Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Recycling of concrete, ceramic, and masonry waste via alkaline

activation: Obtaining and characterization of hybrid cements
Rafael Robayo-Salazar , William Valencia-Saavedra , Ruby Mejía de Gutiérrez *
Composites Materials Group (CENM), School of Materials Engineering, Universidad del Valle, Cali-Colombia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research aims to obtain and characterize alkali-activated hybrid cements based on concrete
Construction and demolition wastes (Co), ceramic (Ce), and/or masonry (M) waste powders from crushed construction and demolition
Waste powders waste (CDW). Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) were evaluated as
Recycling wastes sources of calcium. As an alkaline activator (AA), mixtures of sodium hydroxide and sodium
Sustainable materials silicate (NaOH + Na2SiO3) were used. The effects of the OPC (0–20%) and AA (0.1–0.4) contents
Construction and building materials
were evaluated. The possibility of combining the Co, Ce, and/or M waste powders (mixed waste)
Alkali-activated materials
was also studied for a wide range of proportions. The characterization of the hybrid cements
Geopolymers
Hybrid cements included compressive strength determinations at 1, 7, 14, 28, 60, and 90 days of curing (25 ◦ C
and 60 ◦ C− 24 h), reaction kinetics (setting time) evaluations, and microstructural analysis by
scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Hybrid cements
(10% OPC) based on 90% Co, 90% Ce, and 90% M reached maximum compressive strength
values (90 days at 25 ◦ C) of up to 16.9, 36.5, and 25.2 MPa, respectively. The hybrid cement (10%
OPC) based on the 30%Co–30%Ce− 30%M mixed waste reached a strength of 32.2 MPa at 90 days
(25 ◦ C). The results obtained validate the potential of Co, Ce, and M waste powders to be used as
geopolymeric precursors, even in scenarios where their separation is not possible (mixed wastes).

1. Introduction
In an increasingly urbanized world, construction and demolition waste (CDW) is a severe environmental problem, and its proper
recycling is considered a global objective for achieving sustainability in the construction sector. In accordance with the objectives
adopted in 2015 by world leaders as part of the new 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the use of non-renewable materials
and resources should be increasingly justifiable, and “sustainable cities” should opt for a “circular economy” model that encourages
recycling most of the waste generated [1], including CDW.
The worldwide generation of CDW is alarming, reaching 3 billion tons per year [2] and representing 25–30% of the total solid waste
worldwide [3]. Within the useable materials comprising CDW, most (70–80% [4]) are concrete (Co), ceramic (Ce) and masonry (M)
wastes. As stated by Reis et al. [5], the recycling potential of CDW is high, and the most popular applications in recent decades include
i) as recycled aggregates [6], ii) in the production of concretes and mortar [7], iii) in precast concrete [8], iv) in geotechnical ap­
plications (bases and sub-bases) [9], v) in the coverage of sanitary landfills, vi) as landfill material in civil works [10], vii) in asphalt
and roads [11], and recently, viii) in the synthesis of geopolymers (alkali-activated materials) [12]. In fact, the reuse of these wastes in
the production of recycled aggregates (fine and coarse) is the most common application and has been widely studied. However, in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ruby.mejia@correounivalle.edu.co (R. Mejía de Gutiérrez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103698
Received 15 October 2021; Received in revised form 16 November 2021; Accepted 16 November 2021
Available online 18 November 2021
2352-7102/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 1. Process of transformation of concrete (Co), ceramic (Ce) and masonry (M) waste and collection of powders (geopolymeric precursors) by-products of crushing.

some regions, the production of recycled aggregates cannot economically compete with natural aggregates, and it is necessary to
propose applications (products) with greater commercial value that can gain the interest of the industry. One of the most innovative
technologies positioned as a sustainable alternative for the full use of this type of waste in construction materials and applications is
alkaline activation or “geopolymerization”.
Alkaline activation allows the full use of the coarse and fine fractions obtained in the transformation processes of CDW, including
the powders that are generated as a by-product (10–30%) in the crushing of wastes [13] that are not suitable as aggregates per
standards [14]. According to Cadena-Martínez et al. [15], the powder by-products of crushed CDW have undesirable characteristics for
use as aggregates or fillers, especially due to their high water (H2O) absorption capacity, which leads to higher mixing water demand
and affects the fluidity, strength and sorptivity of mortars and concretes [16]. As a result of their drawbacks, these CDW powders are
not reused and end up accumulating in the open air in recycling plants or landfills. As an alternative, CDW powders can be used as a
geopolymer precursor in the production of alkali-activated cements (geopolymers) [17] and, when combined with recycled aggregates
(sands and gravel), can yield construction materials with high CDW contents (such as binder and aggregates) [18].
A review by Dadsetan et al. [12] demonstrates that it is necessary to adjust the type and concentration of the alkaline activator (AA)
and the curing conditions for each CDW sample. However, these adjustments cannot be consistent throughout the world because CDWs
have different origins and characteristics, which in turn means high variability in their chemical composition and reactivity. In terms of
curing, various authors [19–21] have achieved optimal mechanical behaviour with curing temperatures ranging between 50 and
90 ◦ C. However, adding small amounts of calcium (≤30%) can replace thermal curing with curing at room temperature (≈25 ◦ C), thus
obtaining hybrid cements. Some of the most common calcium additions used include ordinary Portland cement (OPC) [22], hydrated
lime (Ca(OH)2) [23] and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS) [24]. Most studies use mixtures of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) as AAs. In contrast, Villaquirán-Caicedo and Mejía de Gutiérrez [25] use solid activators such as sodium
sulfate (Na2SO4) as a more sustainable alternative for the production of alkali-activated CDW-based materials. However, the resulting
mechanical performance is worse (≤18 MPa at 28 days of curing (25 ◦ C)) than that of traditional activators (NaOH + Na2SiO3) [18].
Generally, alkali-activated cements from CDW have been synthesized using Co [26,27], Ce [22–24] and M [28–31] separately;
however, recently, Robayo-Salazar et al. [18] demonstrated the possibility of using mixed waste as a geopolymeric precursor
composed of a combination of Co, Ce, M and mortar waste, making its use possible in real scenarios where the separation of CDW is not
possible. In fact, the present study is considered a continuation of this research, with the purpose of further optimizing the alkaline
activation variables of these wastes, both separated (Co, Ce, and M) and combined (mixed wastes).
In this article the obtaining and characterization of hybrid cements from the alkaline activation of Co, Ce and/or M waste powders
is analysed. The powder by-product of the crushing of Co, Ce and M was used as the geopolymer precursor. Ca(OH)2 and OPC were
evaluated as sources of calcium for ambient-curing rather than thermal curing. As an AA, mixtures of NaOH + Na2SiO3 were used. The

2
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of concrete (Co), ceramic (Ce) and masonry (M) waste powders, and Portland cement (OPC).

Table 1
Chemical composition of concrete (Co), ceramic (Ce) and masonry (M) waste powders.

Waste type SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 TiO2 CaO MgO Na2O K2O P2O5 SO3 PbO LOI

Co 36.13 6.78 8.33 0.53 28.66 1.85 0.64 0.63 0.12 1.16 0.01 15.94
Ce 59.63 5.48 16.10 0.72 9.79 0.77 0.45 1.56 0.13 0.35 0.01 4.07
M 59.04 7.76 18.42 0.80 5.37 2.39 1.05 1.53 0.14 0.21 0.00 2.92

LOI: loss on ignition.

possibility of combining the Co, Ce and/or M wastes (mixed wastes) in a wide range of proportions was also studied, simulating cases
where separating each material is not possible. The characterization of the hybrid cements included determining the compressive
strength at 1, 7, 14, 28, 60 and 90 days of curing, evaluating the reaction kinetics (setting times) and performing a microstructural
analysis with scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS).

2. Materials and experimental methodology

2.1. Materials
The sample of CDW used corresponded to Co, Ce and M waste stockpiled in a CDW final disposal site located in the city of Santiago
de Cali (Colombia). The transformation process of the CDW sample was carried out in a local treatment plant with 1 ton/day capacity
(MAECOL SAS) (Fig. 1). This process included the use of crushers and hammer mills commonly used to obtain recycled aggregates.
The geopolymeric precursors (Co, Ce, and M) corresponded to the finest particulate material (powder) or by-product collected
during each crushing process. Note that the fraction collected from these powders, compared to the initial sample, reached values
between 5 and 30% according to the type of waste (M > Co > Ce). This fraction of by-products must be taken into account if full use of
CDW is to be achieved since these powders have characteristics (fineness and high absorption) that do not allow their recycling as
aggregates for mortars and/or concretes according to the standards [14]. Next, the powders collected for each sample (Co, Ce and M)
were separately subjected to a milling process using a ball mill until reaching a particle size close to that of OPC (21.3 μm). In effect, the
average particle sizes of the Co, Ce and M powders, determined via laser granulometry, were 57.3, 40.4 and 75.3 μm, respectively
(Fig. 2). The particle size analysis of the powders was carried out in a equipment Mastersizer-2000 from Malvern Instruments using
distilled water as the dispersing medium. The chemical composition of the Co, Ce and M powders and OPC, determined via X-ray
fluorescence (XRF), is presented in Table 1. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was performed using a Phillips-PANalytical MagiX Pro PW 2440
spectrometer with a maximum power of 4 kW and equipped with a rhodium tube. The aluminosilicate nature (SiO2 + Al2O3) of the
wastes (Co = 44.5%, Ce = 75.7%, and M = 77.5%) can be seen. Consequently, the SiO2/Al2O3 (total) molar ratios of the Co, Ce and M
wastes are 7.4, 6.3 and 5.4, respectively.
To obtain alkali-activated hybrid cements, additions (≤20% by weight) of Ca(OH)2 and OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement, type UG-
according to ASTM C1157, equivalent to NTC 121 in Colombia) were used as sources of calcium, and mixtures of NaOH and Na2SiO3
(SiO2 = 32.1%, Na2O = 11.9%, H2O = 56.0%) were used as AAs.

2.2. Design and production of mixtures

Pastes were prepared according to the following procedure: initially, the NaOH was dissolved in mixing water (H2O), and once
cooled (≈30 min or 25–28 ◦ C), Na2SiO3 was added to this alkaline solution. For the hybrid cements, the precursor (Co, Ce, and/or M)

3
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Table 2
Mix design (100g) defined to evaluate the effect of curing process (25 ◦ C or 60 ◦ C − 24 h) on the compressive strength of alkali-activated cements based 100% on Co, Ce
and M powders.

Mix abbreviation Curing Material (g)

Co Ce M Alkaline activator Mixing water

NaOH Na2SiO3

100Co− 25 ◦ C 25 ◦ C 100 – – 4 16 24.4

100Ce− 25 ◦ C – 100 –
100M− 25 ◦ C – – 100

100Co− 60 ◦ C 60 ◦ C− 24h 100 – – 4 16 24.4

100Ce− 60 ◦ C – 100 –
100M− 60 ◦ C – – 100

NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio = 0.25; NaOH + Na2SiO3/precursor ratio = 0.2; L/S ratio = 0.30.

Table 3
Mix design (100g) defined to evaluate: the effect of substituting 90% of OPC for the Co, Ce and M powders in cementitious pastes without alkaline activator (wa) cured at
room temperature (25 ◦ C) (series No. 1); the effect of the type of calcium addition (10% OPC or 10% Ca(OH)2) (series No. 2) and the effect of the content of alkaline
activator (AA 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4) (series No. 3) on the compressive strength of alkali-activated hybrid cements cured at room temperature (25 ◦ C).

Serie Mix abbreviation Material (g)

N◦
Co Ce M OPC Ca(OH)2 Alkaline activator Mixing water

NaOH Na2SiO3

1 100OPC – – – 100 – – – 30
90Co–10OPC (w.a.) 90 – – 10
90Ce–10OPC (w.a.) – 90 – 10
90M− 10OPC (w.a.) – – 90 10

2 90Co–10OPC 90 – – 10 – 4 16 24.4
90Ce–10OPC – 90 –
90M− 10OPC – – 90
90Co–10Ca 90 – – – 10
90Ce–10Ca – 90 –
90M− 10Ca – – 90

3 90Co–10OPC− AA0.1 90 – – 10 0 2 8 27.2

90Ce–10OPC− AA0.1 – 90 –
90M− 10OPC− AA0.1 – – 90
90Co–10OPC− AA0.2 90 – – 4 16 24.4
90Ce–10OPC− AA0.2 – 90 –
90M− 10OPC− AA0.2 – – 90
90Co–10OPC− AA0.3 90 – – 6 24 21.6
90Ce–10OPC− AA0.3 – 90 –
90M− 10OPC− AA0.3 – – 90
90Co–10OPC− AA0.4 90 – – 8 32 18.7
90Ce–10OPC− AA0.4 – 90 –
90M− 10OPC− AA0.4 – – 90

w.a.: without alkali-activator; NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio = 0.25; L/S ratio = 0.30.

Table 4
Mix design (100g) defined to evaluate the effect of combining (0–90%) the Co, Ce y M powders on the compressive strength of alkali-activated hybrid cements (10%
OPC) (AA 0.2) cured at room temperature (25 ◦ C).

Mix abbreviation Material (g)

Co Ce M OPC Alkaline activator Mixing water

NaOH Na2SiO3

90Co–10OPC− AA0.2 90 – – 10 4 16 24.4

90Ce–10OPC− AA0.2 – 90 –
90M− 10OPC− AA0.2 – – 90
45Co–45Ce− 0M− 10OPC 45 45 –
45Co–0Ce− 45M− 10OPC 45 – 45
0Co–45Ce− 45M− 10OPC – 45 45
30Co–30Ce− 30M− 10OPC 30 30 30
60Co–15Ce− 15M− 10OPC 60 15 15
15Co–60Ce− 15M− 10OPC 15 60 15
15Co–15Ce− 60M− 10OPC 15 15 60

NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio = 0.25; NaOH + Na2SiO3/precursor ratio = 0.2; L/S ratio = 0.30.

4
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 3. Graphic representation of the simplex centroid mixture design defined to evaluate the effect of combining (0–90%) the Co, Ce y M powders on the compressive
strength of alkali-activated hybrid cements (10% OPC) (AA 0.2) cured at room temperature (25 ◦ C).

Table 5
Mix design (100g) defined to evaluate the effect of the contents of OPC (0–20%) and alkaline activator (AA 0.1–0.4) on the setting time of an alkali-activated mixed
residue (Mix).

Mix abbreviation Material (g)

Co Ce M OPC Alkaline activator Mixing water

NaOH Na2SiO3

90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.25 30 30 30 10 5 20 22.9

90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.1 30 30 30 10 2 8 27.2
90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.4 30 30 30 10 8 32 18.7
97.1Mix− 2.9OPC− AA0.36 32.3 32.3 32.3 2.9 7.1 28.5 19.9
82.9Mix− 17.1OPC− AA0.36 27.6 27.6 27.6 17.1 7.1 28.5 19.9
100Mix− 0OPC− AA0.25 33.3 33.3 33.3 0 5 20 22.9
80Mix− 20OPC− AA0.25 26.7 26.7 26.7 20 5 20 22.9
97.1Mix− 2.9OPC− AA0.14 32.4 32.4 32.4 2.9 2.9 11.5 25.9
82.9Mix− 17.1OPC− AA0.14 27.6 27.6 27.6 17.1 2.9 11.5 25.9

Mix = 33.3%Co + 33.3%Ce + 33.3%M; NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio = 0.25; AA = NaOH + Na2SiO3/Mix + OPC; L/S ratio = 0.30.

was dry mixed with the addition of calcium (Ca(OH)2 or OPC) until completely homogenized (≈5 min). Then, the activator solution
(NaOH + Na2SiO3+H2O) was incorporated, and the mixing process was carried out for 5 min in a Hobart mixer. The liquid/solid ratio
(L/S) was 0.30 for all mixtures. Next, the mixtures are described.
Table 2 shows the proportions of the mixtures used to evaluate the effect of the type of curing (25 ◦ C or 60 ◦ C− 24 h) on the
compressive strength of alkali-activated cements based on 100% waste powder of Co, Ce, and M. The NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio was 0.25
(by weight), and the content of AA (NaOH + Na2SiO3) corresponded to a NaOH + Na2SiO3/precursor ratio of 0.2 (by weight).
Table 3 (Series No. 1) presents the proportions of the mixtures used to evaluate the effect of substituting 90% of OPC for Co, Ce, and
M powders on the compressive strength of cementitious pastes without AA (w.a.) cured at room temperature (25 ◦ C). The results were
compared with a 100% OPC-based reference paste. The proportions of the mixtures used to evaluate the effect of adding 10% OPC or
10% Ca(OH)2 and the mixtures used to evaluate the effect of the AA content (NaOH + Na2SiO3) (Series No. 2 and No. 3, respectively)
are also included. The NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio was 0.25 (by weight), and the content of AA in series No. 2 corresponded to the NaOH +
Na2SiO3/precursor + calcium (OPC) or Ca(OH)2 ratio of 0.2 (by weight).
Table 4 presents the proportions of the mixtures used to evaluate the effects of combining the Co, Ce, and M powders on the
compressive strength of the alkali-activated hybrid cements cured at room temperature (25 ◦ C). This was achieved by varying the
relative proportions of Co, Ce, and M (mixed wastes) in the mixture from the definition of a simplex centroid mixture design using
Minitab 15 software. The lower and upper limits for total Co, Ce, and M contents were set at 0% and 90%, respectively. The remaining
10% corresponded to the addition of OPC and was constant for all mixtures. The total number of design points was 10 (Co–Ce− M)

5
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 4. Graphic representation of the central composite design defined to evaluate the effect of the contents of OPC (0–20%) and alkaline activator (AA 0.1–0.4) on the
setting time of the alkali-activated mixed residue (Mix).

Fig. 5. Effect of curing temperature (25 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C− 24 h) on compressive strength (1, 7, 28, 60 and 90 days) of alkali-activated cements (100%Co, 100%Ce and
100%M) (AA 0.2).

(Fig. 3), including 3 vertex points (90− 0− 0, 0–90− 0, 0− 0− 90), 3 midpoints (45− 45− 0, 45− 0− 45, 0–45− 45), 1 central point
(30− 30− 30) and 3 axial points (60− 15− 15, 15–60− 15, 15− 15− 60). The of NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio was 0.25 (by weight), and the
content of AA was equivalent to a NaOH + Na2SiO3/Co + Ce + M + OPC ratio of 0.2 (by weight).
Table 5 shows the proportions used to evaluate the effect of the contents of OPC and AA (NaOH + Na2SiO3) on the setting time of an
alkali-activated mixed waste (Mix). In this case, Mix was obtained by combining, in equal parts (33.3%), the Co, Ce, and M powders.
For this, a central composite design was performed using Minitab 15 software, and two factors were defined: OPC (factor #1) and AA
(factor #2). In the design, lower and upper limits were established for the OPC (%) and AA contents between 0 and 20 and 0.1–0.4,
respectively. The NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio was 0.25 (by weight). The total number of design points (mixtures) was 9, including 4 cube
points, 1 central point, and 4 axial points (Fig. 4).

2.3. Tests and instrumental methods

The chemical composition of the waste powders (Co, Ce, and M) and the OPC was determined by XRF using a Phillips MagiX-Pro

6
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 6. Effect of the type of calcium addition (10% OPC and 10% Ca(OH)2) on the compressive strength (1, 7, 28, 60 and 90 days of curing (25 ◦ C)) of the alkali-
activated hybrid cements (AA 0.2).

PW-2440 spectrometer.
The particle size analysis of the waste powders (Co, Ce, and M) and the OPC was performed by means of laser granulometry in a
Mastersizer-2000 from Malvern Instruments.
The compressive strength of the pastes was evaluated at 1, 7, 14, 28, 60 and 90 days of curing in an INSTRON 3369 universal testing
machine with a 50 kN capacity and a test speed of 1 mm/min. For each mixture, a minimum of 3 specimens of 20 × 20 × 20 mm were
used to determine their average strength. During the first 24 h, the specimens were exposed to one of two curing processes: 25 ◦ C or
60 ◦ C, and then they were kept in a final curing chamber (≈25 ◦ C) with a relative humidity (RH) greater than 80% until reaching the
test age.
The setting time (initial and final) of the pastes was determined according to the procedure described in ASTM C191 (method B)
using a Vicat apparatus.
Microstructural analysis of the alkali-activated hybrid cements (28 days) was performed by SEM using a JEOL JSM-6490LV mi­
croscope with an accelerating voltage of 20 kV. An Oxford Instruments Link-Isis X-ray spectrometer was coupled to the microscope
(EDS).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Alkaline activation of the Co, Ce, and M waste powders and the effect of thermal curing on the compressive strength of alkali-activated
cements
The compressive strengths (1, 7, 28, 60, and 90 days) of the alkali-activated cements (AA 0.2) based on 100% Co, Ce and M waste
powders (Table 2), as well as the effect of the curing temperatures (25 ◦ C and 60 ◦ C− 24 h), are shown in Fig. 5. In general, the thermal
curing process (60 ◦ C) applied during the first 24 h increases the strength of the alkali-activated cements, reaching values of 9.8, 7.3,
and 2.5 MPa at 28 days for mixtures 100Co− 60 ◦ C, 100Ce− 60 ◦ C and 100M− 60 ◦ C, respectively. When these values are compared
with those reached at room temperature (25 ◦ C) (6.0, 3.2 and 2.4 MPa for the mixtures 100Co− 25 ◦ C, 100Ce− 25 ◦ C and 100M− 25 ◦ C,
respectively), the increases in strength are 63.4, 128.3 and 7.6%, respectively.
In this regard, the positive effect of thermal curing in alkali-activated cements based on low reactivity precursors (of a semi­
crystalline nature), such as CDW, has been reported by several authors [20,21,23,26]. The benefit of these thermal curing processes has
been more notable when curing temperatures reach 60–90 ◦ C and are sustained for long periods (5–7 days of thermal curing [19,31]).
However, even though in this study, a (slight) positive effect is also observed, promoted by the thermal curing carried out (60 ◦ C− 24
h), the mechanical strength values obtained for the alkali-activated cements based 100% on waste powders (Co, Ce, and M) are still too
low to be used as binders in the production of construction and building materials (mortars, concretes and prefabricated elements).
These results corroborate the low reactivity of these wastes.

3.2. Effect of the type of calcium addition (OPC and Ca(OH)2) on the compressive strength of alkali-activated hybrid cements cured at
room temperature (25 ◦ C)
The effect of the type of calcium addition (OPC and Ca(OH)2) on the compressive strength (1, 7, 28, 60, and 90 days) of the alkali-
activated hybrid cements (AA 0.2) cured at room temperature (25 ◦ C) (Table 3, series No. 2) is presented in Fig. 6. The percentage of
addition used is 10%. In general, the addition of OPC yields the greater strengths than the addition of Ca(OH)2. At 28 days, the pastes of
90Co–10Ca, 90Ce–10Ca and 90M− 10Ca (AA 0.2) reach compressive strengths of 7.6, 11.1, and 2.0 MPa, respectively. In comparison,
the pastes of 90Co–10OPC, 90Ce–10OPC and 90M− 10OPC (AA 0.2) obtain values of 12.3, 17.9, and 9.5 MPa, respectively. The highest

7
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 7. Effect of alkaline activator content (AA 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4) on compressive strength (1, 7, 28, 60 and 90 days of curing at room temperature (25 ◦ C)) of alkali-
activated hybrid cements: a) 90%Co–10%OPC, b) 90%Ce–10%OPC and c) 90%M− 10%OPC.

mechanical performance of the mixtures (10% OPC and 10% Ca(OH)2) is shown by cements based on Ce waste powder, with
compressive strength values at 90 days of curing (25 ◦ C) up to 28.7 MPa and 15.0 MPa for the 90Ce–10OPC and 90Ce–10Ca mixtures,
respectively.
Note that when the same mixtures (90Co–10OPC, 90Ce–10OPC and 90M− 10OPC) without AA (w.a.), that is, in the presence of

8
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

H2O (Table 3, series No. 1) are evaluated, in general, the strengths do not exceed 9 MPa after 90 days of curing. Likewise, at 28 days of
curing, the pastes of 90Co–10OPC (w.a.), 90Ce–10OPC (w.a.) and 90M− 10OPC (w.a.) yield compressive strengths of only 4.9, 6.5 and
4.2 MPa, respectively, in contrast with the strength reached by the 100% OPC paste (30.6 MPa), whereby the effect of substituting 90%
OPC with the Co, Ce, and M waste powders represents a decrease in strength between 78.9 and 86.3%. This indicates that it is not
possible to substitute large amounts of OPC with Co, Ce, and M waste powders due to their low reactivity [15,32,33], which dem­
onstrates the positive effect generated by the presence of the AA (NaOH + Na2SiO3) on the mechanical performance of these mixtures;
that is, the results presented in Fig. 6 validate the potential of alkaline activation technology for obtaining alternative cements with
high (90%) “supplementary cementing materials (SCMs)” content and low (10%) OPC proportion.
The effect of incorporating small amounts (≤30% by weight) of calcium-containing additions (OPC, Ca(OH)2, and GBFS) has been
reported by other authors. For example, Murillo et al. [22] evaluated the effect of adding OPC (5–15%) to alkali-activated materials
based on Ce waste, achieving strengths above 50 MPa at 28 days of curing at room temperature (25 ◦ C) by optimizing the AA content
(NaOH + Na2SiO3). Reig et al. [23] evaluated the effect of incorporating Ca(OH)2 (5%) and calcareous aggregates (50%) in
alkali-activated mortars based on Ce wastes, demonstrating that these calcareous modifiers play an important role in developing
mechanical strength at room temperature (20 ◦ C). For their part, Hwang et al. [24] evaluated the effect of adding GBFS in
alkali-activated cements based on Ce and M waste mixtures and curing at room temperature (25 ◦ C), demonstrating an increase in
strength (36–70 MPa) as a function of the GBFS content (10–30%) in the mixtures.
As has been demonstrated, the purpose of adding calcium sources to alkali-activated materials is to generate greater strengths at
room temperature (25 ◦ C) and to replace thermal curing processes. In this regard, the alkali-activated materials obtained from the
combination of aluminosilicates (precursors) and calcium additions (≤30% by weight) are known as hybrid cements, where the
coexistence of sodium aluminosilicate hydrated (N-A-S-H) gels (poor in Ca2+) and gels rich in calcium is promoted, such as calcium
silicate hydrated (C–S–H) and calcium aluminosilicate hydrated (C-A-S-H) gels. These gels interact over time, forming a higher per­
formance calcium (sodium) aluminosilicate hydrate (C-(N)-A-S-H) hybrid gel [34]. The coexistence of these reaction products pro­
motes a denser, more homogeneous and resistant microstructure in alkali-activated materials.

3.3. Effect of alkali activator content on the compressive strength of alkali-activated hybrid cements
The effect of the AA content (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4) on the compressive strength (1, 7, 28, 60, and 90 days of curing at room
temperature (25 ◦ C)) of the alkali-activated hybrid cements with 10% OPC; 90%Co–10%OPC, 90%Ce–10%OPC, and 90%M− 10%OPC
(Table 3, series No. 3), can be observed in Fig. 7a, b, and 7c, respectively. Notably, in general, increasing AA content promotes a better
mechanical performance in the hybrid cements. At 28 days, the 90% Co− 10% OPC cements (Fig. 7a) yield compressive strengths of
10.3, 12.6, 14.2, and 15.1 MPa for AA contents of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, respectively. For the case of 90%Ce–10%OPC cements
(Fig. 7b), compressive strength values of 14.9, 17.9, 24.8, and 29.4 MPa are reached at 28 days with an increasing content of AA. On
the other hand, the 90%M− 10%OPC hybrid cements (Fig. 7c) yield compressive strengths (28 days) of 3.0, 9.5, 12.6, and 18.9 MPa for
(AA) 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, respectively. Likewise, a constant evolution and increase in the compressive strength of the hybrid cements
as a function of the curing time is highlighted. The maximum compressive strengths reached at 90 days for the cements 90%Co–10%
OPC− AA0.4, 90%Ce–10%OPC− AA0.4, and 90%M− 10%OPC− AA0.4 are 16.9, 36.5 and 25.2 MPa, respectively. If these values (90
days) are compared with those reported at 1 day (8.4, 6.3 and 6.1 MPa, respectively), they represent increases in compressive strength
of 100.1, 475.1 and 311.6%, respectively. This is consistent with the slow reactivity shown by this type of waste, requiring longer
curing times (≈90 days) to obtain strengths similar to those of other aluminosilicates or precursors commonly used in the synthesis of
alkali-activated materials.
As demonstrated by the review by Dadsetan et al. [12], the effect of the AA content in cements based on Co, Ce, and M wastes has
been evaluated by other authors, with the molar ratios SiO2/Al2O3 and R2O/SiO2 being the most studied factors, where R is Na+ or K+.
For the case of this research, the content of AA corresponds to the ratio NaOH + Na2SiO3/precursor + OPC and varies between 0.1 and
0.4 (by weight). The ratio of NaOH/Na2SiO3 is 0.25 (by weight) and remains constant for all mixtures. This ratio translates into a
SiO2/Na2O molar ratio (solution module) of AA (NaOH + Na2SiO3) of 1.0. In this regard, a higher content of Na2SiO3 increases the
soluble silica species (− Si–O− ) and provides the necessary conditions for the geopolymerization reactions to be carried out [26],
reflected as an increase in the compressive strength of the alkali-activated cements, as shown in Fig. 7. Na2SiO3 also provides a good
bond (adhesion) of unreacted particles, therefore having a positive effect and increasing the strength of materials based on low
reactivity (semicrystalline) aluminosilicates such as CDW. However, at a higher content of AA (NaOH + Na2SiO3), the concentrations
of Na+ and/or OH− (pH) can reach a limit above which the geopolymerization reactions, and therefore the mechanical strength of the
material, can be affected, especially if the cement is a hybrid [34]. This is not observed in this study for AA contents between 0.1 and
0.4, possibly because the SiO2/Na2O molar ratio (solution module) remains constant (1.0) for all mixtures. On the other hand, an
excess of Na + can generate efflorescence phenomena when migrating to the surface (leaching) and reacting with the atmosphere
(CO2), forming sodium carbonates [35], which is controlled for the range of AA (0.1–0.4) and the NaOH/Na2SiO3 ratio (0.25) used in
this study.
In general, the results obtained show that the Ce has the highest reactivity (alkaline activation), followed by the M, and finally the
Co. In relation to the results reported by other authors, Komnitsas et al. [19] and Zaharaki et al. [20] mention that the differences
between the strengths achieved by the Co, Ce, and M wastes can be attributed to their discrepancies in chemical composition. However,
the three wastes are aluminosilicate in nature, and Co waste has the lowest proportion of SiO2 + Al2O3 (Co = 44.5%, Ce = 75.7%, M =
77.5%) (Table 1), with solubilized Si and Al ions obtained from the breaking of the Si–O–Al and Si–O–Si bonds during the alkaline
activation process being the ions that effectively participate in geopolymeric reactions [35]. Additionally, the silica content in relation
to the alumina content (SiO2/Al2O3 molar ratio) is higher for the Co waste than for the Ce and M wastes (Co = 7.4, Ce = 6.3, and M =

9
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 8. Effect of combining (0–90%) the concrete (Co), ceramic (Ce) and masonry (M) waste powders on compressive strength (1, 7, 28, 60 and 90 days of curing
(25 ◦ C)) of alkali-activated hybrid cements (10% OPC) (AA 0.2).

Fig. 9. Contour graph that represents the effect of combining (0–90%) the concrete (Co), ceramic (Ce) and masonry (M) waste powders on compressive strength (CS)
at 90 days of curing (25 ◦ C) of alkali-activated hybrid cements (10% OPC) (AA 0.2).

5.4). Note that these values correspond to the total SiO2 and Al2O3 oxides determined via XRF and not to the content present in the
amorphous phases (soluble SiO2 and Al2O3).

3.4. Effect of the combined Co, Ce, and M waste powders (mixed wastes) on the compressive strength of alkali-activated hybrid cements
As mentioned above, evaluating the use of mixed wastes based on combinations of Co, Ce, and M waste powders creates the
possibility of using CDW in scenarios where their separation is not possible. The effect of combining Co, Ce, and/or M powders on the
compressive strength (1, 7, 28, 60, and 90 days of curing (25 ◦ C)) of alkali-activated hybrid cements (10% OPC) with an AA content
(AA) of 0.2 (Table 4) can be observed in Fig. 8. At 90 days, the compressive strength values reached by the mixtures of
15Co–60Ce− 15M− 10OPC, 15Co–15Ce− 60M− 10OPC, 60Co–15Ce− 15M− 10OPC, 30Co–30Ce− 30M− 10OPC, 45Co–45Ce− 0M−
10OPC, 0Co–45Ce− 45M− 10OPC and 45Co–0Ce− 45M− 10OPC are 29.6, 23.9, 10.7, 32.2, 22.4, 29.5, and 6.2 MPa, respectively. In
agreement with the results reported in section 3.3, the presence of Ce waste promotes the best mechanical performance (90 days) of the
hybrid cements. On the other hand, a high content (≥45%) of Co waste negatively affects the mechanical performance of the mixtures,
especially if the presence of Ce waste is low (≤15. %). These behaviours can be corroborated in the contour graph (Fig. 9), where the
zones of greater compressive strength (90 days) influenced by higher contents of Ce waste can be seen.
Of the hybrid cements designed, the performance of the 30Co–30Ce− 30 M− 10OPC (0.2) mixture stands out, reaching the
maximum mechanical strength at 90 days (32.2 MPa). This cement based on a mixed waste exceeds the performances reported for the
mixtures of 90Co–10OPC− AA0.2 (14.6 MPa), 90Ce–10OPC− AA0.2 (28.7 MPa), and 90M− 10OPC− AA0.2 (12.3 MPa), which means

10
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Table 6
Setting times (initial and final) of the alkali-activated mixed waste (Mix = 33.3%Co + 33.3%Ce + 33.3%M): effect of the OPC (0–20%) and alkaline activator (AA
0.1–0.4) contents.

Alkali-activated cement Initial time of setting (min) Final time of setting (min)

90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.25 20 60

90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.1 240 660
90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.4 20 45
97.1Mix− 2.9OPC− AA0.36 85 160
82.9Mix− 17.1OPC− AA0.36 24 35
100Mix− 0OPC− AA0.25 95 225
80Mix− 20OPC− AA0.25 11 28
97.1Mix− 2.9OPC− AA0.14 570 1530
82.9Mix− 17.1OPC− AA0.14 360 600

Fig. 10. Effect of the OPC (0–20%) and alkaline activator (AA 0.1–0.4) contents on the setting time of hybrid cements based on the mixed waste (Mix = 33.3%Co +
33.3%Ce + 33.3%M).

that combining the Co, Ce, and M waste powders has a positive synergistic effect. The synergy between the three wastes is considered
an advantage and, as mentioned above, creates the possibility of reusing the mixed waste without requiring its separation.

3.5. Effect of OPC content and AA on the setting time of alkali-activated hybrid cements
The effect of the OPC content (0–20%) and the proportion of the AA (0.1–0.4) on the setting time of the hybrid cements (Table 5)
based on the alkaline activation of the mixed waste (Mix = 33.3%Co + 33.3%Ce + 33.3%M) is presented in Table 6 and Fig. 10. In
general, the higher the contents of OPC and AA are, the shorter the setting times (initial and final). This means that the kinetics of the
reactions are improved by both factors. The initial and final setting times range between 11-570 min and 28–1530 min, respectively. In
some cases, a false setting phenomenon is observed due to the high thixotropic properties of these geopolymeric materials, especially
those with higher AA contents (Na2SiO3+NaOH). In this regard, a very short setting time of the mixture, due to rapid polycondensation
reactions, can affect the dissolution of the aluminosilicates and generate low mechanical strength in the hardened state, caused by the
formation of a weakened structure by the incomplete dissolution of aluminosilicates [35].
The shortest setting times (initial = 11 and final = 28 min) are recorded for the mixture 80Mix− 20OPC− AA0.25, highlighting its
high content (20%) of OPC. The longest setting times (initial = 570 min and final = 1530 min) are seen for the mixture
97.1Mix− 2.9OPC− AA0.14, whose OPC content is low (2.9%). Note that mixtures with an intermediate content (10%) of OPC yield a
wide range of setting times, controlled in this case by the content of AA. Thus, the mixtures 90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.4,
90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.25, and 90Mix− 10OPC− AA0.1 yield final setting times of 45, 60, and 660 min, respectively. Note that the
setting time values of the alkali-activated mixtures with 10% OPC added are close to those normally reported for general use (GU)
Portland cements in Colombia (45 min (minimum)− 480 min (maximum)) [36].

3.6. Microstructural characterization of alkali-activated hybrid cements by SEM-EDS

Microstructural analysis (28 days) of the hybrid cements 90Co–10OPC− AA0.2, 90Ce–10OPC− AA0.2, 90M− 10OPC− AA0.2 and
30Co− 30Ce− 30M− 10OPC (AA 0.2) was carried out by SEM. Fig. 11 shows micrographs (200x) of these cements, as well as the
compositional analysis (EDS) represented in a SiO2–Al2O3–CaO ternary diagram. In the micrographs, the formation of a homogeneous
microstructure in the inspected cements can be observed, with the exception of Co waste-based cement, where cracks in the matrix are
seen, possibly formed by contraction and retraction, which agrees with the results of low compressive strength previously reported for

11
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 11. Microstructural-compositional analysis (SEM-EDS) of the alkali-activated hybrid cements (90Co–10OPC− AA0.2; 90Ce–10OPC− AA0.2; 90M-10OPC-AA0.2;
and 30Co-30Ce-30M-10OPC) (44 analysis points in total).

this cement. Likewise, it is possible to observe some unreacted particles embedded in the geopolymer matrix, as if it is micro-concrete
(filler effect).
On the other hand, the homogeneous microstructure observed in the 90Ce–10OPC− AA0.2 and 30Co–30Ce− 30M− 10OPC (AA 0.2)

12
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

Fig. 12. Colour mapping (SEM-EDS) of the alkali-activated hybrid cement 30Co-30Ce-30M-10OPC (AA 0.2). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

cements agrees with their excellent mechanical performances. Regarding the compositional analysis of these cements, performed from
the data acquired by the EDS technique, it is possible to observe how, in general, the points are grouped in regions representative of
calcium-rich gels (C-A-S-H) and intermediate composition gels (C-(N)-A-S-H); the product of the interaction over time of primary N-A-
S-H and C–S–H type gels [37]. The points associated with the C–S–H and C-A-S-H gels, rich in Ca2+, present values between 0.7 ≤
Ca/Si ≤ 2.2. Theoretically, the N-A-S-H gels do not have Ca2+, unlike C-(N)-A-S-H gels, which yield values between 0.1 ≤ Ca/Si ≤ 0.6;
these results are consistent with the Ca/Si ranges reported by other authors for alkali-activated hybrid cements [38–40].
The EDS, included in Fig. 12, corresponds to a graphical representation by the colours of the elemental composition of hybrid
cement 30Co–30Ce− 30 M− 10OPC (AA 0.2). In general, the paste is rich in silica (blue), aluminium (green), sodium (magenta) and
calcium (turquoise), corroborating the formation and/or coexistence of N-A-S-H and C–S–H gels. C-A-S-H and C-(N)-A-S-H result from
the chemical interaction between the waste powders (Co, Ce, and M), the addition of OPC, and the AA (NaOH + Na2SiO3).

4. Conclusions
This research allowed us to validate the potential of construction and demolition waste (CDW) to be used as geopolymeric pre­
cursors. This was achieved by obtaining and characterizing alkali-activated hybrid cements based on high contents (90%) of concrete
(Co), ceramic (Ce), and/or masonry (M) waste powders. From the experimental results obtained, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
• The Co, Ce, and M waste powders have a low pozzolanic reactivity if they are used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
in substitution of high contents (90%) of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) in cement pastes. The incorporation of the alkaline
activator (AA) improves the strength of these mixtures.
• Thermal curing (60 ◦ C− 24 h) proves to be an alternative for increasing the mechanical performance of alkali-activated cements
based on 100% Co, Ce, and M waste powders. However, this method can be substituted with an ambient-curing process (25 ◦ C) with
the addition (10%) of calcium sources such as OPC or hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2), in which OPC stands out.
• Higher AA (sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate (NaOH + Na2SiO3)) content improves the mechanical performance in alkali-
activated hybrid cements based on Co, Ce, and M waste powders. The maximum compressive strengths (90 days at 25 ◦ C) of
the alkali-activated hybrid cements 90%Co–10%OPC− AA0.4, 90%Ce–10%OPC− AA0.4 y 90%M− 10%OPC− AA0.4 are 16.9, 36.5,
and 25.2 MPa, respectively.
• The use of mixed wastes based on combinations of Co, Ce, and M creates the possibility of using CDW in scenarios where their
separation is not possible. In this sense, there is a positive synergistic effect from combining the three wastes. The cement
30Co–30Ce− 30M− 10OPC (AA0.2) reaches a compressive strength (90 days at 25 ◦ C) of 32.2 MPa, exceeding the performances
reported for the mixtures 90Co–10OPC− AA0.2 (14.6 MPa), 90Ce–10OPC− AA0.2 (28.7 MPa), and 90M− 10OPC− AA0.2 (12.3
MPa).
• The microstructural analysis performed through scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS)
shows that the chemical composition (SiO2–Al2O3–CaO) of the hybrid cements (10% OPC) based on the alkali-activated of Co, Ce,
and M waste powders are grouped in regions representative of calcium-rich gels (C-A-S-H) and intermediate composition gels (C-
(N)-A-S-H), a product of the interaction over time of N-A-S-H and C–S–H primary gels, which agrees with the mechanical per­
formances obtained in this research.
• Finally, the possibility of reusing the powder by-products of the crushed CDW as geopolymeric precursors is considered a sus­
tainable alternative to ensure the full use of Co, Ce, and M wastes since these powders have characteristics (fineness and high

13
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

absorption) that, according to technical standards, do not allow their use as part of recycled aggregates in mortar and/or concrete
mixtures.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Rafael Robayo-Salazar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Validation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing –
original draft, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. William Valencia-Saavedra: Conceptualization, Investigation. Ruby Mejía
de Gutiérrez: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements
The authors, members of the Composite Materials Group (GMC) and CENM, thank the Universidad del Valle (Cali, Colombia) for
the support received under contract SICOP CI 21104. R. Robayo-Salazar thanks the Postdoctoral Fellowships Program in Colombia call
No. 848 of 2019 of the Department of Science, Technology and Innovation (COLCIENCIAS). The authors thanks Maecol SAS for its
support in the activities of collection and crushing of wastes.

References
[1] United Nations (UN), Agenda for sustainable development of the united nations general assembly. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/, 2015.
(Accessed 12 September 2020), 2030.
[2] A. Akhtar, A.K. Sarmah, Construction and demolition waste generation and properties of recycled aggregate concrete: a global perspective, J. Clean. Prod. 186
(Jun. 2018) 262–281, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2018.03.085.
[3] European Commission, Construction and demolition waste (CDW). http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/construction_demolition.htm, 2016. (Accessed 13
March 2018).
[4] H. Wu, J. Zuo, G. Zillante, J. Wang, H. Yuan, Status quo and future directions of construction and demolition waste research: a critical review, J. Clean. Prod.
240 (2019) 118163, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118163.
[5] G.S. Dos Reis, M. Quattrone, W.M. Ambrós, B. Grigore Cazacliu, C. Hoffmann Sampaio, Current applications of recycled aggregates from construction and
demolition: a review, Mater. (Basel, Switzerland) 14 (7) (Mar. 2021), https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14071700.
[6] N.D. Oikonomou, Recycled concrete aggregates, Cement Concr. Compos. 27 (2) (2005) 315–318, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.020.
[7] V.W.Y. Tam, M. Soomro, A.C.J. Evangelista, A review of recycled aggregate in concrete applications (2000–2017), Construct. Build. Mater. 172 (May 2018)
272–292, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2018.03.240.
[8] F. Özalp, H.D. Yılmaz, M. Kara, Ö. Kaya, A. Şahin, Effects of recycled aggregates from construction and demolition wastes on mechanical and permeability
properties of paving stone, kerb and concrete pipes, Construct. Build. Mater. 110 (2016) 17–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.01.030.
[9] C.S. Vieira, P.M. Pereira, Use of recycled construction and demolition materials in geotechnical applications: a review, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 103 (Oct. 2015)
192–204, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RESCONREC.2015.07.023.
[10] M.A. Rahman, M. Imteaz, A. Arulrajah, M.M. Disfani, Suitability of recycled construction and demolition aggregates as alternative pipe backfilling materials,
J. Clean. Prod. 66 (2014) 75–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.005.
[11] S. Pourkhorshidi, C. Sangiorgi, D. Torreggiani, P. Tassinari, Using recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste in unbound layers of pavements,
Sustainability 12 (22) (2020), https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229386.
[12] S. Dadsetan, H. Siad, M. Lachemi, M. Sahmaran, Construction and demolition waste in geopolymer concrete technology: a review, Mag. Concr. Res. 71 (23)
(2019) 1232–1252, https://doi.org/10.1680/jmacr.18.00307.
[13] Ou Sui, Liu, Y. Zhang, Tian, Study on properties of waste concrete powder by thermal treatment and application in mortar, Appl. Sci. 10 (3) (Feb. 2020) 998,
https://doi.org/10.3390/app10030998.
[14] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASTM C33-18, Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates, 2018.
[15] L. Caneda-Martínez, M. Monasterio, J. Moreno-Juez, S. Martínez-Ramírez, R. García, M. Frías, Behaviour and properties of eco-cement pastes elaborated with
recycled concrete powder from construction and demolition wastes, Materials 14 (5) (2021) 1299, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051299.
[16] Y.J. Kim, Y.W. Choi, Utilization of waste concrete powder as a substitution material for cement, Construct. Build. Mater. 30 (2012) 500–504, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.11.042.
[17] A.S. El-Dieb, M.R. Taha, S.I. Abu-Eishah, The use of ceramic waste powder (CWP) in making eco-friendly concretes, in: D.E. Quesada, L.P. Villarejo, P. Sánchez
Soto (Eds.), Ceramic Materials-Synthesis, Characterization, Applications And Recycling, IntechOpen, 2019.
[18] R.A. Robayo-salazar, W. Valencia-saavedra, R. Mejía de Gutiérrez, Construction and demolition waste ( CDW ) recycling — as both binder and aggregates — in
alkali-activated materials : a novel Re-use concept, Sustainability 12 (2020) 5775, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145775.
[19] K. Komnitsas, D. Zaharaki, A. Vlachou, G. Bartzas, M. Galetakis, Effect of synthesis parameters on the quality of construction and demolition wastes (CDW)
geopolymers, Adv. Powder Technol. 26 (2) (Mar. 2015) 368–376, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APT.2014.11.012.
[20] D. Zaharaki, M. Galetakis, K. Komnitsas, Valorization of construction and demolition (C&D) and industrial wastes through alkali activation, Construct. Build.
Mater. 121 (Sep. 2016) 686–693, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2016.06.051.
[21] E. Sassoni, P. Pahlavan, E. Franzoni, M.C. Bignozzi, Valorization of brick waste by alkali-activation: a study on the possible use for masonry repointing, Ceram.
Int. 42 (13) (Oct. 2016) 14685–14694, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CERAMINT.2016.06.093.
[22] L.M. Murillo, S. Delvasto, M. Gordillo, A study of a hybrid binder based on alkali-activated ceramic tile wastes and portland cement, in: Sustainable and
Nonconventional Construction Materials Using Inorganic Bonded Fiber Composites, Woodhead Publishing, 2017, pp. 291–311.
[23] L. Reig, M.A. Sanz, M.V. Borrachero, J. Monzó, L. Soriano, J. Payá, Compressive strength and microstructure of alkali-activated mortars with high ceramic waste
content, Ceram. Int. 43 (16) (Nov. 2017) 13622–13634, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CERAMINT.2017.07.072.
[24] C.-L. Hwang, M. Damtie Yehualaw, D.-H. Vo, T.-P. Huynh, Development of high-strength alkali-activated pastes containing high volumes of waste brick and
ceramic powders, Construct. Build. Mater. 218 (Sep. 2019) 519–529, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2019.05.143.
[25] M.A. Villaquirán-Caicedo, R. Mejía de Gutiérrez, Comparison of different activators for alkaline activation of construction and demolition wastes, Construct.
Build. Mater. 281 (2021) 122599, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122599.
[26] C. Lampris, R. Lupo, C.R. Cheeseman, Geopolymerisation of silt generated from construction and demolition waste washing plants, Waste Manag. 29 (1) (Jan.
2009) 368–373, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WASMAN.2008.04.007.
[27] A. Vásquez, V. Cárdenas, R.A. Robayo, R.M. de Gutiérrez, Geopolymer based on concrete demolition waste, Adv. Powder Technol. 27 (4) (Jul. 2016)
1173–1179, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APT.2016.03.029.

14
R. Robayo-Salazar et al. Journal of Building Engineering 46 (2022) 103698

[28] L. Reig, M.M. Tashima, M.V. Borrachero, J. Monzó, C.R. Cheeseman, J. Payá, Properties and microstructure of alkali-activated red clay brick waste, Construct.
Build. Mater. 43 (Jun. 2013) 98–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2013.01.031.
[29] R.A. Robayo, A. Mulford, J. Munera, R. Mejía de Gutiérrez, Alternative cements based on alkali-activated red clay brick waste, Construct. Build. Mater. 128
(Dec. 2016) 163–169, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2016.10.023.
[30] J. Fořt, et al., Application of waste brick powder in alkali activated aluminosilicates: functional and environmental aspects, J. Clean. Prod. 194 (Sep. 2018)
714–725, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2018.05.181.
[31] M. Tuyan, Ö. Andiç-Çakir, and K. Ramyar, “Effect of alkali activator concentration and curing condition on strength and microstructure of waste clay brick
powder-based geopolymer,” Compos. B Eng., vol. 135, pp. 242–252, Feb. 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.COMPOSITESB.2017.10.013.
[32] L. Reig, L. Soriano, M.V. Borrachero, J.M. Monzó, J. Payá, Potential Use of Ceramic Sanitary Ware Waste as Pozzolanic Material, Boletín la Soc. Española
Cerámica y Vidr., 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsecv.2021.05.006.
[33] Y.F. Silva Urrego, S.R. Izquierdo, S. Delvasto, Efecto del residuo de mampostería en la hidratación de pastas de cemento Portland, DYNA 86 (209) (Apr. 2019)
367–377, https://doi.org/10.15446/dyna.v86n209.77286. SE-.
[34] I. Garcia-Lodeiro, O. Maltseva, A. Palomo, A. Fernandez-Jimenez, Hybrid alkaline cements. Part I: fundamentals, Rev. Rom. Mater. J. Mater. 42 (4) (2012)
330–335.
[35] A. Allahverdi, E.N. Kani, Use of construction and demolition waste (CDW) for alkali-activated or geopolymer cements, in: Handbook of Recycled Concrete and
Demolition Waste, Woodhead Publishing, 2013, pp. 439–475.
[36] Instituto Colombiano de Normas Técnicas y Certificación (ICONTEC), NTC 121, Cemento Portland. Especificaciones Físicas Y Mecánicas (‘Performance
Specification for Hydraulic Cement’), 2014.
[37] I. Garcia-Lodeiro, A. Palomo, A. Fernández-Jiménez, D.E. MacPhee, Compatibility studies between N-A-S-H and C-A-S-H gels. Study in the ternary diagram
Na2O-CaO-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O, Cement Concr. Res. 41 (9) (2011) 923–931, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.05.006.
[38] I. García Lodeiro, D.E. Macphee, A. Palomo, A. Fernández-Jiménez, Effect of alkalis on fresh C-S-H gels. FTIR analysis, Cement Concr. Res. 39 (3) (2009)
147–153, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.01.003.
[39] I. García-Lodeiro, A. Fernández-Jiménez, A. Palomo, Variation in hybrid cements over time. Alkaline activation of fly ash-portland cement blends, Cement
Concr. Res. 52 (2013) 112–122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.03.022.
[40] M.J. Sánchez-Herrero, A. Fernández-Jiménez, Á. Palomo, L. Klein, Alkaline hydration of C2S and C3S, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 99 (2) (2016) 604–611, https://doi.
org/10.1111/jace.13985.

15