19/02/2012

Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low : 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous Mg Alloys •
Cu-Be: -very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-relatively low : 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Chapter 11 - 13

Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• Deformation temperature • Deformation below
high enough for recrystallization
recrystallization temperature
• Large deformations • Strain hardening occurs
• Small deformations

Chapter 11 - 14

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Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.8,
• Drawing • Extrusion Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 15

Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added, then cast in a mold
– common and inexpensive
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

Chapter 11 - 16

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Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• What material will withstand T >1600ºC
auto engine blocks)
and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
• Answer: sand!!!
Sand Sand
• To create mold, pack sand around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape

Chapter 11 - 17

Metal Fabrication Methods (iv)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
• Stage I — Mold formed by pouring wax I
plaster of paris around wax pattern.
Plaster allowed to harden.
• Stage II — Wax is melted and then
poured from mold—hollow mold
II
cavity remains.
• Stage III — Molten metal is poured
into mold and allowed to solidify. III

Chapter 11 - 18

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Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
-- high volume -- simple shapes
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified

Chapter 11 - 19

Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister &
densify Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron
• Heat-affected zone: Castings
point contact densification Handbook, C.F.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Walton and T.J.
at low T
higher T microstructure has been Opar (Ed.), 1981.)

changed).
Chapter 11 - 20

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Thermal Processing of Metals

Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- nonuniform cooling below Teutectoid & hold for
- phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
Annealing to get , then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
• Normalize (steels): Deform
cold working by
steel with large grains. Then heat
(recovery/
treat to allow recrystallization
recrystallization)
and formation of smaller grains.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 11 - 21

Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths

a) Full Annealing A
b) Quenching P

c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite) A
B

Fig. 10.25,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

b) a)
c)
Chapter 11 - 22

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Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
Adapted from Fig. 11.11,
flat ground Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
specimen (Fig. 11.11 adapted from
(heated to 
A.G. Guy, Essentials of
Materials Science,
phase field) Rockwell C McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York,
24ºC water hardness tests 1978.)

• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 23

Reason Why Hardness Changes with

Distance
• The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end.
Hardness, HRC

60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(ºC) 0%
600 100%
Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.13 adapted from H.
400 Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal
Transformation and Cooling
M(start) Transformation Diagrams, American
200 Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.)
A M

0 M(finish)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 24

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Hardenability vs Alloy Composition

100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (ºC/s)
• Hardenability curves for
60

Hardness, HRC
five alloys each with, 100

80 %M
C = 0.4 wt% C 4340
50
40 4140

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister &

8640
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.14 adapted from 5140
figure furnished courtesy Republic Steel 20
Corporation.) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

• "Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(ºC) TE
600
-- contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B
(0.2 to 2 wt%) 400
-- these elements shift
the "nose" to longer times 200 M(start)
(from A to B) M(90%)
-- martensite is easier 0 -1
10 10 103 105 Time (s)
to form Chapter 11 - 25

Influences of Quenching Medium &

Specimen Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of specimen geometry:
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases:
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases
-- hardness throughout interior increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

Chapter 11 - 26

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Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
+L  +L
A
(get  solid solution) 500 
-- Pt B: quench to room temp. C 
400
(retain  solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small  particles within 0 B 10 20 30 40 50
(Al) wt% Cu
 phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
• Other alloys that precipitation
Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
harden: Temp. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from J.L. Murray, International
Pt A (sol’n heat treat) Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)
• Cu-Be
• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate 

Adapted from Fig.

11.22, Callister & Time
Rethwisch 8e. Pt B
Chapter 11 - 27

Influence of Precipitation Heat

Treatment on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• Maxima on TS curves. • Minima on %EL curves.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
tensile strength (MPa)

30
%EL (2 in sample)

400
20
300
149ºC 10
200 204ºC 149ºC
204ºC
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
Adapted from Fig. 11.27, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Chapter 11 - 28
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)

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Summary

• Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons

• Non-ferrous alloys:
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
• Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
• Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.

Chapter 11 - 29

15