George Bennett-Introduction To Mining Engineering

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THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA
COLLEGE OF EARTH SCIENCES
School of Mines and Petroleum Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING
MN 101: INTRODUCTION TO MINING ENGINEERING (3.0 Units)
2011/2012
Course Instructor: George Bennett

University of Dodoma
Department of Mining and Mineral Processing
Email: karangebennett@yahoo.com
Mobile: +255 756 270441
Prepared by George Bennett,

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MN 101: INTRODUCTION TO 1. Brief history of the mining industry

MINING ENGINEERING (3.0 Units) and the role of mining industry in
civilization and economy
Course Description 2. General classification of mineral
deposits for the purpose of mining
This course aims to provide general 3. Mining terminologies and
knowledge of the mining industry classification of mining methods
especially mining operations and the 4. Common terminologies used for
equipment involved in these operations. excavation of mine opening in
The course also aims to prepare students different ground conditions, shaft
for the coming courses in the mining sinking, preparation, collaring,
engineering discipline by introducing basic major operations, drilling, blasting,
and most common terminologies used in loading, hoisting, ventilation, water
this area. pumping, supporting. Special
method of shaft sinking. Tunnel
Objectives: boring, drifting, Raising using
 To introduce to the students basic conventional method and boring
mining operations and techniques 5. Engineering as a profession;
 To provide knowledge to students Interrelation between society and
of main equipment and operations science, engineering and
of mining entities technology; Ethics in engineering;
 To prepare students for other Environment, safety and
coming mining engineering courses sustainable development.
and Practical Training
Key References
Course Learning Outcomes: 1) Gregory, Cedric Errol (1993),
Explosives for engineers,
After completing this course, the student is Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany:
expected to be able to: Trans Tech Publications.
 Demonstrate the understanding of 2) Hartman H. (1990) SME Mining
basic mining operations Engineering Handbook, New York,
 Describe main equipments used in Society of Mining Engineers,
mining operations American Institute of Mining,
 Describe main terms and Metallurgical, and Petroleum
terminologies used in Mining Engineers.
engineering. 3) Hartman, H.L. "Introductory
 Successful undertake the first Mining Engineering", New York:
practical training Wiley, latest edition.
4) Locke, C. E., "Mining
Prerequisite: None Engineering", Boston, Mass.,
Bellman Publishing Company, inc.
Mode of Delivery and Assessment: 5) Thomas L. J., An Introduction to
Delivery: 3 hrs lecture + 1 hr tutorial per Mining, Hicks Smith and Son.
week (60 Hours per semester) 6) Whyte, J and Cumming, J (2007),
Assessment: 40% coursework and 60% Mining Explained, Toronto, The
University examinations Northern Miner,10th Edition
7) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical
Course Contents _code

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CHAPTER ONE
Tips: Mining history, role of mining industry, Mining vs Economy growth, Stage of Life of
Mine and General classification of Mineral Deposits for the purpose of Mining
1.1 Mining Introduction
Mining may well have been the second of humankind’s earliest endeavors—granted that
agriculture was the first. The two industries ranked together as the primary or basic industries
of early civilization. If we consider fishing and lumbering as part of agriculture and oil and
gas production as part of mining, then agriculture and mining continue to supply all the basic
resources used by modern civilization. From prehistoric times to the present, mining has
played an important part in human existence. Here the term mining is used in its broadest
context as encompassing the extraction of any naturally occurring mineral substances—solid,
liquid, and gas—from the earth or other heavenly bodies for utilitarian purposes. Mining
consists of the processes, the occupation, and the industry concerned with the extraction of
minerals from the earth. The most prominent of these uses for minerals are identified in Table
1.1
Table 1.1 Humans’ Uses of Minerals
Need or Use Purpose Age
Tools and utensils Food, shelter Prehistoric

Weapons Hunting, defense, warfare Prehistoric
Ornaments and decoration Jewelry, cosmetics, dye Ancient
Currency Monetary exchange Early
Structures and devices Shelter, transport Early
Energy Heat, power Medieval
Machinery Industry Modern
Electronics Computers, Communications Modern
Nuclear fission Power, warfare Modern
Mining and mining engineering are similar but not synonymous terms. Mining engineering is
the art and the science applied to the processes of mining and to the operation of mines. The
trained professional who relates the two terms above is called the mining engineer.
Mining engineer is responsible for helping to locate and prove mines, for designing and
developing mines, and for exploiting and managing mines.
Mine is an excavation made in the earth to extract minerals.
Miner: S/he who is engaged in the business or occupation of extracting ore, coal, precious
metal or other natural materials fro the earth’s crust.
Natural resources categorized into two groups: Minerals (Coal, Gold, Diamond, Iron,
Limestone, Lead, Uranium, Copper etc) and Petroleum (Oil and Gas)

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Mineral is a naturally occurring substance, usually inorganic, having a define chemical

composition and distinctive physical characteristics.
Ore is the mineral that has sufficient utility and value to be extracted at a profit.
Metallic ores: includes ores of the ferrous metals (iron, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten);
base metals (copper, lead, zinc, and tin) precious metal:(gold, silver and platinum);
radioactive metals:(uranium, thorium and radium)
Nonmetallic ores: consist of industrial minerals such as phosphate, potash, stone, sand,
gravel, sulfur, salt and industrial diamonds.
Rock: is an assemblage of minerals
Waste/gangue: mineral that lacks utility and value when extracted: gangue is more intimately
associated with ore than waste) Gangue minerals are the minerals that are associated with the
ore minerals in the ore deposit but are not economic and form the waste material. Ore deposit
is an economically exploitable concentration of ore minerals.
Deposit: is a natural occurrence of a useful mineral in sufficient quantity to invite further

exploration.
Fossil fuels (also known as mineral fuels): the organic mineral substances that can be utilized
as fuels, such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, coal bed, methane etc.
1.2 Mining History
The earliest miners date back perhaps to 300,000 BC; their mission was for nonmetallic
minerals (chert, flint, obsidian) suitable for utensils and eventually for weapons. Other rocks
and minerals (ceramics, clay, salt, meteoric iron) attracted the miners for jewelry, cosmetics,
construction materials and coinage. At first, their excavations were confined to the surface,
either pits or placers. But by about 40,000 BC, mine workings had been extended
underground as short adits or shafts, and by 8000 BC as elaborate interconnected openings 90
m in depth.
Metallurgical separation of metals from their ores and their using scientific principles,
technological knowledge, and subsequent fabrication evolved gradually over the centuries,
copper being the first liberated (c. 7000 BC) followed by lead, silver, gold and iron.
Therefore, leading the mining to be the second of man’s activities – agriculture became the
first.
The contributions made by mining have played a much significant role in the development of
civilization than is generally concerned by the historians or recognized by ordinary citizens.
The history of mining is parallel to the civilization’s history.
The stone age – prior to 4000B.C

The Bronze age 4000 – 5000 B.C
The Iron age 1500 – 1780 A.D
The steel age 1780 A.D – 1945 A.D
The Nuclear age, 1945 to present
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Many historical voyages made by explorers and many settlements e.g in California, SA,
Australia, Canada, Alaska etc. were achieved with minerals providing a major incentive.
Generally the mineral rich countries are the great civilization of the world i.e highest standard
of living. In modern society mined products provide raw materials for industries and
decorations.
The discovery and utilization of the first of the mineral coal fuel, in the late 13 th A.D century
carried civilization forward.
Bronze Age
The evidence of early copper mining e.g Thailand 2000B.C malachite skarn matrix that held
quartz rich in. the world oldest known copper smelting furnace dating 3500B.C
Men reduced ore to native metal or alloy form.
The art of rock breakage by fire setting was the first technological breakthrough in mining.
Iron Age
The introduction of iron for making tools and weapons changed the life of early man in a vast
number of ways. The use of iron was made feasible through the development of three
processes.
Steeling – the addition of carbon to ore
Quenching – the sudden cooling of hot metal
Tempering – the reheating of quenched metal to correct for brittleness.
Recent history
As the colonialists gradually moved west (USA, Chile, Peru, and Mexico) into the interior,
they exploited deposits as they found them. In the USA in the period 1930-1970 a number of
large surface mining operations were developed. New developments in recovery techniques
made it possible to treat oxidize ore in Canada, Australia, SA and Central Africa.
1.3 Mining Industry Technological Development
The level of precious metal prices and particularly gold at about $1100per ounce and higher,
has resulted in an explosion in exploration and surface development activities. Innovative
technology has been introduced for utilization of hydraulic shovels, continuous mining
systems, computerized systems for production planning and scheduling, and improved bulk
materials conveying and handling.
A technological developments introduced in the late 1960’s heap leaching has made
significant contributions to the viability of precious metal operations both for low grade
deposits and the reworking of previous rock materials for treating oxidized gold and silver
ore. It proven to be both an efficient way to extract precious metals from small, shallow
deposits as well as an attractive way to treat large, low-grade disseminated deposit. The
technology is also being used to recover the metal value from waste dumps at mining
properties.

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With few exceptions, no nation can achieve a high level of prosperity without a reliable
source of minerals to supply its manufacturing industry. Through mining, emergent countries
can finance growth progressively by the export of raw mineral resources, then by processing
these raw materials prior to export and finally by achieving progressive industrial
development.
The mineral reserves, upon which the future of the human race depends, occupy less than
o.1% of the continental areas. Unfortunately, we are not at present sufficiently skilled to
determine exactly where they occur or how large they may be. They remain elusive targets.
Therefore, research in mining and metallurgical technology is essential. A new discovery
may locate a mine, but a technological breakthrough can open up mines all around the world.
The economic evolution of society that began in Neolithic prehistory was based then, as it is
now, on minerals, and has led people into modern times.
1.4 Future Contributions of the Mineral Industry
The 104 elements of the periodic table, all but a few of which are recovery widely spaced
often remote, mineral deposits using a variety of complex mining and metallurgic techniques,
form the foundation of modern society. They provide its light, heat, shelter, transportation,
communication and food. The standards of living of the industrialized nations – which
developing nations are striving to attain – are based upon minerals and societies could not
continue in their material wealth (and contribute to the Gross National Product) only by being
mined. Among the benefits to the state is an increase in employment levels and enhanced
level of self-sufficiently and improved balance of trade. The latter results from fewer imports
and greater exports of commodities mined, a spirited search for more minerals and a build-up
of technical manpower levels by in-service training, attraction of overseas investment capital
and creation of National wealth (Gregory, 1980)
Other importance of minerals in the society is:

 Most manufactured products are made of metals
 Civilization is based on mineral resources
 Generally powered by energy from fossil fuels
 Food production depends on fertilizers
 Buildings made from materials of mineral origin
1.5 Mining Vs. Economy
The relationship between mining and the economy has many characteristics. The commodity
pricing is cyclic and hence varies. At the moment commodities are at a high or boom status
(A period of high economic growth characterized by rising wages, profits, and prices, full
employment and high levels of investment, trade, and other economic activity). E.g in the
mid to late nineties, commodities were at low prices. That is most mining companies
tightened the purse strings, stopped spending money and lost operations and employees.
Now, companies are spending lots of money and there is a shortage of employees. There is
ever a shortage of basic equipment like large tyres and long lead times to build equipment
due to demand.
Using scientific principles, technological knowledge, and managerial skills, the mining
engineer brings a mineral property through the stages in the life of a mine: prospecting,

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exploration, development, and exploitation (Hartman, H.L. "Introductory Mining

Engineering").
1.6 Stage of Life of Mine
The overall sequence of activities in modern mining is often compared with the five stages in
the life of mines such as prospecting, exploration, development, exploitation and reclamation.
Prospecting and exploration, precursors to actual mining, are linked and sometimes
combined. Geologists and mining engineers often share responsibility for these two stages;
geologists more involved with the former, mining engineers more with the latter. Likewise,
development and exploitation are closely related stages; they are usually considered to
constitute mining proper and are the main province of the mining engineer. Closure and
reclamation of the mine site has become a necessary part of the mine life cycle because of the
demands of society for controlling environmental change and strict mining laws and
regulating.
1.6.1 Prospecting
Is the search for surface indications of ore mineralization. It referred as the individual or
small group with minimum technology used to search the minerals from given areas.
Several methods are used in searching for minerals, such as visual or direct examinations and
indirect examination (Geophysics, geochemistry and geobotany). The result of the
prospecting work is the identification of anomalies or a mineral deposit which take a period
of up 3 years and above.
Visual or Direct method
 This is limited by surface visualization of mineral deposit. It plunged with the

examination of exposure of mineral deposits or the loose fragments that have
weathered away from the earth upper surface (outcrop).
Indirect methods
 Searching for hidden mineral deposits by detecting anomalies using different

scientific tools.
Geophysics
This is the science of measurements and interpreting the physical properties of the earth or
other astronomical bodies. These physical measurements include Gravitational, Seismic,
magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic and radiometric variables of the earth. The scientific
tools employed for searching hidden mineral deposits include;
 Density
 Rock magnetism
 Radioactivity
 Electrical sensitivity
 Seismic velocity

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Geochemical
Geochemical prospecting is the process of systematic analyzing the chemical contents of

rocks, soil, stream sediments, plants, water or air samples to detect anomalous occurrences
that may indicate the existence of ore minerals. Although a few ore bodies have been
discovered by geochemistry alone, it is valuable attachment to detect search for geophysical
means. Geochemical and geobotanical prospecting are based on the knowledge that an
envelope of primary mineralization is likely to occur around a mineral deposit and a
secondary dispersal of chemical elements is often created during the weathering and erosion
of the deposit. The primary envelope and the secondary pattern form geochemical anomalies
that, if pronounced enough, result in larger guides to mineralization than would be provided
by the economic mineral deposit itself.
Geobotanical
Geobotanical prospecting is the science of employing the changes in the patterns of

vegetation growth in an area as a visual or analytical guide to mineralization. There are
recognized species that grow in conjunction with the ore deposits and there are plants that
their growing characteristics when located in the vicinity in a certain ore minerals.
Exploration then became a part of airborne reconnaissance and, through the remote sensing.
Geobotany is in a sense visual geochemistry in which patterns in plant growth, the presence
of indicator plants and morphological or mutational changes in vegetation are taken as
evidence of geochemical anomalies.
The prospects are the properties offered to mining companies by prospectors, miners or
promoters. Their common aspect is that the ore reserves consist mainly of hopes. Every
prospect presents a new problem to be solved. The searching may be;
 An outcrop of a mineral deposit
 A recently discovered and partly explored mineral deposit
 A mine which is up for sale, or
 An abandoned mine.
1.6.2 Exploration
The second stage in the life of a mine, exploration, determines as accurately as possible the
size and value of a mineral deposit, utilizing techniques similar to but more refined than those
used in prospecting. The line of demarcation between prospecting and exploration is not
sharp. Exploration includes all activities involved in the discovery and evaluation of a
mineral deposit, establishing the size, grade, initial flowsheet, and annual output of the new
extractive operation (Bailly and Still, 1973, p.5-2). The economic discovery can be defined as
the finding of sufficient quality and quantity of mineralization that currently be mined, treated
and marketed at a profit.
An exploration program may find a “prospect”—interesting surface indications of

mineralization that bear investigation. This may develop into a “geological,” “geochemical,”
or “geophysical” discovery when sufficient data are gained to locate the probable presence of
an economic mineral deposit. An “economic discovery” can be achieved when (1) capital for

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development can be raised within a reasonable period of time, (2) tenure and ownership will
be respected (the mining claims will qualify for patent), (3) a reasonable profit margin can be
projected, (4) technology for mining and treatment exists or can be developed within a
reasonable period of time, and (5) there is social and political stability.
The exploration goal is to find an economic mineral deposit. The dimensions of such a
deposit may be very small when compared with the area to be searched, and the probability is
that the ore zone will be covered by lakes, swamp, Thick vegetation cover, soil and by
considerable depths of barren rock.
Exploration task
 to locate / generate new prospects

 To explore them
 to locate and define the ore body
Stages involved in exploration program include;
 Target generation
 Searching information
 Preliminary deposit evaluation
Target generation
Target generation helps to locate potential ore body. This are procedures undertaken prior to
drilling of holes on the potential ore to review of all available information on the prospect -
mineral occurrences if any, geological mappings, geophysical surveys and past exploration
activities.
Searching information
Searching information helps to acquire both surface and underground information through
excavation or drilling. The data obtained can be logged and analyzed. The following are some
few searching method used during exploration stage;
i. Pitting and Trenching
In areas where soil cover is thin, the location and testing of bedrock mineralization is made
relatively straightforward by the examination and sampling of outcrops. However in locations
of thick cover such testing may involve a deep sampling program by pitting, trenching, or
drilling. Pitting to depths of up to 30 m is feasible and, with trenching, forms the simplest and
least expensive method of deep sampling but is much more costly below the water table. For
safety purposes, all pits and trenches are filled in when evaluation work is completed.
Drilling penetrates to greater depth but is more expensive and requires specialized equipment
and expertise that may be supplied by a contractor.

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Despite their relatively shallow depth, pits and trenches have some distinct advantages over
drilling in that detailed geological logging can be carried out and large and, if necessary,
undisturbed samples collected.
Pitting
In areas where the ground is wet, or labor is expensive, pits are best dug with a mechanical
excavator. Pits dug to depths of 3-4 m are common and with large equipment excavation to 6
m can be achieved.
In wet, soft ground any pit deeper than 1 m is dangerous and boarding must be used.
Trenching
Trenching is usually completed at right angles to the general strike to test and sample over
long lengths, as across a mineralized zone.
Excavation can be either by hand, mechanical digger, or by bulldozer on sloping ground.
Excavated depths of up to 4 m are common.
ii. Drilling method
It helps to intersect the potential ore body. It provides data for the final evaluation of a
prospect and will ultimately determine if the prospect is mineable. Careful logging of the drill
samples helps delineate the geometry and calculate the volume of ore, and provides important
structural details.
Methods fall into two general categories:
• Percussion drills which break up the rock as the hole is drilled producing rock chips,
followed by flushing of chips to the surface by compressed air.
• Core drilling methods which recover rock core from the drill hole by cutting
Auger drilling
Augers are hand-held or truck-mounted drills, which have rods with spiral flights to bring
soft material to the surface. They are used particularly to sample placer deposits. Power
augers are particularly useful for deep sampling in easily penetrable material where pitting is
not practicable. In soft ground auguring is rapid and sampling procedures need to be well
organized to cope with the material continuously brought to the surface by the spiraling
action of the auger. Considerable care is required to minimize cross-contamination between

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samples. Augers are light drills and are incapable of penetrating either hard ground or
boulders. For this purpose, and holes deeper than about 60 m, heavier equipment is necessary.
Figure 1.1: Auger Drilling
Rotary Air Blast Drilling
RAB Drilling is used for quick inexpensive hole to obtain a sample of decent quality.
• It is used for shallow applications such as gravel searches or bedrock probing.
• The drill pipe is a conventional single passage pipe with the air traveling down the
inside of the pipe and the sample traveling up the outside between the pipe and the
hole.
Drill depth can reach up to 120 m using 9 cm drill pipe; samples collected are chips.
Advantages of RAB
 low cost, versatile and mobile

 very useful on alluvial deposits where inexpensive samples are required before
committing the project to expensive, more accurate drilling
Disadvantages of RAB
 Samples subjected to contamination when traveling up hole
 lack of depth capacity

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Figure 1.2: Rotary Air Blast Drilling
Reverse Circulation Drilling (RC-Drilling)
Reverse Circulation Drilling is the most favored method of drilling in mineral exploration. It
provides a good quality sample and is less expensive than diamond drilling.
Both compressed air and water can be used for the drill flushing medium and both cuttings
and core can be easily recovered. If percussion drilling is being used, then the rock fragments
will also be taken up and will pass through hollow tubing, until the chippings and fluids reach
a device known as a "cyclone." This piece of kit separates out the rock chippings from the
drill medium and stores them in a sample collection container.
Advantages
 The advantage of using this method of drilling over rotary or percussion drilling is
that all the rock sample is collected from the hole
 The sample also experiences very little contamination on its travels back to the
surface. It reduces erosion and dilution from the drill hole walls.
Disadvantages
 The volume and pressure of the air or fluid supply must be adequate to force all the
cutting out of the hole. This especially important for high s.g. minerals.

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 Too much airflow can cause excess loss of fines from the exhaust on the cyclone
stack
 There are problems of filtering and drying the samples for transport and handling.
Fine minerals (Au), float and may be lost which affects the sampling.
 When using air as medium, there is pollution problem.
The reverse circulation drill system bores holes in the range of 7 – 15 cm in diameter with
max. depth of 300m
Figure 1.3: Reverse Circulation Drilling
Diamond Core Drilling
Diamond Drilling is one of the most accurate methods for determining ground formations.
The process involves driving a fast rotating annular bit through the ground to collect a solid
core sample. Diamond core drilling uses a diamond bit, which rotates at the end of drill rod
(or pipe). The opening at the end of the diamond bit allows a solid column of rock to move up
into the drill pipe and be recovered at the surface. After the first 10 feet is drilled, a new
section of pipe is screwed into the top end, so the combination of pipes can be driven another
10 feet into the ground. The diamond bit is rotated slowly with gentle pressure while being
lubricated with water to prevent overheating. The drill depth is estimated by keeping count of
the number of drill rods. Diamond drilling provides a 'drill core' which provides a continuous

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sample of the rock penetrated by the hole. The drill core is first washed and logged by a
qualified geologist, and then split in half to provide a sample for geochemical analysis. Since
so much time, effort and money is expended to obtain the drill core, it is worthwhile to study
and log the core very carefully. A standardized log form is used to log the core. The form has
columns for each of the types of information which will be recorded, with tick marks
indicating the footage.
The information typically shown includes:
 Rock type
 the recovery %,
 Lithology
 Alteration
 Mineralization
 Rock Quality Data (RQD) and
 Structural details/features such as bedding and fractures.
Drill data is interpreted by constructing “drill sections”, which show the drill holes in a
vertical profile analogous to cross sections. Construction of the drill section begins in the
same manner as a geologic cross-section, by creating a topographic profile.
Figure 1.4: Diamond Core Drilling

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Preliminary Deposit Evaluation; Aim to decide whether the potential ore body can be
mined at profit. This stage provides answers to economic questions relating to the Grade,
Tonnage, Mining characteristics, Metallurgical (nature of mineralization) and properties of
the potential ore body.
The ore body can be a resource or reserve deposits.
Resource Deposit
Resources are the entire amount of a given commodity that may become available for use in
the future. Resource is anything we get from living and nonliving environment to meet our
needs and wants. It can be renewable (solar energy, trees in forests, grasses in grasslands,
wild animals, fresh surface water in lakes and streams, and fresh air, and fertile soil) or non-
renewable. Nonrenewable mineral resources exist in a fixed amount in the Earth's crust
include: energy resources (coal, oil, natural gas, uranium, geothermal); Metallic minerals:
iron, copper, aluminum, etc.; Nonmetallic minerals: salt, gypsum, clay, sand phosphates, soil,
water.
Mineral Resources are subdivided, in the order of increasing of geological confidence, into
(i).Inferred (ii). Indicated and (iii).Measured categories.
Portions of a deposit that do not have reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction
must not be included in a Mineral Resource
INFERRED MINERAL RESOURCE: It is that part of a Mineral Resource for which

tonnage, grade and mineral content can be estimated with a low level of confidence.
INDICATED MINERAL RESOURCE: It is that part of a Mineral Resource for which

tonnage, grade, densities, shape, physical characteristics, and mineral content can be
estimated with a reasonable level of confidence.
MEASURED MINERAL RESOURCE: It is that part of a Mineral Resource for which

tonnage, grade, densities, shape, physical characteristics, and mineral content can be
estimated with a high level of confidence.
Factors for selection of resource estimation method
a) Geometry of the deposit; Determines the amount of detail that must be

interpreted and input to the reserve estimation.
b) Variability of the grade distribution; Determines the amount of smoothing that

is required to estimate mineable blocks.
c) The character of the ore boundaries; Determines how grade will be estimated
at the borders between different grade zones
d) The amount of time and money available to make the estimation; Determine
the detail and effort that will be expended on the estimate.

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Reserve Deposit
A mineral reserve is that portion of a mineral resource on which technical and economic
studies have been carried out to demonstrate that it can justify extraction. It can be divided
into
 A proved mineral reserve is that portion of a measured mineral resource as defined on
which detailed technical and economic studies have been carried out to demonstrate
that it can justify extraction at the time of the determination and under specified
economic conditions.
 A probable mineral reserve is that portion of a measured and/or indicated resource as
defined on which sufficient studies have been carried out to demonstrate that it can
justify extraction at the time of the determination and under specified economic
conditions
The prime measured assets of a mine as to tonnage and grade that can be extracted at a profit
at current prices and technology, or in the near future.
Ore Reserve Estimation
• Ore reserve estimation is the process of examining and valuating the ore body.
Different theory and application of geostatistics in estimation / prediction are used in
reserve estimation. Ore reserve estimation can be obtained by using data gathered
during drilling operations. There are two major methods that are used for the
calculation of reserves. Traditional/geometric and Interpolation methods (Inverse-
distance weighting and kriging methods)
The geometric method is based upon assigning an “area of influence’ around each drill hole.
It can therefore be subdivided into:-
 Rectangular Method
 Area Averaging
 Polygonal Method and
 Cross Sectional Methods
 Triangular Methods.
Rectangular Method
 The ore body is divided into blocks.

 If the boreholes are regularly spaced, lines separating the blocks are drawn half way
between the boreholes.
 If the holes are irregularly spaced, size of the blocks will also be irregular.
Polygonal Method
 The sizes of the polygon are perpendicular bisector of the lines between the holes
 The figure shows one block formed from 5 boreholes

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 The area of each block obtained

in case of rectangular and polygonal
methods are calculated and multiplied
by its respective thickness to get the
volume of the reserves.
Average grade is calculated then as

follows
Average grade =
 (Volume X Grade
BLOCK BLOCK )
 (Volume ) BLOCK
Figure 1.5
 This method over-evaluates when there is a positive correlation between thickness

and grade.
 It under-evaluates when there is negative correlation.
To overcome the problem, a weighted average of the data values obtained from triangular
method for instance is used
Triangular Method
 The area is divided into triangles by drawing the lines between the holes
 The figure shows 4 blocks formed from 5 boreholes
Figure 1.6.1

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Figure 1.6.2 x 1 g 1 +x 2 g2 +x 3 g 3 x 1 +x 2 +x 3
Average grade = Average thickness =
x 1 +x 2 +x 3 3
OverallAverageGrade=
∑ AverageGrade× Averagethickness
∑ Averagethickness
Cross Sectional Methods
 This operates under principle that sections across the ore body are drawn, followed by
calculation of area of each section.
 The final volume is determined by adding the factors of distances between sections
Average grade =
 (area x grade
COMP COMP )
 (area ) COMP
 Ore grade - amount of mineral or metal contained in an ore, usually expressed

as g/t for precious metal ore bodies and in % for base metals.
 Cut-off Grade - The lowest grade at which it is profitable to mine a gold-
bearing ore. Equal to cost /(price x recovery)
Revenue=Grade× Pr ice× Recovery
1.6.3 Development
In the third stage of mining, development, work is performed to open a mineral deposit for
exploitation. With it begins mining proper. Access to the deposit must be gained either (1) by
stripping overburden, the earth and/or rock covering the mineral deposit, to expose near-
surface ore for surface mining; or (2) by excavating openings from the surface to more deeply
buried deposits to prepare for underground mining.
In either case, certain preliminary development work, such as preparing an environmental
impact statement, acquiring mineral rights and financing, and providing access roads and
other transportation, power sources, ore processing facilities, dams, and waste disposal areas,
nearly always precede the actual mining. These and other sequential steps in mine
development are often programmed by operations research techniques to conserve time and
expense.
19
1.6.4 Exploitation
Exploitation, the fourth stage of mining, is associated with the actual recovery of mineral
from the earth in quantity. While some exploration and development work necessarily
continues throughout the life of a mine, the emphasis in the exploitation stage is on
production. Only enough development is done prior to exploitation to ensure that production,
once started, can continue uninterrupted throughout the life of the mine. The mining method
selected for exploitation is determined mainly by the characteristics of the mineral deposit
and the limits imposed by safety, technology and economics. Geologic conditions, such as
deposit dip and shape and strength of the ore and wall rock, play a key role in selecting the
method.
1.6.5 Reclamation, land rehabilitation
The final stage in the operation of most mines is reclamation, the process of closing a mine
and recontouring, revegetating, and restoring the water and land values. The best time to
begin the reclamation process of a mine is before the first excavations are initiated. In other
words, mine planning engineers should plan the mine so that the reclamation process is
considered and the overall cost of mining plus reclamation is minimized, not just the cost of
mining itself.
In planning for the reclamation of any given mine, there are many concerns that must be
addressed. The first of these is the safety of the mine site, particularly if the area is open to
the general public. The removal of office buildings, processing facilities, transportation
equipment, utilities, and other surface structures must generally be accomplished. The mining
company is then required to seal all mine shafts, adits, and other openings that may present
physical hazards. Any existing highwalls or other geologic structures may require mitigation
to prevent injuries or death due to geologic failures.
The second major issue to be addressed during reclamation of a mine site is restoration of the
land surface, the water quality, and the waste disposal areas so that long-term water pollution,
soil erosion, dust generation, or vegetation problems do not occur. The restoration of native
plants is often a very important part of this process, as the plants help build a stable soil
structure and naturalize the area. It may be necessary to carefully place any rock or tailings
with acid-producing properties in locations where rainfall has little effect on the material and
acid production is minimized.
The same may be true of certain of the heavy metals that pollute streams. Planning of the
waste dumps, tailings ponds, and other disturbed areas will help prevent pollution problems,
but remediation work may also be necessary to complete the reclamation stage of mining and
satisfy the regulatory agencies.
The final concern of the mine planning engineer may be the subsequent use of the land after
mining is completed. Old mine sites have been converted to wildlife refuges, shopping malls,
golf courses, airports, lakes, underground storage facilities, real estate developments, solid
waste disposal areas and other uses that can benefit society.
The successful completion of the reclamation of a mine will enhance public opinion of the
mining industry and keep the mining company in the good graces of the regulatory agencies.
The fifth stage of the mine is thus of paramount importance and should be planned at the
earliest possible time in the life of the mine.
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1.7 General Classification of Mineral Deposits for the purpose of Mining
Mineral deposits may be classified to satisfy a particular need, providing that we recognize
that we are doing this for convenience.
For mining purpose mineral deposits are classified as follows;
1.7.1 Massive deposits
These are deposits of considerable lateral and vertical extent in which mineralization (the
ore) is relatively uniformly distributed. Disseminated copper ores are typical examples.
0 mRL
Mineral deposit
Figure 1.7.1
1.7.2Bedded or tabular deposits
These are mineral deposits that are parallel to the stratification, mostly seen in sedimentary
rock and are usually laterally extensive, and of limited thickness. For example Coal and some
evaporate mineral deposits (soda ash)
0mRL
Figure 1.7.2

21
1.7.3 Narrow Vein deposits
These are a zone or belt mineralization, which are typically long, narrow (<3m thick) often
dipping steeply and usually lying within boundaries separating it with the neighboring rock.
For example; Gold and other metallic mineralization.
0mRL
Zone of
Neighboring rock mineralization
Figure 1.7.3
1.7.4 Wide Vein deposits
Similar to narrow vein deposits but these have a thickness >3m.

0mRL
Figure 1.7.4

22
1.7.5 Lenticular or Pocket deposits
An isolated ore body or enrichment of limited vertical and horizontal dimensions in a massive
bedded or vein deposit. Lead, Iron and Zinc ores often occur in this type of deposit and
mostly gemstones (sapphire, tanzanite, etc) also fall in this group.
0 mRL
Figure 1.7.5
The essence of mining in extracting minerals from the earth is to construct an excavation or
an opening to serve as a means of entry from the existing surface to the mineral deposit.
Whether the openings lie on the surface or are placed underground fixes the environment of
the mine. The specific details of the procedure, layout, equipment, and system used
distinguish the mining method, which is uniquely determined by the physical, geologic,
environmental, economic, and legal circumstances that prevail.

23
CHAPTER TWO
Tips: Mining Method Selection, Classification of Surface & Underground Mining Methods,
Mining Terminologies, Open Pit Mine, Dilution and Ore/mining Losses
2.1 Mining Method Selection
The choice of a mining method should be carefully considered and the mining costs estimated
before a mining company commits its monetary resources to the mine. The factors outlined
below used in the selection of mining methods;
 Spatial characteristic of the deposits (size, shape and depth).

 Geological and hydrologic conditions
 Geotechnical (soil and rock mechanics) properties
 Productivities and machinery capacities
 Ore recoveries and revenues
 Safety concerns
 Environmental aspects
2.2 Classification of Mining Method
There are two major classifications of mining, namely surface and underground mining.
 If the excavation used for mining is entirely open or operated from the surface, it is
termed as a surface mine.
 If the excavation consists of openings for human entry below the earth’s surface, it is
called an underground mine.
The details of the procedure, layout, and equipment used in the mine distinguish the mining
method. This is determined by the geologic, physical, environmental, economic, and legal
circumstances that pertain to the ore deposit being mined.
2.2.1 Surface mining method
The surface mining method can be classified as;
a) Mechanical extraction methods; In this class there are four subclasses;

• Open pit mining method; used for metal and non metal minerals.
• Open cast or stripping mining; used for coal and non metal minerals.
• Quarrying; used for non metal minerals.
• Auger mining; used for coal mining.
b) Aqueous extraction methods; There are two subclasses;
• Placer Aqueous extraction and
• Solution Aqueous extraction.
The methods include; Dredging, Hydraulic Mining, Surface Techniques and
In-situ leaching

24
Open Pit, Open Cast Methods and Leaching are the most important and most commonly
used.
Open Pit Mining
Open pit mining is the process of mining any near-surface deposit by means of a surface pit
excavated using one or more horizontal benches. Both the ore and the overburden if present
are removed in benches that vary from 9-30m. A thick deposit requires many benches and
resembles an inverted Cone.
Open Cast Mining
Is the surface exploitation method used mainly for coal and other bedded deposits, which
resembles open pit mining but the overburden is not transported to the waste dumps for
disposal but cast directly into adjacent mined-out panels.
It is casting in the pit that makes this method distinctive, achieving the highest productivity
and often a low cost as well.
The deposition of spoil (overburden) in mined out areas means that the mining activity is
concentrated in a relatively small area, and that reclamation can immediately follow mining.
There are two main open cast mining methods:
i. The area or Dragline mining method
This method is generally employed in flat to gently dipping coal seams with relatively
constant overburden depths. It utilizes big mining machines like the draglines.
The method involves opening an initial box cut, removing the exposed coal in the box cut
(coal loaded out) and then placing the overburden from the next longitudinal cut into the
mined out box cut area.
ii. Modified open pit or shovel truck method
This method is also called terrace mining. It is generally used in thick seam deposits with low
stripping ratios where coal seam faces are mined in more than one bench to reach the coal
floor. Seams are generally flat lying or gently dipping.
The method involves opening an initial cut or pit and placing the overburden in temporary
off-site storage. Coal is then removed from the initial pit area. The next cut is taken in the
direction of mine advance and the overburden is hauled around the existing pit and dumped
in the mined out area.
Opening into a coal seam;
The initial opening into a coal seam is called a box cut and is either made in the shallowest
part of a pitching deposit; to mine to the dip or for a thick deposit may be made near the
center, or at the highest part, so that a series of benches may be taken outwards. From the box
cut coal mining proceeds down the dip or across the mining lease. Overburden is removed
from in front of the advancing highwall and thrown into the mined out area. The procedure is
then repeated in a cut by cut basis.
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Backfilling;
When the dip angle of a coal deposit is less than the angle of repose of the spoil heaps plus a
factor of safety, it is possible to dump spoil/overburden waste inside the excavated area that is
to backfill. This is advantageous because:
a) It is usually the shortest distance for horizontal movement.
b) Gives minimum height of lift
c) Permits economic reclamation of the worked out area.
The overburden waste is direct back-cast across the cut with a Dragline or stripping power
shovel.
Extra thick or steep deposit cannot be backfilled because the exposed coal seam will be
covered up.
Conditions for Open Cast Mining

 Any rock and ore strength
 Tabular, bedded deposit
 Uniform ore
 Continuous deposit, large in lateral extent
 Shallow depth to moderate to control stripping ratio.
Quarrying mining method:
Is the mining method associated with the production of intact blocks of rock called dimension
stone, typically for architectural or decorative use, example limestone and marble.
Conditions for quarrying method

 Structurally sound ore, free of unwanted defects
 The shape of deposits is thick- bedded or massive, large in lateral extent.
 Depth is shallow to intermediate
Auger mining
Is the mining method that recovers coal or other minerals from under the highwall when the
ultimate stripping ratio has been achieved in open cast operations.
An augering machine or a continuous mining device that bores parallel holes or entries into
the highwall extracts the coal.
While the equipment goes underground, the crew remains on the surface and operates the
equipment remotely, hence we classify the method as surface mine.
Conditions for the auger mining:

 Tabular, bedded deposit
 The dip of the deposit is low or nearly horizontal
 The size of deposit is small to large
 Shallow to moderate deposit
 Uniform in thickness
Equipments used are augering machine, auger flights, loader and trucks and conveyor units
arranged in a train. Other minerals which can be recovery than coal are uranium and
phosphate.
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Hydraulic mining
This is a type of mining where a high pressure stream of water is directed against a bank to
undercut and cave it. As the material disintegrates, the loosened particles (minerals, sand and
gravel) are slurried in water and washed into sluice, either a natural through in the ground or
metal or wooden box, where it is transported by gravity to a riffle box or other more elaborate
concentrating device.
Conditions:
 Nearly flat deposit
 Material amenable to disintegrate by the action of water under pressure
 Adequate water supply available at the required head
 Adequate space for waste disposal
 Natural gradient amenable to hydraulic transport of mineral(if hydraulicking)
 Ability to comply with environmental regulations
 Difference in density, or similar property between ore minerals and gangue to allow
efficient mineral processing
 Little overburden, placer type and turbular deposit.
Dredging Mining
Dredging is a method often used to bring up underwater mineral deposits. Although dredging
is usually employed to clear or enlarge waterways for boats, it can also recover significant
amounts of underwater minerals relatively efficiently and cheaply.
Solution Mining Methods
Is the subclass of aqueous surface mining methods in which minerals are recovered by
leaching, dissolution, melting or slurrying process. The condition for this method, ore must
dissolve, melt or slurrying in water.
2.2.2 Underground mining methods.
The underground mine aims to recover minerals contained in the bedrock. The ore body is the
volume containing valuable minerals, while the rock around is waste. Waste is a worthless
matter, which miners try to leave in place wherever possible. Waste dilutes the ore and
reduces the grade in run-of-mine. An extra cost is incurred when transporting waste to the
surface and beneficiation often becomes more expensive and less efficient when the grade is
lowered.
Ore close to the surface ground is mined by open pit techniques while ore bodies contained in
rock deeper below the surface are exploited by underground mining.
There are three major classes of underground mining method;
a) Self-Supported methods- Are those methods in which the rock is self-supporting and for
which no major artificial support is necessary to carry the load of the overlying rock.
Supported methods include; room and pillar, sublevel stopping, shrinkage stopping and
vertical crater retreat mining.
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i) Room and pillar mining;-is an open stopping method by which mining progresses in a
nearly horizontal or low- angle direction by opening multiple stopes or rooms, leaving solid
material ore to act as pillar to support the vertical loads.
The material must be loaded in the room where it was extracted and transported to a point
where it will flow by gravity or mechanical means to a central gathering point to be taken out
of the mine. This is a unique feature of room and pillar open stopping method that
differentiates it with the other open stope mining methods which usually rely heavily upon
gravity to transport ore from where it was broken to lowest elevations usually through draw
point.
ii) Sublevel Open Stopping; -Is a mining method in which ore is blasted from different levels
of elevation but removed from one level at the bottom of the mine. Method recovers the ore
in open stopes, normally backfilled after mined out. Stopes are often large, with largest
dimensions in vertical direction. The ore body is divided into separate stopes for Sublevel
open stop mining. Between stopes, ore sections are set aside for pillars, to support the
hanging wall. Pillars are normally shaped as vertical beams, across the ore body. Horizontal
sections of ore are also left, to support mine workings above the producing stopes, known as
crown pillars. Enlarging the stope dimensions influences mining efficiency favourably.
iii) Shrinkage stopping; - Shrinkage stoping is a vertical, overhand mining method whereby
most of the broken ore remains in the stope to form a working floor for the miners. Another
reason for leaving the broken ore in the stope is to provide additional wall support until the
stope is completed and ready for drawdown.
(iv) VCR mining
VCR (vertical crater retreat) mining is a horizontal, flat-back variation of sublevel stoping
using spherical crater charges to break the ore. Blasting is carried out at the base of vertical
holes, making horizontal cuts and advancing upward. VCR stoping possesses many of the
best features of sublevel and shrinkage stoping.
b) Supported methods- Are those methods that require some type of backfill to provide
substantial amount of artificial support to maintain stability in the exploitation openings of
the mine.
In this class we have cut and fill mining method. Cut-and-fill mining excavates the ore in
horizontal slices, starting from a bottom undercut, advancing upward. The ore is drilled,
blasted, and then the muck loaded and removed from the stope. When the full stope area has
been mined out, voids are backfilled with sand tailings or waste rock. The fill serves both to
support stope walls and working platform for equipment, when mining the next slice. The fill
often consisting of de-slimed sand tailings from the mine’s dressing plant, at times
complemented by waste rock produced by development excavations, dumped in empty stopes
by LHD-loaders
c) Caving methods-Are those associated with induced controlled mass caving of ore body.
Caving methods include; Longwall mining, Block caving and Sublevel caving.
i) Longwall mining;- The longwall mining method has the simplest system layout and
provides continuous production and full potential for automation, which can further
28
improve productivity and personnel health and safety. The panel layout is simple and
conducive to good ventilation, and crews always work under protective supported roof.
Panel layout design includes the determination of panel size, entry width, size and
number of chain pillars
ii) Block caving is based on gravity combined with internal rock stresses, to fracture and
break the rock mass in pieces, which can be handled by miners. The drilling and
blasting required for ore production is minimal, while development volume is
massive. “Block” refers to the mining layout, which divides the ore body in large
sections, blocks, with areas of several thousand square meters.
Caving of the rock mass is induced by undercutting the block. The rock section underneath
the block is fractured by blasting, which destroys its ability to support overlaying rock.
Gravity forces, in the order of millions of tons, act on the block. Fractures spread to affect the
whole block. Continued pressure breaks rock into smaller pieces, passing the drawpoints,
where the ore is handled by LHD-loaders
iii) Sublevel caving is usually carried out when mining of the ore body through an open pit
method is no longer economically feasible.
Mining proceeds underground, underneath the open pit. At first both raise and networks of
tunnels are made. At different sublevels, jumbos are used for long hole drilling, drilling
directly upwards into the roof. These holes are then charged with explosives and blasted. As
the roof cave in, the rock from the ground surface will cave in to the underground as well.
Drilling and blasting takes place at different underground levels of the mine at the same time.
As the blasted rock, muck is continuously transported to the ore pass, more blasting will
encourage the roof to cave in to the void and further into the drift. This is repeated until
blasting, caving and transporting depletes the entire ore body.
2.3 Mining Terminologies
2.3.1 Open Pit Mining Terminologies
Figure 2.1

29
Overburden-Is the layer of waste rock over a coal seam or deposit.

Bench-Is a ledge that forms a single level of operation above which waste material or
minerals are mined. The mineral or waste is removed in successive layers each of which is a
bench. Several benches may be in operation simultaneously in different parts of the pit and at
different elevation.
Bench height- Is a vertical distance between the highest point of the bench (bench crest) and
the lowest point of the bench (bench toe).
The bench height is normally governed by the specifications of the operating machines, such
as drills, shovels and government mining regulations.
Bench slope- Is the angle in degrees between the horizontal and an imaginary line joining the
crest and the toe of the bench.
 Pits are developed using a working pit slope, a slope angle with a relative high factor
of safety so that the slopes are stable during the exploitation of the deposit.
 When the pit is in its final stage, the slope may be steepened to achieve a lower
stripping ratio. The maximum slope of the pit is then called the ultimate or final slope.
Berm- Is a horizontal shelf or ledge within the ultimate pit wall slope. The berm interval,
berm slope angle and berm width are governed by geotechnical configuration of the slope.
Berm width is maintained to catch the material/rock falling down the slope and facilitate
access to the face.
Pit limits- The vertical and lateral extend to which the open pit mining may be economically
conducted.
The cost of removing overburden versus the value of the mineral mined is the main factor
controlling the limits of the pit. Other factors that can influence pit limits are; existing surface
infrastructure, e.g townships, rivers etc.
The pit limits are placed on the section at a point where the grade of ore can pay for mining
the waste above it.
Overall pit slope angle-Is the angle at which the wall of an open pit stands as measured
between the horizontal and an imaginary line joining the top bench crest and the bottom
bench toe. For the duration of open pit mining a haul road must be maintained into the pit.
Haul road is arranged spirally along the perimeter walls of the pit so that the gradient of the
road is uniform from the top to the bottom of the pit
Zigzag or switchback system is an arrangement in which the road surmounts the steep grade
of the pit. The choice of spiral or zigzag is depended on the shape and size of the ore body,
pit slope stability and truck specifications. The haul road width is governed by the required
capacity of the road and the haulage units.
Road grade-Is defined as the inclination of the road in terms of degrees from the horizontal
or percentage of rise to the horizontal.
Angle of repose or angle of rest-Is the maximum slope at which a heap of loose material
will stand without sliding.
Stripping-Is the term applied to removing overlying material to expose the deposit and
excavating overburden within the confines of the pit after the ore is exposed.
The sub outcrop depth- Is the depth of the waste that has to be removed before ore is
exposed.
Pre-production stripping is the process of removing soil and barren rock to expose the ore
bodies.

30
2.3.2 Underground Mining terminologies
Foot wall
Hanging wall
Figure 2.2
Hanging wall - wall rock above the deposit

Footwall - wall rock under the deposit.
Dip of the deposit - the angle of inclination of a deposit measured from the horizontal
Strike of the deposit- the direction of the line of intersection of a deposit with the horizontal
plane. The strike of a deposit is the direction of a straight line that connects two points of
equal elevation on the deposit.
Shaft- is an opening made in a downward direction from the surface and is used as entrance
to a mine.
Stope- is an underground excavation from which ore has been removed.
Headframe - The structure surmounting the shaft which supports the hoist rope pulley, and
often the hoist itself.

31
Cage - In a mine shaft, the device, similar to an elevator car, that is used for hoisting
personnel and materials.
Skip- A self dumping bucket used in a shaft for hoisting ore or rock.
Pillar - An area of deposit left to support the overlying strata in a mine; sometimes left
permanently to support surface structures.
Crown pillar- is a portion of the deposit overlying an excavation and left in place as a pillar.
Rip pillar- side wall of an excavation left as a pillar
Sill pillar-portion of the deposit underlying an excavation and left in place as a pillar
Chute- Opening from a draw point, utilizing gravity flow to direct bulk material from ore-
pass to load a conveyance
Level-refers to all openings at each of the different horizons from which opening up and
mining is started.
Cross cut –It is a horizontal roadway, which cuts the ore body at an angle to the strike
Underground station - An enlargement of an entry, drift, or level at a shaft at which cages

stop to receive and discharge cars, personnel, and material. An underground station is any
location where stationary electrical equipment is installed. This includes pump rooms,
compressor rooms, hoist rooms, battery-charging rooms, etc.
Ramp - A secondary or tertiary inclined opening, driven to connect levels, usual in

downward direction, and used for haulage.
Raise- A secondary or tertiary inclined opening, vertical or near-vertical opening driven

upward form a level to connect with the level above, or to explore the ground for a limited
distance above one level
Winze-It is an excavation resembling raise but its excavation starts upper level downward.
Tunnel - A horizontal, or near-horizontal, underground passage, entry, or haulage way, that

is open to the surface at both ends. A tunnel must pass completely through a hill or mountain
Ore pass-A vertical or inclined passage that is used for transporting ore down to a lower
level or hoist.
Sump - The bottom part of the shaft where water is collected and pumped to the surface.

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2.4 Open Pit Mine
Steps in development of an open pit mine

The major steps in development of an open pit mine include;
 Determining the three-dimensional distribution of mineralization and grade
 Establishing the economic limits for the pit
 Selecting suitable sites for the waste embankments and soil stockpiles
 Clearing vegetation from land intended as sites for pit and waste embankments
 Sitting of processing, maintenance, office and transport facilities close to the pit but
outside potential pit limit expansion
 Selecting equipment and laying out haulage roads
Exploitation of an ore body by open pit method includes the following operations;
 Stripping overburden
 Mining the valuable minerals
 Auxiliary operations (operations that enable the stripping and mining operations to
proceed in a safe and efficient manner) e.g. slope stability, dust control, water
pumping and drainage, waste disposal, maintenance of equipment and haul roads,
personnel transport and environmental control operations.
The following are alternative methods for performing each of the steps in the operations;-
Drilling: auger (weak rock), roller-bit rotary (average rock), percussion (hard rock)
Blasting: Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil (ANFO) or slurry, loaded by bulk explosive trucks
or by hand, firing by electrical caps or detonating cord.
Excavation: Power shovel, hydraulic shovel, front end loader, dozer, scrapers and bucket
wheel excavator.
Haulage: Trucks, belt conveyor, dozer and scrapers (soil).
Other operations in an open pit mine

1) Preparation of a ground surface- includes;
 Clearing the vegetation
 Diversion of streams and rivers
 Draining of lakes and swamps
 Reallocation of costly structures
 Dewatering
 Protecting deposit from water inrushes.
2) Driving of permanent mining working
 Ongoing and working trenches.
Conditions for open pit mining method
The natural, spatial and geologic conditions associated with successful open pit operations
are indicated in the below list. These represent the most logical circumstances under which
the mining method known as open pit can be applied.
1. ore strength: any
2. rock strength: any
3. Deposit shape: any, but prefer deposits parallel to the surface
4. Deposit dip: any, but prefer deposits with low dip
33
5. Deposit size: large or thick

6. Ore grade: can be very low if other conditions are favorable
7. Ore uniformity: prefer uniform ore.
8. Depth: shallow to intermediate(limited by the economic strip ratio)
Advantages of open pit mining

 High productivity i.e. production per person/shift
 Lowest cost
 Higher production rate
 Relative flexible
 Ideal for large equipment
 Fairly low rock breakage cost
 Little support normally required
 Good recovery
 Favorable for health and safety factor.
Disadvantages
• Is limited by depth
• High capital investment
• Limited by stripping ratio
• Surface may require extensive reclamation
• Weather can prohibit operation.
• Slope stability is critical
• Must provide waste disposal
2.4 Open pit stripping ratio (SR)
In open-pit mining a Stripping Ratio refers to the amount of waste rock removed to recover
ore.
Overburden
A B C
d Ore body
Figure 2.3
34
The ratio of the total volume of waste to the ore volume is defined as the overall stripping
ratio.
SR = Volume of waste removed to depth d = ABD

Volume of ore recovered to depth d BCED
For example, a stripping ratio of 3:1 means to recover one ton of ore you must remove three
tons of waste rock. A large Stripping Ratio is less economical efficient than a small one,
because that means more rock will need to be moved without generating revenue. If the ratio
is going to be too large, then underground mining will usually be more efficient.
The Maximum allowable Stripping Ratio:
The maximum allowable stripping ratio is determined by economics and establishes the
ultimate boundaries of the pit where the break even occurs, i.e. where the profit margin is
zero. This stripping ratio where profit is zero or value of ore = ore production cost is
commonly called the maximum stripping ratio.
SRmax = Value of one T of ore (Shs/T) – Production cost per T of ore (Shs/T)
Stripping cost (Shs/M3 )
Units SRmax are in M3 of overburden stripped / Tone of ore mined
Marginal SR can be defined as the maximum allowable waste to ore ratio beyond which the
operation becomes uneconomic.
Stripping in a Surface Mine:
There are three general types for stripping in a surface mine;
A) Declining Stripping Ratio Method; - This method requires that each bench of ore be
mined in sequence, and all the waste on the particular bench is removed to the pit limit.
Stripping
volume
Time
Figure 2.4.1 Figure 2.4.2

35
Advantages of declining stripping ratio

 Operating space is readily available
 Accessibility of the ore on subsequent bench is easy
 All equipments working on the same level
 No contamination form waste blasting above the ore
 Equipment requirements are minimum towards the end of the mine's life
Disadvantages;
 Operating costs are a maximum during initial years when profits are required to
handle interest and repayment of capital invested.
B) The Increasing Stripping Ratio Method:
Stripping is performed as needed to uncover the ore. The working slopes of the waste faces
are essentially maintained parallel to the overall pit slope angle. This method allows for
maximum profits in the initial years of operation and reduces the investment risk in waste
removal for ore to be mined at a future date. This method is very popular where the mining
economic or cut off stripping ratio is likely to change on very short notice.
Stripping
Volume
Time
Figure 2.5.1 Figure 2.5.2
Advantages
 Maximum profit in the initial years
 Greatly reduces investment risks in waste removal for ore to be mined at future date
 Method is popular where the mining economics or cutoff ratio is likely to change
Disadvantages
 Impracticality of operating a large number of stacked, narrow benches simultaneously
to meet production needs.
C) Constant Stripping Ratio Method
This method attempts to remove the waste at a rate approximated by the overall stripping
ratio. The working slope of the waste face starts very shallow, but increases as mining depth
increases until the working slope equals the overall pit slope
36
Stripping
volume
Time
Figure 2.6
Advantages of constant stripping ratio

 Equipment fleet size and labor requirements throughout the project are relatively
constant.
 Good profit initially to increase cash flow.
 Distinct mining and stripping areas can be operated simultaneously, allowing for
flexibility in planning
Disadvantage
 Disadvantage and advantages is the compromise that removes the extreme conditions
of other two stripping methods.
We can divide the overburden thickness by ore thickness to get the stripping ratio
For example if we have an overburden thickness of 80m and ore thickness of 50 m , then the
stripping ratio will be: 80/50= 1.6
SR = 1.6: 1 (1.6 thickness of waste removed to extract one thickness of ore body)
In general, minerals are sold on the basis of weight, varying from carats for gem stones,
ounces for precious metals, pounds or kilograms for the more valuable base metals, and on to
tons (be they short, metric, or long) for less valuable metals, ores, and most of the industrial
minerals. In some cases the price is stated on the basis of the metal content of certain ores
rather than gross weight.
2.5 Dilution and Ore/mining Losses
Dilution is the waste that is not segregated from ore during mining operation resulted either
to increase the volume of ore mined or decreased the grade of that ore.
Mining losses or ore losses are due to segregated small isolated pods and small irregular
offshoots from the main ore body.
Ore losses and dilution are caused by mismatch between the mining geometry and ore
geometry.

37
Ways to determine the dilution;
For metallurgical Engineer;
Dilution = (mass of waste / (mass of waste + mass of ore)) *100%
For mining Engineer;
Dilution = (mass of waste/ mass of ore) * 100%
or sometimes;
Dilution = (resource grade – diluted grade)/ resource grade *100%
Example; Consider 200tonnes of ore of 15% grade diluted with 20tonnes of materials of
8%grade to give 220tonnes at 13.45%grade. Calculate the dilution using formula above

38
CHAPTER THREE
Tips: Mining Cycle Operations and Basic Concepts of Opening up a Deposit
3.1 Mining Cycle Operations
The exploitation of ore body can be conducted under different mining cycle operations such
as;
a) Ground surface preparation
b) Mining the valuable minerals
c) Auxiliary operations
A: Ground surface preparation
Includes;
 Clearing the vegetation
 Diversion of lakes and rivers
 Drainage of lake and swamps
 Reallocation of costly structures
 Dewatering
B: Mining the valuable minerals
Includes
 Stripping overburden
• Ore and waste extraction
Both scenarios can be conducted under the following operations;
• Drilling
• Blasting
• Loading and
• Transportation

39
Drilling activities include;
 Drilling pattern check-up

• Identify the location (orientation) and obstacle.
• Level the bench floor by using the grader/dozer (push broken materials per current
pattern).
 Drilling pattern layout: - Is the process of extend the holes point that was allocated by
the surveyor crew. Only tape, spray markup and pegs/small stones-for making hole
points with two or three drilling people
Procedures;
• One person stands at one known point with the measuring tape,
• Another person goes with the tape to the other known end.
• The third person passes through the tape marked hole for each space according the
designing
Example: Spacing x Burden – 5.7x5.0 for 171mm hole diameter.

Spacing x burden – 3.2 x 2.8 for 115mm hole diameter.
 Drilling process and offsider
Drilling process: Holes were drilled by the qualified operators after being trained.
Offsider: The person who is selected to be the offsider deals with

• Spotting drill rigs to the marked holes.
• Pre-start of the drill rigs under rig operator.
• Dealing with quality control activities.
• Helping the rig operator to change bit, hammer etc.
Blasting activities include;
 Plant processes- manufacturing of explosive (ANFO, Reo Flex etc)

 Magazine storage- High explosive and detonators
 Blasting field works include;
 Quality control for explosive

 Priming
 Charging
 Stemming
 Tie-up and firing
 Blast monitoring
Daily production report includes
◦ Amount of high explosive used
◦ Amount of Detonators used
◦ Volume blasted
 Monthly production report includes the summation of the daily
consumables

40
Loading and Transportation activities include;
 Removing all free debris at the loading and tipping areas.

 Determine the number of dump trucks per shovel or digger
 Determine the length and width of the haul routes
 Determine th condition of the haul routes
 Continuing graded, watered and free of spillage of the haul routes
 Putting haul roads sign such as stop sign, speed limit, give way etc are in correct
place, clean and visible.
 Making a correct windrow where needed especially at the ramp
C: Auxiliary Operations – are operations that enable the stripping and mining operation to
proceed in a safe and efficient manner.
 Water pumping and drainage – Equipments: Pump & pipes
 Dust control – Equipments; Water Trucks
 Slope stability- Pre-split, prism &Blast control
 Waste disposal – Waste and domestic dump construction
 Maintenance workshop construction.
3.2 Basic Concepts of Opening up a Deposit
Opening up of ore deposit provides access from the surface to the deposit or from the same
already exploited parts of a mine to an overlying or underlying unmined portion of it. The
working openings such as shafts, cross cuts, adits or permanent ore passes used for
underground haulage and hoisting minerals and barren rocks to the surface.
Other operations include equipments and materials to the working stations, airing of faces,
removal of water, and other purposes.
There are three parts of opening up working;

i. Main working
ii. Auxiliary
iii. Supplementary
 Main working- either the whole quantity or the major part of the useful mineral is
delivered to the surface. Main working provides facility for the transportation of the
main material, equipment and other facilities.

41
 Auxiliary workings-do not serve the purpose of delivering ore to the surface. Only
part of extracted ore sometimes passes to the surface but they provide other facilities
such as ventilation, dewatering, etc.
 Supplementary workings-are used where the mode of occurrence is complex or the

depth of working is greater or higher than main or auxiliary depending on the purpose
served.
Methods of opening up ore deposit are;
1) Simple methods- do not incorporate supplementary workings i.e. one type of main entry is
used.
• Opening by vertical shaft through the deposit, footwall, hanging wall and lateral sides
• Opening by an inclined shaft through the deposit, footwall and lateral sides.
• Opening by an adit through the deposit, footwall and hanging wall
2) Combined method- are those that comprise supplementary opening

• Opening by a vertical shaft from the surface with transition to a vertical blind shaft
• Opening by a vertical shaft from the surface with transition to the inclined shaft
• Opening by an inclined shaft from the surface with transition to inclined blind shaft
• Opening by an adit with transition to vertical blind shafts
• Opening by an adit with transition to inclined blind shafts
Vertical shaft located at different positions for Opening up ore body
Figure 3.1
Common method employed in opening up underground coal and metalliferous.
Discussion at V1
Advantages
-Cross cuts will be of minimal extent
-Permits reduction in the cost of excavation, maintenance, transport and ventilation.
Disadvantages
-It needs to leave protective pillar for vertical shaft and therefore a considerable amount of
coal is lost in the pillar
42
Discussion at V2
The vertical shaft is located in the footwall away from the ore body and therefore does not
interfere with extraction of the ore. This method is widely used in mining practice.
Advantages
-Protective pillar does not touch the ore body
-The vertical shaft is far from the subsidence area which reduces the cost of repair to the shaft
due to blasting
Disadvantages
Increase length of cross cut and increase cost of excavation
Opening up an inclined bedded deposit through an inclined shaft
Figure 3.2.1
Figure 3.2.2
43
Method 1
No cross cuts are necessary since the shaft is in the ore body itself
Advantages
 Possibility of having very fine information gained during exploration-

geological structure-properties of ore-metal content and hydrological
conditions.
 The inclined shaft can be sunk without intercepting the aquifers
 Mineral extraction can be carried out during shaft sinking.
Disadvantages
 Greater length of the shaft
 Increase pressure on the inclined shaft support
 Large self pillars has to be left(part of the ore body is lost)
Method 2
Cross cuts are driven from the shaft in the direction to the orebody
Advantages
 Less amount of support work will be required compared with variant 1
 Better control of drainage
Disadvantage
 Cost of excavation
Combined methods of opening up
Figure 3.3

44
Advantages
The changing of the vertical shaft to the sub-inclined vertical shaft driven to the footwall
ensures considerable decrease in the length of cross cut as the mine is deepening. This
reduces the cost of excavation, transportation and drainage etc.
Disadvantages
 Supplementary hoisting system increase capital cost
 Real loading of rock from transport system to another, a complicated construction of
loading boxes and shaft pocket become necessary
 Complication of mine ventilation system

45
CHAPTER FOUR
Unit Operation of Mining
Unit operation of mining is the basic and fundamental production unit of any mining
company. The uniqueness of the operations led to be grouped into two types exemplified as
Rock breakage and Material handling.
Tips: Drilling, Blasting, Loading, Transportation and Swell factor.
Rock breakage; is the freeing or detaching of large masses of hardening rock from parent
deposit.
Types of Rock Breakage
a. Drilling Operations or Rock Penetration

b. Blasting Operations or Rock Fragmentation
4.1 DRILLING OPERATIONS (Rock Penetration)
Drilling operations include;
4.1.1 Purpose of Drilling Operation
Drilling operations are conducted for the purpose of;

 Placement of explosives and detonators
 Taking mineral deposits sample during exploration
 Placement of rock bolt which helps to support weak rock roof & side wall
 For electrical cable attachment to the rock
 For water pipes and compressed air attachment
 For communication line systems
4.1.2 Operating Components of the Drill System
 The drill ( Energy source generated, includes electrical wires, engine,

hydraulic systems, etc)
 The drill rod (Transmit energy to the bit)
 Drill bit ( attack the rock with either rotation or percussive action)
 The circulating fluid system (control dust, cool bit and removing chips)
4.1.3 Drilling Methods
a) Percussive or Hammer Drilling

b) Rotary Drilling
c) Rotary Percussive Drilling

46
4.1.4 Factors affecting Drilling Performance
a. Operating variable includes drill, rod, bit and fluid

b. Drill hole factor includes hole size, length, inclination etc
c. Rock factor. It consists of properties of rocks, geological conditions, drillability factor
etc
d. Service factor. It needs operator and supervisor to operate and supply different drill
rig consumption
4.1.5 Drilling Selection
Drilling selection depends on the following parameters;

a. Process of energy and power consumption
b. Penetration rate
c. Bit wear- Bit life span
d. overall cost
4.1.6 Steps involved in Engineering Evaluation of a Drilling System
i. Determine and specify the conditions under which the rig will be utilized. Eg if it is
underground or surface mining, hard or soft rocks etc
ii. State objectives for the rock breakage phase of the production cycles in terms of
tonnage, fragmentation, vibration etc
iii. Based on blasting requirement (parameters), designs the drill holes patterns for
surface mining or round for underground blasting
iv. Determine drillability factors for the rock anticipated and identify the drilling method
appear feasible
v. Specify the operating variables for each system under consideration including drill,
rod, bit and circulating fluid
vi. Estimate performance parameters include machine availability and costs
vii. Select the drilling system that meet all requirements including safety and has the
lowest overall cost.
4.1.7 Drill Holes Pattern Layout
 Square Pattern (B=S)

 Staggered Square Pattern (B=S)
 Rectangular Pattern(B<S)
 Staggered Rectangular Pattern(B<S)

47
Figure 4.1.1 Square Pattern
Figure 4.1.2 Rectangular Pattern
4.2 BLASTING OPERATIONS (Rock Fragmentation)
Rock fragmentation is the breakage function carried out on large scale to fragment masses of
rock. The application of explosives to the fragmentation of rock for mining or extractive
purposes is often referred to as a science as well as an art. Blasting is the predominant
fragmentation method employed. Blasting using chemical explosives have wide spread use
for all consolidated materials in both surface and underground.

48
4.2.1 Chemical Explosive
An explosive or blasting agent is compound or mixture of compound which when initiated by

heat, impact or friction, undergoes a very rapid self-propagating exothermic reaction. The
explosion is the decomposition of explosive to give self-propagating and exothermic reaction.
This reaction produces more stable products usually gases which exert tremendous pressure
as they expand at high temperature.
4.2.2 Types of Initiation;

(a) Heat (b). Impact (c). Friction
4.2.3 Chemical Reaction of Explosives
Explosive consists of mixture of compound (Matrix), oxidizer and fuel mixed together in a
certain proportional. Most of the explosives contain the following elements; Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Hydrogen and Carbon together with metallic elements such as Al, Mg, Na, & Ca.
There are four types of explosives;

(a) Initiating explosive (b) High explosive (c) Blasting agent (d) Low explosives
4.2.4 Chemical Reaction in Cylindrical Hole
Kind of reaction when initiated explosives
Figure 4.2 Explosive Reaction
An idealized detonation wave traveling through a cylindrical explosive shape, producing an

increase in pressure. The steady-state chemical reaction takes place behind the shock front
within the reaction zone. At the end of this zone, a non-steady state region exists. It is created
by a flow of expanding gases in a direction opposite to that of the traveling wave front. The
boundary between the steady and non-steady states is referred to as the Chapman-Jouget (C-
J) plane. At this plane, the chemical reaction is complete, assuming an ideal detonation. It is
at the C-J plane that all the thermodynamic properties of pressure P, velocity V, temperature
T, internal energy E or heat of formation Q, and density ρ, are calculated

49
Other chemical substances may be added to affect the strength sensitivity, water resistance,
stability or other important parameters of the explosive.
Chemical explosive reacts with the speed either less or greater the speed of sound (... m/s)
When the speed of reaction is faster than the speed of sound, the reaction is called Detonation
(Supersonic speed) and, when the speed of reaction is less than the speed of sound is called
Deflagration.
Detonation reaction is accomplished by shock waves, High explosives/Blasting agents

(ANFO)
Deflagration reaction is accomplished by low explosive. Is very rapid burning but not an
explosion and not associated with shock waves.
Explosives break rocks as a result of both the impact of shock waves and expanding effect of
the higher pressure gases favored during a detonation due to the two things takes place during
explosives, first the shock wave is traveled in any direction and bringing the disturbance to
the rock that is called shuttering effect and, second the larger pressure occupied the space and
the proportion of breakage depends on;
 Energy density
 Buck density
 Rate of energy released
 Pressure – time history of the gas generated
 Rock properties ( Density and porosity, rock structure-Joint, bedded, fractures
etc, rock strength, energy absorption, modulus of elasticity etc
The work done by chemical explosives in the fragmentation and displacement of rock
depends on the shock energy as well as the energy of the expanding gases.
4.2.5 Oxygen Balance
The primary criterion of efficient energy to be released is to balance the oxygen. The oxygen
balance (OB) is the ratio of surplus or deficiency of oxygen contained in the molecules of an
explosive to the amount of oxygen required to oxidize all the combustible components in the
explosive molecules. The point at which an explosive has sufficient oxygen to completely
oxidize all the contained fuels but no excess oxygen to react with the contained nitrogen is
called a Zero Oxygen Balance.
Why Zero OB?

 Is the point where energy output is optimized
 Is the point where formation of toxic chemical gases (nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide, Methane) is minimized
For example, if only oxygen, hydrogen and carbon are involved, and the reaction forms
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water, the proper equation is;
OB = Original Oxygen content - Oxygen formed into carbon dioxide - Oxygen formed into
water.
The energy released during the reaction is obtained by calculating the difference in the heat
of formation of the ingredients and products as shown below;

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(1) 94.5% AN + 5.5%FO to give Oxygen balanced

3NH4NO3 + CH2 = 7H2O + CO2 + 3N2 + 930 kcal/kg
(2) 92.0%AN + 8.0%FO (Fuel excess)

2NH4NO3 + CH2 = 5H2O + CO + 2N2 + 810kcal/kg
(3) 96.6%AN + 3.4%FO (Fuel shortage)

5NH4NO3 + CH2 = 11H2O +CO2 + 4N2 +2NO +600kcal/kg
The effect of energy output of different percentages of fuel oil is added to AN on both sides
of the oxygen balanced mixture is as shown in the figure below. There is a fall of energy
output, but it is more pronounced on the fuel lean side, because of this, most operators run the
mixture slightly at fuel rich.
Fuel Rich
Energy
Output
Fuel Lean
kcal/kg
Figure 4.3 Percent of Fuel Oil

OB = Oo-2Co-0.5Ho
where Oo, Co and Ho are number of g-atoms/kg of oxygen, carbon and hydrogen
respectively in the original explosive.
4.2.6 Oxygen Balance Calculation
Consider the formula below; C xHyNwOz = xC+yH+wN+zO
That is to burn all the C to CO2, twice the number of O to C atoms are needed: (x)(2xO).
Similarly, One O is needed for every 2H atoms burnt to form H 2O (y/2O) because there are z
atoms of oxygen in each CxHyNwOz molecule, to be perfectly balanced, all CHNO explosive
needs,
If z = (2x+y/2), which equals to zero oxygen
If z> (2x+y/2), the explosive is over oxidized
If z< (2x+y/2), the explosive is under oxidized
Often we express the OB in terms of weight percent of excess oxygen;

𝑦
100 𝑥 𝐴𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 𝑥 (𝑧−2𝑥− )
2
𝑂𝐵% = %
𝑀𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑦
1600 𝑥 (𝑧−2𝑥− )
Therefore 𝑂𝐵% = 2
%
𝑀𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒

51
Eg. (1) Calculate OB% for Nitroglycol- C2H4N2O6. (OB=0%); C=12, H=1, N=14, O=16
(2) Calculate the percent of OB for Nitroglycerine-C3H5N3O9. (OB=3%). Is NG under or
over oxidized?
4.2.7 Blasting Properties of Explosives;

i. Velocity of Detonation
ii. Detonation Pressure
iii. Explosive pressure
iv. Cap sensitivity
v. Water resistance
The Detonation Velocity is the speed at which the detonation front moves through a column
of explosives. For high explosives such as dynamite, the strength of an explosive increases
with detonation rate. For dry blasting agents and water-based explosives, field loading
conditions greatly affect detonation velocity. Such conditions include borehole diameter,
density, confinement within the borehole, the presence of water, and other factors. The speed
of detonation is important when blasting in hard, competent rock where a shuttering
(brisance) effect is desired for good fragmentation.
For most explosives, there is a minimum diameter below which detonation velocity increases
nonlinearly with increasing borehole diameter. Above the explosive has reached its steady-
state velocity. At this point, all thermodynamic properties are at a maximum as the reaction
front approaches a plane shock front. At diameters less than complete reactions do not take
place, and less than ideal energy and pressure evolve from the slower detonation rates. This
represents a loss in terms of dollars spent on explosive energy.
The Critical Diameter of an explosive is the smallest diameter at which an explosive will
maintain a steady-state detonation. Below this critical diameter, explosives may deflagrate or
“dead press”. Dead pressing occurs when an explosive is densified to a point that no free
oxygen is available to ensure the start or progression of detonation. Establishing the critical
diameter of all explosives is an important explosive selection criterion.
Detonation Pressure is the maximum theoretical pressure achieved within the reaction zone
and measured at the C-J plane in a column of explosives.
The actual pressure achieved is somewhat less than this maximum due to non-ideal loading
conditions always present in practice and due to certain explosive formulation. Most
commercial explosives achieve pressures in the range of 2 to 24 GPa. Although detonation
pressure is related to the temperature of the reaction, a number of simplifying formulas are
available for estimating detonation pressure for granular explosives based on detonation
velocity and density.
Borehole Pressure is the maximum pressure exerted within the borehole upon completion of
the explosive reaction measured behind the C-J plane. Such measurements cannot be made
directly and are done during underwater tests performed for energy and strength
determinations.
The Cap Sensitivity test measures the minimum energy required for initiation and is used to
classify explosives (e.g., cap sensitive vs. non-cap sensitive products) or the ability to initiate
an explosive directly with a standard cap.
From the standpoint of safety and accidental detonations, the sensitivity of an explosive to
shock, impact, friction, and heat determine its storage and handling characteristics.
52
4.2.8 Explosives Selection
Selection of an explosive and blasting system is relatively complicated task. The objectives
are to optimize the overall process of excavation. Therefore, the blasting operation must
consider the cost of drilling, excavation and hauling. The blasting effectiveness determines
the following criteria;
Explosive Costs
The cost of individual explosive products is a vital factor in their selection. This is the
primary reason for the infrequent use of dynamite in today's world and growth of AN-based
explosives
Charge Diameter
The borehole diameter and the critical diameter of explosive limit the charge diameter.
Changing the drilling tools can change the hole diameter, but the critical diameter of
explosive as a property of the explosives
Rock Blastability
Rock conditions and the geological environment must be considered and evaluated. The hard,
soft, dense, brittle, plastic or variable rock may necessitate a unique blasting parameters
Water Conditions
Wet overburden requires the use of water-resistant explosive or water repellent containers.
The ability of an explosive to withstand exposure to water for long periods of time without
loss of strength or ability to detonate defines the water resistance.
Fume Released
If fumes are substantial, adequate ventilation must be provided in underground mines.
Example: Find the oxygen balance for nitroglycerin, C 3H 5O 9N 3 and TNT, C7H5O6N3.
4.3 SWELL FACTOR
Swell factor is the fractional increase in material volume that occurs when it is fragmented
and removed from its natural state (bank volume) and deposited in a loosened state (loose
volume). It can be expressed as either a decimal fraction or as a percentage.
To calculate the swell factor of materials, divide 100 by (100 + % of swell) that is;
SF = 1/ (1 + %Swell).
To calculate the Loose Cubic Metric LCM, (Broken materials) of materials, divide the Bank
Cubic metric BCM (materials in-situ) by the swell factor.
Swell factor = Bank Volume = Density of materials in LCM

Loose Volume Density of materials in BCM
Swell factor is the fractional value represents amount of loose materials together with air
present or water basement compared to their natural state materials.

53
Example; One BCM will swell to 1.33 times in loose state, calculate the density of 1.66t/m3
when swell is 33%.
SF = 1/1.33 = 0.75 or SF= 1/ (1+swell)
Loose density = 1.66t/m3 * 0.75 = 1.245 t/m3
4.4 Material Handling: Loading and Hauling
The combined tasks of loading and haulage are the foundation of the mining industry. In the
simplest scenario, a loading device (Shovel, Digger or Loader) is used to load fragmented ore
into a haul trucks or unit conveyor belt, which carries the ore to a facility where it will be
beneficiated at the stockpiles while waste materials transported to the waste dumps.
4.4.1 EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATION
To discuss loading and haulage it is necessary to address specific types of equipment or

groups of equipment with common characteristics. The equipment used for loading and
haulage are classified according to the type of function that machines perform (i.e., loading,
haulage, or a combination of loading and haulage) and the manner in which they operate (the
form that the material has in the process either discrete units or a continuous flow of
material).
The distinction between discrete units of material and a continuous material flow is an
important one from the standpoint of production capacity calculations. All the production
calculations for loading and haulage equipment that treat the material as discrete units can be
characterized by a cycle. These cycles are sequences of constituent operations that the
machine performs in loading or hauling one complete unit of material. Estimating the cycle
time, then, is the key to determining the production capacity of this equipment type.
The output of the continuous flow operation is characterized typically by the cross-sectional
area of the material flow multiplied by the speed at which the material is traveling.
Tram is the movement of the equipments (Loader) in minimum distance to load truck. Haul
path refers to the distance and gradient over which a mobile equipments must travel.
Conveyor belt is the fixed path where by materials can be transported continuous.
LOAD HAUL COMBINED

No tramming Minimal Non fixed Fixed path Mobile Fixed-base
tramming path
Discrete Unit Digger or Loader Trucks Rail, Tractor Scraper, Dozer Dragline,
Shovel (FEL) Skip hoist, or Load Haul Dump Stripping Shovel
Slusher etc (LHD)
Continuous Flow Bucket Wheel Bulk Fluid This category is not characterized by single
Excavator Solids: Transport: machines. Rather, continuous loaders and
(BWE), Belt Slurry haulers are placed in series to create a
Bucket Chain conveyor, pipeline continuous flow of materials. eg. Longwall
Excavator, Screw Pneumatic shearer and chain conveyor, BWE and belt
Dredge or conveyor, transport. conveyor, Auger head and screw conveyor.
Continuous Chain Therefore, production capacity of the
Miner conveyor combined system is the smaller production
capacity of the two components.
Figure 4.4 Classification of L& H equipments

54
4.4.2 Loading and Hauling Terms
It is necessary to define several fundamental terms that are independent of specific equipment
types. These terms are as follows.
1. Production: Total volume or weight of material to be handled in a specific operation.

It can refer to either the economic mineral to be produced or to the waste material.
Mineral production is given most frequently in units of weight while waste rock is
often expressed in units of volume. It is common, for example, to refer to total annual
production.
2. Production rate: The theoretical production volume or weight of a machine per unit of
time. It is usually expressed on an hourly basis but can be given for other units of time
such as a shift or a day.
3. Productivity: The actual production per unit of time when all efficiency and other
management factors are considered. It can also be referred to as a net production rate,
or production per unit of labor and time (e.g., tons/employee-shift).
4. Efficiency: The percentage of the estimated production rate that is actually handled by
a machine. Reductions in production rate can be related to the machine itself,
personnel, or job conditions. The efficiency factor can be expressed as the average
number of minutes worked at full production in one hour divided by 60 minutes .
5. Availability: That portion of the scheduled operating time that a machine is

mechanically ready to work.
6. Utility (Utilization): That portion of the available time that a machine is actually
working.
7. Capacity: Refers to the volume of material that a loading or haulage unit can hold at
any point in time (e.g., volume of a loading machine bucket or a truck bed). Capacity
can be classified according to the following two types:
a. Struck capacity: The volume of material in a loading or haulage unit when it is filled to the
top, but with no material above the sides or carried on any external attachments such as
bucket teeth.
b. Heaped capacity: The maximum volume of material that a loading or haulage unit can
handle when the material is heaped above the sides.
While the struck capacity is a constant for any unit, the heaped capacity is a function of the
material properties and the shape of the unit.
8. Rated capacity: The load that a machine can carry in terms of weight. Most machines
are designed to carry a particular weight rather than volume. Therefore, the volume of
material handled will be dependent upon the density of the material and will vary with
density for a given machine while the maximum weight is a constant and is a function
of the strength of the machine components.

55
9. Swell factor: Is the fractional increase in material volume that occurs when it is
fragmented and removed from its natural state (bank volume) and deposited in a
loosened state (loose volume). It can be expressed as either a decimal fraction or as a
percentage.
10. Bucket fill factor: An adjustment to the capacity of a loading machine bucket. It is
expressed generally as a decimal and corrects the capacity of the bucket to the actual
volume of material it moves by taking into consideration the material heaping
characteristics, the angle of repose, and the skill of the operator in filling the bucket.
11. Cycle: As mining is described generally as a cycle of unit operations, so each unit
operation is generally cyclical in nature. The unit operations of loading and haulage
can be divided into an orderly rotation of steps or sub operations.
For example, the most common components of a discrete unit haulage cycle are load, haul,
dump, and return. From an equipment selection or production planning standpoint, the
duration of each component is of primary importance. The sum of the time durations for one
complete cycle is called the cycle time.
4.4.3 Basic Steps for Equipment Selection
The objective of the equipment selection process for loading and haulage is to select a single
machine or combination of machines that is capable of moving a specified amount of material
over a known distance within a given period of time. While minimization of cost may be
stated as a goal, most designs are based upon a minimum acceptable rate of return.
The following is a basic step used to select equipment.
1. Determine required production: The total production requirement can be affected by a

number of factors that are external to a particular mine. These factors include sales
projections, contracts, amount of available reserves, and other operations of the
company in question. Based upon consideration of these factors, management must
make a decision concerning the total amount of mineral to be produced. Production
requirements are stated generally for an entire year. The total annual production
requirement for the mine must then be converted into daily or hourly production rates
for each operation. Production rates for specific operations within the mining cycle
will be affected by such factors as percentage recovery, ore grade, and stripping ratio
in the case of surface operations.
For example, as the stripping ratio increases in a surface coal mine, the overburden removal
rate must increase proportionally to maintain the same coal production rate. Therefore,
loading and haulage production rates must be determined for the mineral commodity and for
waste rock when its removal is necessary for mineral extraction.
2. Determine reach or haul path: Fixed-base equipment load at one location and then
swing in an arc to dump at a second location. The maximum horizontal distance over
which a machine can either load or dump is referred to as its reach. The geometry of
the deposit to be excavated is the primary factor in determining the required reach of a
machine.

56
For both mobile haulers and combined mobile loader-hauler units there is some distance to be
traversed between the loading point and the dumping point. However, this distance is not
necessarily represented by a straight line. In underground operations, the haul path is
constrained mainly by the geometry of the mine openings, but can also be affected by such
factors as ventilation and power availability. Topography is the primary consideration in
determining surface haul paths. However, property boundaries and legal right-of-ways may
also be involved.
3. Calculate cycle time: The cycle time for a unit operation can be divided into two
primary components. The first component consists of those tasks that have a relatively
constant duration from one application to the next. This includes such tasks as
turning, spotting, dumping, and loading. Estimates of the time required for each of
these fixed components of the cycle are generally available from equipment
manufacturers. These estimates are based upon experience and are given for specific
equipment models operating over a range of job conditions. The variable component
of the cycle time is associated with the travel time for mobile equipment and the
swing time for fixed-base equipment.
Swing time is controlled primarily by the swing angle. Travel time for mobile equipment is
much more variable. It is dependent not only upon the haul distance but also the geometry of
the haul path and the speed of the vehicle, which is itself a function of available power, total
resistance, and load.
4. Calculate capacity: The general relationship between production rate, cycle time, and
capacity is quite simple and can be stated as production rate = capacity × (no. of
cycles/unit time)
When all efficiency factors are considered, productivity = production rate × efficiency factors
5. Iteration to improve productivity. Repeat step (4) to improve the productivity.
6. Calculate fleet size: The total number of the machines needed to satisfy the
production requirement. Up to this point, the discussion of equipment selection has
assumed either a single loader-hauler unit or a single loader paired with a single
haulage unit. However, it may not be possible or desirable to supply the entire
required capacity in this manner. Although there is an economy of scale (i.e., the unit
cost of material handled tends to decrease as the capacity of the machine increases),
this gain must be weighed against the uncertainty associated with the availability of a
single machine. Whereas a fleet can continue to produce when one machine is
unavailable, a single-machine operation is idled when the machine is mechanically
unavailable. The total number of machines needed to satisfy the production
requirement can then be determined using a probabilistic cumulative availability.
7. Iterate to reduce owning and operating costs: Two alternatives, either to operate with
one excavator to load five trucks (100tonnes) or two excavators to load five trucks
(100tonnes). Looking in the operating costs to choose what alternative will bring
minimum cost.
The technical phase of the selection process will most likely identify a number of feasible
loading and haulage system alternatives. These alternatives may include a single machine, a
pair of machines, or a fleet of machines. A cost comparison should be performed to evaluate
the total cost per unit of production considering differences in capital costs, operating costs,
and the estimated life of the equipment.
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4.4.4 Loading and Haulage Production Calculations
A. Production Capacity of Discrete Unit Loaders
Discrete unit loaders that require no tramming include backhoes, hydraulic excavators,
mining (or loading) shovels and small draglines that are used to load-haulage vehicles.
Production is dependent on average bucket payload, average cycle time, job efficiency etc.
Bucket Payload;
An excavator’s bucket payload (actual amount of material in the bucket on each digging
cycle) is dependent on bucket size, shape, curl force, and certain soil characteristics (e.g., the
fill factor for that soil).
i. Production (m3/60-min hr) = Cycle/60-min hr * Average bucket payload (m3)

ii. Production (m3/60-min hr) = (60-min hr/ cycle time-min) * Aver. Bucket Payload
(m3)
iii. Actual Production (m3/60-min hr) = (m3/60-min hr) * Job efficiency factor.
iv. The average bucket payload = Heaped bucket capacity * Bucket fill factor.
v. The digging cycle of the excavator is composed of four segments;
a). Load bucket b). Swing loaded c). Dump bucket d). Swing empty
Total excavator cycle time is dependent on machine size (small machines can cycle faster
than large machines) and job conditions.
vi. The haulage cycle time of the trucks is composed of the following segments: (a)
Loading time (b) Turning, spotting and dumping time (c) Spot time at loading
position (d) Haul time (e) Return time
vii. Rolling resistance is the measure of the force that must be overcome to roll or pull
wheel over the ground.
viii. Grade resistance is the resistance that overcame to move a machine over unfavorable
grade/uphill. Total Resistance is equal to the sum of rolling and grade resistance.
Example 1: Select the bucket size for a fleet on mining shovels at an iron ore operation given
the following assumptions about the operation.
Daily required capacity 32,700 tpd
Estimated daily operating time 17.02 hours
Diggability rating very hard digging
Estimated work cycle 37 seconds
Material bulk weight 2 tonnes/m3
Swell factor 0.60
Dipper fill factor 0.80
Solution
Shovel cycles per day = Operating hr × 3600
Work cycle in sec
= 17.02 × 3600
37
= 1656 cycles/day

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Required Material; Tonnage per Cycle = Daily tonnage

Number of cycles
= 32700
1656
= 19.75 tons per cycle
Density in LCM = Density of material in BCM * SF
Effective Bucket Capacity = Bucket Size * BF
Bucket Size (m3) = Tonnage per cycle / (Density in LCM*BF*SF)

= 19.75 / (2*0.6*0.8)
= 20.6 m3
If daily required capacity of the three (3) machines is 32700 tpd, calculate the bucket size
assuming all machines had the same bucket size and number of trips (cycles). (Ans=6.9m3)
Example 2: Given that the percentage swell of an Iron is 45% and the following operating
characteristics;
Bucket Capacity = 5.5 m3
Total cycle time = 35sec
Effective bucket fill factor = 0.85
Shift excavator utilization factor = 0.65
Specific gravity = 3.85
(a) Calculate the theoretical tonnage output per working hrs of an excavator.
(b) Assuming an 8 hrs working shift, calculate the tonnage output of excavator
Solution: SF = 1/ 1.45 = 0.6897
Shift Utilization hr = 0.65 *8hr = 5.2 hrs
Effective Bucket Capacity = 0.85 * 5.5 m3 = 4.675m3
Number of cycle in hr = 3600/35 = 102.857 cycles/ hr
(a)Tonnage output per working hrs = Bucket capacity* No. of cycles in hr * SG*SF
= 1276.83 tonnes/hr
Number of cycles per shift = number of cycle in hr * 5.2 hrs = 534.857 cycles / shift
Tonnage output per shift = Bucket capacity*No. Of cycles per shift*SG *SF
= 6639.567 tonnes / shift
Tasks: If the effective bucket capacity factor (Bucket fill factor) changes, calculate the (a)
and (b) above. Explain what happened?

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B. Production Capacity of Continuous Flow
Bucket wheel excavators (BWEs) are probably the predominant type of equipment in this
class, but it also includes bucket chain excavators and bucket dredges. The theoretical output
of a BWE is based on the bucket size and the number of bucket discharges per minute. If I is
nominal bucket capacity in m3, Z is number of buckets in the wheel, V1 is cutting speed of the
wheel in m/s and D is diameter of the wheel in m, then
Ss = (V1 *Z) / П D where Ss = number of bucket discharges per second
Qt = I * Ss *3600 where Qt is BWE hourly capacity in m3 in soil/rocks with specific

cutting resistance Kt
The required cutting power depends on the type of ground, the cross-sectional area and the
shape of the slice cut, the configuration and sharpness of the cutter blades, the shape of the
teeth, and the cutting speed. Hard ground requires a high specific cutting force, high cutting
speeds, and additional cutting blades between the buckets.
If Q1 is BWE hourly capacity in m3 with specific cutting resistance K1, and Q2 is BWE hourly
capacity in m3 with specific cutting resistance K2. Thus, the actual capacity of the BWE in
any material is given by;
Q1 /Q2 = K22/K12
Qa = I * Ss *3600* Bf = Qt * Bf
Where Bf is bucket filling capacity in the soil expressed as a fraction of the nominal bucket
capacity and Qa is actual capacity of the BWE in m3/sec or multiply Qa by 3600 to be m3/hr
Example 3: A bucket wheel excavator has eight buckets with a nominal capacity of
2m3/bucket. The wheel has a diameter of 15 m and operates at a speed of 0.4 m/s. In a
material with a digging resistance of 25 kg/cm, the BWE is producing 400m3/hr. If the speed
of the bucket does not change, what would be the bucket-fill factor (i.e., fraction of nominal
bucket capacity) for the buckets when cutting a material with a digging resistance of
45kg/cm?
Solution
The production rate in the new material can be determined as follows;
V1=0. 4m/s,k1= 25kg/cm,I=2m3/bucket,Q1=400m3/hr
Z = 8buckets, K2 = 45kg / cm,Then,
Q2 = 400  25 / 45  25 / 45 = 123.46m3 / hr
Ss = 0.4 * 8 / (22/7*15) = 0.0679
Bf = Q2 / I  Ss  3600 = 123.46 / 2  0.0679  3600 = 0.253

Therefore the bucket fill factor is 0.253 or 25.3% when cutting materials with a digging
resistance of 45kg/cm.
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Example 4: A 12m3 bucket of a loading shovel operates on a blasted bench of an iron ore
with a loose density of 2000kg/LCM. The same ore when dumped at stockpile was
compacted by a dozer to 120% of its bank volume resulting in the compacted density of
2300kg/LCM, what were the;
(i) Bank density of the ore before blasting and
(ii) What was the % swell of the ore after blasting?
Solution; Swell factor during compaction; SF = 1/1.2 = 0.833
Bank Density = Loose density/ SF = 2300/0.833 = 2760 kg/BCM before blasting
SF after blasting: SF = 2000/2760 = 0.725
1 / SF = 1+ Swell; Swell = 1 / SF  1 = 1 / 2760 / 2000  1 = 0.38
The % swell was 0.38 or 38% after blasting
Example 5: A cement manufacturing company requires 100,000 tonnes of limestone be

supplied daily. The contractor wants to order loading shovels which must be 7m3 of bucket
size capacity. Manufacturing supplied the following;
a) Cycle time per pass = 20 sec
b) Limestone SG = 2.5
c) Swell factor of material after blasting= 60%
d) Bf = 80%
The mine operates for 2shifts of 8hrs each with two hours of shift changes and minor
servicing and refueling. How many loading shovels should the contractor order from the
manufacturer?
Solution;
The number of loading shovel depends on the bucket size according to the specification given
and, equal to overall bucket capacity of the data given per required bucket capacity (7m3)
Overall Bucket capacity OC is given by;
OC = Tonnage / Cycle / SG  SF  BF 
Number of cycle = ((8*2-2)*3600)/20sec = 14*3600sec/20sec= 2520
Tonnage per Cycle = 100000/2520 = 39.683
OC = 39.683 / 2.5  0.8  0.6 = 33.069m3
But OC = Required Bucket Capacity * Number of loading shovel
The number of loading shovel = 33.069m3/7m3 = 4.7 = 5 loading shovel

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Example 6. A 14m3 (heaped 2:1) bucket has a 105% fill factor when operating in a sandstone
with 2000 kg/m3 (BCM) and 35% swell.
 What is the loose density of the materials? .....(2000*(1/1.35))=1481.48kg/LCM
 What is the usable volume of the bucket? .......(14*1.05)=14.7m3
 What is the bucket payload per pass in BCM? …(14.7*(1481.48/2000))=10.89 BCM
 What is bucket payload in tonnes? ….. (14.7*(1481.48/1000))=21.8tonnes
In selecting equipment for loading and haulage, it is necessary initially to determine the
production requirements of the system. Generally, these requirements are given in units of
weight or volume per unit of time.
For example, the production of coal loading machines may be given in terms of the amount
produced per minute, hour, or shift while the production of large overburden stripping
machines may be given in cubic yards cubic meters/hour, but the overall production
requirement is reported usually in millions of cubic meters/year.
4.4.5 Loading and Hauling Equipments Selection
Selection of Equipments for L& H depend on;
i. Performance Factors- related to machine productivity and cycle time, digging rate,
bucket capacity, travel speed etc
ii. Design factors
iii. Support factors
iv. Cost factors.
4.5 Introduction to Mine Planning and Design
Mining Planning is a process of determining the most sequence of mineral exploitation

derived from the decision (economical, technical and social) or planning of an extraction
schedule, typically over during the life of a mine.
Mining planning involves rock mechanics (ground control), mineral economics and other
sources within the mining discipline. Examples operation research, computer applications etc.
Mine Planning
Mine Design Mine Control
Design of a new mine Design of a reconstructed mine

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4.5.1 Objectives and Aims of Mine Planning
The objectives of mine planning are to provide quantitative account rather than descriptive
account of mineral exploitation.
Planning is a management function dealing with the setting performance expectations and
goals for groups and individuals to channel their efforts toward achieving organizational
objectives.
Design is an engineering function dealing with planning layout of mineral extraction system.
Aims:
 To evaluate the economically recoverable mineral resource.
 Increase the output per man shift
 Reduction in cost of production
 Increase recovery of valuable mineral and decrease the losses of ore
 Ensure safety for workers
4.5.2 Important considerations in Mine Planning

 Safety
 Consideration of resources
 Environmental impact
 Reclamation of land
 Economic and feasibility
4.5.3 Types of Mine Planning Activities
I. Long-Range Mine Planning (5-50years)
The initial step in mine design is the compilation of long-range mining plan. The objectives
in designing a long-range plan are;
 Determination of an ore reserve of the mineralization
 Ore body delineation (extent of ore-body, geometry etc )
 Determination of mining Limits, production rate, life of a mine, cut off grade etc
II. Medium/ Intermediate/Tactical -Range Mine Planning
This type of planning provides the means for achieving the mission and long-term goals. The
plans, depending on the company’s definition of short-term planning, usually have an outlook
of two to five years. In the mining business, the definition of intermediate-range may cover
that time period required to develop and bring into production a deposit that has recently been
discovered. Here the term intermediate will depend on the size of deposit, method of mining
(underground or surface), degree of processing, and other key parameters of the deposit. If
the mine is already in operation, this planning may focus on that period required to plan,
develop, and bring into production an expansion of existing operations. At any rate, such
planning is often viewed as that ranging from two to five years.

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III. Short-Range Mine Planning
Key factors to consider include;

 Overall production meets projected mining, milling and smelting capacities
and constraints
 Stability and safety
 Equipment availability and its maneuverability
 Generate daily, weekly, monthly and even yearly production schedule
 Capital and operating cost estimates
 Information on deposit.
4.6 Shaft Hoisting System
A system is defined as a group of units so combined as to form a whole and to operate in

unison. Thus, when designing a shaft hoisting system, one must consider not only each part
of the system separately but the interrelationships among the parts of the system in its
entirety.
4.6.1 Shaft Hoisting Components
The shaft hoisting system has been divided into five main components: (a) Shaft,
(b) Conveyance, (c) Rope, (d) Hoist, and (e) Headframe.
Figure 4.5 Shaft Hoisting System

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A. Shaft
The following definitions that can be used to describe shafts for mining purposes: (i) a
vertical, deep, restricted cross-section excavation, and (ii) a vertical or inclined primary
opening in rock that gives access to and serves various levels of a mine.
Primary openings can be further defined as those that are considered to be permanent and
require a high degree of safety.
Shaft Purpose: When defined by purpose, shafts usually fall into the following categories:
a) Production shaft: ore and waste handling.
b) Service shaft: personnel and materials handling.
c) Ventilation shaft: upcast or downcast airflow.
d) Exploration shaft: for defining mineral deposits.
e) Escape shaft: for emergency.
f) Combinations of the above.
(I) Shaft Shape and Classification
The most common shaft configurations for any size shaft are circular, rectangular, or
elliptical. Also, shafts may be classified according to the type of ground support to be used to
maintain the stability of the shaft structure.
(II) Shaft Excavation Method (Shaft Sinking)
There are two types of excavation methods: Conventional and Bored. Conventional shafts
are excavated with standard drilling, blasting, and mucking methods, in combination with
various methods of ground support.
Bored shafts are excavated using a mechanical shaft boring machine (SBM). Several boring
methods are available depend on chips removing. Most methods remove cuttings from the
collar of the hole and some methods drop cuttings from the machine into the mine. All bored
shafts are circular in configuration, with various methods of ground support.
i. Drilling
Types of drills
i. Hand held sinker- used in small shaft and quite consistently where bottom bench
rounds are employed. Commonly used where an abundance of labour is available
ii. Rotary drills- used in relative soft ground. They can be either and held or jumbo-
mounted. The soft ground which is utilized is like in shales, clays and sandstones.
iii. Shaft Jumbo- hydraulic or pneumatic jumbo are becoming more popular because they
require fewer operators. Jumbos are especially desired in a circular shaft for the quick
drill cut and accurate cyclic with the concrete operation.
Design of rounds
The depth of the round drill is one of the most important factors in excavating shaft. It is
important to make the greatest advance possible in drilling cycle but this is controlled by
conditions such as caving ground and minimum overbreak.
There are two types of rounds commonly used;
 full face round
 bench round
65
The choice is based on the type of ground, water in the shaft bottom or type of mucking
method.
Full face round; is the best for mechanical type of mucking and also for the most rapid
advance
Bench rounds; are best for hand mucking because the broken muck lies on a steep slope and
much of it can be scrapped into the bucket when laid on its side.
Under water condition, provide sumps to keep water off the bench while drilling the next
round.
In square or rectangular shafts with full face blasting, a v-cut or wedge cut are generally used.
The v-cut usually is placed in the center of the shaft as shown in fig 4.6 below;
Figure 4.6 Full Face Blast with a V-Cut at the Centre.
Blasting is done at time

interval for all pattern,
using delay detonators.
Wall
4 1 1 4
Rows number 1 are called baby cuts and are fired first, followed by deep cuts row number 2.
Then rows 3, 4 ….. will follow.
In a circular shaft a pyramid cut generally is used. All holes in the same ring are shot with the
same delay from the centre ring in order to the outside.
Figure 4.7 Full Face Blast with a pyramid cut at the centre.
Blasting occur at certain interval from 1 to 4 according to delaying detonators.

66
ii. Blasting
The explosive used contains about 40% - 60% of gelatin powder. Usually the shaft bottom is
generally wet. This rule out most types of powder other than a straight gelatin. Size of
explosive (cartridge) 32mm x 100mm or 32mm x 200mm. Powder factor vary from 1.2-
3.6kg/m3 of solid material depending on shaft size and hardness of the ground.
Examination after blasting;- ensure the allowed sufficient time for clearance of fumes before
the master sinker return to the shaft bottom to inspect the misfires and removing any debris
along the blasted round. This help to prevent accident.
iii. Mucking
Once the shaft bottom has been drilled and blasted the broken materials must be removed and
hoisted to the surface by using sinking bucket. There are five major types of mechanical shaft
mucker namely; Riddell mockers, Cryderman mucker, Eimco 630 mucker, Cactus grab
and Clamshell mucking
iv. Ground Support

After blasting different types of ground supports are used in ground supporting during shaft
sinking. These are;
a) Timber sets;
Advantages
Provide flexibility in that set spacing, can be changed depending on the ground
encountered.
Disadvantages;-high cost; -low strength; -short life; and -fire hazard involved
b) Steel sets: Faster and more accurately than wooden sets as they can be bolted
together and lined up perfectly when assembled.
c) Concrete lining: Mostly used nowadays: Advantages; provides the greatest
strength factor for ground support (circular concrete-lined shafts), the best
airflow characteristics, and the lowest maintenance of any shaft type.
v. Ventilation
In shaft sinking it is the best to have an exhaust system of ventilation with the fan set at the
collar of the shaft. But at the bottom a blower (fan) may be used.
vi. Control of water during Sinking

Depending on the rate of inflow, water can be removed during sinking either by kibbles filled
by light pumps or by suspended having sinking pump.
In the later case the water is lifted stepwise using pumping stages ranging in the shaft which
accommodate a receiving reservoir and another pump which lift to the next stages of surface.
vii. Light
Good lighting is exceedingly important to achieve high output from the labour forces as well
as from the point of view of safety. The face is lighted by flood light. Lumps of 100W power
are fitted at every 40-50m depth.

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(III) Shaft Design Procedure
The shaft design procedure involves the following steps: (1) Define purpose of the shaft, (2)
Identify location and determine Inclination, (3) Determine the number of hoists required, (4)
Determine the size of conveyances and compartments, (5) Determine the arrangement of
compartments, (6) Determine the exterior shape, (7) Design interior members (guides,
buntons, etc.), (8) Design shaft lining, (9) Check ventilation characteristics, (10) Determine
ground stabilization and temporary ground support, (11) Determine shaft collaring method,
(12) Determine shaft sinking method
(IV) Shaft Location and Inclination
Generally, the location of a new shaft at the mine site is determined after establishing the
following: (1) mine surface layout, (2) location, dip, and extent of the ore body, (3) number
of working levels to be considered, (4) location of ore and waste handling facilities, (5) water
collection sump requirements, (6) safety and stability of the shaft pillar, and (7) the future
planned expansion of the shaft.
The dip of the ore body is the main factor involved in deciding to sink either a vertical or
inclined shaft. A secondary factor is the relative ground strength and geologic formations to
be encountered by the proposed shaft.
The main advantages associated with vertical shafts are (1)hoisting speeds are greater, (2)
shaft maintenance costs are lower,(3) sinking can be carried out faster, and (4) sinking can be
achieved in almost any type of ground.
(V) Collaring
Shaft construction begins with the excavation and forming of the shaft collar. In surface
mining collaring process can be applicable during drilling a hole so as to prevent hole
collapse at the top or loose materials entered into the hole / shaft resulted to increase hole
stability at the top. Drilling hole started with construction of hole collar to cement the loose
materials around the hole or shaft.
The collar assists in forming the desired shape for the initial length of the shaft and provides
the necessary stability and alignment for the remaining length of shaft to be excavated.
Completion of the collar also allows erection of the headframe, sheave deck, and hoisting
facilities for the sinking operation. The collar acts as a barrier to prevent water and soil from
entering the shaft.
In the process of shaft sinking, it becomes necessary to adopt a special method of collaring
construction if the ground through which the shaft is sunk is loose or unstable such as in sand,
mud, gravel, or alluvium, or when an excessive amount of water is encountered, which
cannot be dealt with by sinking pumps. In some situations, both sets of these conditions may
be encountered.
Listed below are special methods that can be used to deal with collaring construction; Piling,
Cementation, Freezing, Grouting and Shotcrete Methods.
Piling System (Soldier Pile); these piles are driven and after installing the steel beams can be
concreted. Piling method and the spaces between piles depend on the soil conditions.

68
Cementation: The injecting of cement into holes or fissures in rocks to make them watertight
or strong
Freezing Method: Sometimes when we can’t control the groundwater by pumping, we may
use freezing or grouting. This procedure consists of sinking pipes around the area to be
excavated and circulating a cold brine solution through the pipes, thereby freezing a wall of
soil, this process needs 2 months to complete.
Grouting: Is defined as the injection of fluid grout through drilled holes, under pressure, to
fill seams, fractures, or joints and thus seal off water inflows or consolidate fractured rock.
Grout is neat cement slurry or a mix of equal volumes of cement and sand that is poured into
joints in masonry or injected into rocks.
In this method we drill rows of grout holes around the shaft perimeter, and then inject grout
into them, but freezing is more reliable comparing to this.
Shotcrete: Is a concrete pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface (lining of

concrete); this lining provides tunnel support and can serve as the permanent lining. This can
be applied immediately to freshly excavated rock.
B. Hoisting
Hoisting is the operation of transporting materials/workers in vertical ways using skip /cage
and rope.
i. Hoisting Types
There are two basic types of hoist in common use today. These are the drum hoist in which
the hoist rope is stored on the drum, and the friction hoist in which the rope passes over the
wheel during the hoisting cycle.
Within each category there are several variations. Drum hoists are usually located at some
distance from the shaft and require a head frame and sheaves to center the hoisting ropes in
the shaft compartment. Friction hoists may also be located directly over the shaft and,
depending upon the wheel diameter, may require deflection sheaves to center the rope in the
shaft compartment.
Fig 4.8.1 Drum Hoist Fig 4.8.2 Frictional Hoist

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ii. Host components
When selecting (or comparing) hoists, the components to be considered during the evaluation
process include; (a) Drum, (b) Bearings, (c) Gearing, (d) Brakes, (e) Drive Motor, and (f)
Control.
DRUM: For drum hoists, the drum must be designed to store the required length of rope,
meet the statutory requirements concerning fleet angles and rope ratios, and must be
sufficiently strong to withstand bending and crushing forces.
When there is a relative motion between two members of a machine, one of which supports
the other, the supporting member is called a bearing.
GEARING: The hoist may be driven by either A.C or D.C electric motors. Depending upon
the hoisting speed, these motors may be connected to the shaft directly or through a gear
drive. Low speed motors may be connected directly; high-speed motors require a gear
reducer drive.
BRAKES: The braking system is required to decelerate, stop, and hold the hoist drum
DRIVE MOTOR: Staley (1936) describes four methods of providing power to drive the
hoist: (1) electric power, (2) steam, (3) compressed air, and (4) internal combustion engine.
Electric power is by far the most common method and is the only one treated here.
HOIST CONTROL: Control systems are required to monitor the speed and location of each
conveyance moving in the shaft.
The hoist selection depends on; (a) Drum Dimensions, (b) Horsepower Rating of the motor,
and (c) Rope Pull.
C. Supporting
Support is typically installed outside of the normal production cycle as needed. Secondary
ground control normally consists of roof bolts for both back and pillar control. Ground
control means maintaining rock mass stability by controlling the movement of excavations in
the ground, which can be either rock or soil. Bolt or cable lengths and types depend on local
ground conditions and many operations.
 Objective of underground supporting
The principal objective in the design of underground support is to help the rock mass support
itself. The mechanics of rock reinforcement includes the concept of rock-support interaction
as the main principle. The design of rock reinforcement systems depends on the geotechnical
properties of the discontinuities and of the intact rock, the size and shape of the excavations,
the magnitudes of redistributed stresses, and the degree of deformation acceptable in the
completed excavation.

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 Underground Open Failure
Failure of an underground excavation may be caused by (1) movement of blocks or wedges

of rock into an excavation under the action of gravity, water pressure or in situ stresses,
and/or (2) failure of intact rock from overstressing.
 Design Methods for Underground Open Stability
The design methods available for assessing the stability of underground excavations can be
broadly categorized as follows:
 Analytical methods.
 Observational methods.
 Empirical methods.
Analytical methods utilize the analyses of stresses and deformations around openings and
include numerical modeling techniques, such as the finite element method. They are effective
in ground control because they enable comparisons of a few variations of a mining situation
and serve as a relative design procedure.
Observational methods rely on actual monitoring of ground movement during excavation to

detect measurable instability, and on the analysis of ground-support interaction.
Empirical methods assess the stability of mines and tunnels by the use of statistical analyses
of underground observations and experience. Engineering rock mass classifications are the
best known empirical methods.
 Ground Control Measure
Artificial support in a mine structure is intended to control both local, stope wall
behaviour and also mine field displacements. Two main ground control measures are
used;
(i) Potentially unstable rock near the boundary of mine excavations may be
reinforced with penetrative elements such as cable-bolts, wire mesh,
grouted tendons or rock anchors. Rock reinforcement must utilize the
structural properties of the rock mass to improve the stability of
underground excavations.
(ii) The second and most widely used artificial support medium is backfill,
which is placed in stope voids in the mine structure. In this case, a
particular stoping geometry and sequence needs to be established to allow
ore extraction to proceed. Materials used as mine backfill or components
of a fill mass are of five types; run-of-mine concentrator tailings, used with
a cementing agent to form paste fill, sandfill, natural sands, aggregates etc
Several types of backfill are placed using water as the transport medium, and effective
dewatering and long term drainage (ensuring pore pressures are low) are critical
aspects of fill placement and long-term operation.

71
D. Pumping
Pumping is the operation of removing fluid materials (water or slurry etc) from one place to
another by using pump. Pumps are widely used throughout the mining industry for
dewatering deep mine operations. Underground dewatering (removing water) and drainage is
necessary to ensure that mining operations continue unhindered. Dewatering from rock faces
in mine shafts, quarries, or open pits often contains abrasives such as sand, clay particles,
drill cuttings, and other potentially damaging objects, and the PH value is usually very low so
as dewatering pumps should be designed to work in the toughest environments both surface
and underground.
4.7 Mine Ventilation
Mine ventilation is essentially the application of the principles of fluid dynamics to the flow
of air in mine openings. While air is a compressible fluid, airflow in mines is generally
treated as steady state, turbulent, and incompressible. Airflow is induced from the
atmosphere, through the mine, and back to the atmosphere by creating a differential pressure
between the intake and return openings of the mine. The circulation air can be natural or
artificial. The rotational energy of the fan is converted to fluid flow energy to overcome the
resistance to flow in the opening duct by increasing the pressure of the air flowing through it
in the system referred as artificial ventilation.
4.7.1 Air Composition

When air enters any mine or other subsurface structure, it has a volume composition
of approximately 78 % nitrogen, 21 % oxygen and 1 % other gases on a moisture free
basis.
4.7.2 Purpose of Mine Ventilation

Purpose of mine ventilation is to control quantity and quality of mine air, to dilute and
seep away dangerous gases (carbon monoxide, methane carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulphide), and to make working conditions (humidity & temperature) more
comfortable for miners to increase the working efficiency of the miners
Quantity control in this system means achieving desired airflows through the optimal
selection of openings to surface; the shape, size, and number of airways; location of control
devices; and selection and location of fans.
4.7.3 Sources of contaminants
The source contaminants may include natural occurrence (Methane, hydrogen sulphide etc),
mining activities (dust, aerosols, diesel fumes and particulates and fumes from blasting, as
well as gases released from the rock strata), and human breathing (give out CO 2).
Reduction of oxygen may result from oxidation of reactive sulphides under some
circumstances. It is essential to maintain levels of temperature, humidity and air
velocity in the workplace such that employees do not suffer detriment to health from
exposure to extremes of heat, humidity or cold.

72
4.7.4 Air flow control
There are two primary reasons for controlling airflow. First, the mining of subsurface
structures allows any gases that exist in the surrounding strata to escape into the
ventilating air stream. Such strata gases have been produced over geological time and
remain trapped within the pores and fracture networks of the rock. Methane and
carbon dioxide are commonly occurring strata gases.
Secondly, a large number of chemical reactions may cause changes in the

composition of mine air. Oxidation reduces the percentage of oxygen and often causes
the evolution of carbon dioxide or sulphur dioxide. The action of acid mine water on
sulphide minerals may produce the characteristic odour of hydrogen sulphide while
the burning of fuels or the use of explosives produce a range of gaseous pollutants.
Most of the fatalities resulting from mine fires and explosions have been caused by
the toxic gases that are produced rapidly in such circumstances.
Depending on mining geological conditions, ventilation is carried out with the help of:
 local ventilation fans
 extended air partitions
 ventilation pipes
4.7.5 Mine Ventilation System
The basis of effective ventilation of underground mines is the adequacy of the primary
ventilation system, that is the total volume flow through the mine which is conducted through
the major underground workings, normally involving splits into parallel circuits, and the
secondary and tertiary ventilation systems help to transport air to the different openings and
working accesses.
The mine ventilation system consists of fans, airways (openings to surface and
interconnections in the mine between the openings through the working areas), and control
devices for air coursing.
4.7.6 Airflow Resistance
The mine airflow distribution is completely defined by (1) the physical parameters of the air-
ways—shape, area, length, and characteristics of the airway surface; (2) the layout of the
mine openings; (3) the pressure sources (e.g., fans) in the system, their location and
characteristics; and (4) the interconnections between the airways, mine openings, and
pressure sources.
Air resistance(R) in ducts can be affected by;

 Length (L) of airway in m and viscosity of fluid.
 Friction factor (K) between the fluid and duct internal surface in Ns2/m4
 Perimeter (P)
 Change in area (A) and
 Direction of airway
then R = KPL/A3

73
4.5.7 AIRFLOW REQUIREMENTS
The estimation of airflows required within the work areas of a mine ventilation network is the
most empirical aspect of modern ventilation planning. The majority of such assessments
remains based on local experience of gas emissions, dust, or heat load and is still often quoted
in the somewhat irrational terms of m3/s per ton of mineral output.
Corrections can be applied for variations in the age of the mine, the extent of old workings,
distances from shaft bottoms, depth and rates of production. However, as in all empirical
techniques, the method remains valid only whilst the proposed mining methods, machinery,
and geological conditions remain similar to those from which the empirical data were
evolved.
Attempts to extrapolate beyond those circumstances may lead to serious errors in determining
required airflows. Fortunately, simulation techniques are available to assist in assessing
airflow requirements for both gassy and hot mines.
Technique is employed to calculate airflow requirement as; Q = 100*Eg/Cg m3 /s

where Q = required airflow (m3/s)
Eg = gas emission rate (m3/s)
Cg = general body concentration to which gas is to be diluted (percentage by volume).
The value of Cg is often taken to be one half of the concentration at which the law requires
action to be taken.
Example: It has been predicted that during a 7 hour working shift, 2500 m3 of methane will
be emitted into a working face in a coal mine. If electrical power must be switched off at a
methane concentration of 1 per cent, determine a recommended airflow for the face.
Solution
The average rate of gas emission during the working shift is 2500/ (7*60*60) =0.0992 m3/s
Let us take the allowable concentration for design purposes to be one half the legal limit.
Then Cg = 0.5 per cent.
Q = (100 × 0.0992)/ 0.5

= 19.84 say 20 m3 /s.
4.7.8 Dust in airflow
The natural atmosphere that we breathe contains not only its gaseous constituents but
also large numbers of liquid and solid particles. These are known by the generic name
aerosols. They arise from a combination of natural and industrial sources including
condensation, smokes, volcanic activity, soils and sands, and micro flora. Most of the
particles are small enough to be invisible to the naked eye.
There are many techniques of reducing dust concentrations in mines, ranging from water
infusion of the solid mineral through to dust suppression by water sprays and air filtration
systems.
74
The required airflow is given as;

Q = Ed/Cd *P/3600 m3/s
where
Ed = the emission rate of respirable dust (mg/tonne)
P = rate of mineral production (tonnes/h) and
Cd = allowable increase in the concentration of respirable dust (mg/ m3).
Example: The intake air entering a working area of a mine carries a mass concentration of 0.5
mg/ m3 respirable dust. Face operations produce 1000 tonnes of mineral over an 8 hour shift
and add respirable dust particles to the airflow at a rate of 1300 mg per tonne of mineral
mined. If the concentration of respirable dust in the return air is not to exceed 2 mg/ m3,
determine the required airflow.
Solution;
The required airflow is given as;
Q = [(Ed/Cd) x (P/3600)] m3/s
Average rate of mineral production per second; (P/3600) = [1000/ (8*3600)] = 0.0347 t/s
Dust removal capacity of air, Cd = (allowable dust concentration - intake dust concentration)
= (2 – 0.5)
= 1.5 mg/m3
Therefore the required airflow;
= [(1300/1.5) x 0.0347] m3/s
= 30.1m3/s
4.7.9 Ventilation Pressure
Ventilation pressure required for flow of air in ducts calculated by using Atkinson equation
which stated; H = RQ2 for air at standard density.
Where; H = Pressure different (Loss/drop) in Pascal
Q= quantity of air in m3/sec
R = air resistance and depends on;
Length (L) of airway in m, Friction factor (K) in Ns2/m4
Perimeter (P) and area (A) of airway then R = KPL/A3
Example: What will the pressure drop be along an 8m *6m rock tunnel 1500m long when 60
m3/sec of air is flowing along it if the friction factor for rock tunnel is 0.02 Ns2/m4.
4.7.10 Diesel emissions
The flexibility and reliability of diesel engines have resulted in a proliferation in their use
for all types of underground mines. This is, however, tempered by the emissions of exhaust
gases, heat and humidity that result from the employment of diesels. Guidance on the
airflow requirements for diesel equipment. The substances that are emitted from diesel
exhausts include: nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur
dioxide and diesel particulate matter

75
4.8 Tunnel Boaring
Tunnel boaring is done by specialty construction equipment designed to dig tunnels quickly
and easily known as tunnel boaring machine. This machine used to excavate tunnels with a
circular cross section through a variety of soil and rock strata. They can bore through hard
rock, sand, and almost anything in between through tunnel diameters can range from a metre
to almost 16m.
4.9 Drifting
A drift is a horizontal access tunnel used for transport of rock and ore. Drift excavation is a
routine activity in the development of the mine. In mechanized mines, two-boom, electro-
hydraulic drill jumbos are used for face drilling. Typical drift profiles are 16.0 in section
and the face is drilled to a depth of 4.0 m. The holes are charged pneumatically with an
explosive, usually bulk ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO), from a special charging truck.
Short-delay non-electric (Nonel) detonators are used. Mucking is done with (load-haul-dump)
LHD vehicles and hauled directly to the ore pass system. Then this muck is transferred to
truck for longer hauls.
4.10 Raising using Conventional Method and Boaring
A raise is a vertical or steeply-inclined opening that connects different levels in the mine. It
may serve as a ladderway access to stopes, as an ore pass or as an airway in the mine’s
ventilation system. Raising is a difficult and dangerous, but necessary job. Raising methods
vary from simple manual drill and blast to mechanical rock excavation with raise boring
machines (RBMs).
4.10.1 Importance of raises
Raise serves several purposes which are;

-communicating within the stope
-delivery of materials
-making sublevel and layer working
-ventilation
-laying of pipes, power cables, etc.
4.10.2 Raising methods
(a) Manual raising -Manual raising is difficult, dangerous and physically demanding
work that challenges the miner’s agility, strength and endurance. It is a job to be
assigned only to experienced miners in good physical condition. As a rule the raise
section is divided into two compartments by a timbered wall. One is kept open for the
ladder used for climbing to the face, air pipes, etc. The other fills with rock from
blasting which the miner uses as a platform when drilling the round. The timber
parting is extended after each round. The work involves ladder climbing, timbering,
rock drilling and blasting, all done in a cramped, poorly ventilated space. It is all
performed by a single miner, as there is no room for a helper. Mines search for
alternatives to the hazardous and laborious manual raising methods.

76
(b) The raise climber -The raise climber is a vehicle that obviates ladder climbing and
much of the difficulty of the manual method. This vehicle climbs the raise on a guide
rail bolted to the rock and provides a robust working platform when the miner is
drilling the round above. Very high raises can be excavated with the raise climber
with safety much improved over the manual method. Raise excavation, however,
remains a very hazardous job.
(c) The raise boring machine -The RBM is a powerful machine that breaks the rock
mechanically. It is erected on top of the planned raise and a pilot hole about 300 mm
in diameter is drilled to break through at a lower level target. The pilot drill is
replaced by a reamer head with the diameter of the intended raise and the RBM is put
in reverse, rotating and pulling the reamer head upward to create a full-size circular
raise.

77
CHAPTER FIVE
Tips: Engineering Ethics, Engineering as a profession; Engineering Ethic Principles,

Interrelation between society and science, Environment, safety and sustainable development
5.1 Engineering Ethic and Engineering as profession
5.1.1 Engineering Ethic
Engineering ethics is the field of applied ethics which examines and sets standards for
engineers' obligations to the public, their clients, employers and the profession. This
discipline addresses the subject for both professional engineers and other engineers.
Engineering ethics can be defined as:

 the study of the moral issues and decisions confronting individuals and organizations
involved in engineering, and
 the study of related questions about moral conduct, character, ideals, and relationships
of people and organizations involved in technological development.
Engineering is directed to developing, providing and maintaining infrastructure, goods and

services for industry and the community. The outcome of engineering is a product, or perhaps
a process or service.”
Ethics is understood to be the field of human behavior dealing with moral duty or obligation
and consisting of general and abstract concepts of right and wrong behaviour culled from
philosophy, theology, and professional societies.
The engineering ethics interaction rules include;

Etiquette - consisting of codes of behavior and courtesy;
Law - a system of rules established by authority, society, or custom. Unlike etiquette,
violations of law carry penalties;
Morals - accepted standards of right and wrong that are usually applied to personal
behavior. Moral theories are designed to provide a framework for making moral and
ethical decisions. Eg. The building inspector is offered a $15,000 bribe to overlook
some substandard construction that would cost the contractor $60,000 to correct.
5.1.2 Engineering Ethic Principles
General engineering ethics principles include;

1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public
and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in
the performance of their professional duties.
2. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful
manner.
4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as
faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest.
5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their
services and shall not compete unfairly with others.

78
6. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor,
integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession and shall act with zero-
tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption.
7. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their
careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of
those engineers under their supervision."
A conflict of interest (COI) occurs when an individual or organization is involved in

multiple interests, one of which could possibly corrupt the motivation for an act in the other.
5.1.3 Engineering as profession
Engineering is “the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural

sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgement to develop ways
to utilize economically, the material and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.” Then it
moves to realization in stone or metal or energy. Then it brings jobs and homes to men.
Then it elevates the standard of living and adds to the comforts of life.
An engineer is a professional practitioner of engineering, concerned with applying scientific

knowledge, mathematics, economics and ingenuity to develop solutions to meet economic
and societal needs. Engineers design structures, machines and systems while considering the
limitations imposed by practicality, safety and cost.
Professionalism is the use of skills and knowledge that conforms to the technical and ethical
standards of a profession, for the good of the community.
A necessary prerequisite to professionalism is the acquisition of skills and knowledge through

academic training provided by tertiary education institutions.
Professional ethics concerns the moral issues that arise because of the specialist knowledge
that professionals attain, and how the use of this knowledge should be governed when
providing a service to the public.
5.2 Scientist Vs Engineer and Interrelation between society and science
5.2.1 Scientist Vs Engineer
Scientists are concerned with discovering what is, whereas engineers are concerned with
designing what will be.
The scientific method includes;

Develop hypotheses (possible explanations) of a physical phenomenon.
Design an experiment to critically test the hypotheses.
Perform the experiment and analyze the results to determine which hypothesis, if any,
is consistent with the experimental data.
Generalize the experimental results into a law or theory.
Publish the results.
Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the
responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, Identify and define the
79
problem, Assemble a design team, Identify constraints and criteria for success, Search for
solutions, Analyze each potential solution, Choose the "best" solution, Document the
solution, Communicate the solution to management, Construct the solution and Verify and
evaluate the performance of the solution. Their crucial and unique task is to identify,
understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.
5.2.2 Interrelation between society and science
In any community or society there are governing principles or values which are used to judge
the appropriateness of the conduct or behaviour of its members. The professional carries
additional moral responsibilities to those held by the population in general and in society.
This is because professionals are capable of making and acting on an informed decision in
situations that the general public cannot, because they have not received the relevant training.
If the management team uses unethical forms of communication, the team and business can
fail. Ethics are used world-wide in large companies and small businesses. Promoting ethics in
the workplace gives employees a sense of worth and trust that can help the business and
employees succeed.
Engineers are hired by clients (and employers) specifically for their specialized expertise.
Generally, the client knows less about the subject than the engineer. Therefore, engineers
have ethical obligations (part of engineering ethics) to their clients, because the client often
cannot assess the quality of the engineer's technical advice.
Engineers work in teams and rules, therefore, the products of their work impact the society as
a whole.
5.2.3 Code of Ethics
An ethical code is adopted by an organization in an attempt to assist those in the organization

called upon to make a decision (usually most, if not all) understand the difference between
'right' and 'wrong' and to apply this understanding to their decision. The ethical code therefore
generally implies documents at three levels: Code of conduct, practice and ethics
(i) A code of ethics often focuses on social issues. It may set out general principles about an
organization's beliefs on matters such as mission, quality, privacy or the environment. It may
delineate proper procedures to determine whether a violation of the code of ethics has
occurred and, if so, what remedies should be imposed. The effectiveness of such codes of
ethics depends on the extent to which management supports them with sanctions and rewards.
(ii) A code of conduct is a document designed to influence the behavior of employees. They
set out the procedures to be used in specific ethical situations, such as conflicts of interest or
the acceptance of gifts, and delineate the procedures to determine whether a violation of the
code of ethics occurred
(iii) A code of practice is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or non-governmental

organization to regulate that profession. A code of practice may be styled as a code of
professional responsibility, which will discuss difficult issues, difficult decisions that will
often need to be made, and provide a clear account of what behavior is considered "ethical"
or "correct" or "right" in the circumstances.

80
5.3 Environment, safety and sustainable development
5.3.1 Mining Environment
The environmental responsibility of mining operations is protection of the air, land, and
water.
• Air. All methods of mining affect air quality. When the soil/rock is removed,
vegetation is also removed, exposing the soil/rock to the weather, causing particulates
to become airborne through wind erosion and road traffic. Particulate matter can be
composed of such noxious materials as arsenic, cadmium, and lead. In general,
particulates affect human health adversely by contributing to illnesses relating to the
respiratory tract, such as emphysema, but they also can be ingested or absorbed into
the skin.
• Land. Mining can cause physical disturbances to the landscape, creating waste-rock
piles and open pits. Such disturbances may contribute to the decline of wildlife and
plant species in an area. In addition, it is possible that many of the surface features
cannot be replaced after mining ceases. Mine subsidence (ground movements of the
earth's surface due to the collapse of overlying strata into voids created by
underground mining) can cause damage to buildings and
• Water. Water-pollution problems caused by mining include acid mine drainage, metal
contamination, and increased sediment levels in streams. Water pollution sources can
include active or abandoned surface and underground mines, processing plants, waste-
disposal areas, haulage roads, or tailings ponds. Sediments, typically from increased
soil erosion, cause siltation or the smothering of streambeds.
• Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a potentially severe pollution hazard that can
contaminate surrounding soil, groundwater, and surface water. The formation of acid
mine drainage is a function of the geology, hydrology, and mining technology
employed at a mine site. The primary sources for acid generation are sulphide
minerals, such as pyrite (iron sulphide), which decompose in air and water. Many of
these sulphide minerals originate from waste rock removed from the mine or from
tailings. If water infiltrates pyrite-laden rock in the presence of air, it can become
acidified, often at a pH level of two or three. This increased acidity in the water can
destroy living organisms, and corrode culverts, piers, boat hulls, pumps, and other
metal equipment in contact with the acid waters and render the water unacceptable for
drinking or recreational use.
• AMD can enter the environment in a number of ways, such as free-draining piles of
waste rock that are exposed to intense rainstorms, transporting large amounts of acid
into nearby rivers; ground waters that enter underground workings which become
acidic and exit via surface openings or are pumped to the surface; and acidic tailings
containment ponds that may leach into surrounding land.

81
Acid mine drainage Acidic lake wastewater
The importance of maintaining environmental stresses under control at all times cannot be
overemphasized. Consequences of inadequate control can be sudden and catastrophic—such
as injuries and loss of life through suffocation, heat strokes, and explosions
Today there is a strong measure of government control and inspection of mines under
legislation specific to the mining industry that is intended to control the environment around
the mines include mining laws, EIA and EMS.
Mining activities that harm environment include;
• Spillage into waterways

• Contamination of public sewer system
• Contamination of ground water
• Release of biologically harmful material
• Damage to flora and/or fauna
• Unacceptable environmental noise
• Visual pollution i.e. Dust
5.3.2 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
(a) Eye protection; is required when employees are exposed to potential hazards such
as flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acid or caustic liquids, chemical
gases or vapors or potentially injurious light radiation. Protective gear: Safety
Glasses/goggles. The term hazard is used here to describe an unsafe situation in a
mine if a large number of people are in fact killed, it is deemed a disaster.
Basic hazard categories and possible sources of hazards
(i) Impact- movement of machinery or process parts or elements, movement of

personnel that could result in a collision with stationary or movable objects.
(ii) Penetration – sharp objects such as cutting blades, saws, picks, and pointed
protrusions that might pierce the feet or cut the hands.
(iii) Compression – objects that might roll over and crush the feet such as containers,
unbalanced moving equipment etc
(iv) Chemical – from chemical processes and chemical storage units
(v) Heat – sources of high temperatures such as boilers, steam distribution pipes etc
(vi) Harmful dust – operations such as grinding, milling, blasting hauling etc
(vii) Light radiation – welding, cutting and brazing operation; heat treating operations
etc.

82
(b) Respiratory protection; whenever feasible, engineering controls must be used by

employers to prevent atmospheric contamination from dusts, fogs, fumes, mists,
gases, smokes, sprays or vapours. Typical respiratory protective devices include the
chemical cartridge respirator, particulate respirator, gas mask, supplied air respirator
and self-contained breathing apparatus, and based on the chemicals used in the area,
concentrations, expected exposure time and oxygen present in the atmosphere.
(c) Head protection; employees must wear protective helmets/ hard hat when working
in areas where there is a potential for injury to the head from falling objects.
Protective hard hat is designed to reduce electrical shock hazard must be worn by
employees who work near exposed electrical conductors that could contact the head.
(d) Foot protection; is required for employees who work in areas where there is a
potential for foot injuries as a result of falling or rolling objects or of objects piercing
the sole, and where there is exposure of the employee's feet to electrical hazards.
Employees should wear the protective footwear/boot that must comply to mining law
standards.
(e) Electrical protection; equipment typically consist of rubber insulating gloves and
sleeves, matting and blankets, covers and line hoses.
(f) Hand protections; employers must select and require employees to use appropriate
hand protection (different types of gloves) when there is potential exposure to hazards
including absorption of harmful substances, severe cuts or lacerations, severe
abrasions, punctures, chemical burns, thermal burns and harmful temperature
extremes.
(g) Preparation of eyewashes and emergency showers and chemical protective

clothing
All above protection equipment should be provided by the employers to protect

employees from hazards in the workplace.
The employer should do the following;
 Assess the workplace to determine whether hazards are present, or likely to be

present, that necessitate the use of PPE and prepare written certification of the
assessment.
 Select the types of PPE that will protect the affected employees from
identified hazards.
 Communicate selection decisions to employees.
 Ensure proper use PPE by employee.
 Ensure proper fit of equipment for each employee.
 Provide training to each employee required to use PPE.
 Ensure that employee demonstrate an understanding of the training before
being allowed to perform work requiring the use of PPE.
 Provide written certification of the employee's training.
Other protective gear includes alarm or trip system, special emergency equipment
and fire protection equipment.
83
5.3.3 Safety measures in drilling and blasting ore:
 Protection of danger zone and measures against premature explosions and failures;
 Control of mine air composition at the end of blasting,
Protection of headings and communication facilities from the impact of air shocks, fires and
gas generations
5.3.4 Prevention of accidents and safety of shaft sinking works is achievable through:
i. Constant control of conditions of wall rocks and installed temporary/permanent wall

support.
ii. Constant assessment of the aggressiveness of water on the material of wall support
(not less than twice per annum).
iii. Carrying out in series most of the works in shaft sinking.
iv. Using special charts when setting up insets of a mine shaft.
v. Restoration of wall support section wise from upper to lower sections.
vi. Using safety ceiling installation in re-deepening shaft
5.3.5 Measures of accident prevention in the development headings:
 Thorough locking of the elements of wall support;

 Installation of barrier or protection supports against falling rock pieces;
 Creation of discharging slots, side cuts, under-working and overworking for the
prevention of floor rise, rock caving, rock-bursts and outbursts at high depths.


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1

THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA

COLLEGE OF EARTH SCIENCES

School of Mines and Petroleum Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND MINERAL PROCESSING

MN 101: INTRODUCTION TO MINING ENGINEERING (3.0 Units)

Course Instructor: George Bennett

Prepared by George Bennett,

MN 101: INTRODUCTION TO 1. Brief history of the mining industry

Prepared by George Bennett,

1.1 Mining Introduction

Table 1.1 Humans’ Uses of Minerals

Need or Use Purpose Age

Tools and utensils Food, shelter Prehistoric

Mine is an excavation made in the earth to extract minerals.

Prepared by George Bennett,

Mineral is a naturally occurring substance, usually inorganic, having a define chemical

Rock: is an assemblage of minerals

Deposit: is a natural occurrence of a useful mineral in sufficient quantity to invite further

1.2 Mining History

The stone age – prior to 4000B.C

1.3 Mining Industry Technological Development

Prepared by George Bennett,

1.4 Future Contributions of the Mineral Industry

Other importance of minerals in the society is:

1.5 Mining Vs. Economy

Prepared by George Bennett,

exploration, development, and exploitation (Hartman, H.L. "Introductory Mining

1.6 Stage of Life of Mine

Visual or Direct method

 This is limited by surface visualization of mineral deposit. It plunged with the

 Searching for hidden mineral deposits by detecting anomalies using different

Prepared by George Bennett,

Geochemical prospecting is the process of systematic analyzing the chemical contents of

Geobotanical prospecting is the science of employing the changes in the patterns of

An exploration program may find a “prospect”—interesting surface indications of

Prepared by George Bennett,

 to locate / generate new prospects

Stages involved in exploration program include;

i. Pitting and Trenching

Prepared by George Bennett,

ii. Drilling method

Prepared by George Bennett,

Figure 1.1: Auger Drilling

Rotary Air Blast Drilling

• It is used for shallow applications such as gravel searches or bedrock probing.

 low cost, versatile and mobile

Prepared by George Bennett,

Figure 1.2: Rotary Air Blast Drilling

Reverse Circulation Drilling (RC-Drilling)

Prepared by George Bennett,

Figure 1.3: Reverse Circulation Drilling

Diamond Core Drilling

Prepared by George Bennett,

Figure 1.4: Diamond Core Drilling

Prepared by George Bennett,

The ore body can be a resource or reserve deposits.

INFERRED MINERAL RESOURCE: It is that part of a Mineral Resource for which