil.

ʘ Crop rotations enhance the soil biological activities and diversity.

ʘ The soil compaction should be reduced by minimizing the trafficking

by livestock and farm machinery.

ʘ Inoculating the soil with microorganisms or use of biofertilizers

should be encouraged

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