HUMAN VALUES AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

Unit-V: Social Ethics

Introduction
Social ethics is the collection of values and behaviours of a given culture or people group.
Social ethics vary greatly from culture to culture, but most often the social ethics of civilized
societies reflect the moral standards given religious boos or constitution of a country.

Social ethics is the systematic reflection on the moral dimensions of social structures, systems,
issues, and communities. Social ethics can be thought of as a branch of ‘applied ethics,’ the
application of ethical reasoning to social problems. A typical list of the kinds of issues
addressed under the rubric of social ethics includes the distribution of economic goods,
research on human subjects, animal rights, euthanasia, abortion, discrimination and affirmative
action, pornography, crime and punishment, and war and peace. The principal tasks for social
ethicists are to (1) examine social conditions, determining which of them are problematic in
light of norms concerning what is good or right or fair; (2) analyse possible actions that could
alter those conditions that have been found to be problematic; and (3) prescribe solutions based
on the examination of the problem and the analysis of the options for action. Each of these
three steps is a thoroughly value-laden activity.

The subject matter of social ethics has been conceived in two different ways. The first approach
is one that draws a distinction between moral choices that each individual must make and the
corporate decisions reached and actions taken by such collective bodies as corporations,
municipalities, and nations. Characterized in this way, social ethics focuses on the policies and
practices that should govern social institutions. The second view of social ethics is rooted in
the notion that all ethics are social, in an important sense, because they are socially constituted,
embedded in a social matrix. This view focuses on the way in which individual moralities are
shaped by social contexts and the way individual moral choices, in turn, shape social contexts.
This overview of social ethics discusses both of these approaches. The distinction between the
two approaches can become blurred in discussions about whether the responsible agents are
the collective institutions or the individuals responsible for institutional policy and behaviour.

1
Organ trade

Organ trade (also known as Red market) is the trading of human organs, tissues, or other body
products, usually for transplantation. According to the World health organisation (WHO),
organ trade is a commercial transplantation where there is a profit, or transplantations that
occurs outside of national medical systems. There is a global need or demand for healthy body
parts for transplantation, which exceeds the numbers available.

Ethics in Organ trade

1.Altruism

Organ donation is founded on the pillars of altruism. When the moral value of an individual’s
actions are focused mainly on the beneficial impact to other individuals, without regard to the
consequences on the individual herself, the individual’s actions are regarded as “Altruistic”.
Auguste Comte[1] coined the word “Altruism” (French, altruisme, from autrui: “other people”,
and also derived from Latin alter: “other”). He was the French founder of positivism and
described his views in Catéchisme Positiviste, where living for others was “Altruism”.
Altruism can be classified into two types-obligatory and supererogatory. Obligatory altruism
is defined as a moral duty to help others. Supererogatory altruism is defined as morally good,
but it is not morally required-going “above and beyond” one’s duty. The act that maximizes
good consequences for all of society is known as utilitarianism.

2. Moral Obligation

Ethically, doctors are professionally responsible to adhere to medicine’s unique moral

obligations. The Hippocratic tradition is the origin of several tenets of medical ethics. One of
them is the commitment to non judgmental regard. Health professionals are professionally
responsible to render care to patients without being affected by any judgment as to the patient’s
worthiness.

Another medical ethical tenet is Primum non nocere or “first, do no harm”. This principle is
clearly embodied in the Hippocratic oath for physicians. This principle of non-maleficence is
the most serious ethical concern in living donor transplants, due to the potential of doing
medical harm to the donor. Many donors experience significant pain and short-term disability.
The risk of surgical complications in living donor surgery is 5% to 10% risk and the risk of
death is 0.5% to 1%.

2
3. Death and Organ Retrieval

Prior to the establishment of brain death criteria in 1968, the main source of grafts was donation
after cardiac death (DCD). Thereafter, donation after brain death (DBD) soon became as the
leading source of organs mostly due to the improved graft quality and potential for multiple
organs. However, due to organ shortage, there was a renewed interest in cardiac/circulatory
death. The potential for Donation after Circulatory Determination of Death programs is
enormous.

4. Presumed Consent

World Health Organization (WHO) defines presumed consent as a system that permits material
to be removed from the body of a deceased person for transplantation and, in some countries,
for anatomical study or research, unless the person had expressed his or her opposition before
death by filing an objection with an identified office or an informed party reports that the
deceased definitely voiced an objection to donation.

5. Explicit Consent

WHO defines explicit consent is defined as a system in which “cells, tissues or organs may be
removed from a deceased person if the person had expressly consented to such removal during
his or her lifetime”. Explicit consent policies require an individual to “opt-in” by proactively
stating their wishes to be a donor such as signing a donor card or clearly accepting a donor
status on a driver’s license. Any person 16 years age and above, may consent, in writing with
a signature at any time. Verbal consent is also permissible in the presence of a least two
witnesses during the person’s last illness. The consent has to specify that the person’s organs
can be used post-mortem for therapeutic purposes, medical and scientific education or research.

Organs trading for commercial purpose is prohibited in all most all countries except Iran.

Human Trafficking

Human trafficking is the trade of humans for the purpose of forced labour, sexual slavery,
or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others.[1][2] This may encompass
providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage, or the extraction of organs or
tissues, including for surrogacy and ova removal. Human trafficking can occur within a
country or trans-nationally. Human trafficking is a crime against the person because of the
violation of the victim's rights of movement through coercion and because of their

3
commercial exploitation. Human trafficking is the trade in people, especially women and
children, and does not necessarily involve the movement of the person from one place to
another.

People smuggling (also called human smuggling and migrant smuggling) is a related practice
which is characterized by the consent of the person being smuggled. Smuggling situations can
descend into human trafficking through coercion and exploitation. Trafficked people are held
against their will through acts of coercion, and forced to work for or provide services to the
trafficker or others.

Human trafficking is the third largest crime industry in the world, behind drug
dealing and arms trafficking, and is the fastest-growing activity of trans-national criminal
organizations. Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of human rights by international
conventions. In addition, human trafficking is subject to a directive in the European
Union. According to a report by the U.S. State Department, Belarus, Iran, Russia,
and Turkmenistan remain among the worst countries when it comes to providing protection
against human trafficking and forced labour.

Human Rights Violation and Social Disparities

Human rights are moral principles or norms for certain standards of human behaviour and are
regularly protected in the constitution of India ad law. They are commonly understood as
inalienable, fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or
he is a human being and which are "inherent in all human beings", regardless of their age,
ethnic origin, location, language, religion, ethnicity, or any other status. For Example right to
live, freedom of speech, right to vote, religion liberty etc.

Our society is a diversified patchwork of different sets of people practicing different cultures,
customs and belonging to different race, religion, caste, gender and so on. These diversities
however lead to a lot of inequalities in the population. In such conditions there is a growth of
vulnerable groups who are the most exploited, suppressed and discriminated groups in the
country. The Constitution of India uses the term ‗Weaker Sections ‘to refer to these vulnerable
groups.

4
Forms of Violation of Human Rights

The unjust treatment meted out by these vulnerable groups are stated as follows:

1. Discrimination: These groups are discriminated on grounds of being socially and

economically weaker sections of the society. In case of women and children it is much
greater since the society treats them as biologically weak. Post-globalisation has witnessed
the growth of several crimes as against the past due to large-scale migration and
displacement. While changes in technology have made lives easier, it has further entangled
relationships and the human nature in general has undergone major alterations which in turn
has created a furore in the sphere of social discrimination. For e.g. Pre-Natal Diagnosis for
Sexual Determination.

2.Exploitation: The attribute of taking undue advantage of the weaker sections in the society
results in exploitation which in turn leads to anti-social behaviours. For e.g. Insurgency such
as the Naxalite movement.

3.Deprivation: –Exploitation and deprivation are both connected to each other as one leads to
the other. For example, the growing cases of malnutrition that is reported daily through the
media is rampant in areas that are deprived and exploited.

4.Neglect: The other main attribute of vulnerability is neglect which generally happens in
case of the tribal and women as they seem

5.Violence: The world today is experiencing major cases of violence against the weak .This
has however manifested into insurgent movements and fight for survival movements to be
least empowered and illiterate.

Feminist Ethics
Feminist ethics is an approach to ethics that builds on the belief that traditionally ethical
theorizing has undervalued and/or underappreciated women's moral experience, which is
largely male-dominated, and it therefore chooses to reimagine ethics through a
holistic feminist approach to transform it.

Given this critique of utilitarian and Kantian ethics, it is unsurprising, then, that feminist
ethicists have developed different perspectives, focusing on:

• care as well as (or instead of) justice

5
 • the need to develop ethical attitudes such as empathy & affection; emphasis on terms
like dependence and responsibility

• the fundamental significance of relationships in moral decision-making

• the significance of special ties that bind when making moral decisions – one may have
different moral responsibilities to people one is close to than to others

• the unique, context-bound and specific nature of each moral decision.

Surrogacy

Surrogacy is an arrangement, often supported by a legal agreement, whereby a woman (the

surrogate mother) agrees to bear a child for another person or persons, who will become the
child's parent(s) after birth.

People may seek a surrogacy arrangement when pregnancy is medically impossible,

when pregnancy risks are too dangerous for the intended mother, or when a single man or a
male couple wish to have a child. Surrogacy is considered one of many assisted reproductive
technologies.

In surrogacy arrangements, monetary compensation may or may not be involved. Receiving

money for the arrangement is known as commercial surrogacy. The legality and cost of
surrogacy varies widely between jurisdictions, sometimes resulting in problematic
international or interstate surrogacy arrangements. Couples seeking a surrogacy arrangement
in a country where it is banned sometimes travel to a jurisdiction that permits it. In some
countries, surrogacy is legal only if money does not exchange hands

Surrogacy may be either traditional or gestational, which are differentiated by the genetic origin
of the egg. Gestational surrogacy tends to be more common than traditional surrogacy and is
considered less legally complex.[1]

1.Traditional

A traditional surrogacy (also known as partial, natural, or straight surrogacy) is one where the
surrogate's egg is fertilised in vitro by the intended father's or a donor's sperm. Insemination of
the surrogate can be either through natural or artificial insemination. Using the sperm of a
donor results in a child who is not genetically related to the intended parent(s). If the intended
father's sperm is used in the insemination, the resulting child is genetically related to both the
intended father and the surrogate.

6
In some cases, insemination may be performed privately by the parties without the intervention
of a doctor or physician. In some jurisdictions, the intended parents using donor sperm need to
go through an adoption process to have legal parental rights of the resulting child. Many
fertility centres that provide for surrogacy assist the parties through the legal process.

2.Gestational

Gestational surrogacy (also known as host or full surrogacy) was first achieved in April 1986. It
takes place when an embryo created by in vitro fertilization (IVF) technology is implanted in
a surrogate, sometimes called a gestational carrier. Gestational surrogacy has several forms,
and in each form, the resulting child is genetically unrelated to the surrogate:

• The embryo is created using the intended father's sperm and the intended mother's eggs;

• The embryo is created using the intended father's sperm and a donor egg;

• The embryo is created using the intended mother's egg and donor sperm;

• A donor embryo is transferred to a surrogate. Such an embryo may be available when

others undergoing IVF have embryos left over, which they donate to others. The
resulting child is genetically unrelated to the intended parents.

Pregnancy

Definition

The period from conception to birth. After the egg is fertilized by a sperm and then implanted
in the lining of the uterus, it develops into the placenta and embryo, and later into a fetus. Pre
gnancy usually lasts 40 weeks, beginning from the first day of the woman's last menstrual per
iod, and is divided into three trimesters, each lasting three months.

Description

Pregnancy is a state in which a woman carries a fertilized egg inside her body. Due to technol
ogical advances, pregnancy is increasingly occurring among older women in the United State
s.

First month

At the end of the first month, the embryo is about a third of an inch long, and its head and tru
nk-plus the beginnings of arms and legs-
have started to develop. The embryo receives nutrients and eliminates waste through the umbi
7
lical cord and placenta. By the end of the first month, the liver and digestive system begin to
develop, and the heart starts to beat.

Second month

In this month, the heart starts to pump and the nervous system (including the brain and spinal
cord) begins to develop. The 1 in (2.5 cm) long fetus has a complete cartilage skeleton, which
is replaced by bone cells by month's end. Arms, legs and all of the major organs begin to app
ear. Facial features begin to form.

Third month

By now, the fetus has grown to 4 in (10 cm) and weighs a little more than an ounce (28 g). N
ow the major blood vessels and the roof of the mouth are almost completed, as the face starts
to take on a more recognizably human appearance. Fingers and toes appear. All the major org
ans are now beginning to form; the kidneys are now functional and the four chambers of the h
eart are complete.

Fourth month

The fetus begins to kick and swallow, although most women still can't feel the baby move at t
his point. Now 4 oz (112 g), the fetus can hear and urinate, and has established sleep-
wake cycles. All organs are now fully formed, although they will continue to grow for the ne
xt five months. The fetus has skin, eyebrows, and hair.

Fifth month

Now weighing up to a 1 lb (454 g) and measuring 8-12 in (20-

30 cm), the fetus experiences rapid growth as its internal organs continue to grow. At this poi
nt, the mother may feel her baby move, and she can hear the heartbeat with a stethoscope.

Sixth month

Even though its lungs are not fully developed, a fetus born during this month can survive wit
h intensive care. Weighing 1-1.5 lbs (454-
681 g), the fetus is red, wrinkly, and covered with fine hair all over its body. The fetus will gr
ow very fast during this month as its organs continue to develop.

Seventh month

8
There is a better chance that a fetus born during this month will survive. The fetus continues t
o grow rapidly, and may weigh as much as 3 lb (1.3 kg) by now. Now the fetus can suck its th
umb and look around its watery womb with open eyes.

Eighth month

Growth continues but slows down as the baby begins to take up most of the room inside the u
terus. Now weighing 4-5 lbs (1.8-2.3 kg) and measuring 16-18 in (40-
45 cm) long, the fetus may at this time prepare for delivery next month by moving into the he
ad-down position.

Ninth month

Adding 0.5 lb (227 g) a week as the due date approaches, the fetus drops lower into the mothe
r's abdomen and prepares for the onset of labor, which may begin any time between the 37th
and 42nd week of gestation. Most healthy babies will weigh 6-9 lb (2.7-
4 kg) at birth, and will be about 20 in. long.

Ethics of Media

Media ethics is the best division of applied ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles
and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the
internet. The field covers many varied and highly controversial topics, ranging from war
journalism to Benetton ad campaigns.

Media ethics promotes and defends values such as a universal respect for life and the rule of
law and legality Media Ethics defines and deals with ethical questions about how media should
use texts and pictures provided by the citizens.

Literature regarding the ways in which specifically the Internet impacts media ethics in
journalism online is scarce, thereby complicating the idea for a universal code of media ethics

Ethics of Journalism / Impact of News Papers

Journalism's codes of ethics are intended to ensure reliability of reported information by

defining acceptable practices; and provide guidelines about circumstances to avoid that could
interfere with, or appear to interfere with, the reliability of reported information. Circumstances
to avoid include conflicts of interest. The guidelines assist journalists in identifying and dealing
with ethical dilemmas. When such circumstances cannot be avoided, they should be disclosed

9
so that recipients of reported information can judge potential bias in the reporting. The codes
and canons provide journalists with a framework for self-monitoring and self-correction.

Journalism is guided by six values:

1. Honesty: journalists must be truthful. It is unacceptable to report information known to

be false, or report facts in a misleading way to give a wrong impression;

2. Independence and objectivity: journalists should avoid topics in which they have a
financial or personal interest that would provide them a particular benefit in the subject
matter, as that interest may introduce bias into their reporting, or give the impression
of such bias. In cases where a journalist may have a specific financial or personal
interest, the interest should be disclosed;

3. Fairness: journalists must present facts with impartiality and neutrality, presenting other
viewpoints and sides to a story where these exist. It is unacceptable to slant facts;

4. Diligence: a journalist should gather and present pertinent facts to provide a good
understanding of the subject reported;

5. Accountability: a journalist must be accountable for their work, prepared to accept

criticism and consequences.

6. Public interest: Revelation of military secrets and other sensitive government

information may be contrary to the public interest, even if it is true. However, public
interest is not a term which is easy to define.

Ethics of Television and Movies / Ethics of Entertainment Media and its Impact

Issues in the ethics of entertainment media include:

1. The depiction of violence and sex, and the presence of strong language. Ethical
guidelines and legislation in this area are common and many media (e.g. film, computer
games) are subject to ratings systems and supervision by agencies. An extensive guide
to international systems of enforcement can be found under motion picture rating
system.

2. “Fluff or “Celebrity News”: Over the years, print media has been dying out so
journalists began to report on what is referred to as “Celebrity News”, or “Fluff.” As
more outlets adopt this topic to report on, people become dependent on them. According

10
 to Alden Weight, most people know not to completely trust these outlets due to ethical
discrepancies, but the issue arises when people who are not as mature or educated find
these reports to be completely true.[5][POV? – discuss]

3. Product placement. An increasingly common marketing tactic is the placement of

products in entertainment media. The producers of such media may be paid high sums
to display branded products. The practice is controversial and largely unregulated.
Detailed article: product placement.

4. Advertising: Attraction and persuasion are currently found in modern journalism. It is

found that these methods of advertising may alter an audience's point of view of what
is realistic and falsified information.[5]

5. Stereotypes. Both advertising and entertainment media make heavy use of stereotypes.
Stereotypes may negatively affect people's perceptions of themselves or promote
socially undesirable behaviour. The stereotypical portrayals
of men, affluence and ethnic groups are examples of major areas of debate

▪ Women in Media: Entertainment media often exploits female bodies by

objectifying and de-humanizing them. By doing so, the concept of
female bodies being bought and sold becomes common.

▪ Media outlets usually use either images or imagery of female bodies to

counter negative news that is provided throughout the day.

6. Taste and taboos. Entertainment media often questions of our values for artistic and
entertainment purposes. Normative ethics is often about moral values, and what kinds
should be enforced and protected. In media ethics, these two sides come into conflict.
In the name of art, media may deliberately attempt to break with existing norms and
shock the audience. That poses ethical problems when the norms abandoned are closely
associated with certain relevant moral values or obligations. The extent to which this is
acceptable is always a hotbed of ethical controversy.

Internet Ethics

Internet ethics means acceptable behaviour for using Internet. We should be honest, respect
the rights and property of others on the Internet.

11
Acceptance

Internet must be used for communication with family and friends. Avoid chatting with
strangers and forwarding e-mails from unknown people /strangers. We must be aware of risks
involved in chatting and forwarding e-mails to strangers.

Pretending to be someone else

We must not use Internet to fool others by pretending to be someone

else. Hiding our own identity to fool others in the Internet world is a crime and may also be a
risk to others.

Avoid Bad language

We must not use Internet to fool others by pretending to be someone else. Hiding our own
identity to fool others in the Internet world is a crime and may also be a risk to others.

Hide personal information

We should not give personal details like home address, phone numbers, interests, passwords.
No photographs should be sent to strangers because it might be misused and shared with
others without their knowledge.

While Downloading

Internet is used to listen and learn about music, It is also used to watch videos and play games
we must not use it to download them or share copyrighted material. We must be aware of the
importance of copyrights and issues of copyright.

Access to Internet

The Internet is a time-efficient tool for everyone that enlarges the possibilities for curriculum
growth. Learning depends on the ability to find relevant and reliable information quickly and
easily, and to select, understand and assess that information. Searching for information on the
Internet can help to develop these skills. Classroom exercises and take-home assessment

12
tasks, where students are required to compare website content, are ideal for alerting students
to the requirements of writing for different audiences, the purpose of particular content,
identifying and judging accuracy and reliability. Since many sites adopt particular views
about issues, the Internet is a useful tool for developing the skills of distinguishing fact from
opinion and exploring subjectivity and objectivity.

Ethical rules for computer users

• Do not use computers to harm other users.

• Do not use computers to steal others information.
• Do not access files without the permission of the owner.
• Do not copy copyrighted software without the author’s permission.
• Always respect copyright laws and policies.
• Respect the privacy of others, just as you expect the same from others.
• Do not use other user's computer resources without their permission.
• Use Internet ethically.
• Complain about illegal communication and activities, if found, to Internet service
Providers and local law enforcement authorities.
• Users are responsible for safeguarding their User Id and Passwords. They should not
write them on paper or anywhere else for remembrance.
• Users should not intentionally use the computers to retrieve or modify the information
of others, which may include password information, files, etc.

13