Revision Notes - Understanding Social Institutions

Introduction
Our status and role are predetermined and not subject to choice, unlike the roles an actor might
play. Social institutions, whether governmental or familial, impose limitations, punishments, and
rewards upon individuals. Sociology and anthropology examine these institutions, which are the
focus of this chapter. Additionally, the chapter provides a brief overview of fundamental social
institutions such as family, marriage, kinship, politics, economy, religion, and education.

Institutions
In the broadest sense, an institution is an entity that operates based on established rules,
either set by law or custom, and whose regular and ongoing operation relies on adherence to
those principles. Individuals are bound by these institutions. Additionally, an institution can
also be viewed as a means to an end. People have regarded the family, church, state, and
education as both means and ends in themselves.
In sociology, there are contradictory and differing interpretations of ideas. The functionalist
and conflict perspectives, for instance, approach the same phenomena, such as stratification
or social control, in varying ways.
From a functionalist perspective, social institutions are a complex system of social norms,
beliefs, values, and role relationships that emerge in response to societal requirements.
Societies possess both formal and informal social institutions, with examples such as family
and religion falling under informal social institutions, and law and education under formal
social institutions.
On the other hand, according to the conflict perspective, not all individuals are treated
equally in society. All social institutions, including family, religion, politics, economics, law,
and education, serve the dominant segments of society, irrespective of class, caste, tribe, or
gender. The dominant social sector not only dominates political and economic institutions
but also ensures that the beliefs of the ruling class become the prevailing ideas in society.
Family
A family is a group of individuals who share a blood relationship, with adult members
responsible for the care of children. Kinship links refer to relationships formed through
either marriage or the bloodline that connects relatives.
For many years, sociology and social anthropology have conducted field research across
cultures to demonstrate the significance of family, marriage, and kinship institutions in all
communities, albeit with differing characteristics.
From a functionalist perspective, the family performs essential functions that fulfill society's
fundamental needs and promote social order. According to this viewpoint, modern industrial
societies operate best when women care for the family and men earn the family's income.
Functionalists view the nuclear family as the most appropriate unit for meeting the needs of
industrial society. In this type of family, one adult can work outside the home while the other
manages domestic responsibilities and child-rearing. In practice, this division of labor within
the nuclear family entails the husband taking on the "instrumental" role of breadwinner,
while the wife assumes the "affective" role, focusing on emotional care in domestic settings.

Try yourself: The family in which person is married is known as

a. family of procreation.

b. family of orientation.

c. nuclear family.

d. joint family.

View Solution
Variation in Family Forms
The topic of transitioning from nuclear to joint families has been widely discussed in India.
Various studies have shown that different family structures exist in different societies.
The residence rule determines the family structure in certain cultures, with some being
matrilocal and others being patrilocal. In the former, the newly married couple lives with the
wife's parents, while in the latter, they live with the husband's parents.
Patriarchal family structures are those in which men hold power and dominate decision-
making, while matriarchal family structures involve women playing a significant role in family
decision-making.

Although we may view families as distinct and separate from other spheres such as the economy
or politics in our daily lives, the family, household, structure, and values are interconnected with
the rest of society. As a result, family and kinship structures are subject to change and
transformation as a result of macroeconomic processes. However, these changes do not
necessarily occur uniformly across different regions and countries.
Is the family gendered?
In many families, the belief that the male child will provide support to the parents in old age and
the female child will leave after marriage leads to greater investment in male children.
Although biologically speaking, female babies have a better chance of survival than male babies,
the rate of infant mortality among female children in lower age groups is higher than that of male
children in India.

Marriage
Marriage is the socially recognized and sanctioned union between two adults that involves a
sexual relationship. It creates a relationship not only between the two individuals but also
between a larger group of people. When two people get married, their parents, siblings, and
other blood relatives become relatives as well. The family a person is born into is referred to as
the family of orientation, while the family in which they marry is referred to as the family of
procreation. Kin who are related by blood are referred to as consanguinal kin, while those who
are related by marriage are referred to as affines.
There are various ways in which marriage partners can be grouped, reflecting an incredible
diversity of customs and styles.
Marriage Forms
Marriage can come in various shapes and sizes, with the number of partners and regulations
determining who can marry whom being the distinguishing factors. Regarding the number of
partners, there are two primary forms of marriage: monogamy and polygamy.
Monogamy limits an individual to one spouse at a time, which has become more prevalent in
modern society. Although some societies allow remarriage after the death of a spouse or
after divorce, having more than one spouse simultaneously is not permitted. In such cases,
the term "serial monogamy" is used to describe this type of monogamous marriage.
Polygamy, on the other hand, is characterized by having more than one partner at the same
time. It can take two different forms: Polygyny, where one husband has multiple wives, or
Polyandry, where one wife has multiple husbands. When faced with difficult economic
conditions, society may resort to polyandry since a single male may not be able to provide for
a wife and children adequately. Additionally, when a group is in extreme poverty, they may
limit their population through polyandry.

The Matter of Arranging Marriages: Rules and Prescriptions

Mate selection varies across communities, with some allowing individuals to freely choose their
own partners, while others involve parents or relatives in making such decisions.
Endogamy and Exogamy Rules
The classification of marriage forms into endogamy and exogamy is based on the
eligibility/ineligibility rules for potential mates. Endogamy requires an individual to marry
someone from within their own culturally defined group, such as caste, while exogamy mandates
marriage outside of one's own group. These concepts apply to kinship units such as clan, caste,
and racial, ethnic, or religious groups. In some parts of northern India, village exogamy is
practiced, which ensures that daughters are married into households from distant villages. This
custom is based on the patrilineal system and geographic distance, causing married daughters to
rarely see their parents. As a result, leaving one's birthplace was a sorrowful event, as expressed
in various folk songs.

Work and Economic Life

The act of performing tasks that require physical or mental effort to produce goods and services
to meet human needs is known as work, regardless of whether it is paid or unpaid. A significant
portion of work done in the informal economy is not reflected in official employment statistics.
The informal economy encompasses transactions that occur outside regular employment, often
involving the exchange of cash for services rendered, but more commonly involving the direct
exchange of commodities or services.
Modern Work Forms and Labor Division
In pre-modern societies, the majority of individuals worked in agriculture or animal
husbandry. In countries like India, most of the population is still engaged in rural-based
occupations, as well as in agriculture.
Modern economic systems are characterised by a complex division of labour. Work is divided
into a multitude of specialised occupations, which is a marked departure from traditional
societies where non-agricultural work required knowledge of a craft.
Prior to industrialisation, work was predominantly carried out at home by all members of the
household. With the advent of industrial technology, such as coal-powered machines and
electricity, work became separated from the home. Industrial development focused on the
factories of capitalist entrepreneurs.
Individuals seeking employment in factories were trained to perform specialised tasks and
were compensated accordingly. A key feature of modern society is a significant increase in
economic interdependence.
With a few exceptions, the majority of individuals in modern societies do not produce the
food they consume, the dwellings they inhabit, or the goods they use.

Transformation of Work
Mass production is dependent on the existence of mass markets. The development of the
moving assembly line was one of the most important innovations in modern industrial
production. This type of production required expensive equipment and continuous
monitoring of employees using surveillance or monitoring systems.
In recent decades, there has been a move towards what is known as "flexible production"
and the "decentralisation of work." It is argued that in the era of globalisation, increasing
competition between firms and countries necessitates the organisation of production to
respond to changing market conditions.

Politics
Political institutions deal with the distribution of power within a society. Power is the ability
of individuals or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others, and it often
 means that those in power benefit at the expense of others. However, power is not held in
isolation; it is held in relation to others, and the amount of power in a society is fixed.
Authority is the use of power to enforce rules or make decisions. For example, a school
principal has the authority to enforce discipline, while the president of a political party has
the authority to expel members. Authority is a type of power that is considered legitimate
and reasonable, and it is often institutionalized based on this legitimacy. People generally
respect those in positions of authority because they believe that their use of power is fair
and just.

Try yourself: Institution of Politics is concerned with the

a. domination.

b. parliament.

c. distribution of power.

d. elections.

View Solution

The Concept of the State

A state is established when a government's political apparatus, including institutions such as
a parliament or congress, as well as civil service workers, governs over a specific territory.
From a functionalist perspective, the state represents the interests of all segments of society,
whereas the conflict perspective argues that the state represents the dominant sectors of
society.
Modern states differ from traditional states in their emphasis on concepts such as
sovereignty, citizenship, and nationalism. Sovereignty refers to a state's unquestioned
political control over a particular territory.
 It is important to note that citizenship, including political participation privileges, was not
always a part of the sovereign state. These privileges were often achieved through struggles
that either limited the power of monarchs or actively overthrew them.

Civil, political, and social rights are all part of citizenship

The civil liberties of individuals encompass the liberty to reside in any location of their
choosing, the right to express themselves and practice their religion, the entitlement to
possess property, and the entitlement to receive equal justice within the legal system.
Political entitlements entail the capacity to cast a ballot in elections and contend for public
office.
Social entitlements constitute the third category of citizenship rights that concern the
entitlement of every individual to a specific level of economic security and well-being. These
incorporate entitlements to healthcare, assistance for unemployment, and the institution of
a minimum wage.

Nationalism is the adoption of a set of symbols and beliefs that create a sense of membership in a
particular political community, prompting individuals to experience pride and attachment to their
national identity, whether it be 'Indian,' 'French,' 'British,' or 'Indonesian.' Its scope goes beyond
conventional political entities like state legislatures, town councils, and political parties to
encompass other organizations such as schools, banks, and religious institutions that have non-
political objectives.
Sociology has traditionally studied power structures more broadly, rather than solely the formal
systems of governance. It has been concerned with the allocation of power between political
parties, classes, castes, and religions.

Religion
The sociological examination of religion differs significantly from religious or theological
studies in several ways. Firstly, it employs empirical investigations to explore how religions
function in society and interact with other institutions. Secondly, it adopts a comparative
approach to studying religion. Lastly, it scrutinizes religious beliefs, practices, and
institutions in the context of other aspects of society and culture.
Due to the scientific approach, sociologists do not approach religious phenomena from a
judgmental perspective. The comparative method is crucial because it puts all societies on an
equal footing, making research less biased and prejudiced. The sociological perspective
contends that religious practices can only be understood by linking them to domestic,
economic, and political life.
Religion is often associated with various rituals such as praying, chanting, singing, specific
dietary restrictions, and fasting on particular days. Rituals are considered distinct from
everyday habits and processes since they are often directed toward religious symbols.
Lighting a candle or diya for religious purposes differs significantly from simply illuminating a
space.
Religion pertains to the sacred realm, which is evident in the actions of adherents before
entering a holy place. For example, wearing specific clothing, covering or not covering one's
head, or removing shoes. These actions all demonstrate a sense of awe, recognition, and
respect for holy locations or circumstances.
Building on the work of Emile Durkheim, sociologists studying religion aim to
comprehend the sacred domain that every community separates from the profane.
Typically, the sacred realm encompasses a supernatural element.
The sacred element of a tree or temple is often linked to the belief that it is considered
holy due to a supernatural force behind it.
Nevertheless, it's important to note that certain religions, like early Buddhism and
Confucianism, did not acknowledge the supernatural but held appropriate reverence for
things and individuals they deemed sacred.

The sociological study of religion involves investigating how religion interacts with other
social institutions. Religion has always had a relationship with power, and throughout
history, religious movements have been at the forefront of social reform, such as anti-caste
and gender equality movements. Religion is not just a personal belief; it also has a public
dimension.
Classical sociologists believed that as societies modernized, religion's influence over various
aspects of life would decrease, a process known as secularization.
Max Weber's work sheds light on how religion is linked to other aspects of social and
economic behavior. He argued that Calvinism, a branch of Protestant Christianity, played a
significant role in the development of capitalism. Calvinists believed that everything they did
was an act of worship for God's glory, including their work, which was viewed as a sign of
God's happiness if done successfully. The Calvinist goal was to live frugally, and investing
became almost religious in nature. Thus, Weber demonstrated that religion, specifically
Calvinism, has an impact on economic development.
 Religion cannot be studied in isolation as it is continually influenced by social circumstances.
It is an important component of society intricately linked to other components, and
sociologists must understand how these linkages work. In traditional societies, religion is
usually central to social life, and religious symbols and rituals are often incorporated into a
society's material and artistic culture.

Try yourself: 'The undisputed political rule of a state over a given territorial region' is
known as

a. sovereignty.

b. democracy.

c. monarchy.

d. bureaucracy.

View Solution

Education
Education is a continuous process that encompasses both formal and informal learning
institutions. Many people regard schools as a pathway to higher education and eventual
employment, which may entail acquiring social skills. The common thread in these examples
is the desire for knowledge.
In complex societies, there is a growing economic division of labour, a separation of work and
family, a need for specialised expertise and skill development, the emergence of state
systems and nations, and a complex set of symbols and ideas. Therefore, education must be
formal and explicit.
Moreover, unlike simple societies, modern complex societies are founded on abstract
universalistic values rather than particularistic values such as family, kin, clan, caste, or
religion. Modern schools are meant to promote uniformity, standardised aspirations, and
universalistic principles. Emile Durkheim argued that no society can survive without a
common base of ideas, attitudes, and behaviours that all children must learn, irrespective of
their socioeconomic status.
Education should equip young people for specific careers while also instilling society's
fundamental values in them. According to functionalist sociologists, education preserves and
renews social structures while also transmitting and developing culture. It is also seen as a
means of demonstrating one's skills and, as a result, a means of selecting individuals for
different levels of status based on their abilities.
For sociologists who view society as unequally stratified, education is a significant tool for
stratification. Some argue that education "exacerbates the existing gap between the elite
and the masses." Children who attend prestigious schools develop confidence, whereas
those who do not may feel the opposite.