(i)

CHEMICAL PROCESS LABORATORY

Experiment No. 3
THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT PROCESSING METHODS ON PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF MAYONNAISE
TITLE PAGE
Charlagne Aranzo
Jiru Gratuito
Eunice Sta. Ana

Department of Chemical Engineering

College of Engineering
University of Negros Occidental- Recoletos
Bacolod City

ABSTRACT
This report investigates the cold process extraction of virgin coconut oil (VCO) as
an alternative method to traditional extraction techniques. The experiment aimed to
explore the efficacy of cold extraction in obtaining high-quality VCO while preserving its
nutritional integrity. Through a series of meticulous steps including creaming, chilling,
solidification, and separation, coconut oil was extracted from coconut milk using cold
process. The percent yield of the extraction process was determined to be approximately
18%, indicating the efficiency of the cold process in recovering oil from coconut milk.
Comparison with literature values showed consistency with reported yields, affirming the
reliability of the method. Factors influencing yield variability, such as coconut quality
and extraction parameters, were discussed, suggesting avenues for optimization. The
findings underscore the potential of cold process extraction in producing premium VCO
with enhanced nutritional content and maintaining consumer preferences for quality and
sustainability. Industrial applications of VCO extracted through this method were also
explored, highlighting its suitability for food, cosmetic, and sustainable product
industries.

Keywords: Virgin Coconut Oil, Cold Process Extraction, Percent Yield, Industrial
Applications, Natural Product Processing, Health Benefits
2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE......................................................................................................................1
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................1
TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................2
TABLES AND FIGURES...................................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................4
Objectives:.......................................................................................................................5
General Objective:.......................................................................................................5
Specific Objectives:.....................................................................................................6
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY.........................................................................7
APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE..................................................10
Reagents.........................................................................................................................10
Materials........................................................................................................................10
Procedural Workflow.....................................................................................................10
Procedure.......................................................................................................................11
1. Preparation of Equipment Setup........................................................................11
2. Ingredients and Material Acquisition................................................................11
3. Weighing and Mixing of Ingredients.................................................................11
4. Emulsification Process.......................................................................................11
5. Weighing of Mayonnaise Produced...................................................................11
6. Storage...............................................................................................................12
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS......................................................................................12
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................12
APPENDICES...................................................................................................................15
Raw Data and Calculations for Percent Yield...............................................................15
Photo Documentations...................................................................................................15
3

TABLES AND FIGURES

List of Table

Table 1. Tabulated data for calculating % yield. 10

List of Figures

Figure 1. Overall process of coconut extraction using cold extraction techniques 6

Figure 2. Overall process of coconut extraction using modified chilling, freezing 7

and thawing techniques

Figure 3. Procedural Workflow 8

Figure 4. Production Process for VCO Cold Extraction Process 12

Figure 5. Measuring of Coconut Milk 16

Figure 6. Before Freezing the Milk 16

Figure 7. After Freezing the Milk 17

Figure 8. Separating the Liquid from Cream 17

Figure 9. Scraping o ff the curd 17

Figure 10. Letting the Oil Melt in Room Temp. 17

Figure 11. Oil after Separating it from Curd 18

Figure 12. Storing the Oil 18

4

INTRODUCTION

Mayonnaise is a widely consumed condiment known for its creamy texture and
tangy flavor profile. It is composed of a mixture of oil, egg yolk, vinegar or lemon juice,
and seasonings, emulsified to create a stable and smooth consistency (Depree & Savage,
2001). The precise composition and processing methods used in the production of
mayonnaise influence its physical properties, which play a vital role in its quality and
consumer acceptance (Schädle et al., 2022).

Understanding the physical properties of mayonnaise is crucial since

comprehending the definition and composition of mayonnaise provides insights into its
basic structure and constituents. This understanding serves as a foundation for
investigating how various factors such as ingredient proportions and processing
techniques influence its physical characteristics (Herald et al., 2009).

Physical properties such as texture, appearance, and structural integrity

significantly impact consumer preferences and perceptions. For instance, the creamy
texture of mayonnaise contributes to its mouthfeel, while its appearance influences
consumer purchasing decisions. Additionally, the structural integrity of mayonnaise
affects its stability during storage and transportation (Şahin & Şümnü, 2009).

Furthermore, the study of physical properties in food products extends beyond

consumer preferences. It also plays a crucial role in optimizing production processes and
ensuring product consistency and quality. By understanding the relationship between
ingredients, processing techniques, and physical properties, food manufacturers can
enhance product development and manufacturing efficiency (Krog & Sparsø, 2004).

The production of mayonnaise involves several distinct processes. Emulsification,

the key process, entails blending oil with an aqueous phase containing egg yolk and an
acidic component, typically vinegar or lemon juice, to create a stable mixture. Various
methods, including manual whisking, mechanical blending, and high-pressure
homogenization, are employed to achieve the desired emulsion (Onwuzuruike et al.,
2021).

Emulsification is the process of dispersing one liquid phase within another

immiscible liquid phase to form a stable mixture. In the case of mayonnaise, egg yolk
acts as an emulsifier, stabilizing the oil-in-water emulsion by forming a protective layer
around oil droplets, thereby preventing their coalescence (Charcosset, 2009).

Each ingredient in mayonnaise serves a specific function and contributes to its

physical properties. Egg yolk, acting as the emulsifying agent, plays a crucial role in
facilitating the formation of a stable emulsion between oil and water by stabilizing the
interface between oil droplets and the aqueous phase through its proteins and
phospholipids (Tian et al., 2023). Additionally, acidic components like vinegar or lemon
juice not only impart the characteristic tanginess to mayonnaise but also aid in
5

emulsification by denaturing proteins in the egg yolk, thereby promoting the formation of
a stable emulsion (Li et al., 2023).

Furthermore, common seasonings such as salt, mustard powder, and sugar

contribute to the flavor profile of mayonnaise, imparting complexity and balance to the
final product. Through this investigation, we aim to gain insights into how different
processing methods impact the physical properties of mayonnaise, thereby enhancing our
understanding of its production and quality control (Moustafa, 1995).

Fat as one of the main ingredients of mayonnaise; is in the form of oil droplets;
which the strength of interactions between them is a major determinant of mayonnaise
quality. The globular proteins and phospholipids of egg yolk are known as emulsion
stabilizer or textural modifier and consequently microstructural determinant factor
(Ariizumi et al., 2017). The main role of emulsions texture enhancers such as thickening
agents, stabilizers and emulsifiers is increasing the viscosity of continuous phase.

In this report, we examine the influence of various fat sources, including canola
oil, palm oil, and butter, on the emulsification process and resulting physical properties of
mayonnaise. Canola oil, prized for its neutral flavor and high unsaturated fat content,
contributes fluidity and stability to the emulsion, facilitated by the presence of
unsaturated fatty acids like oleic acid and linoleic acid (Aluko & McIntosh, 2005). Palm
oil, known for its creamy texture and stability at room temperature, contains
predominantly saturated fats such as palmitic acid, which enhance the solidity and
structure of the oil phase in mayonnaise (Aznury et al., 2022).

However, the higher melting point of palm oil's saturated fats may require
elevated processing temperatures for proper dispersion. In contrast, butter, with its solid
consistency and distinctive flavor profile, offers richness and mouthfeel to mayonnaise,
but its crystalline butterfat structure necessitates careful temperature control and mixing
during emulsification for uniform dispersion within the aqueous phase (Panchal et al.,
2021).

All in all, this laboratory report, we aim to explore the physical properties of
mayonnaise through various experiments and analyses. By examining factors such as
texture, viscosity, and stability, we seek to gain a comprehensive understanding of how
these properties are influenced by composition and processing. Through this study, we
aim to contribute to the body of knowledge surrounding mayonnaise production and
quality control.

Objectives:

General Objective:

1. The main objective of this experiment is to determine the effect of different

processing methods on physical properties of mayonnaise.
6

Specific Objectives:

1. Specifically, this experiment is to reveal the influence of preparation condition

on the physicochemical properties and overall quality of mayonnaise.

2. To determine which method of processing produce the best accepted quality

of mayonnaise.
7

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY

Mayonnaise production is a well-established culinary process that involves

emulsifying oil, vinegar or lemon juice, and egg yolks to create a smooth and creamy
condiment. This versatile spread has become a staple in households and food industries
worldwide due to its rich flavor and wide range of applications. However, despite its
popularity, the quality of mayonnaise can vary significantly depending on various factors,
including the processing methods employed (Morley, 2016).

Understanding the physical properties of mayonnaise is crucial in ensuring its

quality and stability. These properties encompass aspects such as texture, viscosity,
stability, and rheological behavior, all of which play vital roles in determining the overall
consumer acceptance and commercial success of the product. Therefore, investigating the
impact of different processing methods on the physical properties of mayonnaise is
essential for optimizing production processes and meeting consumer expectations (Vieira
et al., 2023).

Mayonnaise is believed to have its roots traced back to Port Mahon, France, in
1756, purportedly emerging as a commemoration of the successful conquest of Port
Mahon by the forces led by Louis Francois Armand de Vignerot du Plessis, duc de
Richelieu (1696–1788), a distinguished marshal of France. Initially named Maho´nnaise,
denoting its association with the port, the term later evolved into "mayonnaise." This
transformation is thought to have been influenced by linguistic nuances, possibly
stemming from archaic French terminologies referring to egg yolk and the act of stirring,
namely "moyen" and "manier" respectively (Mirzanajafi-Zanjani et al., 2019).

Mayonnaise primarily consists of four key components: oil, egg yolk, vinegar or
lemon juice, and seasonings. Oil serves as the primary phase of the emulsion, with
varieties such as canola oil, palm oil, or butter being commonly utilized. The egg yolk
acts as the emulsifying agent, facilitating the formation and stabilization of the oil-in-
water emulsion. Vinegar or lemon juice provides acidity, which not only enhances flavor
but also plays a crucial role in regulating the emulsification process by interacting with
the egg yolk proteins. Additionally, seasonings such as salt, mustard, or sugar are
incorporated to adjust taste profiles and further stabilize the emulsion. Each ingredient in
mayonnaise plays a distinct role in achieving the desired consistency, texture, and
sensory attributes, thereby highlighting the intricate interplay between composition and
physical properties in this culinary staple (Bhattacharya, 2023).

The emulsification process in mayonnaise is a fundamental aspect that

significantly influences its physical properties. Emulsification involves the dispersion of
immiscible liquids, such as oil and water, to form a stable mixture, with mayonnaise
being a classic example of an oil-in-water emulsion. Understanding the principles
underlying emulsification is crucial in elucidating the mechanisms involved in
mayonnaise production (Kinyanjui & Artz, 2003).
Factors influencing emulsification in mayonnaise include the type of fat source
utilized, the choice of emulsifying agents, and the processing methods employed. The
8

type of fat source impacts the composition and stability of the emulsion, with variations
in fatty acid profiles affecting the texture and mouthfeel of the final product. Emulsifying
agents play a pivotal role in stabilizing the emulsion by reducing interfacial tension
between oil and water phases, thereby preventing phase separation. Additionally,
processing methods such as mixing intensity, temperature, and order of ingredient
addition can significantly influence the emulsification process and ultimately the physical
properties of mayonnaise. Investigating these factors is essential for optimizing
processing techniques and ensuring the desired quality attributes of mayonnaise
(Håkansson et al., 2016).

Previous studies exploring mayonnaise production and its physical properties

have yielded valuable insights about the process. Research on emulsification techniques
has been particularly extensive, aiming to optimize the process of combining oil, vinegar
or lemon juice, and egg yolks to achieve the desired creamy consistency and stability.
These studies have investigated factors such as mixing speed, emulsifier concentration,
and temperature control to enhance emulsion stability and texture. Additionally,
investigations into the effects of different ingredients on mayonnaise texture and stability
have been conducted, focusing on elements such as egg yolk quality, oil type, and the
presence of additives or stabilizers.

A study done by Basuny and Al-Marzooq (2011) investigated he chemical

composition of date pit (Phoenix dactylifera L.) residues from Khalas variety dates in
Saudi Arabia and analyzed the extracted oil's properties. Date pit oil was used in making
mayonnaise, showing superior sensory qualities compared to corn oil-based mayo. Date
pits were found to be rich in protein, oil, minerals, and carbohydrates, suggesting
potential use in animal feed and as a dietary fiber source. Date pit oil contained high
levels of oleic acid and natural antioxidants, with high oxidative stability, making it
suitable for preservation. The study highlights the potential value of date pit by-products
in food industries, particularly in mayonnaise production.

Further, a research by Miyagawa et al. (2019) explored the dispersion stability of

mayonnaise concerning sodium chloride and acetic acid concentrations. The research
evaluated mayonnaises with varying sodium chloride and acetic acid concentrations and
observed destabilization times. Results showed destabilization times correlated with
sodium chloride concentrations at 1% acetic acid solution but were independent at
concentrations exceeding 10%. This was attributed to egg yolk granule denaturation.
Commercial mayonnaise destabilization was similarly explained. The study concludes
that assessing ionic strength through evaporation offers a rapid stability evaluation
method consistent with prior findings.

Wang et al. (2022) analyzed the use of soybean (Glycine max) oil body (SOB) as
a substitute for egg yolk in low-cholesterol, low-fat mayonnaise. Various substitution
ratios (10%-50%) were examined for their effects on physicochemical properties and
sensory evaluation. Results showed that substituting SOB for 50% of egg yolk
significantly reduced cholesterol and fat content without compromising sensory qualities.
However, excessive substitution ratios (40%-50%) negatively impacted texture and
9

overall acceptability. Notably, mayonnaise with 20% SOB substitution showed no

significant sensory differences compared to traditional mayonnaise, while offering lower
fat and cholesterol levels, aligning with healthy food standards. Additionally, SOB
substitution slowed digestion rates but increased antioxidant activity post-digestion,
indicating its potential as a functional food ingredient. This study lays a foundation for
utilizing SOB in emulsion food products.

These existing research on emulsification techniques, ingredient effects, and

comparative analysis of processing methods offers valuable insights into mayonnaise
production and quality control. By reviewing previous studies, we can identify gaps in
knowledge and opportunities for further research in this field.
10

APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Reagents

• Palm oil
• Canola oil
• Butter
• Vinegar
• 8 large eggs
• Salt
• Ground black pepper
Materials

• Mixer
• 500 mL beaker
• Weighing Scale
• Mixing Bowl
• Measuring cup
• Spoon
• Container

Procedural Workflow

Preparation and Equipment Ingredients and Material

Setup Acquisition

Weighing and Mixing of

Emulsification Process
Ingredients

Weighing of Mayonnaise
Produced Storage

Figure 1. Procedural Workflow

11

Procedure

1. Preparation of Equipment Setup

All experiments were done at the Chemical Engineering Laboratory of the

University of Negros Occidental- Recoletos. All the materials needed was provided by
the group in exemption of the beaker which was acquired from the laboratory. The
reagents needed were bought from the Libertad market. The wearing of laboratory gown
and gloves was observed during the experiment. All the waste accumulated were
disposed properly.

2. Ingredients and Material Acquisition

Three kinds of fat were used in making the mayonnaise, mainly, palm oil, canola
oil, and butter. There was a total of four mayonnaise produced and each of these fats were
utilized in the emulsification while the other set-up was made from an equal amount of
palm oil and canola oil mixture.

3. Weighing and Mixing of Ingredients

To prepare mayonnaise, the egg yolk was separated from the white and deposited
into a mixing bowl. Subsequently, a tablespoon of vinegar was introduced into the bowl
and thoroughly mixed with the yolk. This procedure was replicated for each set-up
employed in producing the mayonnaise. For the four distinct oil combinations, ½ cup
measurements of palm oil, canola oil, and butter were taken. Additionally, ¼ cup
measurements of canola oil and palm oil were combined to create the final set-up.

4. Emulsification Process

The emulsification process began by slowly incorporating the oil into the mixture
while continuously mixing with a mixer. The oil was added gradually until it was
completely emulsified with the egg and vinegar mixture, resulting in a creamy and
smooth consistency. This process of emulsification was then repeated with different set-
ups, including palm oil, canola oil, butter, and a mixture of palm oil and canola oil. Once
the mixture was completely emulsified, salt and pepper were added to the mayonnaise.

5. Weighing of Mayonnaise Produced

The mayonnaise was transferred into plastic containers with lids, each properly
labeled with the type of oil used in its preparation. Initially, the empty container was
weighed, totaling 11.5g. Subsequently, the quantities of mayonnaise made from canola
oil, palm oil, butter, and a mixture of palm oil and canola oil were measured, resulting in
88.6g, 136.8g, 145.3g, and 130.9g, respectively.
12

6. Storage

The labeled containers were placed in the refrigerator for storage.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The primary objectives of this experiment were to produce mayonnaise through the
emulsification process using different types of oil, and to compare the resulting
mayonnaise in terms of texture, appearance, consistency, and aroma. The experiment
utilized palm oil, canola oil, butter, and a mixture of palm oil and canola oil for the four
setups. Following the synthesis of mayonnaise, distinct physical characteristics were
observed, and these differences are summarized in the table below.

Table 1. Physical Characteristics of Mayonnaise Produced

Setu Oil Used Texture Appearance Consistency Aroma
p
1 Palm Smooth and Dark yellow
velvety
2 Canola Silky Pale yellow
3 Butter Rich and Bright yellow
Creamy and glossy
4 Palm and Smooth and Off-white
Canola Creamy with a hint of
yellow hue

The mayonnaise produced using emulsification of palm oil resulted in a smooth

and velvety texture like that of commercial mayonnaise. Compared to the other setups,
the mayonnaise made from palm oil exhibited a dark yellow color which gives it a richer
appearance. The characteristic texture and appearance of mayonnaise made from palm oil
can be attributed to the unique properties of palm oil itself. Palm oil is naturally semi-
solid at room temperature due to its high content of saturated fats, which helps give the
mayonnaise a smooth and thick appearance. Additionally, palm oil contains a high
proportion of beta-carotene, a natural pigment responsible for its distinctive pale-yellow
color. This pigment contributes to the yellowish appearance of the mayonnaise.

The mayonnaise made from canola oil exhibited a silky texture, this mayonnaise
is not as smooth as the mayonnaise made from palm oil. Its appearance is generally a pale
yellow with a slightly translucent quality. The texture and appearance of canola oil
mayonnaise are influenced by the neutral flavor and light texture of canola oil.
Additionally, canola oil contains a high proportion of unsaturated fats, particularly
monounsaturated fats like oleic acid. These fats contribute to a softer texture and a less
dense consistency in the mayonnaise compared to oils with higher saturated fat content.
Furthermore, canola oil mayonnaise tends to have a lighter color due to the absence of
pigments like beta-carotene found in oils such as palm oil. Its pale appearance is also
13

influenced by the light-refracting properties of canola oil, which contributes to its

translucent quality.
Mayonnaise made from room temperature butter exhibited a rich and creamy
texture. Its appearance is a bright yellow color, similar to that of butter, and have a
slightly glossy sheen. The texture and appearance of butter-based mayonnaise are
influenced primarily by the properties of butter itself. When butter is used to make
mayonnaise, its solid nature contributes to a thicker and more substantial texture
compared to liquid oils. This results in a mayonnaise with a denser consistency and a
creamier texture. Additionally, the natural color of butter lends a bright yellow hue to the
mayonnaise, imparting a visually appealing appearance. The glossy sheen results from
the emulsification process, where the fat droplets in the butter are dispersed evenly
throughout the mixture.

Mayonnaise made from a mixture of canola and palm oil resulted in a balanced
texture and appearance that combines the characteristics of both oils. The texture is
smooth and creamy, with a moderate thickness that falls between the textures of
mayonnaises made solely from canola oil and palm oil. In terms of appearance, the
mayonnaise had a creamy off-white color with a hint of yellow and a subtle translucence,
reflecting the combination of the lighter hue of canola oil and the creamy tint of palm oil.
The texture and appearance of mayonnaise made from a mixture of canola and palm oil
are influenced by the properties of both oils. Canola oil contributes its light texture and
smooth while palm oil adds a slightly thicker consistency and richness. The combination
of these oils resulted in a mayonnaise that strikes a balance between creaminess and
thickness. Overall, mayonnaise made from a mixture of canola and palm oil presents a
harmonious blend of textures and appearance, offering a balanced option with a pleasing
visual appeal and smooth texture.

Industry Applications

The cold process

14

Figure 4. Production Process for Mayonnaise in Industrial Setting

462 The Philippine Agricultural

Scientist Vol. 88 No. 4 (December
Comparative
2005)
Physicochemical
Characteristics of
Virgin Coconut Oil
15

Produced by Different
Methods
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18

APPENDICES
Photo Documentations

Figure 2. Separating the yolk Figure 3. Measuring of Palm Oil

Figure 4. Measuring of Canola Oil Figure 5. Emulsification of Palm Oil

Figure 6. Emulsification of Canola Oil Figure 7. Emulsification of Palm

Oil and Canola Oil Mixture
19

Figure 8. Mayonnaise made from Butter Figure 9. Mayonnaise Produced