Semigroups.

Monoids

Definition
An universal algebra (A, ∗) formed by a nonempty set A and a binary
operation
∗ : A × A −→ A
is called a groupoid.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 1/1

Semigroups. Monoids

Definition
An universal algebra (A, ∗) formed by a nonempty set A and a binary
operation
∗ : A × A −→ A
is called a groupoid.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 1/1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid. An element a ∈ A is called
def
-a left unit element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = x, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-a right unit element ⇐⇒ x ∗ a = x, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-an unit element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = x ∗ a = x, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-a left absorbant element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = a, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-a right absorbant element ⇐⇒ x ∗ a = a, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-an absorbant element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = x ∗ a = a, (∀)x ∈ A.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 2/1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid. An element a ∈ A is called
def
-a left unit element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = x, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-a right unit element ⇐⇒ x ∗ a = x, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-an unit element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = x ∗ a = x, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-a left absorbant element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = a, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-a right absorbant element ⇐⇒ x ∗ a = a, (∀)x ∈ A.
def
-an absorbant element ⇐⇒ a ∗ x = x ∗ a = a, (∀)x ∈ A.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 2/1

Proposition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid and a1 , a2 ∈ A.
a) If a1 is a left unit element, and a2 a right unit element, then a1 = a2 is
the unique unit element of the groupoid (A, ∗).
b) If a1 is a left absorbant element, and a2 a right absorbant element, then
a1 = a2 is the unique absorbant element of the groupoid (A, ∗).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 3/1

Proposition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid and a1 , a2 ∈ A.
a) If a1 is a left unit element, and a2 a right unit element, then a1 = a2 is
the unique unit element of the groupoid (A, ∗).
b) If a1 is a left absorbant element, and a2 a right absorbant element, then
a1 = a2 is the unique absorbant element of the groupoid (A, ∗).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 3/1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid in which there is a (left, right, or bilateral)
unit element u. We call an element a ∈ A
def
-left invertible ⇐⇒ (∃)b ∈ A : b ∗ a = u.
def
-right invertible ⇐⇒ (∃)b ∈ A : a ∗ b = u.
def
-invertible ⇐⇒ (∃)b ∈ A : b ∗ a = a ∗ b = u.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 4/1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid. The operation ∗ is called
def
-commutative ⇐⇒ x ∗ y = y ∗ x, (∀)x, y ∈ A.
def
-associative ⇐⇒ (x ∗ y ) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z), (∀)x, y , z ∈ A.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 5/1

Definition
A groupoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called a
commutative grupoid.

Definition
A groupoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is associative is called a semigroup.
A semigroup (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called a
commutative semigroup.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 6/1

Definition
A groupoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called a
commutative grupoid.

Definition
A groupoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is associative is called a semigroup.
A semigroup (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called a
commutative semigroup.

Definition
A semigroup (A, ∗) which contains a (bilateral) unit element u is called
a monoid. A monoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called
a commutative monoid.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 6/1

Definition
A groupoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called a
commutative grupoid.

Definition
A groupoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is associative is called a semigroup.
A semigroup (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called a
commutative semigroup.

Definition
A semigroup (A, ∗) which contains a (bilateral) unit element u is called
a monoid. A monoid (A, ∗) whose operation ∗ is commutative is called
a commutative monoid.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 6/1

Remark
A
 monoid  may be defined as an universal algebra (A, ∗, u) of the type
∗ u
, which satisfies the identitities:
2 0
1) (x ∗ y ) ∗ z = x ∗ (y ∗ z), (∀)x, y , z ∈ A,
2) x ∗ u = u ∗ x = x, (∀)x ∈ A.
We say that a monoid can be defined as an algebra with polynomial
identitities(PIA −polynomial identities algebra).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 7/1

Proposition
Let (A, ∗, u) be a monoid and a ∈ A. If b1 ∈ A is a left inverse of a, and
b2 ∈ A a right inverse of a, then b1 = b2 , end the element a is invertible.

Remark
Generally, in an arbitrary groupoid with a unit element, the
implication:

a − left invertible and right invertible =⇒ a − invertible .

is not necessarilly true.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 8/1

Proposition
Let (A, ∗, u) be a monoid and a ∈ A. If b1 ∈ A is a left inverse of a, and
b2 ∈ A a right inverse of a, then b1 = b2 , end the element a is invertible.

Remark
Generally, in an arbitrary groupoid with a unit element, the
implication:

a − left invertible and right invertible =⇒ a − invertible .

is not necessarilly true.

Notation
If (A, ∗, u) is a monoid, we denote

U(A) := {a ∈ A| a − invertible} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 8/1

Proposition
Let (A, ∗, u) be a monoid and a ∈ A. If b1 ∈ A is a left inverse of a, and
b2 ∈ A a right inverse of a, then b1 = b2 , end the element a is invertible.

Remark
Generally, in an arbitrary groupoid with a unit element, the
implication:

a − left invertible and right invertible =⇒ a − invertible .

is not necessarilly true.

Notation
If (A, ∗, u) is a monoid, we denote

U(A) := {a ∈ A| a − invertible} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 8/1

Proposition
(The generalized associativity law) Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup. If for
any elements a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ A we define recursively
a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ an−1 ∗ an := (a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ an−1 ) ∗ an , then for any 1 ≤ i < n
the following equality holds

a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ an = (a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ ai ) ∗ (ai+1 ∗ · · · ∗ an ).

Remark
In a semigroup (A, ∗), the use of parantheses is not necessary in writing
operations.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 9/1

Proposition
(The generalized associativity law) Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup. If for
any elements a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ A we define recursively
a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ an−1 ∗ an := (a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ an−1 ) ∗ an , then for any 1 ≤ i < n
the following equality holds

a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ an = (a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ ai ) ∗ (ai+1 ∗ · · · ∗ an ).

Remark
In a semigroup (A, ∗), the use of parantheses is not necessary in writing
operations.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 9/1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and a ∈ A. The natural powers of the element
a are defined recursively by:

a1 := a, an+1 := an ∗ a.

Remark
In a monoid (A, ∗, u) one can also define a0 := u.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 10 / 1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and a ∈ A. The natural powers of the element
a are defined recursively by:

a1 := a, an+1 := an ∗ a.

Remark
In a monoid (A, ∗, u) one can also define a0 := u.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 10 / 1

Proposition
(The laws of powers) Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup, a ∈ A, and m, n ∈ N∗ .
Then the following properties hold:

1) am ∗ an = am+n ,
2) (am )n = am·n .

Remark
In a monoid (A, ∗, u) one can extend the laws of powers to all values
m, n ∈ N.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 11 / 1

Proposition
(The laws of powers) Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup, a ∈ A, and m, n ∈ N∗ .
Then the following properties hold:

1) am ∗ an = am+n ,
2) (am )n = am·n .

Remark
In a monoid (A, ∗, u) one can extend the laws of powers to all values
m, n ∈ N.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 11 / 1

Proposition
(The generalized commutativity law) Let (A, ∗) be a commutative
semigroup, n ∈ N∗ , n ≥ 2, and a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ A. For any permutation
σ ∈ Sn the following equality holds

a(1)σ ∗ a(2)σ ∗ · · · ∗ a(n)σ = a1 ∗ a2 ∗ · · · ∗ an .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 12 / 1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and S ⊆ A a subset of A. The subset S is
called a subsemigroup of the semigroup (A, ∗), and we write S ≤ A, if

(∀)x, y ∈ S =⇒ a ∗ y ∈ S .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 13 / 1

Proposition
Let (A,T∗) be a semigroup and {Si }i∈I a family of subsemigroups of (A, ∗).
Then Si ≤ A.
i∈I

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and M ⊆ A. The subsemigroup of A
generated(or spanned) by M is
\
hMi := S.
M⊆S≤A

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 14 / 1

Proposition
Let (A,T∗) be a semigroup and {Si }i∈I a family of subsemigroups of (A, ∗).
Then Si ≤ A.
i∈I

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and M ⊆ A. The subsemigroup of A
generated(or spanned) by M is
\
hMi := S.
M⊆S≤A

Proposition
If (A, ∗) is a semigroup, and M ⊆ A, then

hMi = {x1 ∗ x2 ∗ · · · ∗ xn | n ∈ N∗ , xi ∈ M, (∀)i = 1, n} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 14 / 1

Proposition
Let (A,T∗) be a semigroup and {Si }i∈I a family of subsemigroups of (A, ∗).
Then Si ≤ A.
i∈I

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and M ⊆ A. The subsemigroup of A
generated(or spanned) by M is
\
hMi := S.
M⊆S≤A

Proposition
If (A, ∗) is a semigroup, and M ⊆ A, then

hMi = {x1 ∗ x2 ∗ · · · ∗ xn | n ∈ N∗ , xi ∈ M, (∀)i = 1, n} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 14 / 1

Definition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two groupoids. A function f : A1 −→ A2 is
called a homomorphism of groupoids(or groupoid homomorphism) if

(x ∗ y )f = (x)f ? (y )f , (∀)x, y ∈ A1 .

A homomorphism of groupoids f : A1 −→ A2 is called isomorphism of

groupoids if there is a homomorphism of groupoids g : A2 −→ A1 such
that f · g = idA1 and g · f = idA2 .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 15 / 1

Definition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two groupoids. A function f : A1 −→ A2 is
called a homomorphism of groupoids(or groupoid homomorphism) if

(x ∗ y )f = (x)f ? (y )f , (∀)x, y ∈ A1 .

A homomorphism of groupoids f : A1 −→ A2 is called isomorphism of

groupoids if there is a homomorphism of groupoids g : A2 −→ A1 such
that f · g = idA1 and g · f = idA2 . In this case, we say that (A1 , ∗) is
isomorphic to (A2 , ?) and we denote (A1 , ∗) ∼= (A2 , ?) or, simply,
A1 ∼
= A2 .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 15 / 1

Definition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two groupoids. A function f : A1 −→ A2 is
called a homomorphism of groupoids(or groupoid homomorphism) if

(x ∗ y )f = (x)f ? (y )f , (∀)x, y ∈ A1 .

A homomorphism of groupoids f : A1 −→ A2 is called isomorphism of

groupoids if there is a homomorphism of groupoids g : A2 −→ A1 such
that f · g = idA1 and g · f = idA2 . In this case, we say that (A1 , ∗) is
isomorphic to (A2 , ?) and we denote (A1 , ∗) ∼= (A2 , ?) or, simply,
A1 ∼
= A2 .

Proposition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two grupoids, and f : A1 −→ A2 a
homomorphism of groupoids. Then f is an isomorphism if and only if it is
a bijective function.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 15 / 1

Definition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two groupoids. A function f : A1 −→ A2 is
called a homomorphism of groupoids(or groupoid homomorphism) if

(x ∗ y )f = (x)f ? (y )f , (∀)x, y ∈ A1 .

A homomorphism of groupoids f : A1 −→ A2 is called isomorphism of

groupoids if there is a homomorphism of groupoids g : A2 −→ A1 such
that f · g = idA1 and g · f = idA2 . In this case, we say that (A1 , ∗) is
isomorphic to (A2 , ?) and we denote (A1 , ∗) ∼= (A2 , ?) or, simply,
A1 ∼
= A2 .

Proposition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two grupoids, and f : A1 −→ A2 a
homomorphism of groupoids. Then f is an isomorphism if and only if it is
a bijective function.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 15 / 1

Proposition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid and f : A −→ B a bijective function. Then there
is a unique binary operation ⊗ : B × B −→ B such that f is an
isomorphism from (A, ∗) to (B, ⊗).

Definition
The operation ⊗ defined in the previous proposition is called the
transported of the operation ∗ through the bijection f .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 16 / 1

Proposition
Let (A, ∗) be a groupoid and f : A −→ B a bijective function. Then there
is a unique binary operation ⊗ : B × B −→ B such that f is an
isomorphism from (A, ∗) to (B, ⊗).

Definition
The operation ⊗ defined in the previous proposition is called the
transported of the operation ∗ through the bijection f .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 16 / 1

Definition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two semigroups, and f : A1 −→ A2 a function.
If f is a homomorphism of groupoids, then we call f a homomorphism
of semigroups from the semigroup (A1 , ∗) into (A2 , ?). If (A1 , ∗, u1 ) and
(A2 , ?, u2 ) are two monoids, a function f : A1 −→ A2 is called a
homomorphism of monoids from (A1 , ∗, u1 ) into (A2 , ?, u2 ) if f is a
homomorphism of semigroups from (A1 , ∗) into (A2 , ?) and (u1 )f = u2 .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 17 / 1

Definition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two semigroups, and f : A1 −→ A2 a function.
If f is a homomorphism of groupoids, then we call f a homomorphism
of semigroups from the semigroup (A1 , ∗) into (A2 , ?). If (A1 , ∗, u1 ) and
(A2 , ?, u2 ) are two monoids, a function f : A1 −→ A2 is called a
homomorphism of monoids from (A1 , ∗, u1 ) into (A2 , ?, u2 ) if f is a
homomorphism of semigroups from (A1 , ∗) into (A2 , ?) and (u1 )f = u2 .

Proposition
1) If f : (A1 , ∗) −→ (A2 , ?) is a homomorphism of semigroups, then
(an )f = ((a)f )n , (∀)a ∈ A1 , n ∈ N∗ .
2) If f : (A1 , ∗, u1 ) −→ (A2 , ?, u2 ) is a homomorphism of monoids, then
(U(A1 ))f ⊆ U(A2 ) and (a−1 )f = ((a)f )−1 , (∀)a ∈ U(A1 ).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 17 / 1

Definition
Let (A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) be two semigroups, and f : A1 −→ A2 a function.
If f is a homomorphism of groupoids, then we call f a homomorphism
of semigroups from the semigroup (A1 , ∗) into (A2 , ?). If (A1 , ∗, u1 ) and
(A2 , ?, u2 ) are two monoids, a function f : A1 −→ A2 is called a
homomorphism of monoids from (A1 , ∗, u1 ) into (A2 , ?, u2 ) if f is a
homomorphism of semigroups from (A1 , ∗) into (A2 , ?) and (u1 )f = u2 .

Proposition
1) If f : (A1 , ∗) −→ (A2 , ?) is a homomorphism of semigroups, then
(an )f = ((a)f )n , (∀)a ∈ A1 , n ∈ N∗ .
2) If f : (A1 , ∗, u1 ) −→ (A2 , ?, u2 ) is a homomorphism of monoids, then
(U(A1 ))f ⊆ U(A2 ) and (a−1 )f = ((a)f )−1 , (∀)a ∈ U(A1 ).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 17 / 1

Proposition
Let f : (A1 , ∗) −→ (A2 , ?) be a homomorphism of semigroups, S1 ⊆ A1
and S2 ⊆ A2 . Then
1) S1 ≤ A1 =⇒ (S1 )f ≤ A2 ;
−1
2) S2 ≤ A2 =⇒ (S2 )f ≤ A1 .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 18 / 1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and M a set. We say that (A, ∗) is a free
semigroup over the set M if there is an application f : M −→ A, such
that for any semigroup (B, ?) and any application g : M −→ B there is
an unique homomorphism of semigroups ϕ : (A, ∗) −→ (B, ?) such that
g = f · ϕ.

Remark
If (A, ∗) is a free semigroup over M, then the application f : M −→ A is
injective. Consequently, M may be identified with its image (M)f ⊆ A.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 19 / 1

Definition
Let (A, ∗) be a semigroup and M a set. We say that (A, ∗) is a free
semigroup over the set M if there is an application f : M −→ A, such
that for any semigroup (B, ?) and any application g : M −→ B there is
an unique homomorphism of semigroups ϕ : (A, ∗) −→ (B, ?) such that
g = f · ϕ.

Remark
If (A, ∗) is a free semigroup over M, then the application f : M −→ A is
injective. Consequently, M may be identified with its image (M)f ⊆ A.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 19 / 1

Proposition
(The existence of a free semigroup over a set) For any set M there is
a free semigroup over M.

Proposition
(The uniqueness of a free semigroup over a set) Let M be a set, and
(A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) two free semigroups over M, with corresponding
injections f1 : M −→ A1 and f2 : M −→ A2 . Then (A1 , ∗) ∼ = (A2 , ?).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 20 / 1

Proposition
(The existence of a free semigroup over a set) For any set M there is
a free semigroup over M.

Proposition
(The uniqueness of a free semigroup over a set) Let M be a set, and
(A1 , ∗) and (A2 , ?) two free semigroups over M, with corresponding
injections f1 : M −→ A1 and f2 : M −→ A2 . Then (A1 , ∗) ∼ = (A2 , ?).

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 3 20.X.2008 20 / 1