Factors that helped Magadha Abul Fazl:Author of the Akbar Nama.
the Akbar Nama.Multilingual, Al-Beruni tried to explain the caste system by
 Agriculture was productive 
Iron mines were accessible and
provided resources for tools and
weapons  Elephants for the army
was available  Ganga and its
tributaries provided a means of
cheap and convenient
communication  Ambitious kings
like Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and
Mahapadma nanda  Capital
Rajagriha was well fortified and
located amongst hills  Pataliputra
commanded routes of
communication along the Ganga
In the first century CE, Buddhism
underwent significant changes.
The idea of Buddha as a saviour
who could ensure salvation
emerged, along with the concept
of Bodhisattas, compassionate
beings that could help others
attain nibbana. Worship of Buddha
and Bodhisattas’ images became a
key part of this tradition. This new
approach was termed Mahayana,
the “greater vehicle”, while the
older tradition was referred to as
Hinayana, the “lesser vehicle”.
The Subsidiary Alliance imposed on
Awadh in 1801 led to the Nawab’s
dependency on the British, as he had
to disband his military and allow
British troops within the kingdom.
The British, attracted by Awadh’s
fertile soil for indigo and cotton
cultivation and its strategic location
for trade, annexed it, completing a
territorial acquisition that began
with Bengal a century earlier. This
annexation, justified by alleged
maladministration, overlooked the
popularity of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah,
who was widely loved.
At the annual congress, held in
Lucknow in December 1916, Mahatma
Gandhi was approached by a peasant
form Champaran and he told
Mahatma Gandhi about the harsh he
peasants received by the British. In
1917, Mahatma Gandhi organized a
Satyagraha in Champaran (Bihar)
seeking the securityof tenure as well
as the freedom to grow crops as per
their wish. Gandhiji was involved in
two campaigns in his home state of
Gujarat. Firstly, he participated in the
Ahmadabad textile mill strike of
February-March 1918, demanding
better working conditions for the
textile mill workers. Secondly, he
joined the peasants in Kheda
Satyagraha who demanded remission
of taxes from the state following the
failure of their harvest. It was in Kheda
that Mahatma Gandhi initiate the first
Satyagraha revolution.
Salt Satyagraha
Lahore session,Jawaharlal nehru,civil
disobedience movement
The meeting was significant for two
reasons: the election of Jawaharlal Nehru
as president, signifying the passing of the
leadership of congress to younger
generation, and the proclamation of
commitment to “poorna swaraj” or
complete independence. On 26 January
1930,”Independence Day” was observed,
with the national flag being hoisted at
different venues.
 Firstly, this event brought Mahatma
Gandhi to world attention. The March
was widely covered by the European and
American press.  Secondly, it was the
first nationalist activity in which women
participated in large numbers. The
socialist activists Kamaladevi
Cahttopadhyay had persuaded Gandhi
not to restrict the protests to men alone.
She herself courted arrest by breaking
salt and liquor laws.  Thirdly, it made the
British realize that their rule was not to
last forever, and they would have to
share some power with the Indians.
Manjeri Conference 1920 / All keral
acongress meeting 1921 / Vaikom
Satyagraha 1924-25 / Guruvayoor
Satyagraha 1931-32 / Pattini Jatha
Gopalan 1936 / Travankore University
1937 / Kayyoor Revolt 1941 / Quit India
Kizha 1942 / punnapra Revolt 1946
/PALIYAM Satyagraha 1947 /
travankoore kochi 1949 / Formation of
Kerala State 1956
Sangam Society :The people during this period
well-versed in Arabic, Persian, Greek philosophy,
and Sufism.Known for being a forceful debater and
an independent thinker.Opposed conservative
ulama, impressing Emperor Akbar.
Role in Akbar's Court:Chosen by Akbar as an
adviser and spokesperson due to his
qualities.Helped shape and articulate the ideas
associated with Akbar's reign.Murdered by Bir
Singh Bundela, an accomplice of Prince Salim
(Jahangir).
Akbar Nama:Important illustrated official
history.Contains around 150 full or double-page
paintings depicting various events.Abul Fazl
worked on it for thirteen years, revising the draft
multiple times.Based on diverse sources including
actual records, official documents, and oral
testimonies.Divided into three books, with the
third being Ain-i-Akbari.Provides detailed
information about political events during Akbar's
reign.
Ain-i-Akbari:Presents the Mughal Empire as
diverse, with Hindus, Jainas, Buddhists, and
Muslims.Highlights a composite culture within the
empire. Writing
Style:Abul Fazl wrote in an ornate language,
emphasizing diction and rhythm, suitable for oral
reading.His Indo-Persian style was influential at
court, inspiring other writers to emulate him.
Badshah Nama:
Author: Abdul Hamid Lahori, a pupil of Abul Fazl,
wrote the Badshah Nama.Commissioned Work:
Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned Lahori to write
a history of his reign, modeled after the Akbar
Nama. Structure: The Badshah Nama consists of
three volumes (daftars), each covering ten lunar
years.Content: Lahori’s volumes cover the first two
decades of Shah Jahan’s rule (1627-
1647).Revisions: Sadullah Khan, Shah Jahan’s
wazir, later revised these volumes.Third Decade:
The historian Waris chronicled the third
decade.Interest in Indian History:British
administrators sought to understand the
subcontinent and its people to govern
effectively.The Asiatic Society of Bengal:
Founded by Sir William Jones, it published and
edited versions of the Akbar Nama and Badshah
Nama in the 19th century.English Translation:
Unlike the Akbar Nama, the Badshah Nama
remains untranslated in English to this day.
Factors leading to the Non-cooperation
Movement  The First World War (1914-18) and
laws introduced by the British  Censorship of the
Press  Introduction of Rowlatt Act (1919) which
permitted detention without trial  Campaign
against Rowlatt Act  Gandhiji detained while
proceeding to Punjab  Prominent local
congressmen arrested  Jalliawala Bagh massacre
 Students stopped going to schools and colleges
run by the British government.  Lawyers refused
to attend the court.  The working class went on
strike in many towns and cities.  Hill tribes in
Northern Andhra violated the forest laws. 
Farmers in Awadh refused to pay taxes.
The Quit India Movement, launched by
Mahatma Gandhi in August 1942 after the
failure of the Cripps Mission, was a significant
anti-British movement. Key leaders were jailed,
leaving younger leaders to organize strikes and
sabotage. Notably, socialist Jayaprakash Narayan
was active in the resistance. Independent
governments were set up in districts like Satara
and Midnapur. The movement mobilized
masses, particularly energizing the youth. In
1943, young leaders in Satara established a
parallel government, organizing constructive
work.
 Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap. The
structure of stupa originated as a simple circular
mound of earth called anda. Gradually, it
developed into a more complex structure. 
Above the anda was the harmika,a balcony like
structure that represented the abode of the
gods. Arising from the harmika was the mast
called the yashti surrounded by a chhatri or an
umbrella.  Around the mound was a railing,
separating the sacred space from the secular
world.
Vascoda Gama-1498/The Portuguese
established printing- 1577 / Dutch reaches
Calicut – 1604 / Attingal Revolt – 1721 /
Marthanda Varma Travancore – 1729 / Battel
of Colechal – 1741 / first printed book – 1772 /
Sreerangapattanam – 1792 / Pazhassi Revolt –
1793 / Subsidary Travancore – 1805 / Kundara
Proclamation – 1809 /Kurichya Revolt – 1812 /
compalsary education – 1817 / English School
Rev – 1841 / Rajyasamacharam – 1847 /
Channar Jacket – 1859 / Brennen thalassery –
1862 / Victoria school – 1866 / Maharajas
collage – 1875 / Malayali Memmorial – 1891 /
Amaravathi Session - 1897
comparing it with other societies. He said
that in ancient Persia, there were four social
categories: Knights and princes, monks, fire-
priests and lawyers, physicians, astronomers
and other scientists. He tried to understand
that social divisions were not unique to india.
He described about the four varnas such as
Brhamana, Kshatriya,Vaishya and Shudra. He
said that everything which falls into a state of
impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its
original condition of purity. Al-Beruni’s
description of the caste system was deeply
influenced by his familiarity with normative
Sanskrit texts which laid down the rules
governing the system from the point of view
of the Brahmanas.
Ibn Battuta was an African traveller who came
from Morocco. He was born in Tangier. He
learnt literature and other scholarly works at
his young age. He considered that knowledge
gained through travels is more important
source than books. He loved travelling, and
went far off places, exploring new worlds and
peoples. Before his visit to India ,he had
made pilgrimage to Mecca and travelled
extensively in Syria,Iraq,Persia,Yemen,Oman
and a few trading ports on the coast of East
Africa.
He set off his travel to India in 1332-33 and
reached Sind in 1333. He was able to get the
reputation of the sultan of Delhi; Muhammed
bin Tughlaq. The sultan was impressed by the
scholarship of Ibn Battuta and appointed him
as the qazi or judge of Delhi. He remained
judge for many years. The sultan appointed
him as his ambassador to China. During his
journey to China, he also visited Malabar
Coast, Maldives, Bengal, Assam and Sumatra.
Ibn Battuta’s book of travels called Rihla was
written in Arabic provides the social and
cultural life in the subcontinent in the 14th
century. He carefully recorded his
observations about new cultures, peoples,
beliefs, values etc.
The coconut and plan_-The best example of
Ibn Battuta’s strategies of representation are
clear in the ways in which he described the
coconut and the paan ,two kinds of plant
produce that were completely unfamiliar to
his audience.
Battutha &Indian Cities_ = Ibn Battuta found
cities in the subcontinent full of exciting
opportunities for those who are able and
have resources and skills. The cities were
densely populated and prosperous. Cities
were disrupted during wars invasions. His
account said that streets in many cities were
crowded and bright and colourful markets
were with full of many varieties of goods. He
described Delhi as a vast city, with a great
population, the largest in India. Bazaars were
not only places of economic transaction but
also the hub of social and cultural activities.
Many bazaars had mosque and temple with
spaces for public performances by dancers
and singers. Ibn Battuta noted that the cities
obtained its wealth from villages. This was
because of the agricultural production with
two crops a year. He says that there was a
great demand for Indian textiles like cotton
cloth, fine muslins, silks, brocade and satin.
He further says that certain varieties of fine
muslin were so expensive that could be worn
only by the nobles and the very rich.
Communications = Almost all trade routes
were well supplied with inns and guest
houses. Ibn Battuta was amazed by the
efficiency of the postal system. The Postal
system was of two kinds. One was called
uluq(horse post) and the other was dawa(foot
post). This system enabled merchants to send
information, remit credit across long
distances and to dispatch goods required at
short notice.
Director general of archaeological survey in India at Harappa discovery: John
practiced multiple subsistence form such as
Marshall
hunting, food gathering, cattle rearing, plunder,
Great bath in mohenjodaro
slash and burn cultivation, wetland cultivation,
Traces of canals in harappa founded from Shortughai Decline
pottery making, metal smelting, fishing, salt
of Harappa: climate change,deforestation, excessive flood, Aryan invansion by Aryan
making. The Sangam society was divided on the
invanders Contact with foreign
basis of eco zones (Tinai) and occupation. The
culture of Harappan civilization: contact with Oman Mesopotamia Bahrain and
Sangam period witnessed the emergence of
Persia.Copper mainly from Oman .Oman copper and Harappan artefacts have traces
specialized craft groups. Sangam works mentioned
of nickel .Large Harappan jar coated with black clay from Oman cities.Contact with
different occupational groups. Kuti was the kin
Dilmun,Magan and meluha in Mesopotamia text
based occupational group. They were called as
Kutimakkal. Ur was the basic kin based settlement
unit. It consisted of a number of kutis. Nadu was Features of Harappan seals --Major source of information,Greatest artistic creation
the wider resourceful settlement area. The of Harappan and made of soft stone called steatite,Used to mark the ownership of
megaliths and burial goods indicate that people property,Used to facilitate long distance trade
believed in life after death. They had separate
space for the disposal of dead near their Urbanization in Mohenjodaro:
settlement area. Manimekhalai refers to different
forms of burial practices such as body cremation, Indus Valley Civilization
exposure, pit burial etc.
Mohenjodaro a planned urban centre- Major city of Harappan civilization ,Most of
Exchange : There were three kinds of exchanges: the information from town planning and seal from Mohenjo Daro,mohen.Means
local, long distance and overseas. Local trade Mound of the death
Thechief tains redistributed the paddy among town planning- settlement divided into two session-citadel and lower town Citadel-
various tribal groups. The goods of each Tinai were platform build in western side, buildings on it were constructed on mud brick
exchanged with those of other regions. The local platform,Has wall and physically separated from lower town Lower
exchange centres were known as Cantai, Angadi town- situated in Eastern side, also has wall, residential area, consisted of several
etc. brick house Drainage system- well
planned drainage system, pay attention to health and the cleanliness, each house
Tinai : The anthologies of ancient Tamil poetry connected with it, the most complete ancient system as yet discovered
popularly referred to as Sangam literature
mentions five Tinais or eco zones. According to it, Granary- large building in Mohenjodaro, lower portion build with bricks and upper
Tamizhakam was divided into five zones portion with wood,to store surplus Food grain
Great bath-rectangular tank in the Courtyard surrounded by corridor, 2 flight steps
from North and South, floor was made water tight with bricks and mortar of
Communalism Communalism refers to a politics gypsum, rooms on the three sides, arrangement to fill and empty the tank domestic
that seeks to unify one community around a architecture- houses in lower town arranged according to grid system, houses build
religious identity in hostile opposition to another on the both side of the road, all houses had a Courtyard and rooms, has bathroom
community. It seeks to define this community build with bricks and connected to drains, some have staircase, difference in size,
identity as fundamental and fixed.
Wells:700 in Mohenjodaro
 The year 1935 saw the coming of the
Government of India Act of 1935, which
promised some form of representative
government.  In 1937, for the first time,
elections were held on restricted franchise
and congress party held a majority in the
legislature. It won the election in 8 out of 11
provinces.  In 1939, World War II broke out
and the Indian leaders agreed to support
the British as long as they promised to grant
Indian Independence after the war. The
offer was refused and in October 1939,
congress ministries resigned.  In protest a
series of Satyagraha were organized by the
congress to pressurize the British to promise
the freedom once t he war ended.  In
March 1940, Muslim League passed a
resolution demanding and planning to
create a separate nation for Muslims.  In
1942, worried on the continuous spread of
nationalist movement prime minister of
England Winston Churchill sent Sir Stafford
Cripps to India to try to reach to a
compromise with Gandhi and the congress.
The Cripps Mission failed as no agreement
to grant Independence to India could be
made.  In August 1942, Quit India
Movement was launched and all the major
leaders were arrested.