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Dr. Robert Paul Trisna

Rangkuman Buku “The Text of The New Testament”

Karya Bruce M. Metzger & Bart D. Eheman

The making of ancient books involved laborious copying letter by letter and word by word
until the advent of movable type printing in the fifteenth century. The materials used in
ancient books included clay tablets, stone, bone, wood, leather, metals, potsherds, papyrus,
and parchment, with a focus on papyrus and parchment for New Testament manuscripts.
Papyrus, derived from an aquatic plant, was widely used as a writing surface due to its
abundance and durability. Parchment, on the other hand, gained popularity later for its
superior quality and suitability for writing on both sides, with the process involving
meticulous scraping and drying of animal skins. The ink used varied from carbon-based ink
on papyrus to oak gall and ferrous sulfate ink on parchment, tailored for better adhesion. In
the Greco-Roman era, literary works were typically produced in scroll form, crafted from
papyrus or parchment, showcasing the evolution of materials and techniques in ancient
bookmaking.

The process of creating volumes from separate sheets of papyrus by winding them around a
roller was a common practice limited by the practicality of handling the length of the roll.
Jerome criticized extravagant practices in book production, advocating for simpler but more
focused attention on accuracy and content rather than lavish decorations. The transition from
papyrus scrolls to the codex format, using folded sheets sewn together, offered advantages for
Christians in compiling scriptures, making referencing and production more efficient and
cost-effective. This shift also marked a deliberate departure from Jewish tradition. The
evolution of script styles from formal book-hand to cursive and subsequently to minuscule
reflected changing preferences in writing, particularly in the production of manuscripts. The
development of a more compact script in the ninth century revolutionized book production,
ensuring widespread adoption across the Greek world. The study of ruling patterns, script
styles, and material choices sheds light on the evolution of ancient book-making practices,
illustrating a continuous quest for efficiency, comprehension, and aesthetic appeal in written
materials.

The ancient books were divided into two distinct groups, with one set written in majuscule
letters and the other in minuscule. The advantage of minuscule script was evident in its
compactness, requiring less parchment and enabling quicker reproduction, which facilitated
the dissemination of culture and Scriptures. The shift to minuscule script in the ninth century
played a pivotal role in preserving Greek literature. Christian scribes introduced contractions
for sacred words, called nomina sacra, which were marked with a horizontal line above. The
process of book production involved meticulous attention to detail and posed challenges in
maintaining accuracy due to factors like distractions, fatigue, and the ergonomic practices of
standing or sitting while writing. Despite efforts to ensure precision through meticulous
copying and correction, errors were inevitable, underscoring the complex nature of ancient
scribe work and the challenges they faced in reproducing texts faithfully. The evolution of
script styles and production methods over time reflects the intricate craftsmanship and
dedication of scribes in preserving invaluable literary and religious texts for future
generations.

The practice of standing while writing, even when a table was available, was customary for
stenographers in law courts, as evidenced by historical sources like William C. Loerke's
article on the miniatures of the trial in the Rossano Gospels. Contrary to modern writing
practices, the writing tables found at Qumran were originally only 20 inches high, too low to
serve as proper writing desks, with insight from Bruce M. Metzger's discussion on the
furniture of the scriptorium at Qumran. Scripts were crafted month after month, requiring six
hours a day, showcasing the tiresome nature of the task, as revealed by a typical colophon
indicating the laborious effort involved in writing. Scribes often expressed the physical toll of
their work in colophons, detailing how writing strains the body, with some even facing
extreme conditions like a freezing hand during a snowstorm. Despite the challenges, many
scribes found spiritual rewards in copying scriptures, as highlighted by Cassiodorus, who
emphasized the instructional and salvational value of transcribing divine words. The
meticulousness of scribes in maintaining uniform script throughout lengthy manuscripts
exemplifies their dedication, upheld by stringent rules enforced in monastic scriptoria, such
as punitive measures for monks neglecting copying tasks. Colophons, whether cursory or
elaborate, not only provide insights into the physical and emotional challenges faced by
scribes but also offer blessings, prayers, and reflections on the enduring impact of written
words. From division systems like chapters and titles in manuscripts to aids for readers like
summaries and tables of contents, ancient bookmaking truly reflects the intricate and labor-
intensive process that underpinned the preservation and dissemination of knowledge in
antiquity.

Eusebius of Caesarea devised an ingenious system called Eusebian Canons to aid in locating
parallel passages in the Gospels, which was widely adopted in Greek, Latin, Syriac, Coptic,
Gothic, Armenian, and other versions. The synopsis involved dividing each Gospel into
sections and numbering them consecutively, with a set of tables or canons prepared to show
parallel passages across the Gospels. These tables of numerals were commonly placed at the
beginning of Gospel manuscripts. Additionally, hypotheses, prologues, subscriptions, and
artistic adornments like portraits of Evangelists were included in manuscripts to provide
readers with information about the text. Neumes, Byzantine musical notes, were used to assist
in chanting Scripture, and lectionaries were developed to organize readings for worship
services, often marked with special abbreviations or notes for ease of use. Various features
such as glosses, scholia, and colometric arrangements were employed to enhance the
understanding and accessibility of the Biblical text in ancient manuscripts.

The text discusses the lectionaries in the Greek Orthodox Church, focusing on the synaxaria
and menologion, which provide Scripture readings for various occasions throughout the year,
dating back to the 7th or 8th century. These lectionary manuscripts are crucial in preserving
ancient versions of the New Testament text, offering insights into the Byzantine period.
Additionally, the text delves into the classification and significance of Greek New Testament
manuscripts, highlighting the meticulous categorization efforts by scholars like Johann Jakob
Wettstein and Caspar Rene Gregory. It emphasizes the abundance of Greek manuscript
witnesses compared to other ancient texts, underscoring the rich textual tradition of the New
Testament and the relatively short time gap between composition and extant copies. Details
about specific important papyrus manuscripts, such as P4, P46, and P67 from the Chester
Beatty collection, shed light on early Gospel and Pauline Epistles texts, showcasing different
textual traditions and dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Moreover, the mention of the
Vienna fragments and the scholarly contributions regarding these manuscripts further
enriches the narrative about the ancient textual sources of the New Testament, emphasizing
the significance of these witnesses in textual criticism and biblical studies.

Remained unnoticed among hundreds of similar shreds of papyri until 1934 when C. H.
Roberts, a Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, sorting through unpublished papyri from the
John Rylands Library, identified a scrap preserving sentences from John. The fragment dated
to the first half of the second century based on the script style, gaining agreement from
prominent paleographers. This tiny scrap of papyrus provided significant evidence of the
existence and use of the fourth Gospel in a provincial town along the Nile during the early
second century. Subsequent important discoveries of New Testament manuscripts included
the Bodmer Papyrus II, containing portions of the Gospel of John dating back to the second
century, and Bodmer Papyrus XVII, a substantial seventh-century codex with texts from Acts,
James, Peter, John, and Jude. The Bodmer collection also featured a single-quire codex of
Luke and John, dated between A.D. 175 and 225, highlighting unique readings and textual
relationships. Additionally, the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 4499 presented a fragmented text of
Revelation from the late third or early fourth century, offering variant readings that should
influence the Revelation text in printed editions. Codex Sinaiticus, a fourth-century
discovery, represented an exceptional find, being the only known complete Greek New
Testament in majuscule script. Tischendorf's intriguing journey to uncover and negotiate for
the codex's possession demonstrated the complexities and diplomatic nuances of manuscript
acquisition in the nineteenth century, underscoring the manuscript's enduring significance in
biblical scholarship.

The manuscript presented to the monastery by the czar included a silver shrine for St.
Catherine, monetary gifts, and Russian decorations. The text of the manuscript was published
in four volumes in 1862, printed to resemble the original characters. The definitive
publication was done in the twentieth century by Oxford University Press. After the Russian
revolution, the codex was sold to the British Museum. A sealed room in the monastery
containing treasures and manuscripts, including leaves from Codex Sinaiticus, was
discovered in 1975. Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus are now displayed in the
British Library. The Codex Vaticanus, in the Vatican Library, was not readily accessible to
scholars until photofacsimiles were made in the late 19th century. Codex Vaticanus is missing
parts of the Old and New Testaments and contains corrections by different scribes. Codex
Bezae, known for its variations from the normal text, is a significant manuscript of the
Gospels and Acts. It includes unique additions and omissions, challenging traditional text. A
rich history of research exists on Codex Bezae, demonstrating its complexity and importance
in textual studies.

The essays in Codex Bezae: Studies from the Lunel Colloquium highlight the distinct
differences in the Acts of the Apostles compared to other witnesses, being notably longer in
its narrative. The manuscript depicts specific details such as the number of steps from Peter's
prison to the street and additional information about Paul's preaching schedule in Ephesus. It
deviates from the traditional text in the Apostolic Council's decree by omitting and adding
certain clauses. Despite extensive study on this manuscript, there is still no consensus on the
various challenges it presents. Other significant manuscripts such as Codex Claromontanus,
Codex Basiliensis, and Codex E showcase diverse Western, Byzantine, and Alexandrian
textual characteristics, contributing to the complexity of New Testament textual analysis.
These manuscripts vary in origin, content, and textual affiliations, reflecting the intricate
nature of ancient biblical texts and the ongoing scholarly discourse surrounding their
interpretations and significance.
Edited by T. K. Abbott in 1880, the text delves into various ancient manuscripts of the New
Testament, such as Codex Sangallensis, Codex Koridethi, and Codex Zacynthius, shedding
light on their unique characteristics and textual significance. Each manuscript, ranging from
the ninth to the sixteenth century, offers insights into different textual traditions and
variations, with some aligning closely with the Alexandrian type while others displaying
Byzantine influences. From curious mistakes in scribing to the inclusion of marginal
commentaries, these manuscripts provide a glimpse into the transmission and preservation of
the biblical text through centuries. The discussion extends to important Greek minuscule
manuscripts like MS. 33 and MS. 579, showcasing their distinctive features and textual
alignments. Through collations and scholarly analyses, the manuscripts reveal nuances in
readings and textual relationships, offering valuable contributions to the understanding of the
New Testament text and its historical significance.

Nothing is more recent than Basil, who lived from A.D. 329 to 379, it appears that the
ancestor of this manuscript was written by a scribe toward the close of the fourth century. A
colophon indicates that for the Pauline Epistles the scribe followed a manuscript that
contained an Origenian text. It is, however, not of the Caesarean type but presents a relatively
pure form of the Alexandrian type. Another notable manuscript, the thirteenth-century
manuscript at Messina, known as MS. 2053, contains the text of the Book of Revelation with
Oecumenius' commentary on it, considered one of the best sources for the text of the
Apocalypse. MS. 2344, an eleventh-century codex at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris,
includes Acts, Catholic Epistles, Pauline Epistles, and Revelation, frequently agreeing with
MS. 2053, along with parts of the Old Testament. Other noteworthy manuscripts due to
external format or other aspects include Codex 047, an eighth-century majuscule copy with
writing arranged like a cross, and Codex 16, a fourteenth-century copy of the four Gospels
written in Greek and Latin with text color-coded for different categories. Manuscript 461 is
one of the smallest Greek manuscripts containing the Gospels and is significant as the earliest
dated Greek minuscule manuscript known, copied in A.D. 835. Additionally, the vellum
codex of the Book of Revelation, of which only one leaf is extant from the fourth century, is
notably tiny, underscoring the variety and historical richness of biblical manuscripts across
different regions and time periods.

Translations were also made in Italy, Gaul, and elsewhere. The wooden and literalistic style
that characterizes many of these renditions suggests that early copies were made in the form
of interlinear renderings of the Greek. During the third century, many Old Latin versions
circulated in North Africa and Europe, including distinctive versions that were current in
Italy, Gaul, and Spain. Divergent renderings of the same passage bear out Jerome's complaint
that there were almost as many versions as manuscripts. No codex of the entire Old Latin
Bible is extant, and the surviving manuscripts date from the fourth century to the thirteenth
century. The Old Latin manuscripts are typically Western in textual complexion, with African
forms presenting greater divergences from the Greek than European forms. Various important
manuscripts of the Old Latin versions are designated by small letters of the Latin alphabet.
The African Old Latin manuscripts and European Old Latin manuscripts show distinct textual
traits, with important witnesses like Codex Palatinus, Codex Bobbiensis, and Codex
Vercellensis standing out. The Latin Vulgate, revised by Jerome at the close of the fourth
century, aimed to address the limitations and imperfections of the Old Latin versions.
Jerome's revision initially focused on the Gospels, using a relatively good Latin text as the
basis and comparing it with old Greek manuscripts. The rest of the New Testament was
revised in a more cursory manner, leading to subsequent corruptions in the transmission of
Jerome's text. The scribes' errors and deliberate conflation with Old Latin versions
necessitated various recensions and editions during the Middle Ages. Noteworthy Vulgate
manuscripts like Codex Amiatinus, Codex Cavensis, and Codex Dublinensis exemplify the
diverse textual traditions associated with the Vulgate. Official editions of the Vulgate were
commissioned by the Council of Trent and subsequently by Pope Sixtus V and Clement VIII.
Contemporary critical editions and revisions of the Vulgate, such as those by the International
Commission and the Wurtemberg Bibelanstalt, continue to contribute to the study of the Latin
Scriptures. The Coptic versions of the New Testament represent the latest form of the ancient
Egyptian language, predominantly in the Sahidic dialect of Upper Egypt, with manuscripts
dating back to the fourth century. These versions provide valuable insights into the
transmission and interpretation of the biblical text in early Christian communities.

In the northern part of Egypt, known as Lower Egypt, the Bohairic dialect was used alongside
Greek. Along the Nile between these regions, intermediate dialects like Fayyumic,
Memphkic, Achmimic, and sub-Achmimic developed. The Sahidic and Bohairic dialects
were significant for early Bible versions, with portions of the New Testament translated into
Sahidic around the third century. While Sahidic generally aligns with the Alexandrian text, it
exhibits Western readings in the Gospels and Acts. The Sahidic manuscripts have diversified
translations, and later, more complete manuscripts like the Chester Beatty Coptic MS have
emerged, dating back to around the sixth or seventh century. The Bohairic version, considered
later than Sahidic, is found in numerous late-date manuscripts, with one containing
significant portions of John and Genesis published in 1958. This text bears resemblance to
the Alexandrian text type. Additionally, fragments in the Fayyumic dialect further contribute
to the rich tapestry of early biblical translations. The Middle Egyptian dialect manuscripts,
discovered recently, offer insights into variations of the New Testament text, with some
aligning closely with Western textual traditions. The Gothic, Armenian, Georgian, and
Ethiopian versions of the New Testament also provide valuable insights into early translations
and textual variations. Ulfilas' work on the Gothic version, St. Mesrop's contributions to the
Armenian version, the unique Georgian translation, and the Ethiopian version preserved in
Africa are all noteworthy for their historical and linguistic significance in the study of the
New Testament. The diversity of these versions, each with its unique characteristics and
textual variations, enriches our understanding of the transmission and interpretation of the
biblical text across different languages and regions, shedding light on the complexities and
nuances of early Christian literature.
The examination of 65 Ethiopic manuscripts reveals the presence of Mark 16.9-20 in all,
while several Greek and Syriac manuscripts show a "shorter ending" between Mark 16.8 and
9, which is also present in many Ethiopic manuscripts. Additionally, a study of 129 more
Ethiopic manuscripts of Mark confirms that almost all contain Mark 16.9-20, with 131
including both the shorter and longer endings. The Ethiopic version of Acts chapter 28
instructs readers to consult Paul's letters and the Acts of Paul, suggesting a date of origin as
early as the fourth century by some scholars. The Old Slavonic Version, associated with Cyril
and Methodius, features readings from Western and Caesarean types as well as Byzantine
text, while potential sixth or seventh-century origins remain debated. Regarding the Anglo-
Saxon versions, glosses on a Vulgate Latin text display deviations akin to Codex Bezae,
underlining the importance of patristic quotations to trace text history and the evolution of the
New Testament. Patristic evidence not only aids in establishing the earliest form of the text
but also tracks its transmission over centuries, highlighting variant readings and their
evaluation by Church fathers. The explicit references and opinions of fathers on manuscript
readings provide valuable insights into the textual landscape of the New Testament, offering a
window into the variant textual traditions of the early Christian era.

A reading's prevalence in ancient manuscripts may or may not be consistent with the survival
of copies with that reading today, revealing how chance has influenced the preservation or
loss of manuscript evidence over previous centuries. The importance of patristic sources in
identifying the oldest form of the text and understanding its transmission history necessitates
complete and reliable presentations of quotations and allusions to the New Testament in early
church writings. A new monograph series aims to address this need by dedicating separate
volumes to individual fathers, offering complete texts or sections of the New Testament.
Notable studies on various church fathers have highlighted their representation of early
textual traditions and prompted a reevaluation of the nature of textual lineages. The patristic
sources remain crucial but overlooked witnesses that require further analysis. Significant
fathers whose writings contain numerous New Testament quotes include Ambrose of Milan,
Athanasius, Jerome, Origen, and Tertullian, among others, with Tatian standing out for his
Diatessaron's harmonization of the Gospels. The delay in printing the Greek New Testament
can be attributed to the complexity and cost of producing Greek typefaces for printing, with
the Latin Vulgate's authority further inhibiting Greek text publication. Ultimately, the first
printed Greek New Testament emerged in the Complutensian Polyglot Bible meticulously
overseen by Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros, marking a significant milestone in biblical
scholarship and scholarly critique through bilingual comparisons of biblical texts.

Accompanied by a Latin translation, the Greek type used in the New Testament volume
imitates the handwriting style of manuscripts from the eleventh or twelfth century, appearing
bold and elegant. It is printed without breathing marks and accented based on a unique
system, with monosyllables lacking accents while other syllables marked with a simple apex.
Each Greek word or group is linked to the Latin Vulgate column by small supralinear Roman
letters for readers to find equivalent words easily. The Septuagint is printed in the cursive
style popularized by the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius. The specific Greek manuscripts
behind the Complutensian New Testament text remain uncertain, but Ximenes acknowledges
receiving Greek copies from the Apostolic Library. Erasmus later prepares the first published
Greek New Testament, while the Complutensian New Testament faces challenges of
manuscript authenticity. Erasmus often resorts to marginal and interlinear corrections for his
printer due to unavailable or incomplete Greek manuscripts. His expedited 1516 edition is
eventually followed by a revised 1522 edition incorporating the Complutensian text for
improved accuracy. Despite criticisms and controversies, Erasmus’ influential work and
subsequent editions shape the foundation for the Textus Receptus, resisting scholarly
challenges for centuries. The narrative touches on key events, including the production of
competing Greek editions, controversial textual insertions, challenges to traditional authority,
and the enduring legacy of Erasmus' critical contributions to biblical scholarship.

The handsome third edition, of folio size (8% by 13 inches), is the finest Greek Testament
with a critical apparatus; Stephanus included variant readings from 14 Greek codices and
readings from the Complutensian Polyglot. One of the manuscripts cited is the famous Codex
Bezae, collated by friends in Italy. Stephanus' editions of 1546 and 1549 combined the
Complutensian and Erasmian editions; the third edition in 1550 approached Erasmus' later
editions more closely. Stephanus' fourth edition in 1551 was remarkable for introducing
numbered verses for the first time, attributed to verse divisions made while traveling on
horseback. The following years saw the publication of various editions by scholars like Beza
and the Elzevirs, contributing to the establishment of the Textus Receptus as the standard
Greek text of the New Testament. Notably, efforts to collect variant readings culminated in
Brian Walton's Polyglot Bible in 1655-7 and continued with editions by scholars like John
Mill and Edward Wells, who departed from the Textus Receptus towards readings from older
manuscripts. Despite criticisms and controversies, these scholars made significant
contributions to the understanding and transmission of the New Testament text, paving the
way for future critical editions and translations.

In the 18th century, Johann Albrecht Bengel and Johann Jakob Wettstein made important
contributions to the textual criticism of the New Testament. Bengel focused on studying the
transmission of the text and classifying manuscripts into different groups based on
geographical origin. He developed a canon of criticism still used today, emphasizing the
preference for difficult readings over easier ones. Wettstein, on the other hand, applied textual
criticism principles but sometimes applied them in a precarious manner. Moving forward,
William Bowyer and Edward Harwood in England, and later Caleb Alexander in America,
worked on critical editions of the Greek New Testament, deviating from the traditional Textus
Receptus at times. The foundation for modern textual criticism of the New Testament was
laid by Johann Jakob Griesbach, who classified manuscripts into Alexandrian, Western, and
Byzantine recensions. Griesbach's canons of textual criticism established key principles for
evaluating variant readings in the New Testament, emphasizing the preference for shorter
readings and considering factors like difficulty and authorial style.
The discussion highlights the significance of scholars like Griesbach, Christian Friedrich
Matthaei, Andreas Birch, and Franz Kad Alter in the field of New Testament textual criticism
during the modern critical period. Griesbach's skill in evaluating variant readings, particularly
regarding the Lord's Prayer in Luke 11:3-4, set the foundation for future textual criticism.
Matthaei's collations of Greek and patristic manuscripts added valuable insights, while
Birch's critical descriptions of Greek manuscripts further advanced the field. Additionally,
Franz Kad Alter's editions based on multiple manuscripts and versions contributed to the
understanding of textual variations. Tischendorf's extensive search for manuscripts and
Tregelles' meticulous examination of textual evidence significantly influenced the
development of critical editions of the Greek New Testament. Lachmann's departure from the
Textus Receptus and his emphasis on scientific method paved the way for a more accurate
representation of the early Christian texts. The dedication of these scholars to reconstructing
the original form of the New Testament text through rigorous examination of ancient
manuscripts laid the groundwork for modern textual criticism practices.

The discussion revolves around the critical principles of textual criticism applied by
prominent figures like Brooke Foss Westcott, Fenton John Anthony Hort, and other scholars
in evaluating the Greek text of the New Testament. Through meticulous analysis of variant
readings and manuscript evidence, these scholars identified four principal types of text:
Syrian, Western, Alexandrian, and Neutral. The Syrian text, a later revised form, aimed for
clarity and completeness, while the Western text displayed a penchant for paraphrase and
additions. The Alexandrian text reflected a refined literary approach, and the Neutral text was
deemed closest to the original autographs. Westcott and Hort's rejection of the Textus
Receptus in favor of the Neutral text faced pushback from scholars like John W. Burgon and
F. H. A. Scrivener, who questioned the methodology and conclusions drawn. Despite
differing views, the impact of Westcott and Hort's critical edition remains significant in New
Testament scholarship. Additionally, the approach of scholar Bernhard Weiss, focusing on
intrinsic meaning, highlighted the subjectivity inherent in textual criticism. Ultimately, these
diverse perspectives contributed to a nuanced understanding of the Greek text of the New
Testament.

The position of British textual scholarship in 1881 was marked by the reproduction of the
Greek text constructed by Archdeacon Edwin Palmer for the Revised Version of 1881, based
on the third edition of Stephanus (1550). Palmer's edition generally refrained from altering
the Textus Receptus unless necessary, keeping orthography and spelling intact. By 1947, the
apparatus was expanded to include evidence from the Chester Beatty papyri and other recent
discoveries. Von Soden's edition, published in the early 20th century, categorized Greek
manuscripts into three classes based on content and age. Herman Freiherr von Soden's
meticulous research, though deemed a "magnificent failure," included analysis of Greek
minuscules and the history of the Greek text. However, criticism arose around von Soden's
complex nomenclature and classifications. Several modern editions of the Greek New
Testament varied in terms of differences from the Textus Receptus. Vogels, Merk, and Bover
each presented editions with their unique features and textual choices. Eberhard Nestle's
critical Greek text issued by the Wurttemberg Bible Society since 1898 underwent revisions
that incorporated findings from various editions. The United Bible Societies published a
Greek New Testament edition in 1966, designed for translators and students, featuring a
comprehensive apparatus with significant variant readings chosen for exegetical relevance,
showing the evolving landscape of textual scholarship over the years.

Published in 1971 by the United Bible Societies, this concise account by B.M. Metzger on
behalf of the committee explores the reasons behind accepting or rejecting variant readings in
the New Testament. Additionally, it delves into 600 other textual issues, focusing on the Acts
of the Apostles. In 1983, the United Bible Societies issued the third edition of the Greek New
Testament, incorporating corrections supervised by Klaus Junack. Changes aligning the
Greek text's punctuation with the Nestle-Aland 26th edition were introduced, shifting from
British to Continental punctuation traditions. The fourth revised edition in 1993 further
refined the text, adopting a Discourse Segmentation Apparatus by Roger L. Omanson. The
ancient practice of textual criticism, originating with the Greeks and focused on works like
the Iliad and the Odyssey, evolved into a scholarly discipline. Individuals like Zenodotus and
Aristarchus applied critical symbols, while Origen engaged in textual and literary critical
studies of the Old Testament. Further developments by St. Jerome and St. Augustine
showcased their astute text-critical judgments and preferences for certain readings in the New
Testament, highlighting the evolution of textual criticism as a scholarly discipline over time
with a focus on meticulous examination and evaluation of biblical texts.

In the early days, efforts were made to purify Jerome's Vulgate text which was corrupted due
to errors common in transcriptions, with attempts to reintroduce certain Old Latin readings.
During the Renaissance, scholars started correcting the Latin Vulgate using the original
Greek, as seen in Erasmus and Beza's annotations with variant readings from Greek
manuscripts. The Geneva Bible of 1560 was the first English Bible to incorporate translations
from Greek manuscripts, reflecting the evolving knowledge of ancient Greek. Early scholars
like Francis Lucas of Bruges and Richard Simon laid the scientific foundations of New
Testament criticism by utilizing Greek manuscripts, early versions, and quotations from the
fathers. The classical method of textual criticism, involving recension and emendation,
gained prominence post-Renaissance, with scholars like Wolf, Bekker, and Lachmann
contributing significantly. Bedier's skepticism towards the genealogical method influenced
later scholars like Vaganay and Colwell, questioning its utility in New Testament texts. The
challenges of constructing stemmata due to mixture in textual transmission underline the
complexity faced by critics. Despite critiques, classical approaches continue to be relevant,
emphasizing the importance of recognizing manuscripts' evolving nature and the advantages
of delineating broad manuscript groups to identify textual characteristics and relationships,
ultimately aiding in determining the original New Testament text's features and detecting
secondary textual elements like the Koine text.

The discussion explores the existence of various textual groups and their shared origins from
a common archetype, exemplified by instances like the pericope de adultera in fam. 13.
Albert G. Clark challenged the axiom of brevior lectio potior in classical textual criticism in
1914, asserting that accidental omissions were more common than deliberate interpolations
by scribes. Clark's research on Cicero's manuscripts led him to believe in the prevalence of
accidental omissions. He applied this principle to the Gospels and Acts, favoring the Western
text over the Neutral text. However, his theory faced criticism from eminent scholars like
Sanday, Souter, and Kenyon, pointing out flaws in his reasoning. Clark's theory was further
scrutinized in a subsequent study on the Acts. Another key scholar, B. H. Streeter, introduced
the idea of local texts, emphasizing forms of text developed in ancient Christian centers like
Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria. Streeter's analysis led to his postulation of a Caesarean text
in addition to the Alexandrian and Western text types. He identified a duality in text forms,
challenging conventional notions of textual transmission. Despite Streeter's methodological
significance, many scholars now acknowledge its limitations, particularly in establishing
clear textual families. The reevaluation of Byzantine texts and the emergence of the Majority
Text theory in the late 20th century marked a shift in textual criticism towards prioritizing the
majority of witnesses over individual manuscripts. Proponents of the Majority Text argue for
the preservation of the original text through the predominant Byzantine tradition, but critics
highlight the need for caution due to disruptions in manuscript transmission over time.
Amidst ongoing debates on textual criticism methodologies, a mediating perspective
presented by scholars like Harry A. Sturz reconsiders the Byzantine text's significance,
drawing attention to its early independence and unique textual patterns. Sturz's work,
however, faces scrutiny regarding the establishment of Byzantine text type and its continuity
throughout history. Overall, the evolution of diverse textual criticism approaches underscores
the complexity and ongoing developments in the field of studying ancient manuscripts and
their transmissions.

The text elaborates on the method of criticism in textual criticism, focusing on internal
considerations over external evidence to justify the choice of one reading as original and
others as secondary. Known as eclecticism, this method emphasizes the author's style and
contextual factors rather than manuscript families. Figures like Lagrange and Kilpatrick have
championed this approach, with examples from the study of the New Testament. The text also
delves into the application of thoroughgoing eclecticism, contrasting it with reasoned
eclecticism's reliance on both internal and external evidence. Scholars like Weiss and Turner
have exemplified this method in their editions of Greek texts, emphasizing stylistic
considerations. However, the text warns against disregarding external evidence entirely, as
seen in the debated usage of Atticisms and the pitfalls of subjective conjectural emendation. It
traces historical instances of conjectural emendations in classical literature, acknowledging
their theoretical legitimacy in textual restoration. The discussion highlights a shift towards
more judicious emendation practices in recent times to address the vast and diverse body of
manuscript evidence in textual criticism, underscoring the importance of determining family
relationships among manuscripts for establishing the oldest textual form.

The process of determining the textual affinities of manuscripts in order to establish the
original text of the New Testament has evolved over time with various methods developed by
scholars such as E.A. Hutton, E.C. Colwell, and the Alands. These methods include the
quantitative method, the Claremont Profile Method, and the Comprehensive Profile Method.
The quantitative method focuses on analyzing the agreements and disagreements of
manuscripts, while the Claremont Profile Method aims to classify manuscripts within the
Byzantine tradition. On the other hand, the Alands' method categorizes manuscripts based on
their value in establishing the original text. The Comprehensive Profile Method seeks to
classify manuscripts into family groups based on a wide range of readings they share,
emphasizing both widespread and distinctive readings within a group. These methods have
been instrumental in advancing the field of textual criticism and continue to be valuable in
understanding the transmission and history of the New Testament text.

The concept of group profiles in textual studies is discussed, focusing on how the use of
computers has revolutionized the field. The ability to store, retrieve, and analyze data has
significantly advanced with the introduction of computer technology. Tasks such as collating
manuscripts and presenting data have become more efficient and accurate. Statistical analyses
are now done at rapid speeds with computers, eliminating the labor-intensive manual
processes. Moreover, the potential for hypertext applications in accessing manuscripts and
scholarly resources is highlighted as a promising future development in the field. Significant
ongoing projects led by institutions like the Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung and
the International Greek New Testament Project are also mentioned, showcasing the
continuous evolution and progress in textual criticism facilitated by computer technology.

The volumes in the series present the differentiation of Greek manuscripts of the New
Testament by the INTF in order to classify them based on the Byzantine text or earlier forms,
aiding in determining the citations for the editio critica maior. The Text und Textwert volumes
offer detailed descriptions of Greek manuscripts, collations for select test passages, and tables
displaying manuscript support for different text forms. While the series provides valuable
insights, it focuses on test passages rather than full collations for each manuscript. Another
significant publication, Das Neue Testament auf Papyrus, showcases complete texts of New
Testament books from surviving papyri, providing detailed textual descriptions,
transcriptions, and apparatus criticus, offering extensive insights into textual variations.
Additionally, the International Greek New Testament Project's efforts on the fourth Gospel
and the Byzantine Text Project contribute to comprehensive editions and apparatus, shedding
light on the rich diversity of the Byzantine textual tradition. The errors in manuscript
transmission, whether from faulty eyesight causing confusion between similar letters or from
faulty hearing leading to pronunciation errors and textual variations, highlight the challenges
and intricacies involved in preserving and interpreting ancient texts accurately.

The variations in the Greek text of the New Testament are often due to errors made by scribes
copying the manuscripts. These errors can be attributed to factors such as confusion between
similar sounds, changes in pronunciation, substitution of vowels or diphthongs, and even
intentional alterations for grammatical improvements or harmonization with other texts.
Scribes sometimes introduced changes to correct what they perceived as errors in spelling,
grammar, or syntax, while others intentionally harmonized passages to align with parallel
accounts or Old Testament quotations. These variations in the text of the New Testament
manuscripts highlight the complexities involved in the transmission and preservation of the
biblical text over time.

Numerous scribes, in their work of transcribing ancient texts, introduced changes and
additions to the original content. These alterations ranged from adjusting quotations to match
other texts, expanding upon phrases to add clarity or emphasis, and even conflation of variant
readings to ensure completeness. Some modifications aimed to reconcile perceived
discrepancies or historical inaccuracies, such as harmonizing the chronology of events or
rectifying geographical inconsistencies. Addition of natural complements and similar adjuncts
was common practice to enhance the meaning or emphasize certain aspects of the text.
Additionally, alterations made due to doctrinal considerations were evident in manuscripts,
where passages were adjusted to align with theological beliefs or to eliminate potentially
conflicting statements. The practice of adding miscellaneous details, names, or expanding
narratives was also notable across various versions of the manuscripts. These changes,
whether driven by historical context, theological interpretations, or linguistic nuances,
reflected the dynamic nature of text transmission and the interpretative efforts of scribes over
time.

John the theologian, known as the son of Salome and Zebedee, was known to have a deep
connection to Christ, being referred to as the adopted son of Mary, the Mother of God, and
also as the Son of Thunder. This reference to John is found in historical texts like those by
Bruce M. Metzger and J. Rendel Harris. The transmission of texts in the New Testament
faced challenges, such as errors caused by scribes, but also showcased fidelity in copying
difficult readings with accuracy. The variations in the text transmission demonstrate the
complexity of establishing the original text of each book, highlighting the need to trace the
history of textual transmission from the early days down to the Middle Ages. The
dissemination of early Christian literature showed a proliferation of texts among
communities, leading to the production of multiple copies by amateur scribes, potentially
resulting in errors and variations in the texts. The Western and Alexandrian text types
emerged as prominent textual traditions, with the Western text characterized by paraphrasing
and the Alexandrian text known for meticulous preservation. Despite the challenges in
establishing the original texts, the history of textual transmission reveals the dedication of
early Christian scribes in preserving and disseminating the New Testament texts.

Colwell's concept of "combination" refers to the complex interplay of readings within the
Byzantine and other textual traditions of the New Testament. While the Byzantine text is seen
as a later development, it is noted that this tradition evolved gradually over time,
incorporating elements from earlier traditions rather than being a product of a single source.
The Byzantine text is characterized by clarity and completeness, with editors smoothing out
language and harmonizing divergent readings. Recent studies highlight how variant readings
can offer insights into the social history of early Christianity, shedding light on doctrinal
disputes and revealing the socio-historical contexts in which scribes worked. Textual changes
influenced by theological disputes can be seen in passages emphasizing Christ's divinity or
humanity, reflecting debates within early Christian communities. Studies on Jewish-Christian
relations have also uncovered how conflicts with Judaism impacted scribes copying the
Scriptures, showcasing the intricate relationship between textual transmission and social
dynamics in the early Christian movement.

Harris and others have explored how anti-Judaic influences might have affected certain text
variants in the New Testament, such as alterations in the portrayal of Jesus' interactions and
teachings. The discussions around these variants suggest intricate dynamics at play, with
scholars like Epp examining the implications of such influences on the manuscript tradition.
Another significant area of study delves into the treatment of women in early Christianity,
with scholars debating the patriarchal elements entrenched in Christian traditions and texts,
notably exemplified in passages such as 1 Corinthians 14:34-35. The evolving role of women
in the early church is a central focus, with researchers like Witherington scrutinizing textual
changes that seem to downplay women's prominence. Additionally, the interaction between
Christian apologists and critics from the broader Greco-Roman world sheds light on how
textual alterations may have served apologetic objectives, as seen in modifications aiming to
present Jesus in a more favorable light or to address potential theological inconsistencies. The
influence of asceticism on textual variations, like the perceived importance of fasting in
combating spiritual challenges, further underscores how social contexts and religious
practices intersected with the transmission of the New Testament texts.

The evaluation of variant readings in the New Testament involves considering external and
internal evidence. External evidence includes factors like the age, geographical distribution,
and genealogical relationships of manuscripts. Internal evidence involves assessing
transcriptional probabilities and intrinsic probabilities based on the author's style, immediate
context, theology, and background. Scholars must avoid becoming one-sided by
oversimplifying the analysis and giving undue weight to certain criteria. Different scholars
may interpret evidence differently, and the process of evaluating variant readings requires a
balanced and comprehensive approach that considers a range of factors without favoring any
single method or perspective.

In understanding critical methodology, the analysis typically starts with examining variant
readings by listing them alongside their supporting witnesses to clarify the point of
contention. The process involves evaluating external evidence based on factors like early
manuscripts and geographic distribution of support. Readings with extensive support are
favored, while those backed by specific witnesses may be deemed secondary. Understanding
the types of texts supporting variant readings is crucial, necessitating familiarity with tables
of witnesses to navigate the diverse textual development processes that do not have definite
boundaries. The pre-Koine texts, including the Western, Caesarean, and Alexandrian, offer
unique characteristics and complexities, shaping approaches to textual criticism. The Western
text, known for its paraphrasing and secondary features, has been linked to diverse
geographical origins beyond the Western regions. Conversely, the Caesarean text represents a
blend of Western and Alexandrian readings, highlighting its distinctive nature. The
Alexandrian text, known for its editorial precision, reflects the scholarly traditions of
Alexandria and is considered one of the earliest recensions approximating the original.
Evaluating variant readings involves assessing transcriptional probabilities, internal evidence,
and intrinsic probability, demanding a nuanced analysis of textual, historical, and linguistic
factors to ascertain the most likely original reading.

In the study of textual methodology, beginners are advised to rely on external evidence rather
than potentially imperfect knowledge of an author's usage. Over time, it becomes evident that
readings supported by a combination of Alexandrian and Western witnesses tend to be
superior. However, exceptions exist, such as in the Pauline Epistles, where certain
combinations may not hold much weight. The interplay of Western and Caesarean witnesses
typically lacks exceptional significance due to their close relationship, particularly in early
periods. The inclusion of certain passages, like the one about the adulterous woman, has
raised questions about their originality and placement within the canonical text. For instance,
the absence of supporting evidence from various ancient sources casts doubt on the pericope's
direct association with the Gospel of John. Variants like the ending of Mark's Gospel also
demonstrate the challenges in determining the authentic text amid multiple manuscript
traditions. Overall, these textual analyses underscore the complexities and uncertainties
inherent in New Testament textual criticism.

Mark's intended ending in four variations, Short, Intermediate, Long, and Expanded Long
endings with evidence from different manuscripts and scholars. The originality of each
ending is under scrutiny, with discussions on textual criticism and historical implications for
the Gospels. The last 12 verses of Mark discussed with debates on their authenticity, and the
implications on the narrative and theological interpretations. Various scholars and textual
evidence examined to understand the different endings and Mark's original intent,
highlighting the complexity of early manuscript traditions and the challenges in determining
the authentic conclusion of the Gospel of Mark.

The discussion in "The Practice of New Testament Textual Criticism" delves into various
textual variants found in the New Testament manuscripts. The text examines different
readings in passages such as Acts 20:28 and Colossians 2:2, exploring the nuances in
originality and potential errors that may have occurred during transcription. Through
meticulous analysis of external and internal evidence, the author evaluates the credibility of
certain readings, highlighting instances where the less common or "inferior" manuscripts may
actually preserve the correct or original wording. The complexity of textual criticism is
demonstrated through examples like Luke 20:1 and Matthew 22:34-35, where seemingly
minor details like the choice between "a lawyer" or "lawyer" can lead to significant
implications for the interpretation and transmission of Biblical texts. By weighing the
external support, intrinsic plausibility, and possible scribal tendencies, the author navigates
the intricate landscape of New Testament textual variations, ultimately emphasizing the
importance of meticulous scholarship in evaluating and reconstructing the most authentic
rendition of the ancient manuscripts.

p. 104 ff.), will certainly not be impressed by the combination of witnesses supporting the
reading "seventy-two", which seems almost impossible due to its sense in the context. The
various readings, whether "seventy" or "seventy-two", have nearly evenly divided external
evidence, with representatives from Alexandrian and Western groups, along with most Old
Latin and Sinaitic Syriac manuscripts. The decision between the two is elusive, given the
chance of accidental alteration between the numbers. Symbolism in numbers, as seen in
Jewish antiquity, adds a layer of complexity in interpreting Luke's account of the disciples.
The uncertainty in evaluating these variant readings exemplifies the challenges in New
Testament textual criticism, where decisions often remain tentative, based on a delicate
balance of probabilities and sometimes leading to conjectural emendation. In conclusion, the
diverse considerations in assessing variant readings underscore the complexity of textual
criticism, highlighting the need for cautious judgment and an awareness of the limits of
certainty in determining the original text.

The list includes various references to individuals and groups related to manuscripts, ancient
texts, and textual criticism. Mentioned are scholars like Aland, Aitken, and Anderson, as well
as historical figures like Alexander II and Constantine. There are references to ancient
versions of texts, such as the Armenian version and Coptic versions, and discussions on
scribes, manuscript groups, and textual developments. Figures like Origen, Chrysostom, and
Cyril are also highlighted, along with discussions on codices like Sinaiticus and Vaticanus.
Additionally, the mention of textual discrepancies, transmission errors, and the use of
different writing styles like cursive handwriting and colophons is noted. The list covers a
wide array of topics related to manuscript studies and textual criticism, providing insights
into the diverse scholarly landscape of ancient texts and documents.

In a vast compilation of names and numerical references, various historical figures,

manuscripts, versions, and scholars are mentioned. These include biblical figures like
Ephesus, Ephraim, Epiphanius, Erasmus, and Eusebius, alongside references to manuscripts
like the Ethiopic version and the Gothic version. The text also delves into the intricacies of
textual criticism, examining topics such as errors, additions, agreements, and changes found
within texts. Scholars such as Hort, Tregelles, and Westcott are listed, and methodologies like
genealogical methods and external evidence are explored. The critical study of the Greek
New Testament, the Latin Vulgate, and the Majority Text are highlighted, showcasing the
evolution of biblical texts over time. Discussions on manuscripts like the Codex Sinaiticus
and Codex Vaticanus underscore the importance of textual accuracy and reliability in biblical
scholarship, while referencing various scholars and historical figures central to the field of
textual criticism.

Manuscripts from various time periods are mentioned within the text, including Manuscript
700 from the year 614, Manuscript 892 from 700-800, Manuscript 1071 from 800,
Manuscript 1241 from 900, Manuscript 1424 from 900, and Manuscript 1582 from 910
among many others. The text also includes references to scholars, historical figures, and
events related to manuscript studies such as Marcion, Matthew, Tischendorf, and the
development of different versions of the Bible in various languages. It delves into topics like
textual criticism, paleography, and the importance of manuscripts in understanding the
history of Christianity and the transmission of religious texts. The significance of different
versions of the Bible, the role of scribes and scriptoria, and the challenges of interpreting
variant readings in manuscripts are also highlighted throughout the text.

Von Gebhardt, Von Harnack, Von Ostermann, Von Schlozer, Von Soden, Voobus,
Voskresenskii, Voss, Wachtel, Wachter, Walzer, Wan-en, Wartenberg, Washington codex of
Pauline Epistles, Wattenbach, Weber, Weima, Weinrich, Weiss, Weitenberg, Weitzmann,
Wellesz, Wellhausen, Wells, West, Westcon, Western non-interpolations, Western order,
Western recension, Western text, Wescott and Hort, Wettstein, Wharey, Whibley, Whiston,
Whitby, White, Whittingham, Wifstrand, Wikgren, Wilcken, Wilkenhauser, Wilkins,
Williams, Wilson, Winer, Winslow, Wire, Wisse, Witherington, Witnesses, Wolf, Women,
Wordsworth, Wright, Wyman, Ximenes de Cisneros, Yoder, Zenon, Zenodotus of Ephesus,
Zereteli, Zetzel, Zigabenus, Zimmer, Zohrabian, Zuntz, Zu Urmond, Index of Biblical
Passages Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians,
Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy,
Titus, Philemon, Hebrews, James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, Jude, Revelation.