Rights, Obligations, and Citizenship
Lex iustitiae - which views our
I. RIGHTS
> “Rights” = Original meaning: power or
privilege; Modern sense: entitlement to act or
be treated in a particular way.
> “All men are created equal. They
are endowed with inherent and
inalienable rights.” - Thomas Jefferson.
● Only a republic is compatible with the
inalienable rights of men.
> Rights: A claim right which entails
responsibilities, duties, or obligations on
other parties regarding a right-holder.
● Is a sort of an imposition of an
obligation on another person to
respect the right of a claimant.
> Liberty: Does not entail obligations on other
parties, but rather entails only freedom or
permission for a right-holder.
● Exercised at free will by the holder of
such rights, without any sort of
obligation on another person in the
exercise of his or her right.
> WHAT IS A DOCTRINE OF RIGHTS?
● Kant’s Doctrine of Rights is the
assumption that everyone has a right
to external freedom.
● As it denotes the transition from
private to public law, summarizes
characteristics of the juridical state,
and outlines the basic system of
rights, the three leges:
1. Lex iusti - the law which
defines what is legally relevant.
2. Lex iuridica - the legally
relevant facts, circumstances
and actions to which the lex iusti
can be applied.
3.
rights from the perspective of
the juridical order.
> RIGHTS ARE BASED ON:
a. Who Should Possess Them?
● Every “Human Being”. Even
the children, adults, and
embryos. Whatever gender,
culture and value they are in or
what type of social status they
have.
● But now, even the
non-humans: the rights of
animals and other species even
the environment possesses it.
A. Legal and Moral Rights
> Legal rights - rights which are enshrined in
law and are therefore enforceable through the
courts.
● Described as ‘positive’ rights in that
they are enjoyed or upheld regardless
of their moral content.
> Moral rights - ‘ideal’ rights, which bestow
upon a person a benefit that they need or
deserve.
● It reflects what a person should have,
from the perspective of a particular
moral or religious system.
> FUNDAMENTAL LEGAL CONCEPTIONS
● Privileges or liberty-rights
● Claim-rights
● Legal powers
● Immunities
> Moral Rights: Jeremy Bentham
● Rejects the idea of moral rights
believing them to be nothing more than
a mistaken way of describing legal
rights that ought to exist since it may
become impossibly vague and
degenerate into little more than an
expression of what is morally desirable.
 B. Human Rights
> John Locke identified as natural rights the
right to ‘life, liberty and property.
> Thomas Jefferson defined them as the right
to ‘life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness’
> Described as ‘natural’ in that they were
thought to be God-given and therefore to be
part of the very core of human nature.
● Natural rights did not exist simply as
moral claims but were, rather,
considered to reflect the most
fundamental inner human drives.
> Thomas Jefferson defined
“Jeffersonianism”
● To blend a belief in rule by a natural
aristocracy with a commitment to
limited government and
laissez-faire * Economic transactions free from
government intervention.
● Reflecting the belief that, ‘That
government is best which governs
least.’
● Promotes social reform, favoring the
extension of public education, the
abolition of slavery, and greater
economic equality .
> CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RIGHTS
● Universal
● Internationally guaranteed
● Legally protected
● Protects individuals and groups
● Cannot be taken away
● Equal and indivisible
● Obliges States and State actors
> 5 CATEGORIES OF HUMAN RIGHTS
1. Civil – the right to be treated as an
equal to anyone else in society.
2. Political – the right to vote, to freedom
of speech and to obtain information.
3. Economic – the right to participate in
an economy that benefits all; and to
desirable work.
4. Social – the right to education, health
care, food, clothing, shelter and
social security.
5. Cultural – the right to freedom of
religion, and to speak the language,
and to practice the culture of one’s
choice
C. Animal and Other Rights
> What does it mean for an animal to have
rights?
● The philosophy of animal rights holds
that non-human species deserve the
same rights and respect from humans
that are guaranteed to the human
species broadly under the rule of law.
● Animal rights activists oppose the
ownership of animals and the
subjugation of them as food,
clothing, entertainment, and research
subjects.
> Utilitarian Approach to Animal Rights
● Animal cruelty = main driver behind
effort to treat all species as equals.
> Animal Welfare Act of 1966
● It is the only Federal law in the United
States that regulates the treatment of
animals in research, exhibition,
transport, and by dealers.
● The act fails to address the care and
treatment of farm animals used for
food or small animals used for testing
such as rats and mice.
a. Ecologism
> The term ecology was coined by Ernst
Haeckel in 1866 to refer to ‘the investigations
of the total relations of the animal both to its
organic and its inorganic environment’.
> Ecological or green political ideas
can be traced back to the nineteenth-century
backlash against the spread of
industrialization and urbanization.
> Modern ecologism emerged during the
1960s along with renewed concern about the
damage done to the environment
by pollution,resource depletion,
over-population and so on.
ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHER:
> Ernst Friedrich Schumacher
● Championed the cause of human-
scale production and helped to
develop an ecological philosophy.
● His notion of ‘Buddhist’ economics
(‘economics as if people mattered’)
stressed the importance of morality
and ‘right livelihood’, and warned
against the depletion of finite energy
sources.
● Believed in ‘appropriate’ scale
production, and was a keen advocate
of ‘intermediate’ technology.
> James Lovelock
● Best known for having developed the
Gaia hypothesis.
● This portrays the Earth’s biosphere
as a complex, self-regulating, living
‘being’, called Gaia after the Greek
goddess of the Earth.
● Although the Gaia hypothesis extends
the ecological idea by applying it to the
planet as an ecosystem and offers a
holistic approach to nature
● Lovelock supports technology and
industrialization and is an opponent
of ‘back to nature’ mysticism and
ideas such as Earth worship.
> Murray Bookchin
● Leading proponent of ‘social ecology’.
● He has emphasized the potential for
non-hierarchic cooperation within
conditions of post-scarcity and
promoted decentralization and
community within modern societies.
● His principle of social ecology
propounds the view that ecological
principles can be applied to social
organization
● Argues that the environmental crisis is
a result of the breakdown of the
organic fabric of both society and
nature.
> Rudolph Bahro
● Attempted to reconcile socialism with
ecological theories.
● His argument that capitalism is the
root cause of environmental
problems led him to assert that those
concerned with human survival
should convert to socialism, and that
people who support social justice
must take account of ecological
sustainability.
● He moved beyond conventional
ecosocialism, concluding that the
ecological crisis is so pressing that it
must take precedence over the class
struggle.
> Carolyn Merchant
● She developed a socialist feminist
critique of the scientific revolution that
ultimately explains environmental
destruction in terms of the
 application by men of a mechanistic
view of nature.
● According to this view, a global
ecological revolution would
reconstruct gender relations as well
as the relationship between humans
and nature.
II. OBLIGATION
A. What is Obligation?
> A requirement or duty in a particular way
distinguished between:
● “being obliged” to do something and;
● “having an obligation” to do
something
B. LEGAL OBLIGATION VS MORAL
OBLIGATION
● Legal Obligation: arise from laws,
contracts, or other official legal sources.
- They are enforceable and carry
consequences if violated.
● Moral Obligation: based on personal
values, ethics, and conscience.
- Stem from an individual's sense
of right or wrong.
C. POLITICAL OBLIGATION
● This refers to the moral duty of
citizens to obey national laws and
support the states.
● This focuses on the morality of laws,
rather than mere compliance with legal
rules.
D. SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
● Posits that moral and political
obligations arise from an agreement
or compact among individuals to
form the society in which they live.
E. Historical Roots of Political
Obligation
> Socrates
● believed that ethics and politics were
closely intertwined.
● He considered statecraft and the art
of governance as virtues of the
highest order.
● emphasized the duty to respect and
live by the laws of the community,
even when faced with personal sacrifice.
> Thomas Hobbes
● According to Hobbes (Leviathan, 1961),
the state of nature was a chaotic
condition where there were no
enforceable criteria of right and
wrong.
● Hobbes believed that individuals
voluntarily entered into a social
contract to escape state war. They
agreed to give up some of their liberty
and submit to sovereign authority in
exchange for protection and security.
> John Locke
● Locke emphasized that political
obligation stems from an individual’s
consent.
- They become obligated to obey
a sovereign through covenants
they make.
● He argued that individuals have
natural rights (life, liberty, property)
that precede the formation of a
commonwealth.
- These rights serve as the
foundation for political
obligation.
F. LIMITS OF POLITICAL OBLIGATION
> The obligation denotes not a duty to obey a
particular law but rather the
citizen’s duty to respect and obey the state
itself.
> When the limits of political
obligation are reached, the citizen is not
merely released from a duty to obey
the state but, in effect gains an entitlement: the
right to rebel.
III. CITIZENSHIP
A. WHAT IS CITIZENSHIP?
● The concept of citizenship is rooted in
the political thought of Ancient
Greece.
● Citizenship therefore represents a
relationship between the individual
and the state, in which the two are
bound together by reciprocal rights
and obligations.
B. ELEMENTS OF CITIZENSHIP
● One attempt to refine the notion of
citizenship: to define its legal
substance.
- By reference to the specific
rights and obligations which a
state invests in its members.
● The most fundamental right of
citizenship is: the right to live and work
in a country.
- Something which ‘aliens’
or‘foreign citizens’ may or may
not be permitted to do, and then
only under certain conditions
and for a limited period.
● Citizens may also be allowed to vote,
stand for election and enter certain
occupations, notably military or state
service.
- Which may not be open to
non-citizens.
C. REPUBLICANISM
● Republican political thought, rooted in
ancient Rome and revived during the
Renaissance and revolutions,
emphasizes public rule and civic
freedom.
● While it declined with liberalism's
rise,"civic republicanism" gained
interest in the 1960s.
- It contrasts with monarchy,
focusing on public
participation and protection
against tyranny, promoting
active engagement in civic life.
● Republicanism seeks to counter
individualistic liberalism, but criticism
arises due to theoretical ambiguity.
REPUBLICANISM ADVOCATES:
1. NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI
● Machiavelli helped to revive a form of
republicanism that was based upon an
uncritical admiration of the Roman
Republic.
● He not only argued that are public is
the best way of reconciling tensions
between patricians and the people,
but also stressed the importance of
patriotic virtue in maintaining
political stability.
● Machiavelli identified liberty with
self-government and saw military and
political participation as an important
means of ensuring human fulfillment.
2. CHARLES-LOUIS DE
SECONDAT MONTESQUIEU
● Montesquieu championed a form of
parliamentary liberalism that was
 based upon the writings of Locke and,to
some extent, a misreading of English
political experience.
● Montesquieu emphasized the need to
resist tyranny by fragmenting
government power, particularly through
the device of the separation of
powers.
● The separation of powers proposes
that the government be divided into
three separate branches,the
legislature,the executive and the
executive and judiciary.
3. THOMAS PAINE
● Paine was a fierce opponent of the
monarchical system and a fervent
supporter of the republican cause.
● He developed a radical strand within
liberal thought that fused an emphasis
upon individual rights with a belief in
popular sovereignty.
4. BENJAMIN CONSTANT
● Constantis is best known as a
supporter of constitutionalism and
for his analysis of liberty.
● He distinguished between the ‘liberty
of the ancients’ and the ‘liberty of the
moderns’, identifying the former with
the ideas of direct participation and
self-government, and the latter with
non-interference and private rights.
5. JAMES MADISON
● Madison was an important exponent
of constitutional republicanism.
● His principal concern was to devise
institutions through which factional
rivalry could be contained and
political liberty ensured.
● The central feature of this was an
attempt to ensure that power is a
check to power’.
D. SOCIAL OR ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP?
● The concept of social citizenship
originating from T.H. Marshall,
emphasizing equal rights and
entitlements for all members of the
community.
● Marshall sees citizenship as a
universal quality tied to social
equality, contrasting with class
inequalities in a capitalist system.
E. UNIVERSAL CITIZENSHIP AND
DIVERSITY
● The traditional conceptions of
citizenship, emphasizing universality
rooted in liberal ideals. However,
growing awareness of diversity
challenges universal citizenship.
● Iris Marion Young proposes
'differentiated' citizenship,
acknowledging group differences.
● Multiculturalism, recognizing and
affirming cultural diversity, introduces
minority rights.
F. MULTICULTURALISM
● Multiculturaltheories, influenced by
communitarian critiques of liberalism,
promote positive toleration and
public recognition of diverse cultures
to address challenges of cultural
diversity and social justice.
● Originating in the 1960s,
multiculturalism emphasizes cultural
pride, advocates for minority
 rights,representation, and
preservation of practices.
● Liberal multiculturalism, rooted in
freedom and toleration, may coexist with
value pluralism.
- But some theorists reject it,
citing limited capacity to
embrace true cultural
diversity, especially if
conflicting with liberal principles.
1. CHARLES TAYLOR
● Taylor has been primarily concerned
with the issue of the construction of
the self.
● His communitarian portrayal of persons
as ‘embodied individuals’ has
enabled him to argue in favor of the
politics of recognition, based upon
the belief that individuals need to be
the object of others’ positive
attitudes and that cultures have their
own unique, authentic essences.
● Taylor accepts that liberal societies
should be based upon guaranteed
basic freedoms
2. WILL KYMLICKA
● Kymlicka has sought ways of
reconciling liberalism with the ideas
of community and cultural
membership.
● He has advanced the idea of
multicultural citizenship, based upon
the belief that cultures are valuable and
distinct and provide a context in which
individuals are provided with meaning,
orientation, identity and belonging.
3. BIKHU PAREKH
● Parekh has advanced a defense of a
pluralistic perspective on cultural
diversity and highlighted the
inadequacy of liberal
multiculturalism.
● Parekh’s multiculturalism is based upon
a dialectical interplay between human
nature and culture, in which human
beings are culturally constituted in the
sense that their attitudes, behavior and
ways of life are shaped by the groups to
which they belong.
SECOND TREATISES OF GOVERNMENT
BY JOHN LOCKE
A. WHO IS JOHN LOCKE?
➥ English philosopher whose works lie at the
foundation of modern philosophical
empiricism and political liberalism.
➥ His political thought was grounded in the
notion of a social contract.
B. WHAT IS THE FIRST AND SECOND
TREATISES ALL ABOUT?
> John Locke had written first and second
treatises. He combined both then published
them together as Two Treatises of
Government in 1689.
> It is both an attack on absolute monarchy
that was written in the context of debates over
constitutional limits on the prerogative
powers of the King of England.
> This period of history is known as the
Glorious Revolution.
> The First Treatise attacks patriarchalism in
the form of sentence-by-sentence refutation of
Robert Filmer's Patriarcha
> While the Second Treatise outlines Locke's
ideas for a more civilized society based on
natural rights and contract theory.
> It talks about:
1.) Free and equal individuals
2.) Natural rights of life, liberty, and property
3.) State of nature ≠ state of war
4.) Forming a political society
5.) Establishing a government
6.) Right of rebellion against unjust authority
C. THE CHAPTERS OF THE SECOND
TREATISES OF GOVERNMENT
I. AN ESSAY CONCERNING THE TRUE
ORIGINAL, EXTENT AND END OF
CIVIL GOVERNMENT
➢ Locke defines political power as the right
to make laws for the protection and
regulation of property. In his view, these laws
only work because the people accept
them and because they are for the public good.
II. OF THE STATE OF NATURE
➢ Locke’s account of the legitimacy of
government relied on the same moves of
Hobbes’s social contract theory. However,
unlike Hobbes, Locke’s is in conformity to the
Christian scripture.
➢ He claims that all men are originally in a
state of nature. A man in this original state is
bound by the laws of nature, but he is otherwise
able to live, act, and dispose of
his possessions as he sees fit. He referred to all
men being in a state of equality
and perfect freedom.
And thus, in the state of nature, one man
comes by a power over another; but yet no
absolute or arbitrary power. Every man has a
right to punish the offender, and be an
executioner of the law of nature.
III. OF THE STATE OF WAR
➢ Locke defines the state of war as a state of
“enmity and destruction.”
➢ Anyone who attempts to assert absolute
power on another automatically enters into a
state of war.
IV. OF SLAVERY
➢ Everyone has a natural liberty, Locke says,
to not be held under the will of another, but the
liberty of one in society is
not the same as the liberty of one in nature.
➢ In Locke’s view, “freedom of nature, is to be
under no other restraint but the law of nature”
V. OF PROPERTY
➢ The chapter begins with the declaration that
God gave the Earth as a common property
for mankind to use and that Locke endeavors
to explain how individual property then came to
be.
➢ Each person, according to Locke, has
property in his or her own person—that is,
each person literally owns his or her own body.
➢ All persons are entitled to as much of the
product of their labor as they need to survive.
VI. OF PATERNAL POWER
➢ Locke defines it as the power parents have
over their children.
➢ The most ardent supporters of the monarchy
believe kings rule by right of fatherhood, but
Locke argues that to invest absolute power
in a monarch is to never be free.
VII. OF POLITICAL OR CIVIL SOCIETY ● One’s children cannot be forcefully
bound to the same government and are
➢ Locke says that humans have been social free to choose.
creatures and not existed
alone, having different forms of relations with IX. OF THE ENDS OF POLITICAL
one another that serve different purposes, SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT
evident first by the presence of both Adam and
Eve together. ➢ In the state of nature, men have two powers
they consent upon forming a society:
➢ Matrimony does not only serve for ● Doing whatever he thinks fits for the
procreation but also for the upbringing of preservation of himself.
children, and the power of the husband over
the wife is not absolute and in civil society, a ● Punish crimes committed against the
dispute would be handled by the law of nature.
government.
➢ Locke mentions the commonwealth and ➢ Why would a man enter a society and not
that the government is liable to provide for remain in a state of nature where he has
legislation for acceptable behavior that complete freedom?
works in favor of the public.
● Preservation of their property.
VIII. OF THE BEGINNING OF POLITICAL
SOCIETIES ● State of nature lacks:
- an established, settled, known
A. What begins a Political Society? law that is received and
accepted by common consent
The consent of any number of free men capable as the standard of right and
of a majority to unite and incorporate into a body wrong and as the common
politic. measure to decide all
controversies.
● Majoritarian rule
● Universal agreement - a known and impartial judge,
with authority to settle all
B. Two (2) Objections of this Concept differences according to the
established law.
1. No history where men set up the government
themselves. - a power to back up and support
Locke’s argument: a correct sentence and to
● We were born ignorant and infancies. enforce it properly.
● Records as we have of the beginnings
of political states give no support to
paternal dominion. X. OF THE FORMS OF A
COMMONWEALTH
2. People already under a government do not
have the right to start a new one. A. What is the commonwealth?
Locke’s argument:
● People still have the power to change - An independent community and
that government. society of men, not a city or form of
government.
 B. Different Forms of Power Structures that
a Commonwealth may freely form:
➢ Democracy
➢ Oligarchy
➢ Monarchy
● Hereditary monarchy
● Elective monarchy
➢ The people can also choose to set up a new
form of government.
XI. OF THE EXTENT OF THE
LEGISLATIVE POWER
➢ Though the legislature is the supreme power
in every commonwealth, there are four (4)
things to be said about what it may not do:
1. It doesn't and can't possibly have absolutely
arbitrary power over the
lives and fortunes of the people.
2. The legislature or supreme authority cannot
give itself a power to rule by sudden, arbitrary
decrees.
3. The supreme court can't take from any man
any part of his property without his consent.
They must not raise taxes on people's property.
4. The legislature cannot transfer the power of
making laws to any other
hands.
XII. OF THE LEGISLATIVE, EXECUTIVE,
AND FEDERATIVE OF THE
COMMONWEALTH
A. Legislative of the Commonwealth
● Have the right to direct how the force
of the commonwealth shall be
employed for preserving the community
and its individual members. But it is not
always in existence.
B. Executive of the Commonwealth
● There must be a power that—unlike
the legislative—is always in existence,
a power that will enforce the laws that
have been made and repealed.
C. Federative of the Commonwealth
● This is called the "natural" power.
● It has the power of war and peace,
league and alliances, and all
transactions with individuals and
communities outside the
commonwealth.
D. What is the difference between
Executive and Federative Power?
● The first is the power to direct its
commonwealth's actions and so need
to precede them.
● But the function of federative power is
not to direct the actions of citizens
but rather to respond to the actions
of foreigners.
- Locke believes that it is best for
the executive and federative
powers to be combined.
XIII. OF THE SUBORDINATION OF THE
POWERS OF THE COMMONWEALTH
➢ The legislature is always the supreme power
of the commonwealth, but as the people created
it to make laws for the common good, the
people may alter it when it does not act
according to that end.
➢ The community itself is thus the supreme
power, although only when the government
needs to be dissolved, not when it is still under
it. Within the government itself, the
legislative power reigns supreme.
 A. The Subordination of the Three
Powers: Legislative, Executive, and
Federative
➢ The executive power is definitely
subordinate to the legislative power as well
as accountable to it, and can be changed at the
legislature’s will.
➢ The person who has both is called "supreme
executioner of the law" instead of
"supreme legislator."
➢ The federative power is likewise
subordinate to the legislative.
XIV. OF PREROGATIVE
A. The Prerogative Power
● Which refers to the discretionary
power that rulers have to act for the
public good beyond the law when
necessary.
- Locke argues that rulers
possess this prerogative power
to ensure the preservation of
society and the protection of its
citizens' rights.
B. Limitations on Prerogative Power
➢ Consent of the Governed to Govern
➢ Purpose of Preservation - The Prerogative
power should preserve Life,
Liberty and Property
➢ Rule of Law - The Prerogative power should
always respect the fundamental
principles of justice and legality
➢ Accountability to Public - Prerogative power
should not be exercised in
secret or without public scrutiny.
XV. OF PATERNAL,POLITICAL, AND
DESPOTICAL POWER, CONSIDERED
TOGETHER
➢ Paternal Power
● Locke emphasized that parents have a
responsibility to nurture and educate their
children, but this authority should be
exercised with restraint and in the best interests
of the child's development.
● The paternal is a natural government, but
not at all extending itself to the ends and
jurisdictions of that which is political. The
power of the father does not reach at all to the
property of the child, which is only in his own
disposing.
➢ Political Power
● According to Locke, political power is
derived from the consent of the governed. He
asserts that individuals, in a state of nature,
possess natural rights, including the rights
to life, liberty, and property. In this state of
nature, individuals are free and equal, but
there may be conflicts over property and
security.
● Political power is that power, which every man
having in the state of nature, has given up
into the hands of the society: and therein to
the governors, whom the society hath set over
itself, with this express or tacit trust, that it shall
be employed for their good and the preservation
of their property.
➢ Despotical Power
● Locke argues that despotical power is
tyrannical and oppressive because it lacks
constraints and accountability. In a
despotic regime, the ruler exercises unchecked
authority over the lives and liberties of the
people, without regard for
their natural rights or their consent. Despotic
rulers often suppress dissent, violate property
rights, and impose their will
through coercion and fear.
 ● Despotical power is an absolute, arbitrary
power one man has over another, to take away
his life, whenever he pleases.
XVI. OF CONQUEST
➢ Conquest the subjugation and assumption
of control of a
place or people by use of military force.
- He argues that conquest alone does not
create legitimate political authority.
➢ Limits of Conquest - Conquest is as far from
setting up any government, as demolishing a
house is from building a new one in the place.
Indeed, it often makes way for a new frame of a
commonwealth, by destroying the former; but,
without the consent of the people, can never
erect a new one.
XVII. OF USURPATION
➢ Usurpation - refers to the unjust seizure or
exercise of power.
● A tyrant seizing power or a legitimate
ruler exceeding their authority,
usurpation deprives individuals of
their right to self-governance and
violates the social contract.
➢ Right to resist - Individuals have a natural
right to resist and oppose usurpation.
XVIII. OF TYRANNY
➢ Tyranny - is the exercise of power beyond
right, which nobody can have a right to.
- And this is making use of the power any
one has in his hands, not for the good of
those who are under it, but for his own
private separate advantage.
➢ The Right to Resistance - people have the
right to resist and, if necessary, overthrow the
tyrannical regime to restore their rights and
establish legitimate government based on
consent.
XIX. OF THE DISSOLUTION OF THE
GOVERNMENT
➢ After the dissolution of an unjust government,
Locke suggests that individuals have the right
to establish a new government that is
founded on the consent of the governed and
dedicated to the protection of natural rights.
➢ This new government is established to
serve the interests of the people and is
accountable to them.
● The conditions that may lead to the
Dissolution of Government:
- Violation of Natural Rights
- Tyrannical Rule
- Breach of the Social Contract
- No consent from the governed
- Failure to protect the natural rights of
individuals, including life, liberty, and
property
Recitation Information
A. Right VS. Freedom or Liberty
- Right:inherent to human nature
- Freedom or Liberty: protected
by the government
- Ex: Right to vote; Free to
choose whoever they want.
B. Stateless VS. Alien
- Stateless: no longer citizen of
one nation because you already
removed all the right
(punishment)
- Alien: new to foreign country,
new to policies and else,
everyone can be alien; limited
rights only.
C. Dual citizenship VS. Dual Allegiance
- Dual citizenship: citizen of two
countries; somehow permitted
- Dual Allegiance: loyalty to two
countries; not permitted can
cause chaos or war