HUMAN HEART IN LONGITUDINAL SECTION

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Aim: To study the internal structure of human heart.

Heart is a cone shaped, hollow, muscular organ about the size of our left fist. One third of its bulk is tilted to the right,
while two thirds is tilted to the left. The broad round base of the cone is directed upwards while the apex is directed
downwards.

The wall of the heart is made up of three layers A) outer pericardium B) middle myocardium and C) inner endocardium.
Internally a vertical septum divides the heart into left and right portions. A horizontal septum further divides the heart
into two smaller, thin walled, receiving chambers called auricles and two larger, thick walled pumping chambers called
ventricles. The muscular wall of left ventricle is thickest.

At the opening of Right Auricle into the Right Ventricle is the Tricuspid valve. At the opening of Left Auricle into Left
Ventricle is the Bicuspid valve. The Inferior and Superior Vena Cavae open into the Right Auricle.

The Pulmonary Artery arises from Right Ventricle. At the point of its origin is the Pulmonary Semilunar Valve. The
Pulmonary Veins open into Left Auricle. Aorta, the largest artery arises from the Left Ventricle. At the opening of Left
Ventricle into Aorta is the Aortic Semilunar Valve.

Muscular projections called Papillary Muscles arise from the walls of Ventricles. The Chordae Tendinae are attached to
the apices of the flaps of Atrio-Ventricular Valves at one end and Papillary Muscles at the other end.
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Aim: To study the parts of the human excretory system.

The kidneys are two bean shaped organs about 10 cm long and 6 cm wide, located on either side of the back bone
in the abdominal cavity just below the diaphragm protected by the last two pairs of ribs.

The right kidney is at a slightly lower level than the left one in order to accommodate the liver.

A muscular tube, the ureter, arises from the hilum in the median surface of each kidney and connects behind with
the urinary bladder in the lower part of the abdomen.

The front end of the ureter is somewhat expanded into the kidney and is called the pelvis.

Urethra is a short muscular tube arising from the urinary bladder. A sphincter guards the opening of the bladder
into the urethra.

The openings of the ureters into the bladder are somewhat projecting and act like valves to prevent the backflow of
urine when the bladder contracts to pass out the urine.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

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HUMAN KIDNEY IN VERTICAL SECTION

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Aim: To study the internal structure of human kidney as seen in vertical section.

The kidney is covered by a fibrous connective tissue capsule called Renal capsule.

A vertical section of the kidney shows two main regions – an outer dark cortex which has a dotted appearance and
an inner lighter medulla that has a striped appearance.

The medulla is composed of Renal pyramids. The apex of each pyramid is called Renal papilla and projects into the
pelvis of the kidney. Portions of cortical tissue extend in between the adjacent Renal pyramids to form Renal
columns.

The structural and functional units of the kidney are nephrons. Each nephron has the following parts:

a) Bowman’s capsule - lodges a knot-like mass of blood capillaries called glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule and the
glomerulus together are called Malpighian capsule.

b) Proximal convoluted tubule is the first convoluted region that lies nearer to the Bowman’s capsule. Both the
Bowman’s capsule and the proximal convoluted part lie in the Renal cortex giving it a dotted appearance in sectional
view.

c) The middle U shaped hair pin like part of the tubule is the Henle’s loop. The Henle’s loop and collecting ducts lie in
the renal medulla giving it a striped appearance in sectional view.

d) A pair of renal arteries branch off from the dorsal Aorta to enter the respective kidneys. The Renal vein leaves the
kidney at the median surface to pour the blood into the posterior Vena cava.