DESERT HYDROLOGY

1. **Desert Environment Hydrology**: The hydrology of desert environments is unique due to the
scarcity of water and the extreme temperature conditions. The primary source of water in deserts is
rainfall, which is often infrequent and highly variable. When it does rain, the water can evaporate quickly
or be absorbed into the ground, contributing to groundwater². In some cases, water can flow over the
surface, creating ephemeral rivers that only exist for a short period after rainfall.

2. **Water Flows and Stores in Deserts**: Water in desert environments can be stored in a few key
places: in the ground (as groundwater), on the surface (in ephemeral rivers and lakes), and in the
atmosphere (as water vapor). The flow of water in deserts is primarily driven by rainfall and evaporation.
When it rains, water can infiltrate the ground, contributing to groundwater, or it can flow over the
surface, creating ephemeral rivers and lakes. This water can then evaporate, returning to the
atmosphere².

3. **Groundwater in Deserts**: Groundwater is a crucial water store in desert environments. It is

replenished by infiltration from rainfall and can be stored in the ground for long periods. Groundwater
can emerge at the surface in springs or can be accessed by digging wells. In many desert regions,
groundwater is the primary source of water for both people and vegetation. Groundwater in deserts
often represents fossil water, meaning it has been stored for long periods and is not replenished at the
same rate it is being used. Sustainable management of groundwater resources is therefore crucial to
prevent depletion.

4. **Hortonian Overland Flow**: Hortonian overland flow, also known as infiltration-excess overland
flow, occurs when the intensity of rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil. This results in
water flowing over the surface of the land. This results in runoff rather than significant infiltration and
recharge of groundwater. This type of overland flow is common in arid regions like deserts, where the
soil is often compacted and has a low infiltration capacity¹⁷.

Hydrographs and water budgets are important tools used to study and analyze hydrological processes in
deserts.

5. **Hydrographs**: A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) versus time past a
specific point in a river, or other channel or conduit carrying flow. It can provide useful information about
the rate of runoff, the volume of runoff, and the timing of runoff in response to rainfall.

6. **Water Budgets**: A water budget represents the inflow and outflow of water in a region. It can be
represented by the equation P = Q + E ± ΔS, where P is precipitation, Q is runoff, E is evapotranspiration,
and ΔS is the change in storage (in surface water bodies, soil moisture, and groundwater). In desert
regions, evapotranspiration often exceeds precipitation, leading to a negative water budget.

7. **Perennial and Ephemeral Water Courses**: Perennial water courses are streams or rivers that flow
continuously throughout the year. In desert regions, most of the perennial rivers are exogenous,
meaning they originate in more humid regions outside the desert. Examples include the Nile in Egypt
and Sudan, and the Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq and Syria. These rivers tend to have a strongly seasonal
regime, with water well below the level of the stream bank for much of the year.

In contrast, ephemeral water courses only flow for short periods often the result of intense
thunderstorms, leading to substantial volumes of water being transported in a short period of time.
Ephemeral rivers and streams, also known as wadis, barrancas, washes, or arroyos, are more typical of
desert areas. They flow intermittently or seasonally after rainstorms and are powerful forces of erosion.
In desert environments, most water courses are ephemeral due to the lack of consistent water supply.

8. **Surface Stores in Deserts**: Surface stores in deserts include features like ephemeral rivers, lakes,
and man-made reservoirs. These stores are usually temporary and depend on precipitation events. After
these events, the water can quickly evaporate due to the high temperatures⁶.

Surface water stores in deserts include oases, playa lakes, and exotic rivers with seasonal flows. Oases
are areas where groundwater reaches the surface, creating pockets of vegetation and enabling human
settlements. Playa lakes are s. Exotic rivers are rivers that flow through arid regions but have highly
variable flow rates, depending on seasonal precipitation.

Surface stores in deserts refer to the accumulation of water on the desert surface. These are typically
temporary and depend on precipitation events³. Here are some examples:

· 1. **Ephemeral Rivers and Lakes**: These are temporary bodies of water that form after rainfall
events. They can be quite large and deep immediately after a rainstorm, but they usually dry up
quickly due to the high evaporation rates in desert environments³.

· 2. **Playa Lakes**: These are shallow, temporary water bodies that form in desert closed basins
when it rains, usually after heavy rainfall event. Playa lakes can be quite large, but they usually
evaporate completely within a few days or weeks of forming. These lakes are typically saline and
can dry up quickly due to evaporation, leaving behind salt flats²⁸.

· 3. **Dew Ponds**: These are small depressions in the ground where water from dew or fog
collects. They are most common in coastal deserts where fog is frequent¹.

· 4. **Man-made Reservoirs**: In some desert regions, humans have created reservoirs to store
water for use in irrigation and other purposes³.

· 5. **Vegetation**: Some desert plants, like cacti, are adapted to store water in their tissues. This
 water can be used by the plant during dry periods, and by animals that feed on the plants¹.

It's important to note that while these surface stores can provide a temporary source of water, they are
not reliable in the long term due to the high evaporation rates and infrequent rainfall in desert
environments³..

9. **Oases**: An oasis is a fertile spot in a desert where water is found. Oases can occur naturally,
where water from underground aquifers is brought to the surface, usually through springs. The presence
of water allows plant and animal life to thrive in these otherwise harsh environments.

CASE STUDY: SAHEL REGION (Do further research)

Human activities in semi-arid areas, such as the Sahel, heavily rely on water availability. In these regions,
tapping groundwater supplies through wells becomes essential for meeting water demands. Additionally,
irrigation practices are often implemented to support agriculture and increase food production.
However, it is important to manage water resources carefully to avoid overexploitation and depletion of
these limited supplies.

WEATHERING

PHYSICAL WEATHERING

1. **Physical Weathering - Exfoliation**: This is a process where rocks peel off in layers due to
temperature changes². During the day, rocks absorb heat and expand. At night, they cool down and
contract. This daily cycle of expansion and contraction, known as the diurnal temperature range, can
cause stress within the rock, leading to the formation of cracks and the eventual peeling off of the outer
rock layers². This process is particularly active in desert regions³.

Physical Weathering: Exfoliation

Physical weathering refers to the breakdown of rocks and minerals through mechanical processes. One
prominent form of physical weathering in arid and semi-arid areas is exfoliation. Exfoliation occurs when
the outer layers of rocks peel off, resulting in curved (curvilinear) sheets or slabs. This process is
influenced by several factors:

a. Conductivity of Rocks: Different rocks have varying thermal conductivities, which affect how they
respond to temperature changes. In arid and semi-arid areas, where temperature fluctuations between
day and night can be significant, rocks heat up and expand during the day and cool down and contract at
night. This daily cycle of expansion and contraction can lead to stress buildup and the development of
cracks and fractures, ultimately resulting in exfoliation.

c. Peeling of Surface Layers: Over time, the stress accumulated from temperature fluctuations and
differential expansion causes the outer layers of rocks to peel off. This process results in the formation of
curved sheets or slabs, creating unique landforms such as exfoliation domes and bornhardts.

2. **Conductivity of Rocks and Coefficients of Expansion**: Different minerals have different thermal
properties. Some minerals expand more than others when heated. This differential expansion can cause
stress within the rock, leading to fracturing and weathering².

3. **Dilatation/Pressure Release**: Overburden (the material that lies above an area of interest) can
exert pressure on the underlying rocks. When this overburden is removed through erosion or human
activity, the pressure on the underlying rock is released. This can cause the rock to expand and crack, a
process known as dilatation or pressure release².

4. **Link to Water - Episodic Rainfall, Upward Capillary Movement**: In arid and semi-arid areas, rainfall
is often infrequent and occurs in short, intense bursts (episodic rainfall). This water can be absorbed by
the ground and move upwards through the soil and rock by capillary action. This water can then
contribute to weathering processes, such as the hydration of minerals or the formation of salt
crystals[^10^].

5. **Exfoliation Domes and Bornhardts**: These are rounded landforms found in arid and semi-arid
areas, formed by the process of exfoliation. The outer layers of rock peel off, creating a dome-like shape¹.

6. **Salt Weathering**: This occurs when salts present in the rock or soil crystallize and expand, exerting
pressure and causing the rock to crack and disintegrate². This process is common in arid areas where
evaporation rates are high.

2. Salt Weathering

Salts dissolved in water crystallize and expand within rock fractures, leading to mechanical stress and
rock breakdown. Several factors contribute to salt weathering:

a. Episodic Rainfall: Although arid and semi-arid areas experience limited rainfall, when it does occur, it
can introduce water containing dissolved salts into the rock fractures. As the water evaporates, the salts
are left behind, accumulating on the rock surfaces.

b. Upward Capillary Movement of Water: Groundwater in arid and semi-arid areas may have a high salt
content. Through capillary action, this groundwater can move upward within rocks, transporting
dissolved salts. When the water reaches the rock surface and evaporates, the salts crystallize and
expand, exerting pressure on the surrounding rock material.

c. Cycles of Wetting and Drying: The repeated cycles of wetting and drying in arid and semi-arid areas
contribute to salt weathering. During wet periods, water containing dissolved salts enters the rock
fractures. As the water evaporates during dry periods, salt crystals grow and exert pressure on the rock,
causing disintegration and weathering.

7. **Frost Shattering**: This is a type of weathering that occurs when water seeps into cracks in the
rock, freezes, and expands, causing the rock to break apart. While this is more common in cold climates,
it can also occur in high-altitude deserts where temperatures drop below freezing at night².

It occurs through the following process:

a. Water Penetration: Water enters cracks and pores within rocks. This can happen through precipitation,
such as snow or rain, or through groundwater seepage.

b. Freezing: As temperatures drop below freezing, the water within the cracks freezes and expands. The
expansion exerts immense pressure on the surrounding rock material.

c. Fragmentation and Breakage: The pressure generated by freezing water can cause the rock to
fragment and break apart, a process known as frost shattering. Over time, the repeated cycles of freezing
and thawing contribute to the disintegration of the rock.

Please note that these processes can vary depending on the specific characteristics of the desert,
including its climate, the types of rock present, and other environmental factors².