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EM 560 – Tribology

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Enzoh Langi (PhD)

enzoh.langi@cbu.ac.zm
enzohlangi@yahoo.com
EM 560 – Tribology
Exam 60%
• Course level: 5
• Credit value: 24
• Delivery type: FD
• Course type: Standard
• Course duration: 1,2,3

Course work
assignment and
test 40%
EM 560 – Tribology
Lecture Notes
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EM 560 – Tribology
Recommended reading
• Marcel Dekker, Bearing Design in Machinery
• A.A Seireg, Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical design
• Bernard J. Hamrock Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication
• Yukio Hori, Hydrodynamic Lubrication
• Gwidon W. Stachowiak, Engineering Tribology
• Ludema, K.C Friction, wear, lubrication : a textbook in tribology
• T.A Stolarski, Tribology in Machine Design
• Arnnel , Tribology
EM 560 – Tribology

Wear Friction

Tribology
Lubrication

TRIBOLOGY generally deals with the technology of lubrication, control of

friction, and prevention of wear of surfaces having relative motion under
load.
Friction
• Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid
layers, and material elements sliding against each other
• We often find the following when you go to the malls

• The coefficient of friction (µ) is the ratio of the force of friction between
two bodies and the force pressing them together.
Friction
Some typical values of coefficient of friction for metals sliding on themselves

Metals sliding on themselves µ

Aluminum 1.5 Observation
Copper 1.5
Copper (oxide film not penetrated) 0.5 1. µ > 1.0
2. Mild steel vs Tool steel
Gold 2.5
3. µ depends on
Iron 1.2
environment
Platinum 3
Silver 1.5
Steel (mild steel) 0.8
Steel (tool steel) 0.4
 Coefficient of friction for various metals

Nickel on nickel
Gold on gold µ for partial lubrication 0.01 – 0.1
Platinum on platinum
Copper on copper µ for full hydrodynamic lubrication 0.001 –
Indium on indium
0.01
Lead on lead
Coefficient of friction, μ

Aluminum on aluminum
1 Silver on silver Observation
Iron on iron
1. Under dry lubricant conditions, µ
Tin on tin
Steel on tin alloy ranges between 0.1 to 1.0 for most of
Steel on steel
Steel on Pb alloy the materials
Steel on Al bronze
2. Very thin lubrication reduces
Steel on cast iron
Steel on brass coefficient by 10 times
Steel on bronze
Steel on Pb. Brass Similar materials have higher tendency for
0.1
Steel on indium
adhesion
 Adhesive Friction among various materials

• Generally, adhesion increases the

friction.

• So, while selecting metal pairs, low

adhesion metal pairs must be
selected to reduce friction force.

• Similar material pair must be

avoided as similar materials have
higher tendency of adhesion.

Observation: Similar materials have higher tendency of adhesion

 Static and kinetic friction

µ for wood – on – wood reported in

Applied µ = 0.5 various articles
force F Friction
resistance Listed material µ𝒔 µ𝒌
100 N combination

Wood on wood 0.25 -0.5 0.19

Wood on wood (dry) 0.25-0.5 0.38
Wood on wood 0.3-0.7
Wood on wood 0.6 0.32
Wood on wood 0.4 0.2
Oak on oak (para. to grain) 0.62
Oak on oak (fibers crossed) 0.54 0.48
Oak on oak (fibers perp) 0.43 0.19
Oak on oak (fibers para) 0.62 0.48

Difference between the static and kinetic may initiate ‘stick-slip’

 Observations

1. µ > 1.0

2. µ depends on environment, hardness and chemical composition

3. Very thin and thick lubrication reduces µ by 10 and 100 times,

respectively

4. Tribo-pair consisting of similar materials have higher tendency of µ

5. Difference between µ may initiate friction instability

There is need to understand the science of friction

 Dry Friction

• Leonardo da vinc (Earliest experimenter, 1452-1519)

• Friction made by the same weight will be of equal resistance at the
beginning of movement, although contact may be different breadths or
length F ≠ A
• Friction produces the double the amount of effort if weight be doubled
F∝W
G. Amontons, 1699`
• Rediscovered Leonardo da vinc laws. F ≠ A; F ∝ N
• µ = 0.3 for most materials

N = mg N = mg + FSinθ N = mg − FSinθ
F F
θ θ
mg mg mg

For an object sitting on a flat If a force acts downwards on the If a force pulls upwards on the
surface the normal force is object, the normal force is object, the normal force is less
just its weight greater than the weight than the weight
 C.A. Coulomb 1781 (1736-1806)

1. Clearly distinguished between static and kinetic friction

2. Contact at discrete points (μ static ≥ μ kinetic)
3. Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces
4. 𝑓≠𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐(𝐴)
5. 𝑓≠𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐(v)

• As per coulomb, friction force is independent of sliding speed.

• But this law applies only approximately to dry surfaces for a reasonable low
range of sliding speeds, which depends on heat dissipation capabilities of
tribo-pairs.
 TOMLINSON’s Theory of Molecular attraction, 1929

• Tomlinson based on experimental study provided relation between friction

coefficient & elastic properties of material involved.

• As per Tomlison due to molecular attraction between metal, cold weld

junctions are formed.

• Generally load on bearing surface is carried on just a few points. These are
subjected to heavy unit pressure, and so probably weld together.

• Adhesion force is developed at real area of contact.

Clean steel E (30 Mpsi), G (12 Mpsi)

2/3
Aluminium E (10 Mpsi), G (3.6 Mpsi)
𝑓 = 1.07 ∗ θ𝐼 + θ𝐼𝐼 Titanium E (15.5 Mpsi), G (6.5 Mpsi)

3. 𝐸 + 4. 𝐺 Clean steel and Titanium = 0.5039

θ= Clean steel and Aluminium = 0.6558
𝐺(3 ∗ 𝐸 + 𝐺) Aluminium and Titanium = 0.742
 Scientific explanation of dry friction

❖ Two friction sources

▪ Deformation (abrasion)
▪ Adhesion
Demonstrates the adhesion (cold weld) between
two surfaces. Some force, Fa, is required to tear
the cold junction
❖ Resulting friction force (F) is sum of
two contributing (Fa &Fd ) terms
❖ In lubricated tribo-pair case, friction
due to adhesion will be negligible.
❖ while for smoother surfaces under Demonstrates the deformation process. It
shows a conical asperity approaching to a
light load conditions deformation softer surface. To move upper surface
relative to lower surface some force is
component of friction will be required.

negligible.
 Adhesion and Ploughing in Friction

• This theory is based on the fact that all surfaces are made of atoms. All
atoms attract one another by attractive force.
• It requires some force to separate the two surfaces. If we now apply a
sideways force to one of the surfaces the junctions formed at the regions of
real contact will have to be sheared if sliding is to take place.
• The force to do this is the frictional force.

Cold welding in steel and indium Carbon graphite and stainless steel

Carbon graphite material adhered to stainless steel shaft

 Theory of adhesive friction

• Two surfaces are pressed together under load W

• Material deforms until area of contact (A) is sufficient to support load W.
W
A=
H

• To move the surface sideway, must overcome the shear strength of

junctions with force Fa . Fa = As
Fa s
• µa = =
W H

Observation: Shear strength (s) and Hardness (H) of soft material decides the value of µ.
This means whatever properties of the other harder pairing material, µ would not change.
 Theory of adhesive friction

σ𝑦
• For most of untreated materials 𝐻 = 3σ𝑦 and 𝑠 =
1.7321

• Expected value of µ = 0.2

• Theory is unable to estimate different µ for steel on indium and steel on

lead alloy.

• Theory related to deformation needs to be explored.

𝑠
µ=
𝐻
 Friction due to deformation

• Contact between tribo-pairs only occurs at discrete • 𝐴 = 𝑛 0.5 ∗ π𝑟 2

points. • 𝑊 = 𝑛 0.5 ∗ π𝑟 2 𝐻
• Slop of asperities governs the friction force • 𝐹 = 𝑛 𝑟ℎ 𝐻
• Harder asperities penetrate into the softer surface •
2
µ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡θ
π
• Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in contact
with flat soft metal, vertically Project area of contact
 Cone angle vs µ𝑑

θ µ • In practice slopes of real surfaces are lesser

5 7.271
than 10° (i.e. θ > 800), therefore μ𝑑 = 0.1.
10 3.608
20 1.748
30 1.102 • If we add this value(μ𝑑 = 0.1), total μ, should
40 0.758 not exceed 0.3.
50 0.534
60 0.367
• Total μ, representing contribution for both
70 0.231
80 0.112 ploughing and adhesion terms.
85 0.055
• Spherical asperity??
 Ploughing by spherical asperity

• If we consider asperities on solid surfaces are spherical, vertical projected

area of contact :
• 𝐴 = 𝑛 0.5 ∗ π𝑟 2
• Or 𝐴 = 𝑛(0.5 ∗ π(0.5𝑑)2 )
π𝑑 2
• Or 𝐴 = 𝑛
8

π𝑑 2
• 𝑊= 𝑛 𝐻
8

2ℎ𝑑
• 𝐹=𝑛 𝐻
3
Spherical asperity
2ℎ𝑑8 16 ℎ 16 ℎ ℎ
• µ= = = = 0.6
3π𝑑 2 3π 𝑑 3π 8ℎ𝑅 𝑅
 Ploughing by spherical asperity

h/R(%) µ
1 0.060
2 0.085
3 0.104
• Generally ℎ ≪ 𝑅 , therefore µ𝑑 ≅ 0.1
4 0.120
5 0.134
6 0.147 • Conclusion: Total µ should not exceed 0.3
7 0.159
8 0.170
9 0.180
10 0.190
 Junction Growth

• Introduction of an additional tangential load produces a phenomenon called

‘the junction growth’
• Contact area becomes much enlarged under the additional shear force
• There is a significant increase in the asperity contact areas
• The magnitude of the junction growth can be estimated as:
2 1Τ2
𝐹
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑝 1+ 𝛼
𝑊

• Where Ap is the plastic contact area; α is approx. = 9 for metals

• On application of additional incremental tangential force, there will be
further plastic flow at constant shear stress, resulting in an incremental
contact area of A
• Area of contact will increase with increasing friction force, till force reaches
its limiting value.
 How to reduce Junction Growth ?

• Two methods to reduce junction growth are contaminations (reducing

adhesion) and lubrication.
• Contamination : A few molecules of thick oxide layer (encountered with
metals in air) on the surface (as shown below) can reduce the friction (i.e. μ
= 0.1 to 0.3).

Surface contamination

• The surface film prevents the surfaces from sticking together strongly and
allows only a small amount of junction growth to occur.
• The formation and breakage of contamination layer is a dynamic process;
therefore, there is possibilities of variation in μ.
 Lubrication to reduce Junction Growth

• To reduce junction growth minimum value of ratio τi/τy must be selected.

• Lubricant: Presence of liquid lubricant reduces chances of junction growth.
One way is to choose liquid lubricant which has a low value of τ.
• Use of suitable contacting materials : Using less reactive material (but high
hardness) materials, which result in low shear strength of interface.
• Never use same metal or closely similar metals in tribo-pair : (μCopper on
copper = 1.0, μAluminium – low carbon steel = 0.8, μSilver – low carbon steel = 0.3)
• Ductility : Use materials of limited ductility. These materials after a small
amount of junction growth will fracture rather than flow further.
 Laws of Rolling Friction

• Coefficient of friction due to rolling (μr) is generally smaller than that caused
by sliding action. Therefore rolling friction compared to sliding friction is
desired.
• Rolling friction coefficients often depend on hardness of contacting solids.
On increasing hardness, elastic deformation under load decreases. For hard
smooth steel rollers, the coefficient of rolling friction ranges between 0.01
and 0.001. A roller or sphere made of soft material when rolled over other
soft surface, generates a higher level of rolling friction.
 Sources of Rolling Friction

• As a hard steel ball rolls over a softer rubber, it displaces the rubber elasto-
plastically around and ahead of it.
• The force required to displace rubber is almost equal to the observed rolling
friction. Thus, the rolling friction is essentially a measure of the force
required to deform other material. With a very bouncy rubber rolling friction
will be lesser compared to a very soggy rubber.

The main contributions to friction in rolling contacts are :

• Micro-slip effect within the contact area.
• Elastic hysteresis of the contacting materials.
• Plastic deformation of the materials, and
• Adhesion effects in the contact.
• It is important to note that lubricant cannot reduce deformation of surface;
therefore, lubricants have very little effect (except reduction in adhesion
effects) on the rolling friction

Rolling friction in rubber

 Examples of Rolling Friction

Ball bearings
• Rolling bearings are made of high strength (induced stresses are lesser than
elastic compressive strength) materials having hysteresis losses lesser than
one percent. Due to such materials (μ = 0.001).
• In practice, the balls must be surrounded by cage to separate them and
prevent the rubbing on one another. But sliding between the cage and balls
occurs, and this sliding friction is often far greater than the rolling friction.
• Lubricants are used to reduce the sliding friction between balls and cage and
to prevent corrosion of the metal parts.
 Automobile Tires

• In free rolling, the tire is deformed as it meets the road surface and recovers
as it leaves. If there is negligible slip between tire and road the energy loss is
not large and μ = 0.01 to 0.03
• However, If the tire is made of a rubber with a higher hysteresis loss (or filled
with lesser air-pressure), the rolling friction is larger and there is a larger
power loss
• High hysteresis loss by tire, increases controllability (better gripping of the
road during accelerating, decelerating or cornering) and comfort (acts as
shock absorber in passing over rough road). Therefore, automobile tire
material provides trade off between "rolling friction", "Controllability" and
"Comfort".