Journal of Sports Sciences

ISSN: 0264-0414 (Print) 1466-447X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20

Change-of-direction, speed and jump performance

in soccer players: a comparison across different
age-categories

Irineu Loturco, Ian Jeffreys, César C. Cal Abad, Ronaldo Kobal, Vinicius
Zanetti, Lucas A. Pereira & Sophia Nimphius

To cite this article: Irineu Loturco, Ian Jeffreys, César C. Cal Abad, Ronaldo Kobal, Vinicius
Zanetti, Lucas A. Pereira & Sophia Nimphius (2019): Change-of-direction, speed and jump
performance in soccer players: a comparison across different age-categories, Journal of Sports
Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1574276

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1574276

Published online: 06 Feb 2019.

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JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES
https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1574276

Change-of-direction, speed and jump performance in soccer players: a comparison

across different age-categories
Irineu Loturco a,b,c, Ian Jeffreysb, César C. Cal Abada, Ronaldo Kobala, Vinicius Zanettid, Lucas A. Pereiraa
and Sophia Nimphiuse
a
NAR - Nucleus of High Performance in Sport, São Paulo, Brazil; bDepartment of Sport and Exercise, University of South Wales, Pontypridd, Wales,
UK; cDepartment of Human Movement Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; dRed Bull Brazil Football, Jarinu, Brazil; eCentre
for Exercise and Sports Science, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study examined the age-specific development of vertical jump height, straight and change- Accepted 16 January 2019
of-direction (COD) speed, and COD deficit in one-hundred and eighty-two elite soccer players from
KEYWORDS
different age-categories (U15, U17, U20, and Senior). All participants were players of two distinct clubs Agility; football; muscle
and were undertaking different training routines, as planned by their technical staff members. For this power; youth athletes;
purpose, the soccer players performed: (1) squat and countermovement jumps; (2) a maximal 20-m straight speed
linear sprint speed test, and (3) the Zigzag COD test. The magnitude-based inference approach and
standardized differences were used to compare the age-groups. Sprint speed at longer distances (20-m)
increased progressively across the age-ranges. In contrast, speed and acceleration performances at
shorter distances (5-m) were better in U15 than in the other age-categories. The COD speed did not
change throughout the younger categories but presented a meaningful decrease in the Senior cate-
gory. Surprisingly, despite the progressive increase in volume and intensity of neuromuscular training
from younger to older categories, the COD deficit presented a gradual increase across the age-groups. It
is possible that simple modulation of the strength-power training program during the maturation
process is not sufficient to produce faster adult players with enhanced ability to change direction.
Therefore, coaches are strongly encouraged to implement specific COD training practices to tolerate
braking at increasing running speeds and appropriate volume and intensity of soccer specific training
throughout the players’ specialization process.

Introduction soccer, the performance obtained in a “30-m with 10 cones

agility test” was shown to be one of the best discriminant
The evolution of technical and tactical performance in soccer
variables between young players selected or not selected to
has been accompanied by a progressive increase in game
play in “superior teams” (Gil, Gil, Ruiz, Irazusta, & Irazusta,
speed (Barnes, Archer, Hogg, Bush, & Bradley, 2014; Bush,
2007). Moreover, it has been speculated that an enhanced ability
Barnes, Archer, Hogg, & Bradley, 2015). This phenomenon
to change direction, coupled with rapid changes in velocity (i.e.
was observed in a series of recent studies which examined
acceleration-deceleration) could be more important to take part
the physical demands of the most important soccer tourna-
in top-level soccer leagues (i.e. English Premier League) than the
ments around the world (Barnes et al., 2014; Bradley, Dellal,
capacity to cover greater distances during a match (Di Salvo,
Mohr, Castellano, & Wilkie, 2014; Bush et al., 2015; Dellal et al.,
Pigozzi, Gonzalez-Haro, Laughlin, & De Witt, 2013). Together,
2011). For example, Barnes et al. (2014) reported that across
these arguments highlight the critical importance of COD ability
seven consecutive seasons in the English Premier League
in professional soccer; however, it is not clear whether this very-
(from 2006 to 2013), the sprint distance and number of sprints
specific fitness attribute improves throughout the long-term
increased by ~35%, whereas the number of high-intensity
athlete development process, such as, for example, during the
actions increased by ~50%. Importantly, the vast majority of
transition from the end of adolescence to the mature phase of
these fast actions (~90%) occur in very short periods of time
soccer players (Loturco et al., 2014).
(i.e. ≤5 seconds), involving successive accelerations-
In this context, some previous works have examined the pro-
decelerations, anticipation, decision making, and quick
gressive evolution of speed-related capabilities in athletes from
changes of running directions (Andrzejewski, Chmura, Pluta,
distinct age-groups, showing unexpected results (Kobal et al.,
Strzelczyk, & Kasprzak, 2013).
2016; Loturco et al., 2018a). Kobal et al. (2016) reported no differ-
Indeed, change of direction (COD) speed has been consid-
ences in sprint performance between under-17 (U17), under-20
ered one of the most important physical qualities for predicting
(U20), and professional soccer players over a 20-m distance.
success in a wide variety of field sports (Faude, Koch, & Meyer,
Similarly, in a comprehensive study involving one-hundred twenty
2012; Hachana et al., 2013; Pereira et al., 2018). Specifically, in

CONTACT Irineu Loturco irineu.loturco@terra.com.br NAR - Nucleus of High Performance in Sport. Av. Padre José Maria, 555 - Santo Amaro, São Paulo, SP
04753-060, Brazil
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 I. LOTURCO ET AL.
players from four different soccer categories (under-15 [U15], U17,
U20, and Senior), Loturco et al. (2018a) observed that the straight
speed did not improve gradually throughout the athletes’ specia-
lization process and, surprisingly, the younger players (i.e. U15)
were faster than all the other groups in very short distances (i.e.
5-m). In view of these results, it would be interesting to investigate
the changes in COD performance across a more diverse age-
range, especially with athletes from the same clubs, and therefore
submitted to the same training processes.
A potentially practical way to examine the COD ability of
elite athletes in depth is by using a novel approach able to
provide a more isolated measure of this complex physical
attribute (i.e. “COD deficit”) (Nimphius, Callaghan, Spiteri, &
Lockie, 2016). The COD deficit represents the additional time
that one directional change requires when compared with
a linear sprint over an equivalent distance (e.g. 10-m time
versus 505-agility test time) (Nimphius et al., 2016) or differ-
ences in velocity between linear sprints and COD measure-
ments of similar distances (Pereira et al., 2018). A recent study
performed with young soccer players (U20) revealed that
higher performances in speed tests are not necessarily related
to better performances in specific COD maneuvers (Loturco
et al., 2018b). As a consequence, it is not possible to precisely
determine what happens to COD speed and COD deficit
throughout the different stages of development.
The purpose of this study was to examine the evolution of
vertical jump height, linear speed, COD speed, and COD deficit
in soccer players from the typical development age-categories
(i.e. U15, U17, U20, and Senior) within the same soccer clubs.
Due to our previous experience with these populations, we
hypothesized that the older athletes would not necessarily be
faster than their younger counterparts in the speed-related tests.
Methods
Study design
The current work is a cross-sectional comparative study aimed at
comparing vertical jump performance, sprinting and accelera-
tion capacities, and COD ability (and its respective deficit)
between four different age-categories of soccer players (U15,
U17, U20, and Senior athletes), from two top-level Brazilian
soccer clubs. Due to the professional training and assessment
routines in these clubs, all soccer players were already familiar
with the testing procedures. The order of the assessments was
as follows: (1) squat and countermovement jump tests (SJ and
CMJ, respectively); (2) linear sprint speed test; and (3) COD ability
Table 1. Typical weekly training content for the different age-categories.
Category Monday Tuesday
U15 Tec/Tac 60–90’ Tec/Tac 40–60ʹ
S/PT 30–45’
U17 Tec/Tac 60–90’ Tec/Tac 70-110ʹ
S/PT 30–50’
U20 Tec/Tac 80–100ʹ Tec/Tac 90–120’
S/PT 40–60’
Senior Tec/Tac 90-110ʹ Tec/Tac 90–120’
S/PT 45–60’
Note: Tec/Tac: technical and tactical training; S/PT: strength and power training; FM: friendly match.
assessment. Prior to the tests, the athletes performed standar-
dized warm-up protocols including general (i.e., running at
a moderate pace for 10-min followed by active lower limb
stretching for 3-min) and specific workouts (i.e. submaximal
attempts at each tested exercise). All tests were performed on
the first day of the preseason, for all age-categories. The physical
tests were all performed between 9:00 a.m. and 13:00 p.m.
Participants
One-hundred and eighty-two male soccer players from
four different age-categories (U15: n = 38; 14.5 ± 0.3 years; 61.8 ±
7.3 kg; 172.6 ± 6.3 cm; U17: n = 53; 16.3 ± 0.2 years; 64.8 ± 7.3 kg;
176.3 ± 8.3 cm; U20: n = 42; 19.1 ± 0.4 years; 73.4 ± 9.3 kg; 178.2 ±
9.6 cm; Senior: n = 49; 25.2 ± 4.3 years; 76.4 ± 6.5 kg; 178.8 ± 7.2 cm)
participated in this study. All participants were members of two
soccer clubs and were undertaking different and standardized
training routines, planned by their technical staff members for
each specific age-category, (as detailed in Table 1). Briefly, techni-
cal-tactical training involved specific soccer actions (e.g. free-kicks,
corner-kicks, heading and dribbling drills) and small-sided games.
For U15 and U17 players, the neuromuscular training comprised
unloaded plyometrics (e.g. countermovement jumps) and half-
squats with very-light loads (≤40% of body mass); for U20 and
Senior players the strength-power training comprised drop jumps,
half-squats, and loaded jump squats with light to moderate loads
(from 40 to 70% of body mass). The study was approved by the
local Ethics Committee and all subjects and their legal guardians
(when necessary) were informed of the inherent risks and benefits
associated with study participation, before signing informed con-
sent forms.
Vertical jumping ability
Vertical jumping ability was assessed using the SJ and CMJ. In
the SJ, a static position with a 90° knee flexion angle was
maintained for 2-s before a jump attempt without any pre-
paratory movement. In the CMJ, the soccer players were
instructed to perform a downward movement followed by
complete extension of the lower limbs and the amplitude of
the countermovement was freely determined to avoid
changes in the jumping coordination pattern. All jumps were
executed with the hands on the hips. Five attempts at each
jump were performed interspersed by 15-s intervals. Jump
height of the CMJ and SJ were determined based on flight
time using a previously validated contact mat (Elite Jump®, S2
Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Tec/Tac 50–70’ Tec/Tac 40–60ʹ Tec/Tac 40–60’ FM 80’
S/PT 30–45’
Tec/Tac 50–80’ Tec/Tac 60ʹ Tec/Tac 40–60’ FM 80’
S/PT 30–50’
Tec/Tac 60-70ʹ Tec/Tac 80–90’ Tec/Tac 60-90ʹ FM 90’
S/PT 40-60’ S/PT 40-60’
Tec/Tac 60-80ʹ Tec/Tac 80-100’ Tec/Tac 80-100ʹ FM 90’
S/PT 45–60’ S/PT 45–60’

Sports, São Paulo, Brazil) (Loturco et al., 2017b). The best
attempt was used for data analysis purposes.
Sprinting and acceleration abilities
Prior to the execution of the speed tests, four pairs of photo-
cells (Smart Speed, Fusion Equipment, AUS) were positioned
at distances of 0, 5-, 10-, and 20-m along the course. The
soccer players sprinted twice, starting from a standing position
0.3-m behind the start line. To avoid weather influences, the
sprint tests were performed on an indoor running track. Sprint
velocity (VEL) was calculated as the distance traveled over
a measured time interval. The acceleration (ACC) capacity in
the different distances (i.e. 0–5-, 5–10-, and 10–20-m) was
calculated as the rate of change of velocity with respect to
time. A 5-min rest interval was allowed between the two
attempts and the fastest time was retained for the analyses.
Change of direction ability and deficit
The COD test was performed on an indoor court and consisted
of four 5-m sections (a total of 20-m of linear sprint) marked
with cones set at 100° angles (Figure 1), requiring the athletes
to decelerate and accelerate as fast as possible around each
cone. Two maximal attempts were performed with a 5-min
rest interval between attempts. Starting from a standing posi-
tion with the front foot placed 0.3-m behind the first pair of
timing gates (Smart Speed, Fusion Equipment, Brisbane,
Australia) (i.e. starting line), the players were instructed to
complete the test as quickly as possible, until crossing
Figure 1. Schematic presentation of the change of direction speed test. The
circles represent the positions of the photocells.
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 3
the second pair of timing gates, placed 20-m from the starting
line (Little & Williams, 2005; Pereira et al., 2018). The fastest
time from the two attempts was retained for further analysis.
To evaluate the efficacy of each athlete’s ability to utilize their
linear speed during a specific COD task, an adapted COD
deficit calculation was used, as described elsewhere (Loturco
et al., 2018b; Nimphius et al., 2016; Pereira et al., 2018). Thus,
the COD deficit was calculated as follows: 20-m velocity – COD
test velocity.
Statistical analysis
The normality of the data for each age-category was checked
using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Due to the normal distribution,
data are described as mean and standard deviation (SD).
Magnitude-based inference (Batterham & Hopkins, 2006) was
used to compare the differences in the physical test results
among the different age-categories. The quantitative chances
of finding differences in the variables tested were assessed
qualitatively as follows: <1%, almost certainly not; 1–5%, very
unlikely; 5–25%, unlikely; 25–75%, possible; 75–95%, likely; 95–
99%, very likely; >99%, almost certain (Batterham & Hopkins,
2006). If the chances of having better and poorer results were
both >5%, the true difference was rated as unclear. The stan-
dardized differences for the comparisons in all variables were
analysed using the Cohen’s d effect size (d). The magnitude of
the effect was qualitatively interpreted using the following
thresholds: <0.2, trivial; 0.2–0.6, small; 0.6–1.2, moderate;
1.2–2.0, large; 2.0–4.0, very large; and >4.0, nearly perfect
(Hopkins, Marshall, Batterham, & Hanin, 2009).
Results
Figure 2 demonstrates the comparisons of SJ and CMJ heights
among the different age-categories. The U15 group presented
almost certainly lower jump height than the other groups in
both jump modes (d = 0.97, 1.04, and 1.16 for SJ; d = 1.19,
1.33, and 1.41 for CMJ, when compared to U17, U20, and
Senior players, respectively). Figure 3 shows the comparisons of
Figure 2. Comparisons of the squat and countermovement jump height (SJ and
CMJ, respectively) among the different age-categories of soccer players.
****: almost certainly different. Letter a corresponds to difference from U15 age-category.
The figure demonstrates the spread from minimum to maximum with the line of the box
and whisker at the mean along with individual data points to show the full spread of data.
4 I. LOTURCO ET AL.
Figure 3. Comparisons of the velocity (VEL) in 5-, 10-, and 20-m among the
different age-categories of soccer players.
*: possibly different; **: likely different; ***: very likely different. Letters a and b correspond
to differences from U15 and U17 age-categories, respectively. The figure demonstrates the
spread from minimum to maximum with the line of the box and whisker at the mean along
with individual data points to show the full spread of data.
the sprint velocity in 5-, 10-, and 20-m among the different age-
categories. The VEL 5-m was likely lower in the U17 when
compared to the U15 group (d = 0.51). In the same distance,
the U20 athletes demonstrated a possibly lower velocity
than the U15 and U17 groups (d = 0.32 and 0.23, respectively),
while the Senior players demonstrated a likely and possibly lower
VEL 5-m than the U15 (d = 0.41) and U17 (d = 0.15) groups,
respectively. In relation to the VEL 10-m, the U20 and Senior
players demonstrated a possibly higher value than the U15 and
U17 groups (d = 0.17, 0.20, 0.25, and 0.30, for U20 vs. U15 and
U17, and Senior vs. U15 and U17, respectively). In the VEL 20-m,
the U17 group was possibly higher than the U15 players
(d = 0.28). In the same sprint distance, the U20 and Senior players
demonstrated very likely and likely higher velocities than the U15
Figure 4. Comparisons of the acceleration (ACC) in 0–5-, 5–10-, and 10–20-m among the different age-categories of soccer players.
*: possibly different; **: likely different; ***: very likely different; ****: almost certainly different. Letters a, b, and c correspond to differences from U15, U17, and U20 age-categories,
respectively. The figure demonstrates the spread from minimum to maximum with the line of the box and whisker at the mean along with individual data points to show the full spread of
data.
and U17 groups, respectively (d = 0.62, 0.41, 0.70, and 0.51, for
U20 vs. U15 and U17, and Senior vs. U15 and U17, respectively).
Figure 4 shows the comparisons of the ACC between 0–5-,
5–10-, and 10–20-m among the different age-categories. In the
ACC 0–5-m, U17, U20, and Senior players demonstrated pos-
sibly to likely lower performances than the U15 players
(d = 0.53, 0.34, and 0.44, respectively). In addition, the U17
group demonstrated possibly lower values than the U20 and
Senior groups (d = 0.23 and 0.17, respectively) in the ACC
0–5-m. In relation to the ACC 5–10-m, the U15 group demon-
strated almost certainly poorer performances than the U17,
U20, and Senior groups (d = 1.37, 1.31, and 1.58, respectively).
Meanwhile, the Senior players presented possibly and likely
higher values in the ACC 5–10-m than the U17 and U20
athletes (d = 0.32 and 0.39, respectively). Finally, for the ACC
10–20-m an almost certainly lower performance was observed
for the U15 groups in comparison to the U17, U20, and Senior
groups (d = 0.96, 1.48, and 1.64, respectively). In addition, very
likely and almost certainly higher performances were observed
for the U20 and Senior players in comparison to the U17
athletes (d = 0.65 and 0.75, respectively).
Figure 5 demonstrates the comparisons of the COD speed
and COD deficit among the different age-groups. The Senior
soccer players demonstrated a likely to very likely lower COD
speed performance than the other groups of players (d = 0.52,
0.53, and 0.46, when compared to U15, U17, and U20 groups,
respectively). For the COD deficit, the U15 group demonstrated
possibly to almost certainly lower values, when compared to
U17, U20, and Senior groups (d = 0.34, 0.81, and 1.12, respec-
tively). The U17 players showed likely and almost certainly lower
COD deficit values than the U20 (d = 0.54) and Senior (d = 0.90)
athletes, respectively. Lastly, the Senior group demonstrated
a likely greater COD deficit than the U20 players (d = 0.40).
Discussion
This is the first study to examine the evolution of COD ability,
COD deficit, and sprint performance across four different

Figure 5. Comparisons of the change of direction (COD) speed test and COD
deficit among the different age-categories of soccer players.
*: possibly different; **: likely different; ***: very likely different; ****: almost certainly
different. Letters a, b, and c correspond to differences from U15, U17, and U20 age-
categories, respectively. The figure demonstrates the spread from minimum to maximum
with the line of the box and whisker at the mean along with individual data points to show
the full spread of data.
age-categories of elite soccer players from the same soccer
clubs. The main findings reported here are that: (1) overall,
the linear speed at longer distances (i.e. 10- and 20-m)
increases progressively during the specialization process;
however, the same does not hold true for speed and accel-
eration performance at shorter distances (i.e. 5-m); (2) the
COD ability remains fairly stable throughout the younger
categories (i.e. U15, U17, and U20), but decreases substan-
tially in older players (i.e. Senior); and (3) surprisingly, the
COD deficit presents a gradual increase, as age and level of
specialization increase. These results have important and
direct implications for coaches and sport scientists involved
in the development and training of elite soccer athletes.
The chronic impairments (and possible decreases) in linear
speed and acceleration capabilities at different distances were
recently reported in another comprehensive study involving
one-hundred twenty soccer athletes from four different age-
categories (i.e. U15, U17, U20, and Senior) (Loturco et al.,
2018a). In that investigation, the authors observed that, across
the athletes’ development, the evolution of maximal accelera-
tion capacity was substantially compromised. As a result, the
U15 players presented the highest acceleration rates over
very-short distances (zero to 5-m) and the 10-m velocity
remained stable from U20 to Senior. Similarly, Mujika,
Santisteban, Impellizzeri, and Castagna (2009) verified that
sprint and CMJ performances did not differ between adult
(23.8 ± 3.4 years) and elite junior players (18.4 ± 0.9 years).
The same holds true for the current athletes, who failed to
improve their vertical jumping ability throughout the matura-
tion process, presenting meaningful increases only in relation
to the U15 category (Figure 2). Considering the strong rela-
tionships already described between jump and speed vari-
ables (Loturco et al., 2015a; Vescovi & Mcguigan, 2008), this
may (at least in part) explain the absence of progressive and
appropriate development of maximal sprint performance over
time. Although it is impossible to draw definitive conclusions
from our data, it is likely that the interference phenomenon
caused by the gradual increase in soccer-specific training con-
tent (i.e. aerobic loads) from earlier to later stages of
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 5
specialization contributes to hampering the proper develop-
ment of relative muscle power and, as a consequence, of
linear speed capacity (Docherty & Sporer, 2000; Loturco
et al., 2015b; Mercer, Gleeson, & Mitchell, 2014). It could also
be the case that there will be natural limit to the amount of
speed improvement achievable through maturation and the
development of physical capacities alone; subsequently, with-
out specific speed training interventions, speed capacity is
likely to plateau or even decline in senior players (Jeffreys,
2008, 2013; Jeffreys & Goodwin, 2016).
Accordingly, the COD speed decreased steadily across the
distinct ages, showing an important and worrisome reduction
in the Senior category. These results are similar to those reported
by Condello et al. (2013), who did not find any improvement in
COD performance between U15 to U17, and U17 to U19 male
rugby players. In the same way, Nakamura et al. (2016) revealed
that professional futsal players present reduced COD ability
when compared to their U20 counterparts. For these authors,
some physiological factors, such as changes during maturation
(e.g., disproportional growth and disruption of complex motor
coordination) (Condello et al., 2013) and effects of concurrent
training (Loturco et al., 2018a; Nakamura et al., 2016) could
negatively impact the evolution of this multifaceted motor skill
throughout the age-categories, compromising the COD perfor-
mance of more mature players (i.e. Senior). Specifically, in our
case, it is worth noting that the data were collected from a very
large sample of soccer athletes who trained at the same clubs,
under controlled conditions and using distinct neuromuscular
training schemes, according to their particular needs and char-
acteristics (Table 1). Therefore, it is possible to speculate that
simple monitoring of the strength-power training strategies
across the specialization process is not sufficient to allow players
of different ages to appropriately develop their more important
and required physical qualities (Barnes et al., 2014; Bush et al.,
2015; Malone, Roe, Doran, Gabbett, & Collins, 2017). Again, this
may reflect the fact that maturation and the development of
physical capacities are insufficient to develop high levels of COD
speed, and that specific interventions that develop the skill
related aspects of performance are required (Jeffreys, 2008,
2013; Jeffreys, Huggins, & Davies, 2018). From this perspective,
it may be advisable to regulate the volume of technical-tactical
work in each specific category, and supplement this with specific
interventions aimed at developing the movement capacities
required in the game as part of specialized multiyear preparation
(Issurin & Vladimir, 2017; Jeffreys, 2008, 2013; Jeffreys & Goodwin,
2016; Jeffreys et al., 2018). These “optimal training parameters”
should be tested and established in future studies involving
players of different ages, but may help improve overall perfor-
mance and reduce the negative biomechanical developments
that have been shown to occur when only technical-tactical
work is performed in a given sport (Staynor, Nicholas, Weir,
Alderson, & Donnelly, 2017).
Along with the impairments in speed-related abilities, sur-
prisingly, the COD deficit presented a gradual increase from
younger to older age-groups (Figure 5). Hence, besides the
progressive increase in the neuromuscular training volume
throughout the categories (Table 1), it is plausible to consider
that the training strategies used by head coaches and techni-
cal staff members were not able to effectively transfer the
6 I. LOTURCO ET AL.
strength, speed, and power gains to COD performance and
speculatively to braking ability or ability to control COD as
sprint speed continues to increase. This issue was recently
addressed in a study that examined the correlations between
conventional speed and power measures and COD speed
(Loturco et al., 2018b). For the authors, the limited relation-
ships between these mechanical variables may force practi-
tioners to include specific COD workouts in soccer players’
training routines (e.g. acceleration and deceleration drills,
planned and unplanned agility tasks, and maintenance of
velocity or “maneuverability”), in order to elicit positive adap-
tations in this complex and independent physical ability
(Loturco et al., 2018b; Young, Dawson, & Henry, 2015). Still in
this context, many studies have highlighted the need to
incorporate a more holistic training strategy, which combines
a variety of target elements (i.e. cognitive, physical, and tech-
nical aspects) and customized multi-directional tasks (accord-
ing to the sport practiced) to appropriately develop COD
performance in team sport athletes (Chaouachi et al., 2012;
Jeffreys et al., 2018; Pereira et al., 2018; Taylor, Wright,
Dischiavi, Townsend, & Marmon, 2017; Young et al., 2015).
Specifically, in soccer, coaches and strength and conditioning
specialists are strongly advised to improve players’ COD ability
using drills and exercises that mimic crucial match actions
(Chaouachi et al., 2012).
In summary, this study shows that linear sprinting speed
and COD ability are meaningfully impaired throughout the
specialization process of soccer players. More importantly,
the COD deficit seems to progressively increase with increas-
ing age and level of specialization. This is possibly related to
the ineffectiveness of the neuromuscular training programs
used in the different stages of player maturation. This research
is inherently limited by its cross-sectional design and the
impossibility of drawing definitive conclusions from the data
obtained. In contrast, it was performed with 182 top-level
soccer players from four different age-categories, who trained
in the same soccer clubs, following the same physical, techni-
cal, and tactical training programs. This certainly reinforces the
applicability and relevance of our findings.
Conclusions
Despite the apparent increase in volume and intensity of
neuromuscular training during the prospective development
of soccer athletes, sprint speed and COD ability appear to
remain stable or even decrease across the age-groups. Based
on these findings, it is reasonable to infer that simple mon-
itoring and modulation of the strength-power training across
maturation is not sufficient to produce senior players able to
effectively change direction. Therefore, soccer-based practi-
tioners are encouraged to implement tailored COD training
practices and appropriate volume of technical and tactical
training throughout the players’ specialization process. In
addition, it would be helpful to regularly include a more
diverse set of exercise drills (e.g. resisted sprints, horizontally-
directed power exercises, and eccentric strength training)
(Loturco et al., 2017a, 2015c) in the physical training sessions
to properly develop the acceleration-deceleration capabilities
across the age-categories. Although it is not possible at
present to determine the optimal content of each specific
and particular type of training, it is certain that these proce-
dures are essential to generate faster and more efficient adult
soccer players. Further studies should be conducted to define
the best training approaches and content to meaningfully
improve speed-related qualities in soccer players from differ-
ent age-groups.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Irineu Loturco http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1309-2568
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