Theory

When a fluid flows next to a solid surface, it adheres to that surface due to the force field at the
boundary. This adhesion creates surface tension between the solid and the fluid. If the wall of the
conduit is stationary, the fluid velocity at the interface with the wall is zero. However, as you move
away from the wall, the velocity increases to a certain value. Within the flowing streamlines, the
velocity changes from one point to another. This means that the velocity at any given point depends on
the spatial coordinates of that point, creating a velocity field throughout the flow.
For Newtonian fluids, the shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient. In other words,
the rate of change of velocity with respect to distance determines the magnitude of shear stress. This
relationship is fundamental in understanding how fluids behave and interact with solid boundaries in
various flow situations.

The expression represents the relationship between shear stress (τ), dynamic viscosity (μ), and the
velocity gradient (du/dy) in the y-direction.

 τ is the shear stress within the fluid, which is the force per unit area acting parallel to a surface
as a result of the fluid's viscosity.
 μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, which quantifies the resistance of the fluid to flow
under an applied force.
 du/dy is the velocity gradient in the y-direction, representing the rate of change of velocity
with respect to the y-coordinate. It indicates how the velocity changes per unit distance in the
y-direction.

This equation shows that shear stress is directly proportional to the dynamic viscosity of the fluid and
the velocity gradient. In other words, if either the viscosity or the velocity gradient increases, the shear
stress will also increase. This relationship is crucial for understanding viscous effects in fluid flow and
the interaction between the fluid and solid surfaces.
When a fluid flows through a pipe, different flow types can be observed. The British scientist Osborne
Reynolds was the first to distinguish the difference between these flows.The flow of a fluid could be
laminar or turbulent flow.

Laminar and turbulent flow describe how real fluids move in two different ways.
Laminar flow refers to a situation where fluid particles move by sliding over each other. This is
characterized by the smooth flow of different layers of the fluid relative to each other. In other words,
at any given moment, the velocity is the same at all points within a particular layer. The layers near the
flow boundary move at a slower rate compared to those near the center of the flow passage.

Turbulent flow, on the other hand, is more complex. Here, fluid particles do not flow in a specific
order; they move randomly and chaotically. In this case, the velocity and pressure within the fluid
vary, and the flow velocity is irregular. Turbulent flow is generally associated with high-speed or
mixed flows.

Translational flow is a type of fluid motion where the fluid moves uniformly and in parallel in a
specific direction. In this type of flow, the particles of the fluid move with a constant speed and
direction relative to each other. Translational flow is often considered a subtype of laminar flow
because laminar flow is characterized by the translational movement of the fluid.

(Laminar flow represents a regular and layered flow, while turbulent flow represents a random and
complex flow)

To determine the flow type of the fluid we use Reynolds number.

The Reynolds number, usually denoted as Re, is a dimensionless quantity used in fluid mechanics to
predict flow patterns in different fluid flow situations. It's named after Osborne Reynolds, who
popularized its use. The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
within a fluid flow.
Mathematically, it's expressed as:

Where:
 𝜌 is the density of the fluid,
 𝑉 is the velocity of the fluid relative to some object (often a characteristic velocity of the
flow),
 𝐿 is a characteristic linear dimension (like diameter for a pipe or length of a surface), and
 𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
The Reynolds number helps predict whether the flow is laminar, transitional, or turbulent. Generally, if
Re is above 2100 is considered as start of the transition flow, and 2300 is considered as the critical
Reynolds number for the flow in a pipe. The flow in a round pipe is turbulent if the Reynolds number
is greater than nearly 4000. However, these thresholds can vary depending on the specific flow
conditions and geometry.